August

INSIGHTSIAS
IA SIMPLIFYING IAS EXAM PREPARATION
INSTA SECURE SYNOPSIS

MAINS MISSION 2023
GS- I
AUGUST 2023
www.insightsactivelearn.com | www.insightsonindia.com
NOTE: Please remember that following ‘answers’ are NOT ‘model answers’. They
are NOT synopsis too if we go by definition of the term. What we are providing is
content that both meets demand of the question and at the same time gives you
extra points in the form of background information.
Table of Contents
Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to
modern times. ................................................................................................................................... 7
The literary heritage of ancient India holds immense significance and has shaped various aspects
of Indian culture and society. Explore the rich tapestry of ancient Indian literature, discussing its
key features and the profound impact it has had on the country’s cultural and social fabric. (250
words) ........................................................................................................................................... 7
What are the key features and significance of modern Indian paintings in the contemporary art
scene? (150 words) ..................................................................................................................... 10
The Indus Valley Civilization left a significant legacy and represents one of the earliest urban
civilizations in the world. Discuss the key features of Indus Valley Civilisation. (150 words). ..... 12
The concept of Dhamma, as propounded by Emperor Ashoka, played a crucial role in shaping his
reign and had a significant impact on ancient India. Explain. (250 words) .................................. 13
The Freedom Struggle – its various stages and important contributors /contributions from different
parts of the country. ........................................................................................................................ 16
Western-educated Indians began to question the legitimacy of British rule and were inspired by
concepts like democracy, nationalism, and self-governance, which fuelled the growth of Indian
nationalism. Examine. (250 word) .............................................................................................. 16
While the Home Rule Movement had its limitations, including a limited scope and the inability
to achieve immediate self-rule, its impact on the national movement cannot be undermined.
Comment. (250 words) ............................................................................................................... 19
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Revolutionary nationalism introduced a more confrontational approach to the national

movement. It advocated armed resistance, political violence, and even acts of terrorism against
British officials as a means to weaken colonial authority. Discuss. Also, write about the
contributions of Madan Lal Dhingra toward revolutionary activities. (250 words) ..................... 22
The acceptance of Partition in 1947 marked the culmination of a gradual progression towards
accommodating the League’s unwavering advocacy for an independent Muslim state. Critically
examine. (250 words) ................................................................................................................. 24
The Quit India Movement was a turning point in India’s struggle for independence due to its
intensity, the involvement of a wide cross-section of society, and its role in shaping the British
approach toward India during and after World War II. Evaluate. (250 words)............................ 26
Post-independence consolidation and reorganization within the country. ....................................... 30
India and Pakistan need to adapt the Indus Waters Treaty to address changing circumstances,
including climate change and growing water needs, through constructive dialogue and
cooperation. This adaptation should aim to benefit both nations and foster regional stability.
Comment. (250 words) ............................................................................................................... 30
History of the world will include events from 18th century such as industrial revolution, world wars,
redrawal of national boundaries, colonization, decolonization. ....................................................... 32
Examine the historical significance of the American War of Independence and the American Civil
War on the United States’ nation-building process and its influence on global history. (250
words) ......................................................................................................................................... 32
The French Revolution was a transformative event that marked the end of the monarchy and
the birth of modern republicanism, profoundly altering the course of moder world history in
several significant ways. Elaborate. (250 words) ........................................................................ 34
Bolivar’s vision extended beyond the liberation of individual countries; he aspired to create a
united and independent South America. Discuss. (150 words) ................................................... 36
By the early twentieth century, European colonial powers had established control over most of
Africa. The consequences of this colonial legacy continue to shape the social, political, and
economic dynamics of many African countries today. Analyse. (250 words) .............................. 38
Salient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India. ........................................................................ 40
While diversity is important for progress and a vibrant culture, it should not be used as an
excuse to promote divisiveness or intolerance. Analyse. (250 words) ........................................ 40
Role of women and women’s organization; population and associated issues, poverty and
developmental issues, ..................................................................................................................... 43
While harnessing the benefits of a large population, it’s crucial to ensure that development is
sustainable. Policies need to be designed to manage resource consumption, environmental
impact, and social well-being. Analyse. (250 words) ................................................................... 43
Urbanization, their problems and their remedies............................................................................. 46
Rapid urbanization can indeed lead to a host of challenges that require urgent interventions to
ensure the sustainability of cities across the country. Elaborate. (250 words)............................ 46
Considering the impacts of climate change in urban development is essential for creating
resilient, sustainable cities that can withstand the challenges posed by a changing climate.
Examine. (250 words) ................................................................................................................. 49

Cities must take lead on climate change, rather than simply reacting to untoward events.
Instead of pursuing smart cities, we should invest in rainwater harvesting and better drainage.
Comment. (250 words) ............................................................................................................... 51
Social empowerment, communalism, regionalism & secularism. ..................................................... 54
Examine the significance of combatting gender stereotypes and its potential to promote gender
equality and empower women. (250 words) .............................................................................. 54
The outbursts of caste-based violence against the poor and vulnerable reflect the deep-rooted
biases and prejudices ingrained within society. Analyse. (250 words) ........................................ 56
Communalism fosters divisions and hostility between religious communities, eroding the sense
of unity and shared identity that is crucial for a diverse nation like India. Examine the factors
responsible for the growth of communalism and its impact on Indian society. (250 words) ...... 58
Salient features of world’s physical geography. ............................................................................... 62
El Niño weather phenomenon has become a significant economic and political risk for India.
Examine. (250 words) ................................................................................................................. 62
The Köppen climate classification system takes into account both the temperature and the
amount of precipitation to group different regions into specific climate types. Examine. (250
words) ......................................................................................................................................... 66
What are the various factors that affect the formation of Savanna type of climate? Examine the
various threats to Savanna biomes. (250 words) ........................................................................ 68
The Himalayan and Peninsular drainage systems exhibit distinct characteristics shaped by their
geographical origins, age, and local climatic factors. Examine. (250 words) ............................... 71
The Indian monsoon is crucial to the country’s well-being, impacting agriculture, economy,
water resources, and livelihoods. Variations in the monsoon are influenced by a multitude of
factors, both regional and global, making its prediction and management a challenging
endeavour. Analyse. (250 words)................................................................................................ 73
While local salinity patterns are indeed influenced by factors like rainfall and evaporation, the
salinity of the world’s oceans is determined by a complex interplay of various global processes.
Analyse. (250 words)................................................................................................................... 76
Explain the primary and secondary factors responsible for the formation of ocean currents.
(250words) .................................................................................................................................. 79
The ocean floor is not a uniform expanse; rather, it is characterized by a diverse range of relief
features that play a crucial role in shaping the Earth’s oceans. Discuss the significance of
studying ocean floor? (250 words) .............................................................................................. 82
The continental shelf of the Indian Ocean holds significant economic potential due to the
presence of various resources that can be exploited for both commercial and strategic purposes.
Examine. (250 words) ................................................................................................................. 84
Distinguish between a cyclone and an anti-cyclone. How is climate change impacting tropical
cyclones globally? (250 words) ................................................................................................... 88
Discuss the factors affecting and the major features of tropical rainforest climate. Write a short
note on its vegetation. (250 words) ............................................................................................ 91

The development and distribution of pressure belts on Earth are a result of the complex
interactions between solar energy distribution, atmospheric circulation patterns, and
geographic features. Discuss. (250 words) .................................................................................. 93
Even though local winds operate on a smaller scale and shorter timespan compared to larger
atmospheric systems, their effects can be deeply felt on economies and natural systems within
a specific region. Comment. (250 words) .................................................................................... 96
While natural tectonic processes are the primary drivers of earthquakes, anthropogenic
activities can trigger seismic events under specific conditions. Analyse. (250 words) .............. 101
What is temperature inversion? Explain the several mechanisms that can lead to temperature
inversions. What are the impacts of temperature inversions? (250 words) .............................. 103
The theory of plate tectonics is considered more complete than the continental drift theory
because it incorporates and explains a broader range of geological phenomena and
observations related to the movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates. Examine. (250 words) .. 105
Geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features (including water-
bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes. ................................ 109
Floodplain ecosystem are very beneficial. However, rapid urbanization and improper land use in
floodplains have led to reduced water retention capacity, increasing the risk of floods. Effective
zoning can help minimize the impact of floods and ensure the long-term safety and
sustainability of floodplain ecosystem. Analyse. (250 words) ................................................... 109
Distribution of key natural resources across the world (including South Asia and the Indian sub-
continent); .................................................................................................................................... 112
In the 19th century, silk production in India was centered around traditional sericulture regions
like Mysore, Bengal, and Assam. However, over time, there have been shifts in the location of
silk industries due to various factors. Explain. (250 words) ...................................................... 112
Livestock plays a significant role in India’s farmers’ economy as a source of livelihood, income
diversification, nutritional security, and employment generation. Discuss. (250 words) .......... 115
India’s geological diversity has endowed the country with a wide range of metallic and non-
metallic mineral resources. These minerals play a pivotal role in various industrial sectors,
infrastructure development, and energy production, contributing significantly to the country’s
economic growth. Discuss. (250 words) .................................................................................... 118
The diversity in Indian soils can be attributed to the interaction of various factors across the vast
and varied geographical and climatic conditions in the country. This diversity has important
implications for agriculture, land use planning, and environmental management. Explain. (250
words). ...................................................................................................................................... 122
India’s diverse climatic conditions have given rise to a wide range of natural vegetation types,
each adapted to specific environmental conditions. Examine the major threats to vegetation in
India. (250 words). .................................................................................................................... 126
The marine resources of the Indian Ocean directly impact the livelihoods of millions of people
who depend on fishing, aquaculture, and related industries. Discuss. (250 words) .................. 132
Factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries in various
parts of the world (including India). ............................................................................................... 135
Non-geographical factors play a crucial role in determining the location of industries across
different sectors. Discuss. (250 words) ..................................................................................... 135
Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc. 137
Regional tsunami warning systems are critical components of a comprehensive approach to
minimize the devastating impacts of tsunamis. Analyse. (150 words) ...................................... 137
The Volcanic landforms can vary widely in shape, size, and composition depending on the type
of volcanic eruption and the characteristics of the lava and other volcanic materials involved.
Explain. (150 words) ................................................................................................................. 141

Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and
Architecture from ancient to modern times.
The literary heritage of ancient India holds immense significance and has shaped
various aspects of Indian culture and society. Explore the rich tapestry of ancient Indian
literature, discussing its key features and the profound impact it has had on the
country’s cultural and social fabric. (250 words)
Difficulty Level: Easy
Reference: Insights on India
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General Studies paper – 1 and is mentioned as part of the
Mission-2024 Secure timetable (revision).
Key Demand of the question:
To provide an elaborate analysis of the importance and notable characteristics of ancient Indian
literature and its impact.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Write about the diversity of ancient Indian literature.
Body:
First write about the Diverse Genres of ancient Indian literature: Epics like Mahabharata and
Ramayana, Religious texts including Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas, Poetry, drama, and
philosophical treatises, Sangam literature showcasing regional diversity etc.
Next, write about the Key Themes: Exploration of religious concepts like dharma, karma, and
moksha, Depiction of moral and ethical values, Representation of historical events and legends etc.
Next, write about the Impact on Society: Influence on cultural practices and traditions, Shaping of
social norms and values, Contribution to the development of art forms like music, dance, and drama
etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising.
Introduction
Ancient Indian literature spans a variety of literary forms, including epics, songs, dramatic and
didactic poetry, narrative and scientific writing, as well as oral poetry and music. It has been a high
point of Indian civilization, showcasing the vast array of talent and expertise displayed by the
masters themselves. Perhaps no other part of the world has produced such a vast body of
knowledge and wisdom literature. Sanskrit dominated India’s literary tradition for more than 300
years, first in its Vedic form and then in its classical form.

Body
Diversity of Indian literature
 Vedas: Most ancient Indian texts contain religious themes and these are known as Vedas.
They are assigned to c. 1500–500 B.C.
o The early Vedic Society represented human equality and simplicity at their best. It
was a society of high moral standards.
o It showed an advanced civilisation, a settled life, and an organised human relation.
o The women held a high position in the Aryan society. This started slowly
deteriorating with time.
 Great Epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata are two epics from ancient Indian literature.
o These have evolved into their current shape over millennia and hence embody the
Indian people’s ethnic memory.
o They were passed down orally throughout time by singers and storytellers, and they
were most likely written down about the 2nd century BCE.
o The Ramayana is made up of 24000 verses that are divided into seven volumes
called Khandas.
o It’s written in the manner of poetry, and it’s meant to entertain as well as educate. It
is Rama’s narrative, and it explains how to attain the fourfold goals of human
existence (Purushartha), namely Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha.
o The Mahabharata is the world’s longest poem, consisting of one lakh lines
distributed across 10 books.
o It is known as the Itihasa Purana, or Mythical History
 Post-Vedic literature:In the post-Vedic period ( i.e. after BC600) we have recorded a large
number of ritual literature on moral values called Sutras.
o Grand public sacrifices to be performed by rulers are recorded in Shrautasutra while

domestic rituals connected with birth, naming, sacred thread ceremony, marriage,
funerals etc. are prescribed in Grihyasutras.
o This literature was compiled between c. 600–300 B.C
 Puranas: They contributed to the evolution of early Vedic religion into Hinduism. The
term “Purana” literally means “to revive the old” in Sanskrit.
o The Puranas were most likely written between the third and tenth centuries AD.
o The Puranas’ literature is extensive and covers a wide range of themes, including but
not limited to Cosmology, Genealogy, Medicine, Astronomy, Gods and Goddesses,
Grammar, Demigods, Heroes, Sages
o They were composed to demonstrate to the people the reality of the Vedas. Puranas
use popular folklore and mythical stories to teach philosophical and religious truths.

 Buddhist literature: The earliest Buddhist texts were written in Pali. They are called
Tripitakas (three baskets) viz. Suttapittaka, Vinayapitaka and Abhidhammapitaka.
o Of the most important non-religious Buddhist literature are the Jatakas.
o They contain the stories of the previous birth of the Buddha. It was believed that
before he was actually born as Gautama, the Buddha passed through over 550
births. Each birth story is called a Jataka.
o These stories throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions of the
period between the fifth and second centuries BC.
 Jain literature: They are called Angas and contain the philosophical concepts of the Jainas.
o They show how common people came into the fold of Jainism and led austere life
based on principles of the Thirthankaras.
o It always shows how vibrant the trading community was in those times.
 Sanskrit Literature: Arthasastra of Kautilya provides rich material for the study of Indian
economy and polity of the Mauryan period.
o Vishakadatta’s political intrigue Mudrarakshasa, which was written in the sixth

century CE, is set in an intriguing era of Indian history.
o Kalidasa wrote the Sanskrit play Malavikagnimitram.It is his first play, and it is
based on a number of incidents that took place under Pushyamitra Shunga.
o Kalidasa also wrote the play Vikramorvasiyam, literary masterpiece Raghuvamsa,
o Works on grammar are also sometimes useful for historical reconstruction. The
earliest and the most important work on grammar is theAshtadhyayi written by
Panini, which is dated by scholars to around 700 B.C
 Sangam literature: The Sangam Period in South India (the area south of the Krishna and
Tungabhadra rivers) runs roughly from the 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D.
o Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam are four Dravidian languages that evolved
their own script and literature and were used to write ancient Indian texts in
Southern India.
o Eminent intellectuals gathered at the sangams to act as censors, and the best writing
was rendered in the form of anthologies.
o The first examples of Dravidian literature were these literary works.
Key features
 The Vedas and epics are merely a small part of ancient Indian literature; there is much more
to comprehend and learn from them.
 Dharmashastras, which clearly outline a person’s obligations and how a person should
evolve in character, are also explained in ancient literature. Science and mathematics were
covered in shastras.
 The Sanskrit book Arthashastra by Kautilya deals with government and economic policy.

 In addition, Buddhist literature in Pali language grew in popularity. It contains Buddhist

literature such as poetry, philosophy, and some grammatical works.
 The literature of ancient India is both beautiful and difficult to read and comprehend.
 The Vedas, Shastras, and Upanishads all aid in the development of a person’s character and
the pursuit of happiness.
 Love, nature, panegyric, moralising, and narrative were the main topics of traditional
Sanskrit poets.
 When it comes to love, the ancient poets speak passionately of bodily love; they viewed
nature in relation to man, rather than for its own sake.
 In Kalidasa’s writings, the Sanskrit Kavya reaches unequalled excellence and perfection.
Conclusion
Religious literature provides information for the period between the beginning of the Aryans into
India and Alexander’s invasion into India. The Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and other contemporary
literature are the religious literary sources of Ancient Indian History. It is important to interpret
these works in the context of the society of ancient India.
What are the key features and significance of modern Indian paintings in the
contemporary art scene? (150 words)
Difficulty Level: Moderate
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General Studies paper – 1 and is mentioned as part of the
To write about the key features and significance of modern Indian paintings in the context of
contemporary art.
Introduction:
Write briefly about the background of modern Indian paintings.
Body:
Write about the fusion of traditional Indian art forms with contemporary techniques in modern
Indian paintings. Discuss the use of vibrant colors, bold brushstrokes, and diverse subject matters in
these paintings.
Next, mention prominent artists such as Raja Ravi Varma, Amrita Sher-Gil, and M.F. Husain and their
contributions to modern Indian art. Discuss the global recognition and influence of modern Indian
paintings.
Conclusion:
Summarize the key features and significance of modern Indian paintings.
Introduction
The modern Indian art movement in Indian painting is considered to have begun in Calcutta in the
late nineteenth century. The old traditions of painting had more or less died out in Bengal and new
schools of art were started by the British. Initially, protagonists of Indian art such as Raja Ravi
Varma drew on Western traditions and techniques including oil paint and easel painting. A reaction
to the Western influence led to a revival in primitivism, called as the Bengal school of art, which
drew from the rich cultural heritage of India. It was succeeded by the Santiniketan school, led
by Rabindranath Tagore’s harking back to idyllic rural folk and rural life.
Body
Key features of modern Indian paintings
 A certain freedom from invention
 The acceptance of an eclectic approach which has placed artistic expression in the
international perspectiveas against the regional
 A positive elevation of technique which has become both proliferous and supreme
 The emergence of the artist as a distinct individual.
 It is product of Indian Renaissancethrough heavy influence of west on traditional Indian art.
 It used western ideas and realism to depict Indian themes and in due course, got delinked
from Indian tradition and went closer to international trends and modern abstractionism.
 A major characteristic of contemporary Indian Painting is that the technique and method
have acquired a new significance.
 Formcame to be regarded as separate entity and with its increasing emphasis

it subordinated the content in a work of art
significance of modern Indian paintings
 The painter has gained a great deal on the visual and sensory level: particularly in regard to
the use of colour, in the concept of design and structure, texture, and in the employment, of
unconventional materials.
 Form was not regarded as a vehicle for content. In fact the position was reverse.
 And the means, inspired and developed on extraneous elements, rendered technique very
complex and brought in its train a new aesthetique.
 A painting stood or fell in terms of colour, compositional contrivance or sheer texture.

 Art on the whole acquired an autonomy of its own and the artist an individual status as
never before.
Conclusion
Contemporary Indian art has travelled a long way since the days of Ravi Verma, Abanindranath
Tagore and his followers and even Amrita Sher-Gil. Broadly, the pattern followed is this. Almost
every artist of note began with one kind of representational or figurative art or the other tinged with
impressionism, expressionism or post-expressionism.
Eventually, the modern school came to be characterised by an international aesthetic of abstract

form, emphasis on the individual’s sensory perception of colour, form, structure and medium. These
were explored by artist like Amrita Shergill and later by Tyeb Mehta, Jamini Roy, MF Hussain etc.

