ECE539 – Engineering Electromagnetics | Chapter 1 – Vector Analysis

Section 1.1: Scalars & Vectors.

• Scalar is a quantity whose value maybe represented by a real number whether positive, negative, or
neutral, and has no direction. Examples are volume, area, temperature, voltage etc.
• Vector is quantity in space that has a direction & magnitude. Examples are force, velocity, acceleration.

Section 1.2: Vector Arithmetic.

1.2.1: Addition.

It is commutative:

𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑩 + 𝑨 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨+𝑩

It is also associative:

(𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝑪 = 𝑨 + (𝑩 + 𝑪)

1.2.2: Subtraction.

We can express subtraction:

𝑨 − 𝑩 = 𝑨 + (−𝑩)

Both vectors are equal when:

𝑨−𝑩=0

A vector with a negative sign is opposite to its direction of its original.

1.2.3: Multiplication.

(𝑟 + 𝑠)(𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝑟(𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝑠(𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝑟𝑨 + 𝑟𝑩 + 𝑠𝑨 + 𝑠𝑩

Vector multiplication with constants is associative & distributive.

1
 ECE539 – Engineering Electromagnetics | Chapter 1 – Vector Analysis

Section 1.3: The Cartesian Coordinate System.

The above system obeys the right-hand rule. And uses 3 system coordinates.

• Surface Area

𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦, 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧, 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 Double Integration

• Volume
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 Triple Integration

Section 1.4: Vectors in Cartesian Coordinates.

Consider the below vector ⃗𝑪.

𝑷 = 𝑃𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑃𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝑃𝑧 𝒂𝒛

Its unit vector is

𝑷 𝑥𝑃 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑦𝑃 𝒂𝒚 + 𝑧𝑃 𝒂𝒛
𝒂𝑃 = =
|𝑷| √𝑥𝑃 2 + 𝑦𝑃 2 + 𝑧𝑃 2

Example 1.1:

𝑃(1; 2; 3) & 𝑄(2; −2; 1) are cartesian points. Find the unit vector of 𝒂𝑃𝑄 .

𝑷𝑸 = (𝑥𝑄 − 𝑥𝑃 )𝒂𝒙 + (𝑦𝑄 − 𝑦𝑃 )𝒂𝒚 + (𝑧𝑄 − 𝑧𝑃 )𝒂𝒛 = 𝒂𝒙 − 4𝒂𝒚 − 2𝒂𝒛

𝒂𝒙 − 4𝒂𝒚 − 2𝒂𝒛 𝒂𝒙 − 4𝒂𝒚 − 2𝒂𝒛 1

𝒂𝑷𝑸 = = = (𝒂𝒙 − 4𝒂𝒚 − 2𝒂𝒛 ) = 0.218𝒂𝒙 − 0.873𝒂𝒚 − 0.436𝒂𝒛
√(1)2 + (−4)2 + (−2)2 √1 + 16 + 4 √21

2
 ECE539 – Engineering Electromagnetics | Chapter 1 – Vector Analysis

Section 1.5: Vector Fields.

A vector’s direction and magnitude may change as it moves through the region, and is written in the following
form:

𝑽(𝑟) = 𝑣𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑣𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝑣𝑧 𝒂𝒛

Example 1.2:

Given the following vector field:

125
𝑺= [(𝑥 − 1)𝒂𝒙 + (𝑦 − 1)𝒂𝒚 + (𝑧 + 1)𝒂𝒛 ]
[(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 + (𝑧 + 1)2 ]

a) Find 𝑺 at 𝑃(2; 4; 3).

b) Determine the unit vector of 𝑺 at 𝑃(2; 4; 3).
c) Specify the surface 𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦; 𝑧) at |𝑺| = 1.