The Indus Valley Civilization left a significant legacy and represents one of the earliest
urban civilizations in the world. Discuss the key features of Indus Valley Civilisation. (150
words).
Difficulty level: Easy
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 1 and mentioned as part of
To write about the features of Indus Valley Civilisation.
Directive:
Discuss – This is an all-encompassing directive – you must debate on paper by going through the
details of the issues concerned by examining each one of them. You must give reasons for both for
and against arguments.
Introduction:
Start by giving an overview of its geographical extent and timeframe
Body:
First, write the about the features of Harappan Civilisation – Agriculture, Urban Planning and
Infrastructure, Trade and Economy, Writing System and Artifacts, Social Organization and
Governance and Religion and Rituals etc.
Conclusion:
Introduction
A flourishing civilisation emerged on the banks of river Indus in the second half of the third
millennium BCE and spread across larger parts of Western India. A marked feature if this civilisation
was the vivid imagination and artistic sensibilities. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were the two major
cities if this civilisation.
Body
Features of Indus Valley Civilization
 Town planning Architecture
o Layout: The town were laid out in a rectangular grid pattern and the roads ran in
North-South and East-West direction cutting each other at right angles.
o Construction: The big roads divided the city into many blocks and smaller lanes were
used to connect housed to the main roads. Harappan used burnt bricks of standard
dimension for construction.
o Types of buildings: Dwelling houses, public buildings and public baths are commonly
found.
o Planning: The city was divided into two parts. An upraised citadel in the western
part was used for buildings of large dimensions, such as granaries, administrative
buildings and courtyard.
 The elite class stayed in the citadel part of the town.

o Granaries had strategic air ducts and raised platforms for storage and protection
from pests. Eg: The great granary in Mohenjo-Daro and 2 rows of 6 granaries in
Harappa.
 Dockyard: Lothal in Gujarat is now called Manchester of Indus-Valley. Here ship remains
and instruments for measuring angles were also found.
 Public Baths: This is a remarkable feature of the civilisation which indicated the importance
given to ritualistic cleansing in the culture. Eg: The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro
o There are no cracks or leaks in the great bath which shows the engineering acumen
of the Harappan people.
 Drainage system: This is the most striking feature as small drains ran from small houses and
were connected to larger drains running alongside the main roads. They were covered
loosely to do periodic maintenance. Cesspits were placed at regular intervals.
 Use of seals: Seals were primarily used for commercial purpose. They were mostly square
and rectangle but circular and triangular were also used.
o Some seals were used as amulets as well as they were found on dead bodies.
o Pictographic script on seals have been found which might have been used for
educational purposes.
o Eg: Unicorn seal, Pashupathi seal made of Steatite.
 Bronze casting: There was a wide scale practice of bronze casting. They were made using
the lost wax technique or Cire Perdue. Eg: Bronze dancing girl of Mohenjo-Daro, broze bull
of Kalibangan etc.
 Pottery: There were plain and painted pottery (Red and Black pottery). They were mainly
used for household purposes for storage, decorative purposes and some for straining
liquor as they have perforations.
 Jewellery and clothing: Both men and women wore ornaments like necklaces, fillets,
armlets and finger rings. Girdles, anklets were worn only by women.
o Beads made of amethyst, quartz, steatite etc were quite popular as was evident
from excavation on Chanudaro and Lothal.
o For fabric cotton and wool was used. Spindles and whorls were made from
expensive faience as well as cheap clay.
Conclusion
The Indus valley civilization was the largest of all the four civilizations of the time and was
contemporary to the Mesopotamian civilisation. The features of Indus-Valley such as the planned
network of roads, houses and drainage systems indicate the planning and the engineering skills that
developed during those times.
The concept of Dhamma, as propounded by Emperor Ashoka, played a crucial role in

shaping his reign and had a significant impact on ancient India. Explain. (250 words)
Difficulty level: Moderate
Reference: TN History – Class 11th Textbook (New Edition)
Why the question:

To write about Dhamma, its features and measures taken to spread.
Directive:
Explain – Clarify the topic by giving a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the
context. You must be defining key terms wherever appropriate and substantiate with relevant
associated facts.
Introduction:
Begin by defining Dhamma.
Body:
First, mention about the various components of Dhamma as propounded by Ashoka. The set of do’s
and don’t that were part of the Dhamma.
Next, write about the measures taken by Ashoka to spread Dhamma across the subcontinent and the
world.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing the legacy of dhamma.
Introduction
Ashoka’s Dhamma was neither a new religion nor a new political philosophy. Rather, it was a way of
life, a code of conduct and a set of principles to be adopted and practiced by the people at large.
Dhamma related to generalized norms of social activities and behaviors.
Body:
Nature of Dhamma as propounded by Ashoka:
 It is an important document of his essential humanity and an answer to the socio political
needs of the contemporaneous situation.
 It was not anti brahminical because respect for Brahmins and sarmanas is an integral part of
Dhamma.
 One of the striking features of Asoka’s edicts talks about father-child relationship between
the king and his populace.
 In spite of his religious eclecticism, Ashoka denounced all useless ceremonies and sacrifices
held under the influence of superstition. The first Rock Edict prohibits the ritual of animal
sacrifice and festive gatherings.
 Asoka also started a system of dhammayatas or Yatras whereby be toured the country and
preached the Dhamma to the people.
 Throughout his edicts Ashoka stresses the importance of the family. The emphasis is on
respecting elders including religious elders, a humane and just attitude towards servants and
slaves and a high degree of social responsibility and civic ethics.
 Ashoka pleaded for tolerance of different religious sects in an attempt to create a sense of
harmony.
 The policy of Dhamma also laid stress on non-violence, which was to be practiced by giving
up war and conquests and also as a restraint on the killing of animals.

 Ashoka set an example of vegetarianism by almost stopping the consumption of meat in the
royal household.
 Since he wanted to conquer the world through love and faith, he sent many missions to
propagate Dhamma. Such missions were sent to far off places like Egypt, Greece and Sri
Lanka. The propagation of Dhamma included many measures of people’s welfare.
Shortcomings:
 His policy of Dhamma failed to achieve the desired goal of reducing social tension.
 Power of official dhammamahamattas to interfere in the lives of people increased over time.
There was resentment against officials.
 None of Ashoka successors continued the propagation of Dhamma.
 The Ashoka policy of Dhamma has been the subject of controversy and debate amongst
scholars.
 Some have said that Ashoka was a partisan Buddhist and have equated Dhamma with
Buddhism.
Reasons for decline of Dhamma
 On one level, the decline and eventual disappearance of the dharma is viewed in Buddhist
sources as automatic, simply resulting from the principle of the transitoriness of all
conditioned things.
 The earliest tradition points to the presence of women in the monastic order as the critical
factor in Buddhism’s early demise.
 The lack of respect toward various elements of the Buddhist tradition, lack of diligence in
meditation practice, and carelessness in the transmission of the teachings.
 Other accounts point to sectarian divisions or the appearance of false teachings as the cause
of decline.
 Finally, excessive monastic association with secular society also regularly appears as a
contributing cause.
Conclusion:
Dhamma being secular in nature and advocates humanitarian approach, making it a very practical
solution. Dhamma promotes social equality and is realistic. So, Dhamma is the need of the hour of
the present India. Ashoka’s Dhamma has all-time applicability in a divergent Indian society.
Value addition
 Major Rock Edict I: Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive fathering’s.
 Major Rock Edict II: Describes the medical missions sent everywhere (land of Cholas,
Pandyas, Satyaputras, Keralaputras, Ceylon, Antiochus) for men and animals. Plantation of
medicinal herbs and trees and digging of wells along the roads.
 Major Rock Edict III: On 12 years of his consecration, Yuktas (subordinate officers) rajukas
(rural administrators) and the Pradesikas (head of the districts) were ordered to tour every

five years and propagate Dhamma. It also mentions about being generous to Brahmans and
sramanas and obedient to one’s mother and father, friends and relatives.
 Major Rock Edict IV: The sound of the drum has become the sound of Dhamma showing the
people the divine form.
 Major Rock Edict V: Mentions about the introduction of the institution of the dhamma-
mahammatas, the officers of the Dhamma in his fourteenth year of reign. It also mentions
about humane treatment of servants by masters and of prisoners by government officials.
 Major Rock Edict VI: It-makes the relationship between the king and his subjects via the
Mahamattas clearer and now the Mahamattas are told to make their reports to the king at
any time and place.
 Major Rock Edict VII: It pleads for toleration amongst all sects.
 Major Rock Edict VIII: In the tenth year of his reign Asoka went on a visit to Bodh-Gaya, to
see the Bodhi-tree. Following this event, he started a system of Dhamma-yatas which is
described in this edict. Dhamma-yatas were occasions when he toured the country for the
furtherance of Dhamma.
 Major Rock Edict IX: All ceremonies are useless except Dhamma which includes respect for
others and regard even for slaves and servants and donations to sramanas and Brahmans.
 Major Rock Edict X: In this edict, Asoka denounces fame and glory and reasserts that the
only glory he desires is that his subjects should follow the principles of Dhamma.
 Major Rock Edict XI: It contains a further explanation of Dhamma. Here he refers to the gift
of Dhamma, the distribution of Dhamma, the kinship detailed Dhamma.
 Major Rock Edict XII: It is a direct and emphatic plea for toleration amongst the various
sects.
 Major Rock Edict XIII: It is among the most important document of Asokan history. It clearly
states that the Kalinga war took place eight years after his consecration. It mentions about
the replacements of bherighosa (sound of war drums) by dhammaghosa (sound of peace),
i.e., conquest through Dhamma instead through war.
 Major Rock Edict XIV: It is a short edict in which Asoka explains that he has had these edicts
inscribed throughout the country in complete or abridged versions.
The Freedom Struggle – its various stages and important contributors

/contributions from different parts of the country.
Western-educated Indians began to question the legitimacy of British rule and were
inspired by concepts like democracy, nationalism, and self-governance, which fuelled
the growth of Indian nationalism. Examine. (250 word)
Why the question:

Directive word:
Examine – When asked to ‘Examine’, we must investigate the topic (content words) in detail, inspect
it, investigate it and establish the key facts and issues related to the topic in question. While doing so
we should explain why these facts and issues are important and their implications.
Key Demand of the question: To write about nationalism, factors for its rise and different views
regarding it.
Introduction:
Begin by defining nationalism.
Body:
First, write about the various factors that led to rise of nationalism in India – the Despotic nature of
the rule, the racial discrimination, indiscriminate taxation, ruining of Industries, Introduction of
modern education, the influx of ideas of liberalism and constitutionalism, the rise of an educated
middle class, the impact of the press, the impact of socio-religious reform movements etc.
Next, write about the role of Western-educated Indians in the rise of Indian nationalism.
Conclusion:
Conclude by stating a balanced opinion.
Introduction
Nationalism is an ideology that holds that a nation is the fundamental unit for human social life,
and takes precedence over any other social and political principles. Nationalism typically makes
certain political claims based upon this belief: above all, the claim that the nation is the only fully
legitimate basis for a state, that each nation is entitled to its own state, and that the borders of the
state should be congruent with the borders of the nation. Nationalism refers to both a political
doctrine and any collective action by political and social movements on behalf of specific nations.
Body
Factors that led to the rise of Indian nationalism
 Western Thought and Education: The introduction of a modern system of education

afforded opportunities for assimilation of modern western ideas. This, in turn, gave a new
direction to Indian political thinking, although the English system of education had been
conceived by the rulers in the interest of efficient administration.
o The liberal and radical thought of European writers like Milton, Shelley, John
Stuart Mill, Rousseau, Paine, Spencer and Voltairehelped many Indians imbibe
modern rational, secular, democratic and nationalist ideas.
 The English languagehelped nationalist leaders from different linguistic regions to

communicate with each other. Those among the educated who took up liberal professions
(lawyers, doctors, etc.) often visited England for higher education.
o There they saw theworking of modern political institutions in a free country and
compared that system with the Indian situation where even basic rights were
denied to the citizens.
o This ever-expanding English educated class formed the middle-class intelligentsia

who constituted the nucleus for the newly arising political unrest.It was this
section which provided leadership to the Indian political associations.

 Press: The second half of the nineteenth century saw an unprecedented growth of Indian
owned English and vernacular newspapers, despite numerous restrictions imposed on the
press by the colonial rulers from time to time.
o The press while criticising official policies, on the one hand, urged the people to
unite, on the other.It also helped spread modern ideas of self-government,
democracy, civil rights and industrialization.
o The newspapers, journals, pamphlets and nationalist literature helped in

the exchange of ,political ideas among nationalist leaders from different regions.
 Socio-religious reforms:These reform movements sought to remove social evils which

divided the Indian society; this had the effect of bringing different sections together and
proved to be an important factor in the growth of Indian nationalism.
 Rise of middle-class intelligentsia: This class, prominent because of its education, new
position and its close ties with the ruling class, came to the forefront. The leadership to the
Indian National Congress in all its stages of growth was provided by this class.
 Impact of Contemporary Movements Worldwide:Rise of a number of nations on the ruins

of Spanish and Portuguese empires in South America, and the national liberation
movements of Greece and Italy in general and of Ireland deeply influenced the nationalist
ranks.
 Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance of Rulers: Racial myths of white superiority were
sought to be perpetuated by adeliberate policy of discrimination and segregation. Indians
felt deeply hurt by this. Lytton’s reactionary policies such as reduction of maximum age
limit for the I.C.S. examination ‘from 21 years to 19 years (1876), the grand Delhi Durbar of
1877 when the country was in the severe grip of famine, the Vernacular Press Act (1878)
and the Arms Act (1878) provoked a storm of opposition in the country.
o It became clear, to the nationalists that justice and fair play could not be expected
where interests of the European community were involved.
Various views of Indian nationalists on nationalism
 The early nationalist leaders, such as Dadabhai Navroji, S N Banerjee, Pherozeshah Mehta,
Gokhale and Ranade, were uncritical admirers of western political values of equality before
law, freedom of speech & press, principle of representative government etc.
o Being staunch believers in liberalism they adopted ‘moderate’ politics based on

constitutionalism and peaceful methods as most appropriate to avoid direct friction
with the ruler.
o Their ‘moderate’ politics and loyalty to the British rule in India was based on the
idea that the British rule was a providential mission capable of protecting India’s
future.
o They considered its continuity as ‘sine qua non’ of India’s progress as a civilized
nation. They considered the disciplining & lawful rule of British to be superior than
the division & disorder of the 18th century.

o However, to mould the British rule in India’s peculiar conditions, they favored
reforms in administration to meet the interests of the Indians.
 Extremist nationalism:The Extremists gave the idea of India’s independence the central
place in India’s politics. The goal of independence was to be achieved through self-sacrifice.
Its leaders were Aurobindo, Tilak, B.C. Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai—had different perceptions of
their goal.
o For Tilak, swaraj meant some sort of self-government, while for Aurobindo, it meant
complete independence from foreign rule.
o But at the politico-ideological level, their emphasis on mass participation and on the
need to broaden the social base of the movement was a progressive improvement
upon the Moderate politics.
o They raised patriotism from alevel of ‘academic pastime’ to one of ‘service and
sacrifice for the country’.
 Revolutionary nationalism:The idea was to strike terror in the hearts of the rulers, arouse
people and remove the fear of authority from their minds. The revolutionaries intended to
inspire the people by appealing to their patriotism, especially the idealist youth who would
finally drive the British out. Bhagat singh, Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Jatindranath
Banerjee were leaders of this trend.
 Gandhian nationalism:Unlike the pre- Gandhian nationalists conception of ‘swaraj’ as

political freedom, Gandhi defined ‘Swaraj’ in its widest possible connotation as not merely
political liberation but also human emancipation based on social, spiritual and moral
foundations.
o Gandhi introduced the technique of‘non-violent satyagraha’ as the only technique

capable of meeting the nationalist aims and aspirations. He used this technique in
envisaging the most ‘spectacular mass movement’ based on the strategy of
‘struggle-Truce-struggle’.
Conclusion
Thus, the nationalist response in India was articulated differently in different phases of India’s
freedom struggle. Each phase ultimately culminated in the freedom of India from British imperialism
leading to independence and constitution of a sovereign nation.
While the Home Rule Movement had its limitations, including a limited scope and the
inability to achieve immediate self-rule, its impact on the national movement cannot be
undermined. Comment. (250 words)
Why the question:
To explain the limitations of the Home Rule Movement, especially with regards to Home Rule
leagues. Also, to explain the legacy of the movement.
Directive word:

Comment– here we must express our knowledge and understanding of the issue and form an overall
opinion thereupon.
Introduction:
Begin by giving context about Home Rule Movement, its leaders, inspiration and aims and objectives.
Body:
Elaborate further upon the Home Rule movement and its nature of functioning and spread.
Bring out the limitations of Home Rule, lack of cohesiveness between Tilak’s and Besant’s leagues,
Skepticism of Congress, Lack of leadership post-1917 etc.
In the next part write in detail about the legacy of the movement. Giving impetus to national
movement during the war period, facilitating the re-entry of extremists in Congress, Lucknow,
creating a platform for upcoming leaders, and preparing India for the arrival of Gandhi and mass
movements.
Conclusion:
Summarize the overall importance and the legacy of the Home rule movement.
Introduction
The home rule movement was the Indian response to the First World War in a less charged but in a
more effective way. With people already feeling the burden of war time miseries caused by high
taxation and a rise in prices, Tilak and Annie Besant ready to assume the leadership the movement
started with great vigour. Two Indian Home Rule Leagues were organised on the lines of the Irish
Home Rule Leagues and they represented the emergence of a new trend of aggressive politics. The
League campaign aimed to convey to the common man the message of home rule as self-
government.
Objectives of Home Rule Movement:
 To achieve self-government in India.
 To promote political education and discussion to set up agitation for self-government.
 To build confidence among Indians to speak against the government’s suppression.
 To demand a larger political representation for Indians from the British government.
 To revive political activity in India while maintaining the principles of the Congress Party.
Major contributions of Home Rule Movement to the freedom struggle of India:
1. The leagues organised demonstrations and agitations.
2. There were public meetings in which the leaders gave fiery speeches.
3. They were able to create a stir within the country and alarm the British to such an extent
that Annie Besant was arrested in June 1917.
4. This move by the British created a nation-wide protest and now even moderate leaders
joined the league. Besant was released in September 1917.
5. The Home Rule League functioned throughout the year as opposed to the Congress Party
whose activities were confined to once a year.
6. The movement was able to garner huge support from a lot of educated Indians. In 1917, the
two leagues combined had around 40,000 members.