Solution:
125
a) 𝑺 = [(𝑥−1)2 [(𝑥 − 1)𝒂𝒙 + (𝑦 − 1)𝒂𝒚 + (𝑧 + 1)𝒂𝒛 ]
+(𝑦−2)2 +(𝑧+1)2 ]

125
= [(2 − 1)𝒂𝒙 + (4 − 2)𝒂𝒚 + (3 + 1)𝒂𝒛 ]
[(2 − 1)2 + (4 − 2)2 + (3 + 1)2 ]
= 5.95𝒂𝒙 + 11.91𝒂𝒚 + 23.81𝒂𝒛
a) |𝑺| = 27.27
𝑺
𝒂𝑆 = = 0.218𝒂𝒙 + 0.436𝒂𝒚 + 0.873𝒂𝒛
|𝑺|

125√(𝑥−1)2 +(𝑦−2)2 +(𝑧+1)2 125

b) |𝑺| = (𝑥−1)2 +(𝑦−2)2 +(𝑧+1)2
= =1
√(𝑥−1)2 +(𝑦−2)2 +(𝑧+1)2

√(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 + (𝑧 + 1)2 = 125

Section 1.6: The Dot Product.

Given two vectors 𝑨 & 𝑩, with angle Φ in between.

𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝑩. 𝑨 = |𝑨||𝑩| cos Φ𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥𝑎 𝑥𝑏 + 𝑦𝑎 𝑦𝑏 + 𝑧𝑎 𝑧𝑏

If both vectors are perpendicular to each other, then their dot product is 0.

Example 1.3:

A triangle with vertices 𝐴(6; −1; 2), 𝐵(−2; 3; −4), 𝐶(−3; 1; 5).

a) The coordinates of vector 𝑨𝑩 & 𝑨𝑪.

b) The angle Φ𝐴𝐵 , between 𝑨𝑩 & 𝑨𝑪.

Solution:

𝑨𝑩 = −8𝒂𝒙 + 4𝒂𝒚 − 6𝒂𝒛

a)
𝑨𝑪 = −9𝒂𝒙 + 2𝒂𝒚 + 3𝒂𝒛
b) 𝑨𝑩. 𝑨𝑪 = 72 + 8 − 18 = 62
|𝑨𝑩|. |𝑨𝑪| = 104.42 cos Φ𝐴𝐵 = 62 => Φ𝐴𝐵 = 53.58°

3
 ECE539 – Engineering Electromagnetics | Chapter 1 – Vector Analysis

Section 1.7: The Cross Product.

The cross product of two distinct vectors is the one that is perpendicular to them.

It is calculated by finding the determinant of a 3 x 3 matrix for both vectors in terms of 𝒂𝒙 , 𝒂𝒚 , 𝒂𝒛 .

Consider the two vectors:

𝒗 = 𝑣𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑣𝑦 𝒂𝒚 + 𝑣𝑧 𝒂𝒛

𝒖 = 𝑢𝑥 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑢𝑥 𝒂 𝒚 + 𝑢𝑧 𝒂𝒛

The cross product of the corresponding vectors is

𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝒗 × 𝒖 = 𝑎𝑁 |𝑨||𝑩| sin Φ𝐴𝐵 = | 𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑧 | = (𝑣𝑦 𝑢𝑧 − 𝑣𝑧 𝑢𝑦 )𝒂𝒙 − (𝑣𝑥 𝑢𝑧 − 𝑣𝑧 𝑢𝑥 )𝒂𝒚 + (𝑣𝑥 𝑢𝑦 − 𝑣𝑦 𝑢𝑥 )𝒂𝒛
𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦 𝑢𝑧

Example 1.4:

A triangle with vertices 𝐴(6; −1; 2), 𝐵(−2; 3; −4), 𝐶(−3; 1; 5).

a) Find the vector product of 𝑨𝑩 & 𝑨𝑪.

b) Prove that 𝑨𝑩 x 𝑨𝑪 is perpendicular both 𝑨𝑩 & 𝑨𝑪..

Solution:

a) 𝑨𝑩 = −8𝒂𝒙 + 4𝒂𝒚 − 6𝒂𝒛

𝑨𝑪 = −9𝒂𝒙 + 2𝒂𝒚 + 3𝒂𝒛
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
b) 𝑨𝑩 × 𝑨𝑪 = |−8 4 −6| = (12 + 12)𝒂𝒙 − (−24 − 54)𝒂𝒚 + (−16 + 36)𝒂𝒛 = 24𝒂𝒙 + 78𝒂𝒚 + 20𝒂𝒛
−9 2 3

c) (𝑨𝑩 × 𝑨𝑪). 𝑨𝑩 = −192 + 312 − 120 = 120 − 120 = 0

(𝑨𝑩 × 𝑨𝑪). 𝑨𝑪 = −216 + 156 + 60 = −60 + 60 = 0
Therefore, the cross product is perpendicular to its vectors.

4
 ECE539 – Engineering Electromagnetics | Chapter 1 – Vector Analysis

Section 1.8: The Cylindrical Coordinate System.

The cylindrical coordinate system uses 𝜌, 𝛷, and 𝑧 coordinates instead of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧.

𝑃 = 𝑃𝜌 𝒂𝜌 + 𝑃𝛷 𝒂Φ + 𝑃𝒛 𝒂𝒛

1.8.1: Characteristics of The Cylindrical System.

Surface Area:

𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑Φ, 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧, 𝜌𝑑Φ𝑑𝑧

Volume:

𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑Φ𝑑𝑧

1.8.2: Cylindrical & Cartesian Coordinates.

𝑥 = 𝜌 cos Φ

𝑦 = 𝜌 sin Φ

𝑧=𝑧
𝑦
𝛷 = tan−1 ( )
𝑥
𝜌 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 𝜌 ≥ 0

𝒂𝒑 𝒂Φ 𝒂𝒛
𝒂𝒙 cos Φ − sin Φ 0
𝒂𝒚 sin Φ cos Φ 0
𝒂𝒛 0 0 1
Example 1.5:

Transform this vector from cartesian coordinates into cylindrical coordinates.

𝑩 = 𝑦𝒂𝒙 − 𝑥𝒂𝒚 + 𝑧𝒂𝒛

𝐵𝜌 = 𝜌 sin Φ cos Φ − 𝜌 sin Φ cos Φ = 0

𝐵𝛷 = −𝜌 sin2 Φ − 𝜌 cos 2 Φ = −𝜌

𝑩 = −𝜌𝒂Φ + 𝑧𝒂𝒛

5
 ECE539 – Engineering Electromagnetics | Chapter 1 – Vector Analysis

Example 1.6:

a) Transform the coordinates of 𝐶(𝜌 = 4.4; Φ = −115°; z = 2) into cartesian form.

b) Find the coordinates of 𝐷(𝑥 = −3.1; 𝑦 = 2.6; 𝑧 = −3) into cylindrical form.
c) Determine the distance from C to D.

Solution:

a) 𝑥 = 𝜌 cos Φ = 4.4 cos(−115°) = −1.86

𝑦 = 𝜌 sin Φ = 4.4 sin(−115°) = −4
𝑧=2
𝐶(𝑥 = −1.86; 𝑦 = −4; 𝑧 = 2) in cartesian form.
b) 𝜌 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4.05
𝑦
Φ = tan−1 = −40°
𝑥
𝑧 = −3
𝐷(𝜌 = 4.05; Φ = −40°; 𝑧 = −3) in cylindrical form.
c) |𝑪𝑫| = √1.54 + 43.56 + 25 = 8.37

Example 1.7:

a) Transform the following into cylindrical coordinates:

𝑭 = 10𝒂𝒙 − 8𝒂𝒚 + 6𝒂𝒛 at 𝑃(𝑥 = 10; 𝑦 = −8; 𝑧 = 6).
b) Transform the following into cylindrical coordinates:
𝑮 = (2𝑥 + 𝑦)𝒂𝒙 − (𝑦 − 4𝑥)𝒂𝒚 at 𝑄(𝜌; Φ; 𝑧).

c) Transform the following into cartesian coordinate:

𝑯 = 20𝒂𝒑 − 10𝒂Φ + 3𝒂𝒛 at 𝑃(𝑥 = 5; 𝑦 = 2; 𝑧 = −1).