7. Many members of the Congress and the Muslim League joined the league. Many prominent
leaders like Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Joseph Baptista, G S Kharpade and Sir S Subramanya Iyer
were among its members.
8. The moderates, extremists and the Muslim League were briefly united through this
movement.
9. The movement was able to spread political consciousness to more regions in the country.
 This movement led to the Montague Declaration of 1917 in which it was declared that there
would be more Indians in the government leading to the development of self-governing
institutions ultimately realising responsible governments in India.
This Declaration, also known as August Declaration, implied that the demand for home rule would
no longer be considered seditious. This was the biggest significance of the movement.
Reasons for movement to fade out:
1. The movement was not a mass movement. It was restricted to educated people and college
students.
2. The leagues did not find a lot of support among Muslims, Anglo-Indians and non-Brahmins
from Southern India as they thought home rule would mean a rule of the upper caste Hindu
majority.
3. Many of the moderates were satisfied with the government’s assurance of reforms (as
preluded in the Montague Declaration). They did not take the movement further.
4. Annie Besant kept oscillating between being satisfied with the government talk of reforms
and pushing the home rule movement forward. She was not able to provide firm leadership
to her followers. Although ultimately she did call the reforms ‘unworthy of Indian
acceptance’.
5. In September 1918, Tilak went to England to pursue a libel case against Sir Ignatius Valentine
Chirol, British journalist and author of the book ‘Indian Unrest’. The book contained
deprecatory comments and had called Tilak the ‘Father of Indian Unrest.’
6. The Government made use of Defence of India Act, 1915 to curb the activities of the
agitators.
7. Students were prohibited from attending Home Rule meetings.
8. Tilak was prosecuted and his entry in Punjab and Delhi was banned.
9. Indian Press Act of 1910 was imposed on the press and restrictions were enforced.
 Tilak’s absence and Besant’s inability to lead the people led to the movement’s fizzing out.
 The movement was left leaderless with Tilak going abroad and Besant unable to give a
positive lead.
 After the war, Mahatma Gandhi gained prominence as a leader of the masses and the Home
Rule Leagues merged with the Congress Party in 1920.
Conclusion:

The home rule movement lent a new dimension and a sense of urgency to the national movement.
Although its role in the Indian independence movement had been modest, it did succeed in helping
to sustain the movement’s impetus during the war years—as manifested in the signing of the
Lucknow Pact in December 1916.
Revolutionary nationalism introduced a more confrontational approach to the national

movement. It advocated armed resistance, political violence, and even acts of terrorism
against British officials as a means to weaken colonial authority. Discuss. Also, write
about the contributions of Madan Lal Dhingra toward revolutionary activities. (250
words)
Reference: Indian Express , Insights on India
Why the question:
The article discusses the life and significance of Madan Lal Dhingra in Indian history.
To write about the causes for the rise of revolutionary national movement and its
contribution. Also, contributions of Madan Lal Dhingra.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Start by writing about revolutionary national movement and its nature of struggle. Mention
important organizations and revolutionaries.
Body:
First, write about the causes for the rise of revolutionary nationalist movement – failure of
moderates, lack of progress, high handedness of British etc.
Next, outline the major contributions of the revolutionary nationalists – spreading patriotism,
creating fear in the minds of British, making them grant concessions, uniting the people of India,
inspiring the youth.
Next, write about the contributions of Madan Lal Dhingra towards revolutionary movement.
Conclusion:
Introduction
The emergence of revolutionary ideology in India during the late nineteenth and early twentieth
century was the result of several internal and external influences working on the minds of the youth.
Early phase of revolutionary movement in India was in Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab, U.P., Orissa,
Bihar and Madras provinces, but it predominantly operated in Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab as
these regions were more politically active than other parts of the country.
Body
Factors that contributed to revolutionary nationalism:
 Failure of Moderate and extremist congress: While the youth of Bengal might have been
incensed at the British arrogance and repression, and the ‘mendicancy’ of the Congress
moderates, they were also led to ‘the politics of the bomb’ by the extremists’ failure to give
a positive lead to the people’.

 Leadership’s failureto tap revolutionary energies of the youth.
o In December 1908 nine Bengal leaders including the venerable Krishna Kumar Mitra
and Ashwini Kumar Dutt were deported. In 1908, the great Bal Gangadhar Tilakwas
arrested and given the severe sentence of 6 years imprisonment. Chidambaram
Pillai in Madras and Hari Sarvottam Rao and others in Andhra were put behind
bars.
o This led to leader-lessness and energy of the youths could not be channelised.
 The Fallout of Swadeshi and Boycott Movement was the immediate reason.
 The repressive policies of the British government led people to militant and revolutionary
politics.
o The government of East Bengal, in particular, tried to crush the nationalist

movement. Official attempted at preventing student participation in the Swadeshi
Agitation.
o For instance, the singing of Vande Mataram in public streets in East Bengal was
banned. Public meetings were restricted and sometimes forbidden. Laws controlling
the press enacted, etc.
o One of the most notorious examples of repressions was the police assault on the
peaceful delegates of Bengal provincial conference; Barisal in April 1906. Many of
the young volunteer was severely beaten up and the conference itself was forcibly
dispersed.
 Nationalism among youth: Most vital factor which contributed to amplify the spirit of
nationalism among the countrymen was the ‘economic exploitation’ of Indians by the British
Government and the Partition of Bengal.
o Jathindranath Banerjee, Virendra Ghosh of Anushilan Samiti; Barindrakumar

Ghoshexpressed it through ‘Yugantar’.
Impact of revolutionaries in the Indian Nationalism
 The Revolutionaries ignited the national cause and carried the message of nationalism in
the country and outside the country.
 Their deep patriotism, courage and determination, and sense of sacrifice stirred the Indian
people.
 They helped spread nationalist consciousness in the land; and in northern India the spread
of socialist consciousness owed a lot to them.
 The era of revolutionary terrorism began and very soon secret societies of the
revolutionaries came up all over the country.
o For instance, the Anusilan Samiti, the most famous and long lasting secret society,
with its headquarters at Calcutta created revolutionary centres all over India. Their
activities took two forms- the assassination of oppressive officials, traitors and
informers, and dacoities to raise funds for the purchase of arms, etc.

 It had its impact on the Congress strategy to involve the youths in the short term
programme of rural reconstruction.
 Revolutionaries like Ras Behari Bose, Chander Shekhar Azad, Lala Hardyal M.A., Madan Lal
Dhingra and S. Ajit Singh succeeded in expanding the Indian independence movement to
other countries as well.
Contributions of Madan Lal Dhingra
 Madan Lal Dhingra was an Indian revolutionary who was hanged to death on August 17,
1909, at the age of only 24, for killing British official Curzon Wyllie.
 An unwavering patriot, he was disowned by his familyfor his anti-British leanings – so much
so that even after his death his family refused to take his body.
 While studying in London, Dhingra came in contact with Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and
Shyamji Krishna Varma, both active in revolutionary circles in the city.
 Dhingra would frequent India House, a hub of revolutionary Indian nationalism and
participate in meetings and discussions.
 Later, he became a member of the secretive Abhinav Bharat Mandal founded by Vinayak
Savarkar and his brother Ganesh.
 It was here that Dhingra’s eventual plan of assasinating Curzon Willie would materialise, and
he would pick up the required shooting skills to carry out the killing.
Conclusion
Though the revolutionary movement failed it made a valuable contribution to the growth of
nationalism in India. The sacrifice and the martyrdom of the revolutionaries did not go waste. It
appealed to the masses. Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Surya Sen, Rajguru etc. became
household name of the Indian people and aroused patriotism among masses.
Although the revolutionaries had failed to attain set objectives of attaining independence through
armed revolt, they were successful in arousing people and remove the fear of authority from their
minds and strike terror in the heart of the rulers.
The acceptance of Partition in 1947 marked the culmination of a gradual progression

towards accommodating the League’s unwavering advocacy for an independent Muslim
state. Critically examine. (250 words)
Difficulty level: Tough
Reference: Indian Express
Why the question:
The article discusses historian Aditya Mukherjee’s perspective on blaming Gandhi and Nehru for the
partition of India in 1947.
To write about the factors that were responsible for the partition of India.
Directive word:
Critically examine – When asked to ‘Examine’, we have to look into the topic (content words) in
detail, inspect it, investigate it and establish the key facts and issues related to the topic in question.
While doing so we should explain why these facts and issues are important and their implications.

When ‘critically’ is suffixed or prefixed to a directive, one needs to look at the good and bad of the
topic and give a fair judgment.
Introduction:
Start by writing that partition was the result of Congress’s inability over the course of the national
movement to draw Muslim masses in large numbers into the struggle for freedom.
Body:
Write about acceptance of partition in 1947 marked the culmination of the All-India Muslim League’s
efforts, driven by Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s advocacy for a separate Muslim state. This gradual
progression towards partition was influenced by factors such as communal tensions, political
negotiations, and the changing dynamics of World War II.
Conclusion:
Conclude with the note that partition turned out to be a bloody affair, as opposed to expectations
that it would be free of any violence.
Introduction
In the 19th century when Indian nationalism grew, it was essentially anti-colonial in tone and anti-
British in texture, but not tinted with any religious fervour, howsoever predominant the Hindu voice
in the all-India Congress. It was rightly monolithic, meaning that Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and all other
communities were swept by anti-colonial nationalist feelings, the common platform being anti-
colonialism and anti-British.
Over time, British policy of Divide and Rule created huge fault lines in the society leading to
communal feelings that ultimately resulted in the partition.
Body
Chronology of events leading to partition
 Cripps Mission: Autonomy of Muslim majority provinces was accepted in 1942 at the time
of the Cripps Mission.
 Talks with Jinnah: Gandhiji went a step further and accepted the right of self-
determination of Muslim majority provinces in his talks with Jinnah in 1944.
 Cabinet mission plan: In June 1946, Congress conceded the possibility of Muslim majority
provinces (which formed Group B and C of the Cabinet Mission Plan) setting up a separate
Constituent Assembly, but opposed compulsory grouping and upheld the right of NWFP
and Assam not to join their groups if they so wished.
o But by the end of the year, Nehru said he would accept the ruling of the Federal
Court on whether grouping was compulsory or optional.
 Compulsory grouping: The Congress accepted without demur the clarification by the British
Cabinet in December, 1946 that grouping was compulsory.
 CWC resolution: Congress officially referred to Partition in early March 1947 when a
resolution was passed in the Congress Working Committee that Punjab (and by implication
Bengal) must be partitioned if the country was divided.
 The final act of surrender to the League’s demands was in June 1947 when Congress ended
up accepting Partition under the 3rd June Plan.
Analysis

 Nehru, Patel and Gandhiji in 1947 were only accepting what had become inevitable because
of the long- term failure of the Congress to draw in the Muslim masses into the national
movement and stem the surging waves of Muslim communalism, which, especially since
1937, had been beating with increasing fury.
 This failure was revealed with stark clarity by the 1946 elections in which the League won 90
per cent Muslim seats.
 Though the war against Jinnah was lost by early 1946, defeat was conceded only after the
final battle was mercilessly aged on the streets of Calcutta and Rawalpindi and the village
lanes of Noakhali and Bihar.
 The Congress leaders felt by June 1947 that only an immediate transfer of
power could forestall the spread of Direct Action and communal disturbances.
 The virtual collapse of the Interim Government made Pakistan appear to be an unavoidable
reality.
Conclusion
There was an additional consideration in accepting immediate transfer of power to two dominions.
The prospect of balkanisation was ruled out as the provinces and princes were not given the option
to be independent— the latter were, in fact, much to their chagrin, cajoled and coerced into joining
one or the other dominion. This was no mean achievement. Princely states standing out would have
meant a graver blow to Indian unity than Pakistan was.
Thus, the acceptance of Partition in 1947 was, thus, only the final act of a process of step-by-step
concession to the League’s intransigent championing of a sovereign Muslim state.
The Quit India Movement was a turning point in India’s struggle for independence due
to its intensity, the involvement of a wide cross-section of society, and its role in
shaping the British approach toward India during and after World War II. Evaluate. (250
words)
Why the question:
Matangini Hazra was 73 when she fell to British bullets, leading a march during the Quit India
movement of 1942, in Tamluk in West Bengal.
To write how Quit India movement was different from the previous mass movements and its role in
India’s independence.
Directive word:
Evaluate – When you are asked to evaluate, you have to pass a sound judgement about the truth of
the given statement in the question or the topic based on evidence. You must appraise the worth of
the statement in question. There is scope for forming an opinion here.


Introduction:
Give the context of political scene of the country that led to the launch of Quit India movement
Body:
Write about the factors that made the movement stand apart from other struggles or movements
against the Imperial rule, on lines of, Gandhi’s strategy, emergence of new leaders, Violence, Princely
States, new developments and mass involvement etc and the way it aligned the local interest with
that of national interest.
Next, write about to what extent the quit India movement influenced Indian independence.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing a balanced opinion the role of quit India in Indian independence.
Introduction
The failure of the Cripps Mission in April 1942 made it clear that Britain was unwilling to offer an
honourable settlement and a real constitutional advance during the War. Consequently, Gandhiji
drafted a resolution for the Congress Working Committee calling for Britain’s withdrawal and nation
edged towards Quit India Movement or August Kranti. Mahatma Gandhi’s clarion call of ‘Do or
Die’ inspired thousands of party workers but also created frenzy among the British who rushed to
imprison the entire Congress leadership.
Body
Quit India Movement stands apart:
 Social radicalism of Gandhi:
o In a sharp contrast to Non-cooperation movement, where Gandhi withdrew after

Chauri Chaura incident, in Quit India movement he not only refused to condemn
the people’s resort to violence but unequivocally held government responsible for
it.
o Though the need for non-violence was always reiterated, Gandhi’s mantra of Do or
Die represents the militant mood of Gandhi.
o Gandhi also gave a call to all sections of the people, the princes, the Jagirdars, the
Zamindars, the propertied and moneyed classes, who derive their wealth and
property from the workers in the fields and factories and elsewhere, to whom
eventually power and authority belong.
o This indicates Gandhi’s social radicalism and shift in the philosophy of the
Congress, by now people with the goals of socialism and communism have become
a part of the broad-based Congress organization.
 Violent at some places:
o The Quit India Movement was mainly a non-violent movement. However, it became
violent at some places.Rails were uprooted, post offices were set on fire and offices
were destroyed.
 Leaderless movement:
o Even before the formal launching of the movement, the government in a single
sweep arrested all the top leaders of the Congress. This led to spontaneous
outburst of mass anger against the arrest of leaders.
o The spontaneous participation of the massesin the Quit India movement made it
one of the most popular mass movements.
 Demand for independence:
o This historic movement placed the demand for independence on the immediate
agendaof the national movement.
o The spirit unleashed was carried further by Indian National Army of Subhas Chandra
Bose. After ‘Quit India’ there could be no retreat. Independence was no longer a
matter of bargain.
o It accelerated and sustained the urge for freedom and enabled India to achieve
freedom in 1947.
 Establishment of Parallel Governments:
o Parallel governments were established at many places.
o Balliaunder Chittu Pandey, got many Congress leaders released.
o In Tamluk and Contai subdivisions of Midnaporein West Bengal, the local populace
were successful in establishing Jatiya Sarkar, which undertook cyclone relief work,
sanctioned grants to schools, supplied paddy from the rich to the poor, organised
Vidyut Vahinis, etc.
o In Satara (Maharashtra), “Prati Sarkar”,was organised under leaders like Y.B.
Chavan, Nana Patil, etc. Village libraries and Nyayadan Mandals were organised
 Underground Activity:
o Many nationalists went underground and took to subversive activities.
o The participants in these activities were the Socialists, Forward Bloc members,
Gandhi ashramites, revolutionary nationalists and local organisations in Bombay,
Poona, Satara, Baroda and other parts of Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra, United
Provinces, Bihar and Delhi.
o The main personalities taking up underground activity were Rammanohar Lohia,

Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta, Biju Patnaik, Chhotubhai
Puranik, Achyut Patwardhan, Sucheta Kripalani and R.P. Goenka.
o Usha Mehtastarted an underground radio in Bombay.
o This phase of underground activity was meant to keep up popular morale by

continuing to provide a line of command and guidance to distribute arms and
ammunition
 Strong women participation:
o Quit India movement was unique in the sense that it saw women participation
where they not only participated as equals but also led the movement.
o Women, especially school and college girls, actively participated, and included Aruna
Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kripalani and Usha Mehta.

o There was Matangini Hazra, who lead a procession of 6,000 people, mostly women,
to ransack a local police station.
 Extent of Mass Participation
o The participation was on many levels.
o Youth, especially the students of schools and colleges, remained in the forefront.
o Workerswent on strikes and faced repression.
o Peasantsof all strata were at the heart of the movement.
o Even some zamindars
o Government officials, especially those belonging to lower levels in police and

administration, participated resulting in erosion of government loyalty.
o Muslimshelped by giving shelter to underground activists. There were no communal

clashes during the movement.
Role of QIM in India achieving Independence

 The movement was carried forward without the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, or any
other leader, all of whom were jailed on its commencement.
 All sections of people participated in huge numbers.
 Decentralized command was the prime significance of this movement.
 The British began to seriously think about the issue of Indian independence after seeing the
upsurge among the masses.
 It changed the nature of political negotiations with British Empire in 1940s which ultimately
paved the way of India’s independence.
 The Quit India movement for the first time saw the active engagement of women and
students.
 The movement showed the British that their hold on India was weakening and they began to
explore options to quit the country.
 The slogan of ‘Do or Die’ remains the most Kranti Kari slogan to this day.
Conclusion
Despite its failure, the Quit India movement is considered significant as it made the British
Government realize that India was ungovernable in the long run. Post the Second World War, the
question that was most prominent for the British was on how to exit India peacefully.

Post-independence consolidation and reorganization within the country.

India and Pakistan need to adapt the Indus Waters Treaty to address changing
circumstances, including climate change and growing water needs, through
constructive dialogue and cooperation. This adaptation should aim to benefit both
nations and foster regional stability. Comment. (250 words)
Reference: The Hindu , Insights on India
Why the question:
The above article discusses the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) between India and Pakistan, which
governs the sharing of the Indus River’s waters.
To write about the significance and shortcomings of Indus Water Treaty between India and Pakistan.
Directive word:
opinion thereupon.
Introduction:
Begin by giving context about the Indus Water Treaty.
Body:
First, write about the major provisions of the Indus Water Treaty between India and Pakistan.
Next, write about the successes of Indus Water Treaty in ensuring peaceful coexistence despite
troubled relations between the both countries and its significance.
Next, write about the various issues in the Indus Water Treaty which have affected both the parties
and possible solutions to it. Write how the treaty has limited the development of Jammu and
Kashmir.
Conclusion:
Conclude with a way forward.
Introduction
The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), brokered by the World Bank, which has again become a
source of contention between India and Pakistan, considerably encapsulates the principle of
equitable allocation rather than the principle of appreciable harm. Both India and Pakistan are
granted exclusive rights to utilise the waters of the rivers allocated to them without harming others’
interests. Under the IWT, India has unrestricted use of the three eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, and
Sutlej), while Pakistan enjoys similar rights over the three western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, and
Chenab). India is allowed to store 3.60 million-acre feet (MAF) (0.40 MAF on the Indus, 1.50 MAF on
the Jhelum and 1.70 MAF on the Chenab) of water. The sector-wise allocation is 2.85 MAF for
conservation storage (divided into 1.25 MAF for “general storage” and 1.60 for “power storage”) and
an additional 0.75 MAF for “flood storage”
Body
Reasons behind success of Indus Water Treaty
 First, the treaty has unequal sharing of the waters. Pakistan has been allocated ~80% of the
Indus basin waters.
 Experts have termed this the most generous water sharing treaty. It is the only water-
sharing pact in the world that compels upper riparian State to defer to the interests of the
downstream State.