Solution:

a) 𝜌 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 12.81
𝑦
Φ = tan−1 = 141.34°
𝑥
𝑧=6
b) 𝐺𝜌 = 𝑮. 𝒂𝜌 = (2𝜌 cos Φ + 𝜌 sin Φ) cos Φ − (𝜌 sin Φ − 4𝜌 cos Φ) sin Φ
= 2𝜌 cos 2 Φ + 𝜌 sin Φ cos Φ − 𝜌 sin2 Φ + 4𝜌 sin Φ cos Φ
= 2𝜌 cos 2 Φ − 𝜌 sin2 Φ + 5𝜌 sin Φ cos Φ
𝐺𝛷 = 𝑮. 𝒂𝛷 = −(2𝜌 cos Φ + 𝜌 sin Φ) sin Φ − (𝜌 sin Φ − 4𝜌 cos Φ) cos Φ
= −2𝜌 cos Φ sin Φ − 𝜌2 sin2 Φ − 𝜌 cos Φ sin Φ + 4𝜌2 cos 2 𝛷
= 4𝜌2 cos 2 Φ − 𝜌2 sin2 Φ − 3𝜌 cos Φ sin Φ
𝑮 = (2𝜌 cos Φ − 𝜌 sin Φ + 5𝜌 sin Φ cos Φ)𝒂𝒑 + (4𝜌2 cos 2 Φ − ρ2 sin2 Φ − 3𝜌 cos Φ sin Φ)𝒂𝛷
2 2

𝑦
c) Φ = tan−1 ( ) = 21.8°
𝑥
𝐻𝑥 = 𝑯𝒂𝑥 = 20 cos Φ + 10 sin Φ = 22.83
𝐻𝑦 = 𝑯𝒂𝑦 = 20 sin Φ − 10 cos Φ = −1.86
𝐻𝑧 = 3

𝑯 = 22.83𝒂𝒙 − 1.86𝒂𝒚 + 3𝒂𝒛

6
 ECE539 – Engineering Electromagnetics | Chapter 1 – Vector Analysis

1.9: The Spherical Coordinate System.

The spherical coordinate system uses 𝑟, 𝜃 and 𝛷.

𝑷 = 𝑃𝑟 𝒂𝒓 + 𝑃𝜃 𝒂𝜃 + 𝑃𝛷 𝒂Φ

1.9.1: Characteristics of the Spherical Coordinate System.

Surface Areas:

𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃

𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝛷, 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑Φ

Volume:

𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑Φ

1.9.2: Spherical & Cartesian Coordinates.

𝑥 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos Φ

𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin Φ

𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃

𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑟 ≥ 0

𝑧
𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) 𝜃 𝜖 [0°; 180°]
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2
𝑦
Φ = tan−1 ( )
𝑥
𝒂𝒓 𝒂𝜃 𝒂Φ
𝒂𝒙 sin 𝜃 cos Φ cos 𝜃 cos Φ − sin Φ
𝒂𝒚 sin 𝜃 sin Φ cos 𝜃 sin Φ cos Φ
𝒂𝒛 cos 𝜃 −sin 𝜃 0

7
 ECE539 – Engineering Electromagnetics | Chapter 1 – Vector Analysis

Example 1.8:

Convert the following vector in cartesian coordinates into spherical coordinates:

𝑥𝑧
𝑮= 𝒂
𝑦 𝒙

Solution:

(𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos Φ)(𝑟 cos 𝜃) 𝑟 cos Φ cos 𝜃 𝑟 cos Φ cos 𝜃 cos 2 Φ