 Second, it prevents India from building any storage systemson the western rivers.
 Even though the treaty lays out that under certain exceptional circumstances storage
systems can be built, Pakistan deliberately stops any such effort. The extensively technical
nature of the treaty allows Pakistan to stall legitimate Indian Projects.
 Third, the basin’s size and volume is getting altered by climate changeand this alteration is
going to intensify in future. There would be instances of more high-intensity rainfall as well
as long stretches of scanty rainfall.
 There would be a high influx of water due to glacial melt. The contribution of glaciers in the
Indus basin is higher than in the Ganges or Brahmaputra basins.
 A change in the flow conditions may classify as ‘change of circumstances’ which can justify
renegotiation or termination in the future.
 Fourth, the recent report of the Standing Committee of Water resources noted that canals in
Punjab and Rajasthan (Rajasthan Feeder and the Sirhind Feeder) had become old and were
not maintained properly. This had resulted in the lowering of their water carrying capacity.
 Thus, the water from the Harike Barrage on the confluence of the Beas and Sutlej in Punjab
was usually released downstream into Pakistan. Pakistan is getting more waters than its
entitlement in the Eastern Rivers.
Measures for India
 India has not fully utilised its rights over the waters of the Indus system.
 India should take steps to completely utilize its entitlement of waters of Western Rivers. The
infrastructure to utilize the waters has remained under-developed in J&K.
 Some experts suggest that in case of escalation of hostilities by Pakistan in future, India
can suspend the meetings of Permanent Commission. If the first state of dispute redressal is
not functional, the subsequent two steps of 3-tier dispute redressal don’t kick in. Thus India can
use this as a pressure tactic on Pakistan.
 India should explore the possibility of using climate change as a ‘change in circumstances’ to
initiate conversation on renegotiation of the IWT. This will also put pressure on Pakistan.
 Experts in India and Pakistan should assess how much of the waters in the Eastern and Western
rivers are snow or rain-fed within their respective territories. Such estimates would add to the
accuracy of each side’s dependence on the other in sharing the waters of these rivers.
 As per the standing committee of water resources, the canal systems in Punjab and Rajasthan
should be repaired to increase their water carrying capacity.
Way forward for continued success of IWT
 the need is to incorporate “equitable and reasonable utilisation” and the “no harm rule” in the
IWT. Pragmatically, any such incorporation requires better ties and enduring trust between India
and Pakistan.
 There is a need to involve local stakeholders also in any negotiation process between India and
Pakistan on shared water issues.
 Also, a joint group comprising technocrats, climate experts, water management professionals,
and scientists from both countries can be set up to look at the core of the problem.
 To make the IWT work there is a need to explore cooperation arrangements mentioned in
Article VII of the IWT.
 The two countries have to recognise their common interest in the optimum development of the
Indus Rivers System.
 As the IWT was signed more than 60 years ago, an amendment or two or some may be needed
due to changes in the situation in the Indus River Basin region.
 However, the provisions of the IWT cannot be modified unilaterally. Hence, any modification
requires trust between the two riparian countries.
Conclusion
The Indus Waters Treaty is considered one of the most successful water-sharing endeavours in the
world today. However, there is a need to update certain technical specifications and expand the
scope of the agreement to address climate change.
History of the world will include events from 18th century such as industrial
revolution, world wars, redrawal of national boundaries, colonization,
decolonization.
Examine the historical significance of the American War of Independence and the
American Civil War on the United States’ nation-building process and its influence on
global history. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about the historical significance and impact of the American War of Independence and the
American Civil War.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Give the context of American War of Independence and the American Civil War, emphasizing their
importance in shaping American history and global developments.
Body:
First, write about the impact of American War of Independence – Emergence of the United States as
a sovereign nation, Nation-building, Formation of a new political system, democratic institutions,
Constitution drafting etc.
Next, write about the impact of American Civil War – Post-war reconstruction period and societal
changes, Global significance, Impact on international perception of the United States, abolitionism
influence etc.
Conclusion:
Introduction

The American War of Independence culminated in the freedom of the American colonies and laid
the foundation of the first democratic government with a written constitution in the world. It
introduced new political, social and economic structure in the United States of America. It was not
only a war against the colonial domination of England but was also fought against aristocracy and
reactionary elements.
The American Civil War is also known as the “War Between the States”. It was one of the worst wars
in American history and was fought between the northern and southern states of the US. The Civil
War started in 1861 when the group of slaves of the south founded the Confederate States of
America whose president was Jefferson Davis. The northern states, under, President Abraham
Lincoln, were totally against slavery. Although the Confederates won some early battles but later the
Union became stronger and defeated the southern states in 1865.
Body
Significance of American Revolution
 The revolution led to the establishment of a republic based on the first written constitution
in the world.
 This was a clear contrast to the other states were Monarchies were still in power. This
inspired people across the world to struggle for democratic and republican forms of
government.
 It established a federal state with powers divided between the federal government and
states.
 This provided a nice template for power-sharing in diverse countries that needed complex
polities.
 Besides, there was a separation of powers among various organs of the state.
 Certain inalienable rights were given to the individuals – this limited the government against
the authority of people and reduced government interference in their lives.
 Democracy was established, but it was far from perfect. Sections like Negroes and women
were denied voting rights. But the journey to democracy had begun.
 It led to many uprisings in Europe, with the French revolution being the biggest. Many
generals who participated in the war was instrumental in the French revolution.
 Thinkers like Thomas Paine also participated in the revolution. This led to the spread of
modern ideas in Europe.
Significance of Civil War
 The civil war was one of the most important and historic wars in history. It brought about a
revolution in the entire world. Some of the points are worth remembering and they are:
 The war put an end to the so-called institution of slavery.
 Because of the war, there was the use of more machines – which enhanced production.
 National Banking Act was introduced and the use of paper currency which contributed to the
growth of nations wide business.

 After the war, new and advanced weapons were used.
 The war led to the growth of large scale manufacturing industries and small scale industries
as well.
 The abolishment of the secession of states was done for all times to come.
 More area was brought under cultivation – particularly in the western regions on North
America.
 Transport and communication were improved to a very large extent.
 The war was an inspiration to other countries – to abolish slavery.
 The Civil War of 1861-1865 determined what kind of nation is about to begin.
Conclusion
The war which started in 1775 finally ended in 1781 where British troops under the command of
General Cornwallis surrendered to Commander in Chief Washington at Yorktown. The war finally
came to an end by the Treaty of Paris in 1783.
After the American civil war the defeated states were gradually allowed back into the United States.
The period after the war in which attempts were made to solve the political, social, and economic
problems arising from the readmission to the Union of the former Confederate states is known
as Reconstruction (1865–77).
The French Revolution was a transformative event that marked the end of the
monarchy and the birth of modern republicanism, profoundly altering the course of
moder world history in several significant ways. Elaborate. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about the impact of French Revolution on France and rest of the world.
Directive word:
Elaborate – Give a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the context. You must
be defining key terms wherever appropriate and substantiate with relevant associated facts.
Introduction:
Give the context of French Revolution of 1789 as a total revolution.
Body:
First, write about the impact of the revolution on France – Political, Economic and Social impacts in
detail are to be written.
Next, write about the ways in which the revolution impacted the rest of the world in different ways.
Mention its impact on India.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing about the legacy of French revolution.
Introduction
French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period of social and political upheaval in France resulting in
the overthrow of Monarchy and establishing of Re French revolution was a period of radical political
and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the
formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. The outbreak of revolution was due to the
political incompetency of King Louis XVI, disorganized administrative step, sharp inequalities in the
society and impending financial crisis.
Body
The French Revolution was not only a popular uprising against the absolute power of the king but
was also against the privileges and wealth of the elite. The causes are generally agreed to be a
combination of social, political and economic factors, which the existing regime proved unable to
manage.
Its causes were multi-dimensional:
 Cultural: Enlightenment to think rationally, critically led to lowering the status of Church and
Monarch, while promotion of secular, scientific and humanistic values
 Social: Aspiration of Bourgeois class to be politically equal to Clergy and Aristocratic class.
 Financial: France’s involvement in the American Revolution leading to increased taxation at
home and reduction in privileges
 Political: Provincial Courts’ opposition to the reduction in their privileges.
 Economic: Deregulation of grain prices leading to high inflation of bread and bad harvest leading
to food shortage provoking the masses to revolt.
Impact on French Society
 Monarchy was abolished and Republic took its place.

 Political sovereignty introduced at individual and nation-state level with a centralised
government.
 Serfdom, Feudalism, Slavery were abolished and the influence of Church decreased in personal
lives.
 Idea of separation of public and private realm emerged.
 The abolition of Slavery after the French revolution was the first move against this repressive
system and Britain followed suit in 1833 while the USA banned it in 1865.
 It led to the destruction of feudalism in France as all laws of the old feudal regime were repealed
and lands of the nobles and church were confiscated and redistributed.
 The Jacobian constitution, which although never came into effect, was the first genuinely
democratic constitution. It gave the right to vote to all, and even the Right to Insurrection, which
implies the right to revolt or rises against the government.
 Ending the arbitrary royal rule, the revolution paved the way for rule by law under a
constitutional order.
 Some Shortcomings: Limited suffrage, especially women were excluded, Slavery was
reintroduced by Napoleon.
Impact on World
 Napoleon carried ideals of the Revolution to the rest of Europe: Liberty, Modern Laws,
Democratic Rights, protection of private property. This, in turn, gave rise to Modern Nationalism
paving way creation of the sovereign nation-state.
 Liberalism as government form got crystallised in North and South America.
 It inspired other revolutions: Haitian Revolution, Independence Movements in Spanish and
Portuguese colonies in South America.

 Raja Rammohan Roy and Tipu Sultan in particular and Indian Nationalist Freedom Struggle
incorporated ideals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
Conclusion
Thus, the importance of the French Revolution laid in laying the foundation of Modern States
based on Liberal Democratic ideals. Also, indirectly it laid the groundwork for the growth of
Socialism and Communism by providing an intellectual and social environment in which these
ideologies could flourish.
Bolivar’s vision extended beyond the liberation of individual countries; he aspired to

create a united and independent South America. Discuss. (150 words)
Reference: History of modern world by Jain & Mathur
Why the question:
Mission-2024 Secure timetable.
To write about the contributions of Simon Bolivar to Latin American independence.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by giving brief description of Simon Bolivar – who is known as The Liberator.
Body:
First write about the political philosophy of Simon Bolivar and that penned two political treatises—
the Cartagena Manifesto and the Letter from Jamaica.
Next write about his military achievements – encouraging the people of South America to rebel
against Spanish colonial rule, leading multiple expeditionary forces against the Spaniards, liberated
territories etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising that his contributions earned him the epithet – The Liberator from the Latin
American people.
Introduction
Simón Bolívar was a South American soldier who was instrumental in the continent’s
revolutions against the Spanish empire. Simon Bolivar from 1813 to 1824 liberated many South
American countries and later tried to organize them into a US type federation in form of Gran
Columbia. He freed Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia from the Spanish rule through
an armed revolt.
Body
Political philosophy of Simon Bolivar
 Young Bolívar moved to Spain in 1799 after the deaths of his parents and
was associate of Napoleon, until he returned to Venezuela in
 When Napoleon named Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain and its colonies, which included
Venezuela, Bolívar joined the resistance movement.

 The resistance group based in Caracas gained independence in 1810, and Bolívar travelled to
Britain on a diplomatic mission. The fight for control of Caracas, Venezuela and most of
South American continued on back home.
 Finally, Bolívar returned to Venezuela and began a campaign to wrest control of that
country from the Spanish.
 The Cartagena Manifesto was written by Simón Bolívar during the Colombian and
Venezuelan War of Independence, after the fall of the First Republic, explaining what he
believed to be the causes of this loss. It was written in Cartagena de Indies, on 15 December
1812.
o Bolivar advocated a strong central government and powerful executive to avoid
infighting between city, state, and national authorities, which in his view created
stalemate, dissipating funds and energy.
 He and his followers invaded Venezuela on May 14, 1813; this marked the beginning of his
“Campaña Admirable” (Admirable Campaign), which resulted in the formation of
the Venezuelan Second Republic later that year.
 Bolívar was hailed as El Libertador (The Liberator), though civil war soon erupted in the
republic, forcing him to flee to Jamaica and seek foreign aid.
 There he wrote his famous “Letter From Jamaica,” detailing his vision of a South American
republic with a parliamentary setup modelled after England and a life-long president. His
idea of being a nation’s chief who could not be removed from power would be heavily
critiqued by other leaders and intellectuals.
Military achievements of Bolivar
 Gaining support from Haiti, Bolívar returned to his home continent and became involved in a
number of military battles, eventually able to claim several territories.
 1821 saw the creation of the Gran Colombia, under Bolívar’s leadership.
 This federation included much of what is now Venezuela, Colombia, Panama and Ecuador.
 Further manoeuvres saw him named Dictator of Peru in 1824, followed by the creation of
Bolivia in 1825.
 Bolívar had succeeded in uniting much of South America in a federation free from Spanish
control, but the government was fragile.
 Despite his desire to create a union of states similar to that which created the United States
of America, Bolívar faced opposition from internal factions throughout the huge Gran
Colombia, with there being a push to form single nations.
 As a temporary measure, Bolívar declared himself dictator in 1828, though in September of

the same year he escaped an assassination attempt with aid from his mistress and fellow
revolutionary Manuela Sáenz.
 He resigned this post in 1830 and made plans to sail for exile in Europe.
Conclusion

On December 17, 1830, however, Simón Bolívar died in Santa Marta, Colombia, after a battle with
what may have been tuberculosis. Today, Bolívar’s legacy can be seen in the multitude of statues
and plaza squares bearing his likeness throughout South and North America.
By the early twentieth century, European colonial powers had established control over
most of Africa. The consequences of this colonial legacy continue to shape the social,
political, and economic dynamics of many African countries today. Analyse. (250 words)
Reference: History of modern world by Jain & Mathur
Why the question:
To write about colonialism and pattern in which Africa was colonised and its impact.
Directive word:
Analyse – When asked to analyse, you must examine methodically the structure or nature of the
topic by separating it into component parts and present them in a summary.
Introduction:
Begin by giving context.
Body:
First, write about the Colonisation of Africa – late as 1880 only 20 per cent of Africa had come under
European rule. With the spread of the Industrial Revolution to other countries of Europe rivalries
increased as did the search for colonies. The emerging industrial powers looked for a place in the sun.
A continent of over 28 million square km was partitioned and occupied by European powers by a
combination of two strategies, treaties and conquest.
Next, write about the impact of the above.
Conclusion:
Introduction
Colonialism is the establishment, exploitation, maintenance, acquisition, and expansion of

colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a set of unequal relationships
between the colonial power and the colony, and often between the colonists and the indigenous
population.
Body
Background
 African continent was known by the name of Dark Continent till its interior areas
were explored in the 19th
 Difficult terrains, non-navigable rivers and other such geographical features ensured that
colonialism had a late entry in mainland Africa and was restricted for a long time to Coastal
Africa.
 In the 19th century, publications of the expeditions made by individual explorers raised the
interest among the Europeans.
 These publications included the accounts of the explorers who detailed the wealth of the
Central Africa. They were able to chart the courses of important rivers like Congo. The

navigability of rivers and knowledge of their course implied that the European companies
and troops could now reach into the interiors and transport out the mineral wealth to the
coasts for further export.
Colonization of Africa
 King Leopold II of Belgium patronized the explorers and was the first to establish a colony in
central Africa. In 1876, he had brought Congo under his control and managed it as his
private colony (Congo was renamed as Congo Free State in 1885).
 His success raised the interest of other European powers and they entered into a quest for
colonies in Africa.
 After colonization of Congo, the Scramble for Africa began. By 1914 whole of Africa was
scrambled among Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy and Portugal, except
for Abyssinia (where the Italians were defeated by the nationalists in the 1876 Battle of
Adowa), and Liberia.
 There were many squabbles among the European powers for territory and trading rights in
Africa.
 French and British interests collided in Egypt and Sudan. Belgium opposed an agreement
in 1884 signed by Britain and Portugal, demarcating their areas of influence, as it would
have resulted in denial of sea access to Congo.
 Finally, the overlapping claims of European colonists were resolved through negotiations in
different conferences.
Berlin conference and sphere of influence
 Niger river Valley was divided among the British and the French with the Lower Niger
becoming a protectorate of Britain and the Upper Niger a protectorate of France.
o Niger river was made free for ships of all signatory nations.
 The British agreed to French colonization of Tunis. Spain was awarded coastal area of
present-day Western Sahara.
 Also, the European powers promised to take steps for welfare and development of the
Africans. The conference vowed to end Slavery by the Black and Islamist powers and this was
to be ensured by each colonial power in their sphere of influence.
 It was decided that the Congo Free State will be governed by the International Association
for Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa.
o This association was setup by King Leopold II of Belgium and thus Congo was
recognized as a private colony of King Leopold II (to be taken away from him by the
Belgium government in 1908)
o Freedom of trade and navigation for all was guaranteed in the Congo River Valley.
 Germany entered the scramble for Africa after unification of Germany in 1870. From 1882
to 1884, Germany was able to colonize South West Africa, the Cameroons and Togoland in
Equatorial Africa and German East Africa.

 Italy, like Germany was a late entrant. It failed to colonize Tunis because the French
took control of it in 1881. It succeeded in colonizing Eritrea in North Eastern Africa. Through
various treaties Italy acquired Eastern Somaliland in 1880s.
o Abyssinia (Ethiopia) lay between Eritrea and Eastern Somalia. Italy failed to colonize
it and was defeated by the nationalists in 1896. I
Conclusion
Colonialism in Africa brought along with-it trading merchants, businessmen, missionaries, military
and administrative officers. Many of them settled in Africa due to attractions of plentiful arable land
and profits from trade. The missionaries stayed on and established Christian institutions for
propagation of their religion. Thus, today we see many African countries divided into Muslim and
Christian dominated regions. The European settlers were elites in Africa and they enjoyed luxuries of
living, which they could not afford back home. The European settlers, like the Boers in South Africa,
became wealthy and powerful in Africa. They controlled the government and denied Africans any
political right. In almost every colony, the lands of Africans were taken away for cultivation and
mining by settlers with Blacks working as slaves.
Salient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India.

While diversity is important for progress and a vibrant culture, it should not be used as
an excuse to promote divisiveness or intolerance. Analyse. (250 words)
Why the question:
The article discusses the complex nature of diversity and the potential challenges it presents in a
society.
To write about how differences and diversity and inclusivity coexist in India and challenges posed by
it.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by defining various attributes of diversity.
Body:
First, write about importance of diversity.
Next, mention the various political narratives which bring out sharp distinctions in prejudices. Throw
light on homogenous tendencies which ignore diversity.
Next, write about how despite the above shortcomings how inclusion and diversity in the Indian
society. Substantiate with examples.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing a way forward to achieve inclusivity by overcoming political differences.
Introduction
At its core, diversity signifies the acknowledgment and celebration of the unique attributes that
each individual brings to the table. It extends a welcoming embrace to the myriad hues of thought,
belief, heritage, and expression that together enrich the mosaic of our global community.

With its vast landmass, diverse climates, and ancient history, India boasts an astonishing array of
languages, religions, traditions, cuisines, art forms, and lifestyles. Its diversity is evident in the
coexistence of numerous ethnic groups, languages, and religious practices within its borders.
This diversity is deeply rooted in India’s history, where multiple civilizations have flourished and
intermingled over millennia. From the Indus Valley Civilization to the Mughal Empire and beyond,
India has been a melting pot of ideas, beliefs, and customs, which have influenced its architecture,
literature, music, and way of life.
Body
Diversity leading to divisiveness
 Religious Differences and Communal Tensions: India is known for its religious diversity, with
Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, and other religious groups coexisting.
However, this diversity has, at times, led to religious tensions, conflicts, and even communal
violence. Disagreements over religious practices, beliefs, and places of worship have
resulted in incidents that have strained social cohesion.
o Example: The Ayodhya dispute involving the Babri Masjid and Ram Janmabhoomi
has been a longstanding religious conflict between Hindus and Muslims, resulting in
communal tensions and violence over the years.
o Delhi riots, KG Halli riots in Karnataka etc.
 Caste-based Discrimination: The caste system, deeply ingrained in India’s social fabric, has
led to caste-based discrimination and inequalities. While measures have been taken to
address these issues, caste-based conflicts and intolerance continue to exist, particularly in
rural areas.
o Eg: Even today instances in rural India have been reported where discrimination is
seen against Dalits using public spaces.
 Linguistic Diversity and Regionalism: India’s linguistic diversity is vast, with hundreds of
languages spoken across the country. However, linguistic diversity has sometimes fueled
regionalism and separatist movements. Differences in language have occasionally led to
tensions over language policies, state boundaries, and cultural identities.
o Example: The movement for the separate state of Telangana emerged due to
regional disparities and differences in language and culture, leading to protests
and demands for the creation of a new state.
 Identity Politics and Reservation: Identity-based politics, such as caste-based reservations,

though intended to uplift marginalized communities, have sometimes exacerbated divisions.
Competitions for limited resources and opportunities have led to conflicts between different
social groups.
o Maratha reservation, Jat reservation issue are case in point.
 Political and Ideological Differences: India’s political landscape is characterized by a range

of ideologies and parties representing various interests. These differences can escalate into

intolerance and divisiveness, particularly during election campaigns, when rhetoric might
target specific communities or groups.
 Ethnic and Tribal Conflicts: Tribal and ethnic diversity has sometimes resulted in conflicts
over land, resources, and rights. Tribes and indigenous communities have at times been
marginalized, leading to tensions between them and the larger society.
o The Manipur violence and riots between Meiteis and Kukis is a black mark in
Independent India’s history.
 Regional Differences and Autonomy: India’s vast geographical expanse encompasses

various regions, each with its own distinct culture and identity. Regional differences can
sometimes give rise to demands for greater autonomy or even separatist movements,
leading to tension with the central government.
o Example: The demand for a separate Gorkhaland state by the Gorkhas in West
Bengal has resulted in conflicts with the state government, reflecting regional
identity clashes and calls for autonomy.
 Social Media and Misinformation: While social media has connected people from diverse
backgrounds, it has also been used to spread misinformation, hate speech, and divisive
narratives. False narratives related to religious, ethnic, or cultural issues can easily spread
online, exacerbating tensions.
 Historical Conflicts and Narratives: Different communities might have varying

interpretations of historical events, which can lead to tensions and disputes. Historical
grievances and narratives can contribute to intolerance and divisive attitudes.
 Economic Disparities: Socioeconomic disparities between different groups can lead to
resentment and intolerance. When economic opportunities are unequally distributed, it can
contribute to a sense of inequality and divisiveness.
Diversity in India despite challenges

 Festivals: India’s diverse festivals are a testament to its inclusivity. Diwali, celebrated by
Hindus, is also enjoyed by Sikhs and Jains. Eid, observed by Muslims, sees participation from
people of various faiths who join in the spirit of celebration. Holi, the festival of colors, is
embraced across communities.
o Eg: Initiatives like Ek Bharat Shresht Bharat
 Unity in Crisis: During times of crisis, communities come together irrespective of their
differences. Instances like natural disasters or communal tensions often lead to neighbours
and strangers helping one another without regard for religious or cultural background.
 Cultural Exchanges: Various art forms and cultural practices are appreciated and shared
across communities. Classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam and Kathak are admired
beyond their originating regions. Music genres, culinary traditions, and traditional attire find
enthusiasts across the country.
 Interfaith Marriages: In recent times, interfaith marriages are becoming more common,
exemplifying individuals’ willingness to embrace love and unity despite religious differences.
Such unions often lead to cultural exchanges that enrich families and communities.

 Historical Sites: India’s historical sites and monuments often reflect the synthesis of diverse
architectural styles and cultural influences. The Qutub Minar in Delhi, for instance, exhibits
both Islamic and Hindu architectural elements.
 Language Bridges: While India has a multitude of languages, English and Hindi serve as
bridges between different linguistic groups, enabling communication and interaction across
regions.
 Cultural Heritage: UNESCO’s recognition of Indian cultural sites like the Taj Mahal, Jaipur’s
cityscape, and Ahmedabad’s historic city center underscores the value placed on preserving
and celebrating diverse heritage.
 Education and Workplaces: Educational institutions and workplaces often bring together
people from different backgrounds, fostering understanding and cooperation. Students and
professionals engage with peers from various regions, cultures, and languages, leading to a
broader worldview.
 Cuisine: India’s culinary landscape is a testament to its diverse culture. People from all
community relish dishes from across the country, appreciating the variety of flavors and
ingredients that different regions offer.
 Constitutional Values: India’s Constitution enshrines the principles of equality, non-

discrimination, and freedom of religion. Legal protections exist to ensure that individuals can
practice their beliefs and cultures without fear of prejudice.
 Civil Society Initiatives: Various non-governmental organizations and community-driven

initiatives work to promote understanding, tolerance, and collaboration among diverse
groups. These efforts are visible in community projects, dialogues, and cultural events.
Conclusion
It’s important to note that while diversity can sometimes contribute to intolerance and divisiveness,
these issues are not inevitable outcomes. They often arise due to historical, social, economic, and
political factors. Efforts to promote understanding, tolerance, and dialogue among diverse
communities are crucial for fostering unity and ensuring that diversity remains a source of strength
rather than division.
Role of women and women’s organization; population and associated issues,

poverty and developmental issues,
While harnessing the benefits of a large population, it’s crucial to ensure that
development is sustainable. Policies need to be designed to manage resource
consumption, environmental impact, and social well-being. Analyse. (250 words)
Why the question:

To write about different approaches to be taken in order to greater prospects for demographic
advantage and reaping the available demographic dividend.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by giving context and citing statistic regarding the population growth in India.
Body:
In the first part, write about the challenges that India will face because of it growing population.
Next, write about the various different approaches in education, health, environmental impact and
skill development that need to be taken in the order ensure there is equitable growth and
development resulting in a welfare state.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing a way forward.
Introduction
According to the UNFPA State of World Population (SOWP) Report 2023, China is projected to hand
over the baton of the most populous country to India by mid-2023. The report further added that
India will have a population of 142.86 crores by mid-2023, which is 2.9 million higher than China’s
population of 142.57 crores.
Undoubtedly, India has a population problem, but any strategy to change fertility rates should be
carefully thought out. India’s population concern is largely restricted to Bihar, UP, Jharkhand,
Rajasthan and MP.
Body
Rising population is a boon for India
 Population is a resource as long as the country’s carrying capacity is intact.
 There are greater prospects for demographic dividend than a disaster.
 With 68% of the working age population in 2023, the country continues to have a
demographic window of opportunity for the next 35 years to reap an economic dividend.
 A demographic window of opportunity in itself will not automatically turn into an economic
dividend.
 Declining and ageing populationin Japan, China, the US and other major economies.
o Potential to become a worldwide market for both production and consumption,

with lower manufacturing costs due to a relatively cheaper workforce.
o This is very much evident in India’s IT sector.
 Potential to boost per capita GDPby an additional 43% by 2061, provided the socio-
economic and political enabling environment is conducive.
Increasing Population is a bane for India
 Drastic population control methods run the risk of inducing forced population ageing.

o A total fertility rate of lessthan 8 may not be economically beneficial for India.
Once fertility tends to decline, it is hard to reverse it.
 What the country needs are policies that support an enabling environment that can provide
high-quality education, healthcare, employment, infrastructure, and gender empowerment.
o If India falls short in this, its “demographic dividend” can become a “demographic
disaster”.
 Population growth acts as a hurdle in addressing effectively the problem of poverty, hunger
and malnutrition and also in providing the better quality of health and education.
 SDGs 1, 2, 3 and 4are going to be affected adversely because of India’s existing pattern of
growth in the population.
 Presently, India is producing around 25 million job seekers in the country, however, the
country is able to provide jobs only to 7 million.This gap of 18 million is increasing the
burden of unemployment and underemployment in the country, turning a demographic
dividend into a demographic disaster.
 India’s population growth is not sustainable.India is only about 35-40% of China’s landmass.
 In the 19th century, when Europe had a demographic explosion, it had occupied America,
Australia etc. India does not have another landmass to occupy and the available landmass
cannot take this population growth.
Measures needed to ensure that population growth is a boon for India
 Employment or job creation: If India is able to generate sufficient and quality jobs for its
bulging working age population.
 Education, skills generation and ensuring a healthy lifespan: It is critical not only for better
productivity but it also reduces excessive public spending and helps in greater capital
creation.
 Good governance: Reflected through conscientious policies, it will help in creating a healthy
environment for increasing efficiency and productivity of the population.
 India needs to invest more in the health sector. India invests only 1.3% of its GDP. The family
planning budget is only 4% of the entire health budget and within that India spends only
1.5% on birth spacing methods.
o Investments should be made particularly for the old people because by the year
2050, India’s population of old people is going to grow almost 10 times more.
 Education is very important, not only for empowering women but for fertility to decline.
o Education should be made free for women till college-level.
o Better education will help women in better decision making for family planning.
o Unless women are part of the workforce, no society can bring down fertility rates
with progress. Therefore, policies must look at the whole issue of declining
workforce participation by women.

 India needs to focus on some areas which are socially, culturally, economically depressed.
Identification of 140 high focussed districts is the right step by the governmentin this
direction. However, it needs to work in the whole of Bihar, U.P., Madhya Pradesh and
Assam.
 India needs to give huge stress on declining sex ratiosand the discrimination towards
girls so that people don’t have a high number of children in the hope of having a boy.
 India can achieve a number of SDGs if it links them with family planning.Family planning is
a promotive and preventive method for bringing down maternal mortality and child
mortality.
 It is important to see the issue of population growth not only from the national perspective
but also from the state’s point of view i.e. different states need to be encouraged to take
necessary steps for containing the population.
Conclusion
Opportunities and costs are the two sides of the coin when it comes to being the world’s largest
populous country. However, the relatively younger population of India provides higher support
ratios.
Urbanization, their problems and their remedies.

Rapid urbanization can indeed lead to a host of challenges that require urgent
interventions to ensure the sustainability of cities across the country. Elaborate. (250
words)
Why the question:
To understand the main issues in the urban areas as well as mention the necessary steps through
planning and administration to boost the quality of life in urban areas.
Directive word:
Elaborate – Give a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the context. You must
be defining key terms wherever appropriate and substantiate with relevant associated facts.
Introduction:
Begin by giving an account on how rapidly Indian Urban spaces are growing both in terms of
population density as well as growing urban spills .
Body:
First, mention the various issues plaguing urban areas such as a need for affordable housing, issues
of urban slums, waste management, poor drainage etc.
Next, mention about the important factors on which policy deliberation needs to take place such as
balance of urban population density with economies of scale and infrastructural facilities among
others.
Next discuss the importance of mobilising funds other than public funds and also some of the
essential components of urban planning to include sustainability, improved mobility etc for a well-
functioning urban space.
Conclusion:

Conclude by summarising the key components for a functional and effective urban city.
Introduction
Currently, India’s nearly 30% population lives in urban areas and it is expected to rise upto 50% by
2050. Being a developing country with a huge population pressure India is facing many challenges
due to rural to urban migration. To contain these challenges and to make a proper trajectory
towards new India, Sustainable urban planning is an important aspect.
Body
Significance of sustainable urbanization:
 Safe drinking water: According to a report by NITI Aayog, 21 cities will run out of
groundwater by 2020. To avoid further worsening of such crisis we need careful urban
planning.
 Affordable housing: One of the largest government programmes is to provide affordable

housing to citizens. Sustainable urban planning will help to manage land resources in
equitable way.
 Urban sewage and solid waste management: In India less than quarter of the waste
generated gets proper treatment. For rapidly growing urban agglomerations we need
planning to manage this rising challenge.
 Transportation and communication: Sustainable urban planning will provide efficient and
eco-friendly public transport facilities to overpopulated urban cities of India.
 Sustainable urban planning will also help in equitable resources distribution and affordable
service delivery.
 It will also help in creating sustainable environment and disaster management.
In absence of sustainable urban planning India is facing manifold challenges:
 Rise in Slums:Few of the Asia’s largest slums are in Delhi and Mumbai where unplanned
urbanisation led to polluted water, health issues and rising rate of crimes.
 Urban flooding:Floods in Mumbai and Chennai are examples of urban flooding. These are
results of unsustainable urbanisation.
 Rising number of accidents:Fires in buildings and deaths in various urban accidents are daily
routine in Indian cities.
 Degrading environment:According to WHO report, out of 20 most polluted cities, 14 are in

India.
Challenges in sustainable urbanization:
 Economic Sustainability
o Lack of Investments
o Poor technology
 Ecological Sustainability
o Dependence on fossil fuels and coal energy

o Poor Waste management process and technologies
o Vehicular pollution and Climate Change
 Social Sustainability
o Building society based on constitutional principles
o Increasing Population and Proliferation of Slums
o Lack of public awareness
o Weak gender perspective in development
Government efforts towards sustainable urbanization:
 Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) as a step towards
harnessing the agglomeration economies of the urban centres and making cities engines of
growth.
 It envisages convergence across various initiatives such as Amrut, Smart Cities, Hriday
(National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana), Pradhan Mantri Awas
Yojana and Swachh Bharat.
 Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana for affordable housing with credit linked subsidy.
 Smart cities Mission- It is an urban development programme launched by the government

of India with the mission to develop 100 cities across the country and making them citizen
friendly and sustainable.
Way forward
 India needs to work on achieving the goals set by United Nations under SDG-11 to be
achieved by 2030.
 Need for Comprehensive National urban plan for effective and timely implementation of
policies and schemes
 Ensure access for all through adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and
upgrade slums, transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public
transport.
 Give special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women and children,
persons with disabilities and older persons.
 Reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special
attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management.
 Provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces.
 Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban and
rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning
 Substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and
implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation
and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line
with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.
Conclusion
Cities are living ecosystems. They need to be managed accordingly. Rather than going by populist
measures or sticking to the original master plans, local solutions to local problems, innovative, in situ
and tailor made solutions should be evolved, adapted and adhered to. Authorities need to be willing
to learn, evolve and discard if necessary. We need to empower our cities, with a focus on land policy
reforms, granting urban local bodies the autonomy to raise funds and enforce local land usage
norms.
Considering the impacts of climate change in urban development is essential for

creating resilient, sustainable cities that can withstand the challenges posed by a
changing climate. Examine. (250 words)
Reference: The Hindu
Why the question:
The article discusses the need for a comprehensive approach to urban health management,
particularly in the context of climate change-induced extreme weather events. It emphasizes that
urban health is not only about medical care but also about addressing the environmental and social
factors that contribute to health vulnerabilities.
Key Demand of the question: To write about the importance of incorporating the impact of climate
change in our urban development plans and taking steps to tackle it.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Body:
First, in brief, how climate change is impacting modern cities and its predicted impact in the future.
Substantiate with examples. Also, mention how the progress made so far maybe be nullified due to
the impact of climate change.
Next, write about the steps that are needed in this regard to address it – Climate planning and city
planning, Stakeholders and participation, Vulnerability assessment, Monitoring and evaluation etc.
Conclusion:
Introduction
Climate change is altering the nature of each and every country. It’s like a pandemic, it doesn’t know
political boundaries. Even the most advanced countries are not being spared by nature. India is one
of the nations most vulnerable to the ravages of climate change. The solution to climate change lies
in understanding the impact of climate change in our life and taking steps to achieve climate
resilience.
In India, the monsoons, are primarily turning into an erratic and destructive force. As climate change
intensifies, the monsoon is becoming more erratic and violent. A recent report by the World Bank
titled “Thriving: Making Cities Green, Resilient, and Inclusive in a Changing Climate” provides
guidance to local and national policymakers on how to create greener, more resilient, and inclusive
cities.

Body
Urban development and climate resilience
 About 1.4 million people move to cities around the world every week and nearly 55% of the
world’s population now lives in urban areas. Such rapid urbanisation can strain local
capacities, contributing to increased risk from natural and human made disasters.
 As more people are concentrated in cities, dependent on local services and networks, the
risks from natural and human made disasters grow.
 The poor and vulnerable, living in substandard, hazardous places are most at risk with
around 1 billion people living in slums.
 People exposed to natural hazards in poorest nations are more than seven times likely to die
than those in the richest.
 Challenges to resilience can also be economic, cultural, civic and social and develop over
time such as economic downturns or crises, high unemployment, lack of inclusion, social
cohesion or discrimination, disease outbreaks and terrorism.
 Fast-growing coastal cities are in particular danger because of sea-level rise,

increasing storms and the global addiction to concrete and asphalt which exacerbate
flooding.
Building climate resilient cities
 Cities can protect against economic shocks by diversifying their economy, creating
opportunities for business and employment, and engaging the private sector.
 They can build socially cohesive societies becoming democratic, sustainable and
inclusive by ensuring residents from all backgrounds take part in decision making.
 To build climate and environment resilience, authorities need to plan cities properly to
minimize the overall effect on the environment as well as ensuring resilience
through strengthened infrastructure, good planning and public education.
 Responses to disasters in urban areas can promote greater resilience to future crises and
support long-term development goals.
 The need for resilient cities is recognised in the Sustainable Development Goals, the Paris
Agreement for Climate Change, the Sendai Framework and in the New Urban Agenda
(Habitat-III).
 An important step would be moving away from an endless consumption of land. This
means using the land we’ve already developed to build more dense and walkable
neighbourhoods, connected with mass transit. It also means living with nature instead of
fighting against it.
Conclusion
Addressing the challenges of climate change and creating sustainable cities requires a multi-faceted
approach. It involves prioritizing green practices, building resilience to climate impacts, and

promoting inclusiveness in urban development. Taking action at the city level is crucial in mitigating
climate change and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
Cities must take lead on climate change, rather than simply reacting to untoward
events. Instead of pursuing smart cities, we should invest in rainwater harvesting and
better drainage. Comment. (250 words)
Why the question:
In the past few weeks, three major cities — Delhi, Ahmedabad, Mumbai — have been flooded. Cities
like Hyderabad (in 2000), Srinagar (in 2014), Chennai (in 2021) and Bengaluru (in 2022) have also
seen some areas being submerged during heavy rainfall.
To write about perils of unplanned urbanization and the consequences of flooding in cities and ways
to overcome them.
Directive word:
opinion thereupon.
Introduction:
Body:
First, write about the Consequences of Unplanned Urbanization – adverse effects of haphazard urban
growth, such as increased pollution, traffic congestion, Flooding in Cities, Environmental Concerns
and strain on resources.
Next, write about the potential solutions to address the challenges posed by unplanned urbanization
and flooding.
Conclusion:
Conclude with a way forward.
Introduction
As the incidence of climate variability and extreme weather events increases, urban flooding
becomes more and more common. While the untimely heavy rains can be attributed to climate
variability, the urban flooding is largely due to an unplanned urbanisation.
In many Indian cities, the urban floods have become a frequent phenomenon in recent years.
Overburdened drainage, unregulated construction, no regard to the natural topography and hydro-
geomorphology all make urban floods a man-made disaster.
In the past few weeks, three major cities — Delhi, Ahmedabad, Mumbai — have been flooded. Cities
like Hyderabad (in 2000), Srinagar (in 2014), Chennai (in 2021) and Bengaluru (in 2022) have also
seen some areas being submerged during heavy rainfall.
Body:
Urban floods is a man-made disaster

 Inadequate Drainage Infrastructure: Cities like Hyderabad, Mumbai rely on a century-old

drainage system, covering only a small part of the core city.
o In the last 20 years, the Indian cities have grown manifold with its original built-up
area.
o As the city grew beyond its original limits, not much was done to address the
absence of adequate drainage systems.
o CAG report (last year) pulled up Bengaluru municipality for this poor civic
management of storm water drainage.
 Terrain Alteration: Lasting irreversible damage has been done to the city by property
builders, property owners, and public agencies by flattening terrain and altering natural
drainage routes.
 Reducing Seepage: Indian cities are becoming increasingly impervious to water, not just
because of increasing built up but also because of the nature of materials used (hard, non-
porous construction material that makes the soil impervious).
 Lax Implementation: Even with provisions of rainwater harvesting, sustainable urban
drainage systems, etc, in regulatory mechanisms like the Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA), adoption at user end as well as enforcement agencies remains weak.
 Encroaching Natural Spaces: The number of wetlands has reduced to 123 in 2018 from 644
in 1956.
o Green cover is only 9 per cent, which ideally should have been at least 33 per cent.
 Destruction of mangroves: Mumbai lost about 40% of its mangroves between 1995 and
2005.
 Lack of data: CAG also found that the Bengaluru municipality did not maintain proper
records of the stormwater management funds allotted to it under the JNNURM.
 Lack of coordination: CAG report also noted the lack of coordination between the
municipality and the Bangalore Development Authority on drainage-related matters.
However, there are natural causes too which lead to urban floods
 Higher rainfall: As per the IMD, monsoon has become frequent and unpredictable
 Storm surges (for coastal cities): E.g. Cyclone Amphan in 2020 flooded the streets of
Kolkata. Within eastern India, the storm killed 98 people and caused $13.8 billion(2020
USD).
 Groundwater levels:In Chennai, the replenished groundwater table across the city after
rains becomes a challenge for several buildings with basements.
Measures needed
Protecting the greens, curbing new unauthorised concretisation, separating the stormwater drains
from the sewer network, and ensuring waste segregation and treatment are keys to addressing this
problem.
Way forward
 Need for Holistic Engagement: Urban floods of this scale cannot be contained by the
municipal authorities alone. Floods cannot be managed without concerted and focused
investments of energy and resources.
o The Metropolitan Development Authorities, National Disaster Management

Authority, State revenue and irrigation departments along with municipal
corporations should be involved in such work together.
o Such investments can only be done in a mission mode organisation with active
participation of civil society organisations at the metropolitan scale.
 Developing Sponge Cities: The idea of a sponge city is to make cities more permeable so as
to hold and use the water which falls upon it.
o Sponge cities absorb the rain water, which is then naturally filtered by the soil and
allowed to reach urban aquifers.
o This allows for the extraction of water from the ground through urban or peri-urban
wells.
o This water can be treated easily and used for city water supply.
 Wetland Policy:There is a need to start paying attention to the management of wetlands by

involving local communities.
o Without doubt, terrain alteration needs to be strictly regulated and a ban on any
further alteration of terrain needs to be introduced.
o To improve the city’s capacity to absorb water, new porous materials and
technologies must be encouraged or mandated across scales.
o Examples of these technologies are bioswales and retention systems, permeable

material for roads and pavement, drainage systems which allow storm water to
trickle into the ground, green roofs and harvesting systems in buildings.
 Drainage Planning:Watershed management and emergency drainage plan should be clearly

enunciated in policy and law.
o Urban watersheds are micro ecological drainage systems, shaped by contours of

terrain.
o Detailed documentation of these must be held by agencies which are not bound by
municipal jurisdictions; instead, there is a need to consider natural boundaries such
as watersheds instead of governance boundaries like electoral wards for shaping a
drainage plan.
 Water Sensitive Urban Design:These methods take into consideration the topography, types
of surfaces (permeable or impervious), natural drainage and leave very less impact on the
environment.
o Vulnerability analyses and risk assessments should form part and parcel of city
master plans.
o In a changing climate, the drainage infrastructure (especially storm water drainage)
has to be built considering the new ‘normal’.
o Tools such as predictive precipitation modelling can help do that and are also able to
link it with the adaptive capacity of urban land use.
Conclusion
These can all be delivered effectively through an urban mission along the lines of the Atal Mission
for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), National Heritage City Development and
Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) and Smart Cities Mission. Urban Flood management will not just
help control recurring floods but also respond to other fault lines, provide for water security, more
green spaces, and will make the city resilient and sustainable.
Social empowerment, communalism, regionalism & secularism.