𝑮. 𝒂𝒓 = 𝒂𝒓 . 𝒂𝒙 = 𝒂𝒓 . 𝒂 𝒙 = sin 𝜃 cos Φ = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin Φ sin Φ sin Φ sin Φ
𝑥𝑧 (𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos Φ)(𝑟 cos 𝜃) 𝑟 cos Φ cos 𝜃 𝑟 cos Φ cos 𝜃
𝑮. 𝒂𝜃 = 𝒂 .𝒂 = 𝒂𝒙 . 𝒂𝜃 = 𝒂𝒙 . 𝒂𝜃 = cos 𝜃 cos Φ
𝑦 𝒙 𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin Φ sin Φ sin Φ

cos 2 Φ
= 𝑟 cos 2 𝜃
sin Φ
𝑥𝑧 𝑟 cos Φ cos 𝜃 𝑟 cos Φ cos 𝜃 sin Φ
𝑮. 𝒂Φ = 𝒂𝒙 . 𝒂Φ = 𝒂𝒙 . 𝒂Φ = − = −𝑟 cos Φ cos 𝜃
𝑦 sin Φ sin Φ

cos 2 Φ cos 2 Φ
𝑮 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝒂𝒓 + 𝑟 cos 2 𝜃 𝒂 − 𝑟 cos Φ cos 𝜃 𝒂Φ
sin Φ sin Φ 𝜃
Example 1.9:

Given the two points 𝐶(𝑥 = −3; 𝑦 = 2; 𝑧 = 1) and 𝐷(𝑟 = 5; 𝜃 = 20°; Φ = −70°).

a) Convert 𝐶 from cartesian into spherical coordinates.

b) Convert 𝐷 from spherical into cartesian coordinates.
c) Find the distance of 𝑪𝑫.

Solution:

a) 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = √9 + 4 + 1 = √14 = 3.75
𝑧
𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) = 74.5°
√𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
2
𝑦
Φ = tan−1 ( ) = 146.3°
𝑥
𝐶(𝑟 = 3.75; 𝜃 = 74.5°; Φ = 146.3°)

b) √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 5
𝑧
cos −1 ( ) = 20°
√𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
2
𝑧
cos 20° =
5
𝑧 = 4.7

𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin Φ = −1.61

𝑥 = 0.585

𝐷(𝑥 = 0.585; 𝑦 = −1.61; 𝑧 = 4.7)

c) |𝑪𝑫| = √(𝑥𝐷 − 𝑥𝐶 )2 + (𝑦𝐷 − 𝑦𝐶 )2 + (𝑧𝐷 − 𝑧𝐶 )2 = 6.3

8
 ECE539 – Engineering Electromagnetics | Chapter 1 – Vector Analysis

Example 1.10:

Transform the following vectors into Spherical Coordinates at each of its given point:

a) 𝑮 = 10𝒂𝒙 at 𝑃(𝑥 = −3; 𝑦 = 2; 𝑧 = 4).

b) 𝑯 = 10𝒂𝒚 at 𝑄(𝜌 = 5; Φ = 30°; 𝑧 = 4).
c) 𝑰 = 10𝒂𝒛 at 𝑀(𝑟 = 4; 𝜃 = 110°; Φ = 120°).

Solution:

𝑧
a) 𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) = 42.03°
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
𝑦
Φ = tan−1 ( ) = 146.3°
𝑥
𝑮. 𝒂𝒓 = 10𝒂𝒙 . 𝒂𝒓 = 10 sin 𝜃 cos Φ = −5.57
𝑮. 𝒂𝜃 = 10𝒂𝒙 . 𝒂𝜃 = −6.18
𝑮. 𝒂Φ = 10𝒂𝒙 . 𝒂Φ = −5.55
𝑮 = −5.57𝒂𝒓 − 6.18𝒂𝜃 − 5.55𝒂Φ
b) 𝑯 = 10(sin 𝜃 sin Φ 𝒂𝜌 + cos 𝜃 sin Φ 𝒂𝜃 + cos Φ 𝒂Φ )
𝑥 = 5 cos Φ = 4.33
𝑦 = 5 sin Φ = 2.50
𝑧=4
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 6.4
𝑧
𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) = 51.34°
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑦
Φ𝑠𝑝ℎ = tan−1 ( ) = 30°
𝑥
𝑯 = 3.91𝒂𝒓 + 3.12𝒂𝜃 + 8.67𝒂Φ
c) 𝑰 = 10(cos 𝜃 𝒂𝒓 −sin 𝜃 𝒂𝜃 ) = −3.42𝒂𝒓 − 9.4𝒂𝜃