Examine the significance of combatting gender stereotypes and its potential to promote
gender equality and empower women. (250 words)
Why the question:
The article emphasizes the importance of addressing gender stereotypes and discusses the potential
of the handbook in fostering gender equality.
To write about the importance of combatting gender stereotypes and empower women.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Introduce the concept of gender stereotypes.
Body:
First, discuss the significance of combatting gender stereotypes, emphasizing its role in breaking
down barriers, enabling equal opportunities, and challenging traditional norms.
Next, write about the SC handbook to promote gender equality, addressing various aspects such as
education, workforce participation, and representation in decision-making.
Next, write about how combatting gender stereotypes can empower women.
Conclusion:
Introduction
Gender stereotypes are simplistic generalizations about the gender attributes, differences, and roles
of individuals and/or groups. Stereotypes can be positive or negative, but they rarely communicate
accurate information about others. When people automatically apply gender assumptions to others
regardless of evidence to the contrary, they are perpetuating gender stereotyping. Many people
recognize the dangers of gender stereotyping, yet continue to make these types of generalizations.
Traditionally, the female stereotypic role is to marry and have children. She is also to put her
family’s welfare before her own; be loving, compassionate, caring, nurturing, and sympathetic; and
find time to be sexy and feel beautiful.
Body
Background
 The Supreme Court has released a 30-page handbook aimed at eliminating gender
stereotypesfrom legal language and proceedings.
 The “Handbook on Combating Gender Stereotypes”addresses unjust gender-based terms

frequently used in Indian courts and offers accurate alternatives.
 It emphasizes the importance of using languagethat respects the rights and dignity of all
individuals.
Impact of Gender Stereotyping
 Gender role stereotyping attributed to women have generally led to prejudice and
discrimination against women. For example, women may be considered to be less reliable as
workers because of their child-rearing functions.
 Gender stereotypes act as a barrier for girls to access quality education. For example,
stereotypes about the role of women as confined to the domestic and family sphere
underpin all obstacles to girls’ equal access to quality education.
 The 42 per cent “digital gender gap” in India is often linked to social norms, bias and gender
stereotypes which perceive girls as ‘inherently not tech savvy’ and may discourage girls to
pursue education and occupation in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics) fields.
 Women are often held back from high status positions in society.
 It also affects a woman’s self-image and may hold some women back as they count
themselves out of pursuing prestigious roles in professions they believe they won’t excel in,
despite having the skills to succeed.
 The persistent gender gap in education, employment and wages is due in part to gender
stereotyping.
 One pervasive stereotype is that because women are considered vulnerable and emotionally
volatile, they are incapable of making rational decisions about their reproductive capacity. It
denies women information to make informed decisions about their health care in general,
and reproductive health care in particular.
 Harmful gender stereotypes, rigid constructions of femininity and masculinity and

stereotyped gender roles are a root cause of gender-based violence against women.
Significance of Eliminating Gender Stereotyping
Significance Explanation
Eliminating
The handbook aims to remove gender-based terms and assumptions
Gender
from legal language, promoting fairness and impartiality.
Stereotypes
Promoting Equal By encouraging the use of accurate terms, the handbook helps
Justice ensure equal treatment and justice for all individuals.

Challenging The handbook challenges stereotypes about women’s emotional

Biased capacity and rational thinking, emphasizing that gender does not
Assumptions dictate one’s ability for rational thinking
Fostering
Using respectful language respects the dignity and rights of all
Respect and
individuals involved in legal proceedings.
Dignity
Enhancing Legal The handbook underscores the importance of language in legal

Communication proceedings, promoting clear and accurate communication.
Aligning with
Removing gender stereotypes aligns legal practices with
Constitutional
the constitutional principles of equality and human rights
Values
Empowering
and Inspiring The handbook empowers legal professionals to use language that
Legal upholds justice, equality, and dignity in legal proceedings.
Professionals
Way forward
To eliminate gender-based violence against women, it would be crucial to transform discriminatory

gender norms and stereotypes and to promote non-violent, respectful and equal gender relations
between men, women and non-binary persons. Measures such as gender-responsive early childhood
education and development; the integration of gender equality content into curricula at all levels of
education; promoting equal sharing of responsibilities in unpaid care and domestic work etc. must
be promoted.
The outbursts of caste-based violence against the poor and vulnerable reflect the deep-
rooted biases and prejudices ingrained within society. Analyse. (250 words)
Why the question:
The article discusses a recent caste-based attack in Nanguneri, Tamil Nadu, highlighting the failure of
hope in addressing deeply ingrained casteism.
To write about the how casteism leads to violence and its impact.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Start by giving context.
Body:
First, discuss the reasons contributing to caste-based violence – tensions, grievances, or power
dynamics tied to caste identities culminate in violent acts against those who are less privileged or
economically disadvantaged within these systems.
Next, explain how in Indian societal setup caste a form of social stratification leads to discrimination,
exploitation, intolerance and leads to violence. Cite examples to substantiate your points.
Next, discuss the impact of caste-based violence on Indian society; impact on social fabric, economy,
polity etc.
Conclusion:
Suggest way forward for eradicating casteism in India.
Introduction
Caste-based violence in India is a form of discrimination and oppression that targets people
belonging to Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs), who are historically marginalized
and disadvantaged groups in Indian society. Despite the constitutional safeguards and special
legislation, such as the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act,
1989 being in place, caste-based crimes continue to occur in various forms and regions, violating
the fundamental and human rights of millions of people.
The recent incident in Nanguneri town in Tamil Nadu’s Tirunelveli district, where a Dalit teenager
and his sister were brutally hacked by schoolmates belonging to an intermediate dominant caste is
demonstrative of the failure of hope for a whole generation of a community living on the margins.
Body
Reasons contributing to caste-based violence
 The caste system, an ancient social stratification based on descent and occupation, creates a
rigid hierarchical structure where individuals are categorized into specific castes.
 This system fosters a sense of superiority among upper castes and a feeling of inferiority
among lower castes, leading to discrimination and violence against the latter.
 The system is characterised by Dominance of one caste over others and Exploitation of
lower castes by upper castes.
 The presence of barriers in mobility and achieving political power and competition for
economic opportunities and acquiring symbols of high status is another reason.
 Social norms and cultural beliefs, often passed down through generations, reinforce the
notion of caste-based superiority and inferiority.
 These norms normalize discriminatory attitudes and practices, making it challenging to break
free from caste-based violence.
 Caste-based violence is sometimes driven by economic motives. Lower caste individuals may
be subjected to exploitation, forced labour, and economic oppression by dominant caste
groups, leading to conflicts and violence.
 Inter-caste marriages, challenging the traditional caste boundaries, are sometimes met with
hostility and violence from conservative sections of society, seeking to protect their caste
purity.

 Despite legal protections, the effective implementation of laws against caste-based violence
remains a challenge in some regions, leading to a culture of impunity for the perpetrators.
 In today’s age, the presence of internet has further hastened the spread of fake news and
misinformation in seconds.
Measures needed
 Strengthening Implementation of Laws such as SC/ST Act, 1989; Protection of Civil Rights
Act, 1955; Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act,
2013.
 The State with its institutions like Police, Judiciary, Education, Health, and Welfare sectors to
prevent, investigate, prosecute, punish, and rehabilitate offenders.
 Promoting Awareness and Sensitization among all stakeholders, including upper castes,
lower castes, civil society organizations, media, academia, religious leaders, and political
parties.
 Empowering SCs and STs through education, employment, land rights, political
representation, social mobilization, legal aid, and counselling services.
 Building trust and solidarity, challenging stereotypes and prejudices, and promoting respect
for diversity and human dignity.
Conclusion
The government has now established a one-man commission headed by retired judge K. Chandru to
suggest steps to stamp out caste differences among students. It would be a pity if Nanguneri does
not serve as a wake-up call; a catalyst for destroying caste hierarchies, restoring peace and equality,
and, hope.
Communalism fosters divisions and hostility between religious communities, eroding

the sense of unity and shared identity that is crucial for a diverse nation like India.
Examine the factors responsible for the growth of communalism and its impact on
Indian society. (250 words)
Why the question:
The editorial discusses recent communal clashes in Haryana, India, emphasizing the need to address
the underlying causes and prevent future incidents.
To write about factors responsible for the growth of communalism and its impact on our society.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by defining communalism.
Body:
First, present the case of Communalism in India; Communalism as a political philosophy has its roots
in the religious and cultural diversity of India. It has been used to create a divide, differences and
tensions between the communities on the basis of religious and ethnic identity leading to communal
hatred and violence.
Next, Discuss the major factors that contributed towards the emergence and growth of
communalism in modern India. Present the current situation.
Next, Present measures to deal with Communalism.
Conclusion:
Introduction
Communalism is basically an ideology which consists of three elements:
 A belief that people who follow the same religion have common secular interests i.e. they
have same political, economic and social interests. So, here socio- political communalities
arise.
 A notion that, in a multi-religious society like India, these common secular interests of one
religion is dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the follower of another religion.
 The interests of the follower of the different religion or of different ‘communities’ are seen
to be completely incompatible, antagonist and hostile.
At a time when the tremors of ethnic clashes in Manipur have not yet settled, communal clashes in
Haryana, in regions abutting the national capital, claimed six lives this week. Two Home Guards and
four civilians were killed and 70 injured in clashes in Gurugram, Sohna and Nuh. Property worth
crores has been destroyed, and hundreds have fled their workplaces.
Body
Factors responsible for growth of Communalism in India:
 A Legacy of Past:
o On the basis of the “Two Nation” theory of Jinnah, India was partitioned. Communal
politics had played its nasty game during the immediate past of independent India.
The “Divide and Rule” policy of the British Government served their colonial
interest. The partition of India was the ultimate outcome of their politics.
 Presence of Communal Parties:
o Religion in India has become an important agency of political socialization and it is

also reflected in the ideology of a number of political parties. A number of
communal and sectarian political parties and organisations are present in India.
Muslim League, Jamaat—Islami, Hindu Mahasabha, Akali Dal, Vishwa Hindu Parishad
are directly or indirectly responsible for the emergence of communalism.
 Isolation of Muslims:
o Indian Muslims have developed a tendency of isolationism even long after the
creation of Pakistan. They remain aloof from the mainstream of national politics.

Most of them are not interested to take part in the secular-nationalistic politics of
the country. They insist on to be treated as a separate entity.
 Poverty:
o Mass poverty and unemployment create a sense of frustration among the people. It
generates backwardness, illiteracy, ignorance, etc. The unemployed youth of both
the communities can be easily trapped by religious fundamentalists and fanatics.
They are used by them to cause communal riots. The weak economic status often
breeds communalism.
 Hindu Chauvinism:
o The growths of Hindu chauvinistic attitudes have further strengthened the

communal tensions in India. The Hindu religious groups like Shiv Sena, Hindu
Mahasabha, Viswa Hindu Parisad often pressurize the government to take steps
suitable to the interest of Hindus. They consider each Muslim as pro-Pakistani and
anti-national. To face the possible challenge of other communal forces, they
encourage the growth of Hindu communalism.
 Social Cause:
o The two major communities of India have been suspicious towards each other. The
Muslims complain of the threat of Hindu cultural invasion upon their lives and have
become more assertive of their rights. Either due to ignorance or insecurity, they do
not fully accept the need of family planning and help in increasing population.
 Communalization of Politics:
o Electoral politics in India has become more expensive and competitive. Different
political parties are not hesitating to use any means, fair or foul, for electoral victory.
They even create communal tensions and try to take political advantage out of it.
Concessions are granted to various minority groups for appeasing them.
 Cross-Border factors:
o Communal tensions in India sometimes are highly intensified due to the rule of two
neighbouring theocratic countries. These countries try to create communal
problems in the border states. The communal problems of Punjab and Jammu
Kashmir are caused due to provocation of Pakistan. So long as this cross-border
factor is not removed, communal problems are likely to stay in India.
 Failure of Government:
o Both the Union and the State Governments often fail to prevent communalism in
the country. Due to lack of prior information, they fail to take any preventive
measures. So the communal violence can easily take innocent lives and destroys
property. The post-Godhra riot in Gujarat shows the inefficiency of the government
to control the communal riot. Failure of immediate and effective steps has been a
cause of the continuance of communalism.
Ramification of Communalism:

 Genocides: With mass killings, the real sufferers are the poor, who lose their house, their
near and dear ones, their lives, their livelihood, etc. It violates the human rights from all
direction. Sometimes children lose their parents and will become orphan for a lifetime.
 Ghettoization and refugee problem are other dimensions of communalism induced

violence, whether its inter country or intra country.
 Sudden increase in violence against any particular community causes mass exodus and
stampede which in turn kills many number of people. For example, this was seen in the case
of Bangalore in 2012, with respect to people from North eastern states, which was
stimulated by a rumour.
 Apart from having effect on the society, it is also a threat to Indian constitutional values,
which promotes secularism and religious tolerance. In that case, citizens don’t fulfil their
fundamental duties towards the nation.
 It becomes a threat for the unity and integrity of the nation as a whole. It promotes only the
feeling of hatred in all directions, dividing the society on communal lines.
 Minorities are viewed with suspicion by all, including state authorities like police, para-
military forces, army, intelligence agencies, etc. There have been many instances when
people from such community have been harassed and detained and finally have been
released by court orders guilt free. For this, there is no provision for compensation of such
victims, about their livelihood incomes forgone, against social stigmas and emotional trauma
of the families.
 Barrier for development: Communal activities occurring frequently do harm the human
resource and economy of the country. And then again it takes years for the people and the
affected regions to come out the traumas of such violence, having deep impact on minds of
those who have faced it. They feel emotionally broken and insecure.
 Terrorism and Secessionism: As seen during the Khalistan movement in Punjab.
Steps to be taken to prevent communalism
 Economic:
o Poverty is one of the major factors for communal violence. Poverty alleviation
measures are thus important for promoting communal harmony.
o Eradicating the problem of unemployment among the youths, illiteracy and poverty
and that too with honesty and without any discrimination.
o Reducing educational and economic backwardness of minorities like Muslims.
o This can uplift their socio-economic status and reduce their deprivation compared to
Hindus
 Social:
o The religious leaders and preachers should promote rational and practical things
through religion promoting peace and security.
o Children in schools must be taught through textbooks and pamphlets to maintain
brotherhood and respect for all religions
o Creating awareness in the society about the ill effects of communism through mass
media
 Political:
o Political communism should be avoided recent Supreme court’s directives
o Identification and mapping of riot prone areas. For Example, Delhi police used
drones to monitor to maintain vigil during communal festivals
o Media, movies and other cultural platforms can be influential in promoting peace
and harmony.
o Social Media should be monitored for violent and repulsive content and taken off
immediately.
 Recommendations of Committee on National Integration
o Joint celebration of community festivals
o Observing restraint by Hindus while taking processions before the mosques
o Formation of peace and brotherhood communities at local level to prevent anti-

social elements from engaging in communal riots
o Respect for religious customs, rituals and practices
Conclusion
In a vast country like India which is made up of diverse cultures, backgrounds, religions, identities
etc. it really requires to maintain a sense of equality among its citizen to provide a meaning to the
term democracy. The core reason behind all these discrimination are based on the nature of
unacceptance of diversities. We tend to commit heinous crimes to eradicate the population which
chooses a different set of traditions to follow. But these intolerance can lead India to get collapsed
from being a secular country to communal. And India is known to the world by the term “diversity”.
It is beautiful when the people irrespective of their differences are co-existing.
Salient features of world’s physical geography.

El Niño weather phenomenon has become a significant economic and political risk for
India. Examine. (250 words)
Why the question:
The article underscores the connection between El Niño and political unrest due to food inflation,
emphasizing the need for effective disaster management strategies and climate-resilient policies to
mitigate its adverse impacts on India’s economy and society.
To write about the causes/ factors which lead to El-Nino and also write in detail about its effects on
the world climate and geography.

Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by writing a few introductory lines describing the El-Nino.
Body:
First, write about the mechanism of El-Nino – The role trade winds pushing warm water, difference in
temperature across the equatorial pacific, circulation between east and west in the Pacific etc.
Next, write about the impact of El-Nino on Indian economy – has far-reaching effects on Indian
agriculture, water resources, and economy. Its potential to cause droughts, reduced crop yields, and
increased food prices, thereby impacting farmers’ livelihoods and consumer costs
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising the need to adapt to adverse effects of El-Nino.
Introduction
El Niño is a naturally occurring phenomenon that is linked to a periodic warming in sea

surface temperatures across the central and east-central Equatorial Pacific. El Niño is Spanish for
“the boy child,” which is often used to refer to Jesus Christ, and the phenomenon earned this name
because it typically occurs in December around Christmas. El Niño occurs every 2-7 years, and can
last anywhere between nine months and two years.
Body
Mechanism
During El Niño, the trade winds weaken or even reverse: Instead of blowing from east (South
America) to west (Indonesia), they could turn into westerlies. As the winds blow from the west to
east, they cause the masses of warm water to move into the central and eastern equatorial Pacific
Ocean. The rise in SSTs there, thus, produces increased rainfall along western Latin America, the
Caribbean and US Gulf Coast, while depriving Southeast Asia, Australia and India of convective
currents.
The causes for El Niña are:
The two opposite phases, “El Niño” and “La Niña,” require certain changes in both the ocean and the
atmosphere because ENSO is a coupled climate phenomenon. “Neutral” is in the middle of the
continuum.
Neutral phase:
 In the neutral state (neither El Niño nor La Niña) trade winds blow east to west across the
surface of the tropical Pacific Ocean, bringing warm moist air and warmer surface waters
towards the western Pacific and keeping the central Pacific Ocean relatively cool. The
thermo cline is deeper in the west than the east.
 This means that under “normal” conditions the western tropical Pacific is 8 to 10°C warmer
than the eastern tropical Pacific. This warmer area of ocean is a source for convection and is
associated with cloudiness and rainfall.
El Nino:

 The trade winds push warm water on the surface of the ocean from east to west (westerly).
This causes the warm water to build up on the western side of the ocean near Asia.
Meanwhile, on the eastern side of the ocean, near Central and South America, cold waters
are pushed up towards the surface.
 Because of this, there is a difference in temperature across the equatorial pacific, with warm
water to the west and cold water to the east. The warm water in the west heats the air,
making the warm air rise and leading to drastic weather, including rain and thunderstorms.
 The rising warm air causes a circulation between east and west in the Pacific, with the warm,
moist air rising in the west, and cool, dry air descending in the east. All of these natural
occurrences lead to a reinforcement of the easterly winds, and cause a self-perpetuating
motion in the air in the Pacific.
Impacts
 El-Nino impact on Indian monsoon:
 El Nino, characterized by warming of surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, is associated

with lower than normal monsoon rainfall in India.
 El Nino has been found to impact almost half the world triggering droughtsin
Australia, India, southern Africa and floods in Peru, Ecuador, the United States, the Gulf of
Mexico, and the Colorado River basin.
 El Nino affects the flow of moisture-bearing windsfrom the cooler oceans towards India,
negatively impact the summer (south-west) monsoon.
 After all, the south-west monsoon (June-September) accounts for over 70% of the country’s
annual rainfall and irrigates over half of the crop land.
 The rain-fed kharif crops are heavily dependent on the monsoon and the quantity of rainfall
determines agricultural production.
 El Niño years tend to be drier than average, but one of the strongest El Nino of the century
(1997-98) produced a monsoon season with above-average rainfall for India.
 Researchers also believe that even the location of the warming in the Pacific may possibly
have an influence on the monsoon.
 Disasters:
 Heat-waves in India leading to deaths of people and fauna.
 Water sources dry up leading to increased distress migration and climate refugees.
 Economic impacts:
 India is the second-biggest grower of wheat, rice, sugar and cotton, and the largest buyer of
palm, soybean and sunflower oils.
 The livelihood of millions of farmers in the country of about 1.4 billion people depends on
rains brought by the winds from the Indian Ocean.
 The farm sector is the main source of income for 60% of its population and accounts for 18%
of the economy.
 The monsoon is critical to India’s farm output and economic growth at a time when the
country, where man-made systems like canals and tube wells irrigate only a part of the land,
is battling soaring food prices.
 Timely and normal rains are set to boost production outlook for monsoon-sown crops such as
rice, soybeans and pulses and help in softening soaring inflation.
 Bountiful rains would also fill reservoirs, which in turn would brighten prospects for winter
crops, usually planted during October and November.
 The early arrival of the south-west monsoon comes at a time when parts of Northwest India
were experiencing extremely high maximum temperatures.
 Social Impacts:
 A WHO Paper said that El Niño 2015-2016 is affecting more than 60 million people.
 Rising temperatures and more variable rainfall patterns can often reduce crop yields,
compromising food security.
 This can lead to social unrest, civil wars, increased inequality between people.
 El Niño conditions can cause a wide range of health problems, including disease outbreaks,
malnutrition, heat stress, and respiratory diseases.
 Environmental impacts:
 Effect on aquatic species and sea birds: fish either migrate to other regions or die during an El
Niño because they lack adequate food for growth and survival.
Way Forward:
 The government must expand the farm insurance cover and advice banks and financial
institutions to settle crop insurance claims in the drought-hit areas without delay.
 High quality seeds of alternative crops must be distributed among farmers in the drought-
affected areas.

 Technologies like drip and sprinkler irrigation, precision agriculture.
 Monetary Control measures to tackle inflationary trends in country.
 Financial support from global organizations for rehabilitation and rebuilding.
 Disaster Response Forces to tackle floods and droughts.
 Developing early warning systems and alerting the people much in advance.
 Global co-operation to tackle the climate change which can further aggravate El- Niño and La-
Niña conditions.
The Köppen climate classification system takes into account both the temperature and
the amount of precipitation to group different regions into specific climate types.
Examine. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about to Koppens climate classification scheme, major climate regions and then discuss its
limitations.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Give a brief about the comprehensive nature of classification of climate by Koeppen.
Body:
In the first part, explain the scheme in detail- make a table of the world climates and draw a rough
diagram for illustration purposes. Write a few advantages of the Koppens climate classification
scheme.
Discuss its limitations. – estimated rather than measurable variables involved, symbol system difficult
to interpret, other factors not taken into account, too simplistic etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude by mentioning that despite the above discussed limitations, it is one of the most widely
used climate classification schemes, although with modifications.
Introduction
The Köppen climate classification system is one of the most common climate classification systems
in the world. It was developed by Wladimir Peter Koppen in 1884. It is used to denote different
climate regions on Earth based on local vegetation.
Body
criteria of classification

 Koeppen’s classification is based on quantitative values of temperature and precipitation.
 Its categories are based on the annual and monthly averages of temperature and
precipitation.
 This classification scheme uses certain critical values of temperature of the warmest and the
coldest months and precipitation of the wettest and the driest months.
 It recognises location and points out the differences that exist between the east and west
coast and between the coastal regions and interiors.
 It uses numerical values for delimiting the boundaries of different climatic regions and types.
 Koppen’s climatic regions in many cases coincided with the distinct vegetation regions.
Shortcomings
 Koppen based his classification on the mean monthly values of temperature and
precipitation.

 By these statistics the most potent factor of precipitation can only be estimated, rather than
measured accurately.
 This makes comparison from one locality to another rather difficult.
 Further, Koppen did not take into account such weather elements as winds, precipitation
intensity, amount of cloudiness, and daily temperature extremes only for the sake of making
his classification generalized and simple.
 Another major drawback is that it is empirical and, therefore, is based on facts and
observations. The causative factors of climate have been totally ignored.
 Thus, the air masses, which form the very basis of modern climatology, could not find any
place in Koppen’s classification.
 Lastly, the letter symbols used by Koppen in his climatic classification provide international
shorthand describing climatic regions that are rather difficult to characterize in words.
Conclusion
India has nearly all types of climates classified by Koeppen. Koeppen demarcated five major climate
zones in India. The climatologist Rudolf Geiger introduced some changes to the classification system,
which is thus sometimes called the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system.
What are the various factors that affect the formation of Savanna type of climate?
Examine the various threats to Savanna biomes. (250 words)
Why the question:
Directive word:
Introduction:
Give a brief about Tropical savannas or grasslands that they are associated with the tropical wet and
dry climate type.
Body:
First, write about the factors conducive for Savanna type of climate – tropical regions 8° to 20° from
the Equator, warm to hot, the dry season is associated with the low sun period etc.
Next, mention that the Savanna climate provides for a diverse vegetation such as grasslands, hardy
weather proofed trees and diverse fauna and mention different Savanna regions such as East African,
Llanos, Pampas etc and how they differently impact their ecology.
Next, mention the various threats such as water logging, fire, drought, grazing etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude by stating that in the present context of Climate change it is imperative to address the
threats faced by the Savannas and ensure ecological balance.
Introduction

Savanna regions have two distinct seasons – a wet season and a dry season. There is very little rain
in the dry season. In the wet season vegetation grows, including lush green grasses and wooded
areas. As you move further away from the equator and its heavy rainfall, the grassland becomes
drier and drier – particularly in the dry season.
Body
Savanna biomes
Savannas – also known as tropical grasslands – are found to the north and south of tropical
rainforest biomes. The largest expanses of savanna are in Africa, where much of the central part of
the continent, for example Kenya and Tanzania, consists of tropical grassland. Savanna grasslands
can also be found in Brazil in South America.
Various factors that affect the formation of Savanna type of climate
 Savanna type of climate is located between 5°-20° latitudes on either side of the equator.
 Thus, savanna climate is located between equatorial type of climate (Af) and semi-arid and
subtropical humid climate.
 In other words, this climate is located between equatorial low pressure belt or rain
producing inter-tropical convergence and subtropical high pressure belt.
 The regions of Savanna climate are affected by low and high pressure systems in a year.
 Due to northward migration of the sun during summer solstice (21 June) the equatorial low
pressure belt and doldrum are shifted northward and thus Savanna climate comes under the
influence of Inter Tropical Convergence (ITC) which is associated with atmospheric
disturbances (cyclones) which yield rains.
 Due to southward migration of the sun during winter solstice (23 December) Savanna
climatic zone comes under the influence of subtropical high pressure belt and thus
anticyclonic conditions dominate the weather and bring dry conditions.
 The descending stable winds under anticyclonic conditions cause dry conditions.
 Besides, the coastal areas are affected by local winds and sea breezes.
 Eastern coasts are influenced by trade winds. Strong and high velocity tropical cyclones
dominate the weather conditions during warm season.
 It is apparent that the Savanna type of climate is induced due to the introduction of wet
summer and dry winter seasons because of northward and southward migration of the sun
respectively.
 Since the Savanna climate is located between equatorial wet and tropical dry climates and
hence there is gradual variation in weather conditions away from the equator as the aridity
increases poleward.
Various threats to Savanna biomes
 Anthropogenic activities
o Unsustainable water usage and irrigation methods could potentially dry up life-
giving rivers and water holes.
o In regions where indigenous people regularly include bushmeat – wild meat – in

their diet, ungulate populations have dropped at noticeable rates.
o Some savanna wildlife is also hunted as trophies; black rhinoceroses, in particular,

are hunted for their valuable horns.
o Even some plant species are over-harvested due to their commercial value.
o Carvings made from African Blackwood, a savanna tree, are often sold at tourists’
markets.
 Agriculture, drought and Heavy Grazing
o Agriculture is another environmental threat to the savanna. Large areas of land are
being cleared to grow crops and farm livestock. The livestock competes with local
animals for grazing and can decimate the natural ecosystem.
o Prolonged, severe drought has a dangerous effect on a savanna ecosystem, with

grazing patterns exacerbating this effect.
o The combination of severe drought and grazing can change a grassland of primarily
edible, perennial grasses to a savanna dominated by inedible grasses and plants.
 Desertification
o Tropical savannas often border on arid, desert regions, and the spread of desert-like
conditions into dry grassland areas is called desertification.
o This threat to a savanna ecosystem include effects caused by climate change,

farming practices, overgrazing, aggressive agricultural irrigation, which lowers the
level of the water table away from plant roots, deforestation and erosion.
o Each year, over 46,000 square kilometers of African savanna becomes desert.
 Carbon Emissions
o A 2012 survey attributed large increases in woody plant mass to the “CO2
fertilization effect.” The authors posited that the increase in the rate of woody plant
growth was caused by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide.
o A dramatic increase in the amount of trees and shrubs could threaten the entire
savanna ecosystem, as these plants use more water than grasses.
Conclusion
While forests are undoubtedly great carbon sinks, grasslands are not all that far behind. Studies
reveal that restoring grasslands is an immensely effective and economical way to combat climate
change, as these landscapes store large amounts of carbon below ground. When a nuanced and
informed understanding of the importance of grasslands filters into conservation and climate change
policies, it will be win-win for pastoralists, grassland biodiversity, and the planet.

The Himalayan and Peninsular drainage systems exhibit distinct characteristics shaped
by their geographical origins, age, and local climatic factors. Examine. (250 words)
Reference: Insights on India , Insights on India
Why the question:
To write about differences between Himalayan drainage system and the Peninsular drainage system
as well as its similarities.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by giving a brief about the drainage system of India.
Body:
First, write the differences between the both on the basis of evolution, nature, type of flow etc.
Next, explain some similarities between both the river systems.
Conclusion:
Introduction
The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as ‘drainage’ and the network of such
channels is called a ‘drainage system’.
Body

The catchment area of large rivers or river system is called a river basin while those of small rivers, a
lake, a tank is often referred to as a watershed. There is, however, a slight difference between a
river basin and a watershed. Watersheds are small in area, generally less than 1000 ha.
BASIS FOR
HIMALAYAN RIVERS PENINSULAR RIVERS
COMPARISON
Himalayan Rivers are the rivers Peninsular Rivers include those rivers
that originate from Himalayan that arises from Western Ghats and
Meaning
ranges and flows throughout receive water only during a particular
the year. period.
Nature Perennial Non-perennial
Some rivers form delta while others

Form Delta
form Estuary
Shape Meandering Straight
Bed rocks are soft, sedimentary Bed rocks are hard, resistant and not
Rocks
and easily erodible easily erodible
Fed by Snow and rain Rain
Drainage
Large Small
basin
Irrigate Northern Plains Deccan Plateau
Valley V-shaped valley is formed U-shaped valley is formed
Key Differences Between Himalayan and Peninsular Rivers System
 Himalayan Rivers are the water bodies that emanate from the north of Himalayan mountain
ranges. On the other extreme, Peninsular Rivers include those watercourses that arise from,
Western Ghats or Central Highlands.
 The Himalayan rivers are perennial, i.e. they have water all around the year. As against,
Peninsular rivers are seasonal, in the sense that they have water during a particular period
only.
 Big deltas are formed by Himalayan Rivers. On the other extreme, some peninsular rivers
like the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery form deltas, while the
Narmada and the Tapi form estuaries.
 While Himalayan rivers form meanders, there is an absence of meanders in case of

Peninsular rivers.
 The bedrocks of Himalayan rivers are soft, sedimentary and easily erodible. Conversely,
bedrocks of Peninsular rivers are hard, resistant and not easily erodible.
 Himalayan rivers get water from snow and rain, whereas Peninsular rivers are fed by rain
only.
 The drainage basin of Himalayan rivers is comparatively larger than the Peninsular rivers.
 Himalayan rivers water helps in the irrigation of Northern Plains. In contrast, Peninsular
rivers irrigate Deccan Plateau.
 Himalayan rivers form a V-shaped valley, while Peninsular watercourses form valley having a
U-shape
Conclusion
The channel and valley length of the Himalayan River system is larger in comparison to the
Peninsular River system. While in case of Himalayan Rivers, water is added by the underground
sources also, but in case of Peninsular rivers due to hard lithology, no underground water is added to
the river.
The Indian monsoon is crucial to the country’s well-being, impacting agriculture,

economy, water resources, and livelihoods. Variations in the monsoon are influenced
by a multitude of factors, both regional and global, making its prediction and
management a challenging endeavour. Analyse. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about importance of monsoon for India and causes for its variation.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Start by introducing Indian monsoon and its importance briefly.
Body:
First, write in detail about the overall importance of Indian monsoon.
Start by briefly mentioning about mechanism of the monsoon and the reasons for fluctuations in
Indian monsoon according to the seasons. Divide the answer in to various months and how monsoon
varies with it. Use a diagram to explain it more systematically. Do include the Western Disturbances,
Somali Jet Streams, Easterly Jet streams etc, climate change. Write about its impact.
Conclusion:
Conclude with a way forward to deal with excess and well as deficit of monsoonal rain.
Introduction

Monsoons are seasonal winds which reverse their direction with the change of season. The monsoon
is a double system of seasonal winds. They flow from sea to land during the summer and from land
to sea during winter. Monsoons are peculiar to Indian Subcontinent, South East Asia, parts of Central
Western Africa etc. Indian Monsoons are Convection cells on a very large scale. They are periodic or
secondary winds which seasonal reversal in wind direction.
Body
Seasonal variation in the India monsoons
Significance of Monsoon on Indian economy:
 The monsoon is important for India’s farm-dependent $2 trillion economy.

 It is a crucial source of water supply necessary for agriculture, industry and households in
the country.
 India gets around 70 percent of its annual rainfall during the monsoon season.
 This affects the yield of some key kharif crops like rice, pulses and oilseeds such as soybeans.
 Around 50% of India’s total food output comes in the form of Kharif crops.
 India is primarily an agrarian economy—agriculture contributes 16% of India’s GDP.

 It is also crucial for rabi crops as monsoon has an impact on the ground water and also
reservoirs which are critical for rabi crops irrigation.
 Bumper farm output keeps food prices under control and keep inflation in check.
 This boosts demand for consumer goods as well as income of rural people.
 All of this leads to a stronger economic outlook that in turn help lift equities, especially of
companies selling goods in rural areas.
 Monsoon rains also replenish reservoirs and groundwater that helps in improving irrigation
and also boosts hydropower production.
 Good Monsoon can reduce demand for subsidized diesel used for pumping water for
irrigation.

 Good monsoon also checks government spending.
 Industries use raw materials like cotton, sugarcane, vegetable oils and natural rubber. The
prices of these raw material fall in times of good monsoons.
 The loan portfolio of banks rises and banks net interest margins also rise.
 Easy interest rates prevail in the economy and bank stocks rise in value.
 A good monsoon will mean more farm related employment leading to a higher cash flow
into the economy, all with a positive impact on the overall GDP.
Effects of poor monsoon on Indian economy:
 A poor monsoon season can have a rippling effect on India’s economy and overall GDP
growth of India.
 A delayed monsoon can lead to supply issues and even accelerate food inflation.
 Higher food inflation translates into higher interest rates, which in turn raises the borrowing
cost across the country and impacts profitability.
 Below normal monsoon can also lead to drought-like situation, thereby affecting the rural
household incomes.
 Other sectors affected by the health of the rural economy are banking, NBFCs and
microfinance institutions.
 Droughts result in NPAs, as farmers are unable to repay loans.
 Groundwater levels will continue to fall dangerously.
 This affects the farm sector which employs over half of the total population of India.
 Crop failure and/or deficient rainfall is one big reason for mass farmer suicides across the
country.
 A poor monsoon weakens demand for Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) products,
tractors, two-wheelers and rural housing.
 It forces the government to spend on the import of food as well as take measures like farm
loan waivers. These widen fiscal deficit.
 This not only results in banks facing losses, it also disturbs the credit discipline of borrowers.
 The impact even ripples overseas, as commodity markets are starved of Indian sugar and
rice.
 States like Kerala, Karnataka, MP and Maharashtra -could face challenges from a deficit
monsoon, as they have poor irrigation availability.
Way forward:
 Monsoon does play a big role in India. It has social, political, as well as economic
implications.
 Thus monsoon doesn’t only affect the crops but all the industries in the country.

 The monsoon-dependent Indian economy needs climate-sensitive budgeting.
 The excessive dependence on monsoon may be mitigated by the construction of modern

irrigation canals, afforestation, and diversification of Indian industries.
 Farmers, especially smallholder farmers, need advance warning of emergent weather

conditions at a local level.
 Develop climate-smart agriculture practices.
 Build adaptive capacities to climate variability and strengthen the sustainability of farming
systems.
 Preventive measures for drought that include growing of pulses and oilseeds instead of rice.
 Mobile telecommunication systems are increasingly cost-effective and an efficient way of
delivering weather-based agro-advisories to farmers at a large scale.
While local salinity patterns are indeed influenced by factors like rainfall and
evaporation, the salinity of the world’s oceans is determined by a complex interplay of
various global processes. Analyse. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about to factors which determine the salinity of the oceans.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Explain what is ocean salinity.
Body:
Write about the various factors that determine the salinity of the oceans – Evaporation, Freshwater
flow influx, temperature, density, Ocean Currents, Precipitation, Atmospheric pressure and Wind
direction. Give examples from across the world.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising the above.
Introduction
Salinity refers to the total content of dissolved salts in sea water. It is calculated as the amount of
salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater. The salinity of ocean water is usually around 35
parts per thousand on an average at zero degrees Celsius. This implies that in the total weight of
ocean water, dissolved salts amount to 3.5 percent. Sodium chloride or the common salt is the most
common among all the dissolved salts in the sea.
Body
Variation in salinity:

 Horizontal distribution :
o On an average, salinity decreases from equator towards the poles. However, it is

important to note that the highest salinity is seldom recorded near the equator
though this zone records high temperature and evaporation but high rainfall reduces
the relative proportion of salt. Thus, the equator accounts for only 35‰ salinity
o The highest salinity is observed between 20° N and 40° N (36‰) because this zone is
characterized by high temperature, high evaporation but relatively low rainfall
o The average salinity of 35‰ is recorded between 100 -300 latitudes in the southern
hemisphere
o The zone between 40 deg -60 deg latitudes in both the hemispheres records low
salinity where it is 31‰ and 33‰ in the northern and the southern hemispheres
respectively.
o Salinity further decreases in the polar zones because of influx of Glacial melt-water.
On an average, the northern and the southern hemispheres record average salinity
of 35‰ and 34‰ respectively
 Vertical distribution of salinity:

o Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon the location of
the sea.
o Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water to ice or evaporation, or

decreased by the input of fresh waters, such as from the rivers.
o Salinity at depth is very much fixed, because there is no way that water is ‘lost’, or
the salt is ‘added.’ There is a marked difference in the salinity between the surface
zones and the deep zones of the oceans.
o The lower salinity water rests above the higher salinity dense water.
o Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called
the halocline (compare this with thermocline), where salinity increases sharply.
o Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of seawater causes its density to
increase. High salinity seawater, generally, sinks below the lower salinity water. This
leads to stratification by salinity.
Factors influencing salinity are: Factors affecting the amount of salt in different oceans and seas are
called as controlling factors of oceanic salinity.
 Evaporation: The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly on
evaporation. Where the evaporation is greater, the salinity is higher, for example,
Mediterranean sea.

 Freshwater flow influx: Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the
freshwater flow from rivers, and in polar regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of
ice.
o Where the freshwater flow into the oceans is greater, the salinity is lower.
o For instance, at the mouths of rivers such as Amazon, Congo, Ganga etc., the ocean
surface salinity is found to be lower than the average surface salinity.
 Temperature and density: Salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated.
Hence, any change in the temperature or density influences the salinity of an area.
o In general, regions with high temperatures are also, regions with high salinity.
 Ocean Currents: They play an important role in the spatial distribution of dissolved salts in
ocean waters.
o The warm currents near the equatorial region push away the salts from the eastern
margins of the oceans and accumulate them near the western margins.
o Similarly, ocean currents in the temperate regions increase the salinity of ocean
waters near the eastern margins. For instance, Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic
Ocean increases the salinity of ocean waters along the western margins of the
Atlantic Ocean.
 Precipitation: Precipitation and salinity share an inverse relationship.
o In general, regions with higher levels of precipitation have lower levels of salinity.
This is the reason why though the equatorial region is as hot as the sub-tropics; it
records lower salinity than the sub-tropics since the former receives heavy
precipitation in a day.
 Atmospheric pressure and Wind direction: anti-cyclonic conditions with stable air and high
temperature increase salinity of the surface water of oceans
o winds help is redistribution of salinity, as they drive away saline waters to fewer
saline areas resulting into decrease of salinity in the former and increase in the latter
Conclusion
However, the effect is greater if the salty water gets cold, as temperature has a greater effect on
density than salinity does. A combination of high salinity and low temperature makes seawater so
dense that it sinks to the bottom of the ocean and flows across ocean basins as deep, slow currents.
Explain the primary and secondary factors responsible for the formation of ocean
currents. (250words)
Why the question:
To bring out the factors responsible for formation and movement of ocean current.
Directive word:

particular context. You must be defining key terms where ever appropriate, and substantiate with
relevant associated facts.
Introduction:
Begin by defining ocean currents.
Body:
Draw a small illustrative diagram showing major ocean currents.
Mention primary and secondary factors responsible for their formation – insolation, atmospheric
circulations, gravity and the effect of Coriolis force, Temperature and salinity differences and water
density etc.
Conclusion:
Summarize the importance of Ocean currents.
Introduction
Ocean currents can be generated by wind, density differences in water masses caused by
temperature and salinity variations, gravity, and events such as earthquakes
Body
Factors leading to ocean currents:
 There are a variety of factors that affect how ocean currents (water in motion) are created,
including a combination of two or more factors.
 The different types of currents (referred to as surface or thermohaline, depending on their

depth) are created by, among other things, wind, water density, the topography of the
ocean floor and the coriolis effect.
 Wind
o Prevailing or planetary winds (e.g., trade winds, westerlies and polar winds) play
major roles in the origin of ocean currents. The wind blowing on the water surface
also moves water in its direction due to its friction with the water.
o Most of the ocean currents of the world follow the direction of prevailing winds. For
example, equatorial currents flow westward under the influence of N.E. and S.B.
trade winds. The Gulf Stream in the Atlantic and the Kuroshio in the Pacific move in
northeastern direction under the influence of the westerlies.
 Air pressure:-
o Air pressure on the oceanic water causes ocean currents through density variations.
The areas of high atmospheric pressure are characterized by low volume of water
and thus lowering of water level. Contrary to this the areas of low atmospheric
pressure record higher volume of water and higher water level. Thus, water moves
as surface current from the areas of higher water level (Low pressure areas) to low
water level areas (high pressure areas).
 Temperature
o The amount of insolation received at the earth’s surface and consequent

temperature decreases from equator towards the poles. Due to high temperature in
the equatorial region the water density decreases because of greater expansion of

water molecules whereas the density of sea water becomes comparatively greater
in the polar areas.
o Consequently water moves due to expansion of volume from equatorial region (of
higher temperature) to polar areas (colder areas) of relatively very low temperature.
o There is movement of ocean water below the water surface in the form of
subsurface current from colder polar areas to warmer equatorial areas in order to
balance the loss of water in the equatorial areas. Thus, the poleward surface current
and Equatorward subsurface currents form a complete circulatory system of ocean
water. The Gulf Stream and Kuroshio warm currents moving from equator towards
north are examples of such currents
 Water Density
o Another major factor in the creation of currents is water density, caused by the
amount of salt in a body of water, and its temperature. Water with a higher salinity,
or colder water, is more dense and likely to sink. Sinking water pushes the water
below it up. The combination of sinking and rising in the same area causes a current.
 Ocean Bottom Topography
o Water contours to the topography of the ocean floor or bed. If the ocean bottom
“drops out,” like in a valley or trench, the moving water will move downward. If
there is a rise in the ocean bottom, like a ridge or mountain, the water moving along
it will be forced upward. The sudden upward or downward change of direction
causes water displacement, creating a current.
 Coriolis Effect
o When a rotating object collides with another moving or stationery force, it creates a
new motion. The Earth’s rotation creates two currents: one, a clockwise movement
of water in the Northern Hemisphere; the other, a counter-clockwise movement of
water in the Southern hemisphere. When these currents are deflected by land
masses, they create huge ocean currents called gyres.
 Salinity
o Oceanic salinity affects the density of ocean water and density variation causes
ocean currents. Ocean currents on the water surface are generated from the areas
of less salinity to the areas of greater salinity.
Conclusion
Ocean currents act much like a conveyer belt, transporting warm water and precipitation from the
equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics. Thus, currents regulate
global climate, helping to counteract the uneven distribution of solar radiation reaching Earth’s
surface. Without currents, regional temperatures would be more extreme super hot at the
equator and frigid toward the poles and much less of Earth’s land would be habitable.

The ocean floor is not a uniform expanse; rather, it is characterized by a diverse range
of relief features that play a crucial role in shaping the Earth’s oceans. Discuss the
significance of studying ocean floor? (250 words)
Why the question:
mention the major relief feature of ocean floor and explain them and their significance.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Explain what is meant by ocean bottom relief and how our understanding of ocean bottom has
evolved with time.
Body:
First, List the major ocean relief features – the continental shelf, the continental slope, the
continental rise, the Deep Sea Plain or the abyssal plain, Oceanic Deeps or Trenches, mid oceanic
ridges. Explain these features.
Next, write about the significance of study of ocean relief.
Conclusion:
Conclude by stressing on the overall importance of study of ocean relief.
Introduction
Water covers 70% of the earth’s surface in which only 3% are fresh water (Of this, 2% is in polar ice
caps and only 1% is usable water). Oceans make up around 67 percent of the Earth’s surface. The
relief features of the oceans are quite different from the continental features because the Oceanic
crust is less than 60-70- million years old whereas continental features are of Proterozoic age which
is over 1 billion years old. The Oceanic relief features are in the form of mountains, basins, plateaus,
ridges, canyons and trenches beneath the ocean water. These forms are called Submarine Relief.
Body

Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic, volcanic, erosional and depositional processes and their
interactions. Ocean relief features are divided into major and minor relief features.
Major Ocean Relief Features: There are four major divisions in the ocean relief
 Continental shelf
o There is no clear or well-defined line separating oceans from continents.
o Infact, continents do not end abruptly at shoreline.
o They slope seaward from the coast to a point where the slope becomes very steep.
o The shallow submerged extension of continent is called the continental shelf.
o The depth of this shallow sea water over the continental shelf ranges between 120
to 370 metres.
o The width of the continental shelf varies greatly ranging between a few kilometres
to more than 100 kilometres.
 Continental slope & Continental rise

o The continuously sloping portion of the continental margin, seaward of the
continental shelf and extending down to the deep-sea floor of the abyssal plain, is
known as continental slope.
o It is characterized by gradients of 2.5 degrees.
o It extends between the depth of 180 to 3600 metres.
o In some places, for example, off the shore of Philippines, the continental slope
extends to a great depth.
o Continental slopes, mainly due to their steepness and increasing distance from the
land have very little deposits of sediments on them.
o Sea life is also far less here than on the shelf.
o Along the base of the continental slope is a deposit of sediments. This belt of
sedimentary deposits form the continental rise.
o In some regions the rise is very narrow but in others it may extend up to 600 km in
width.
 Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal plain
o Abyssal plains are extremely flat and featureless plains of the deep ocean floor.
o In fact, the abyssal plains are likely the most level areas on the earth.
o Abyssal plains covering a major portion of ocean floor between the depth of 3000m
to 6000m.
o They were once regarded as featureless plains but modem devices have shown that
they are as irregular as the continental plain or surface.
o They have extensive submarine plateaus, hills, guyots and seamounts.

o The floor of the abyssal plain is covered by sediments.
 Ocean deeps
o The ocean deeps are the deepest part of the ocean.
o They are long, narrow, steep sided and flat-floored depressions on the ocean floor.
o They are generally called submarine trenches.
Conclusion
The Oceanic relief controls the motion of sea water. It influences the oceanic movement in the form
of currents and helps in the navigation and fishing. It is a result of the plate tectonics and very little
of the ocean floor has been mapped directly due to the vastness, diversity and associated
challenges.
Value addition
Minor Ocean Relief Features:
 Ridges
 Hills
 Seamounts
 Guyots
 Trenches
 Canyons
 Sleeps
 Fracture zones.
 Island arcs.
 Atolls
 Coral reefs.
 Submerged volcanoes.
 Sea-scarps.
 Hydrothermal Vents.
 Methane seeps.
The continental shelf of the Indian Ocean holds significant economic potential due to
the presence of various resources that can be exploited for both commercial and
strategic purposes. Examine. (250 words)
Why the question:

To write about the resource richness of the Continental shelf of the Indian ocean and its economic
implications.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Start the answer by stating various resources available in the continental shelf such as natural gas,
minerals such as manganese and oil etc.
Body:
First, draw a neat diagram showing major resources. Write in detail the economic implications of the
resources mentioned in the introduction.
Then mention the nutrient richness of the continental shelf, promoting diverse marine animals and
their economic significance. Further, mention the corals and mangrove vegetation that not only
promotes the biodiversity but also protects the economic activities of the coastal region by protecting
it against vagaries of climate change events.
Conclusion:
Conclude by stating that the continental shelf of the Indian ocean is hugely resource rich and we need
to have a sustainable approach to harness them.
Introduction
Continental shelf, a broad, relatively shallow submarine terrace of continental crust forming the
edge of a continental landmass. The geology of continental shelves is often similar to that of
the adjacent exposed portion of the continent, and most shelves have a gently
rolling topography called ridge and swale. Continental shelves make up about 8 percent of the entire
area covered by oceans.
Body

Economic significance of the resources in the continental shelf of the Indian Ocean
Biotic Resources: The Biotic Resources include fish, crustaceans’ molluscs, sea weeds and other
edible form of marine life.
 Marine Animals provide oil, fur, leather, cattle food etc.
 Marine plants and animals are also used in curative medicine.
 Seaweed derived from continental shelf are used in cooking and textiles.
 Among all biotic resources Fish are more important for the people of Indian Ocean region
because they are a rich source of proteins and account for more than 10% of the animal
protein food. e.g. major varieties of fish include Tuna, Mackerel, Salman, Sardine, Prawn etc.
 Fisheries and aquaculture industries are also a major source of exports. India’s maritime
exports grew 55 times in volume between 1962 and 2012 and fisheries exports now account
for Rs. 16,600 crore or about $2.5 billion.
Mineral Resources:
 The mineral resources derived from the continental shelf of Indian Ocean include both
metallic and non-metallic resources either in the dissolved form or as suspensions. The
dissolved salts include common salt. e.g. Sodium Chloride, Salts of Magnesium and Bromine
 Minerals derived from the shelves include Petroleum gas, Magnesium, Sulphur, Iron, Gold,
Silver, Polymetallic nodules of copper zinc etc. These are valuable for the industrial usage.

 Oil and Natural Gas are the important of all the mineral resources. They constitute up to
90% of the value of mineral derived from the sea. e.g. Bombay High.
 Placer Deposits: Vitally important, thorium resources in placer sands of Malabar coast are a
promise to Nuclear Energy security.
Energy Resources:
 Tidal Waves: Tides during rise and fall, release a lot of energy by striking against the shore.
This action of tidal waves can be used to operate a turbine and produce electricity. e.g. Tidal
Wave plant has been established at Durgaduani in Sunderban of West Bengal.
 Energy from temperature difference in Surface and Sub-surface water: In tropical oceans
like Indian Ocean, the surface temperature is about 25°C to 30°C while the sub-temperature
is 5°C. This vertical difference of temperature is enough to generate electricity. e.g. Ocean
Thermal Energy Conversion Plant at the coast of Tamil Nadu
 Geothermal Energy: This means tapping heat from the fracture zones and active volcanoes
on Continental Shelves.
Tourism:
 Coral atolls in Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar Islands attract many tourists from India as
well as abroad. This helps the livelihood of many islanders.
Conclusion
The Continental Shelf of the Indian Ocean is economically very significant for people. Indian Ocean is
an “ocean of economic opportunities” for India. The security threats posed by State and non-state
actors are impeding the progress. The Government initiatives like SAGAR, IORA, Sagarmala etc.
should ensure that the fruits of Blue Economy is well reaped.
Value addition
Factors that make continental shelves one of the highly productive ecosystems:
 The continental shelf is geologically defined as the submerged prolongation of the land mass
of the coastal State, consisting of the seabed and subsoil of the shelf, slope, and rise. It does
not include the deep ocean floor.
 Despite their small size in both areal extent and volume, the waters over continental shelves
are usually rich in nutrients, which in turn make them among the most biologically
productive areas of the oceans.
 Water depth over the continental shelves averages about 60 meters (200 feet).
Sunlight penetrates the shallow waters, and many kinds of organisms flourish—
from microscopic shrimp to giant seaweed called kelp. Ocean currents and runoff from rivers
bring nutrients to organisms that live on continental shelves.
 Plants and algae make continental shelves rich feeding grounds for sea creatures.
 Accordingly, about 90% of the world’s fisheries production is harvested over the continental
shelves.

 One of the reasons for this higher productivity is the increased nutrient loads via runoff from
the continental landmasses (mostly by rivers), however many shelf areas receive significant
nutrients from upwelling of deeper ocean waters.
 Continental shelf waters also tend to have food chains with fewer trophic levels, and on
average support larger fish.
Distinguish between a cyclone and an anti-cyclone. How is climate change impacting

tropical cyclones globally? (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about differences between cyclone and an anti-cyclone, the impact of climate change on
cyclones.
Introduction:
Begin by defining cyclones and anti-cyclones.
Body:
First, write the differences between the both on nature, direction, pressure and various other
parameters.
Next, explain as to how climate change is impacting tropic cyclones and substantiate with facts and
examples. Mention methods to mitigate and cope with it.
Conclusion:
Introduction
Tropical Cyclone is any large system of winds that circulates about a centre of low atmospheric
pressure in a counter-clockwise direction north of the Equator and in a clockwise direction to the
south. Cyclonic winds move across nearly all regions of the Earth except the equatorial belt and are
generally associated with rain or snow. Extratropical cyclones are also called wave cyclone or mid-
latitude cyclone or temperate cyclones. The systems developing in the mid and high latitude, beyond
the tropics are called the middle latitude or extra tropical cyclones.
Body
Differences between tropical and Extra-tropical cyclones
 Winds:
o Unlike tropical (warm core) storms, winds are not as concentrated near the center of
the storm, but can spread out for hundreds of miles from it.
 Direction
o The extratropical cyclones move from west to east but tropical cyclones, move from
east to west.
 Precipitation:
o The extratropical cyclones have a clear frontal system which is not present in the
tropical cyclones.
o It is in a cold core (non-tropical cyclone) can also spread far away from the center of
the storm. Most mid-latitude storms are cold core including nor’easters.
o The precipitation is more intense in tropical cyclone than non-tropical cyclone.
o Also, precipitation in tropical cyclones are localized while in case of non-tropical

cyclone the precipitation is widespread.
 Shape:
o Tropical cyclones are nearly symmetric in shape and are without fronts. Mid-latitude
(cold core) cyclones are comma shaped and have fronts associated with them.
 Impact
o Extratropical cyclones cover a larger area and can originate over the land and sea.
Whereas the tropical cyclones originate only over the seas and on reaching the land
they dissipate.
o The extratropical cyclone affects a much larger area as compared to the tropical
cyclone. The wind velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher and it is more
destructive.
 Transition:
o Hurricanes and tropical storms often transition to cold core cyclones, meaning that
it has technically lost many of its tropical characteristics and is more closely related
to a mid-latitude (non-tropical) storm.
o The transition often occurs when a tropical cyclone moves to higher latitudes and
interacts with atmospheric features that are more common there.
 Troughs:
o Tropical cyclones don’t form troughs whereas non-tropical cyclones form troughs in
upper level of atmosphere.
Impact of Climate change on tropical cyclones
 Warming of the surface ocean from anthropogenic (human-induced) climate change is likely
fueling more powerful Tropical Cyclones.
 The destructive power of individual Tropical Cyclones through flooding is amplified by rising
sea levels, which very likely has a substantial contribution at the global scale from
anthropogenic climate change.
 In addition, Tropical Cyclones’ precipitation rates are projected to increase due to enhanced
atmospheric moisture associated with anthropogenic global warming.
 The proportion of severe Tropical Cyclones has increased, possibly due to anthropogenic
climate change.
 However, most climate model studies project a corresponding reduction in the proportion of
low-intensity cyclones, so the total number of Tropical Cyclones each year is projected to
decrease or remain approximately the same.

 Studies have shown that some 2.1 to 3.1 per cent of the total number of tropical cyclones
expected to strike in the near future, could be strong.
 Globally, the risk of strong tropical cyclones is expected to become more than double by
2050. The Gulf of Mexico is not likely to see the same trend, according to the analysis.
 The studies associated with temperature suggest that the Indian Ocean is warming,
particularly the Arabian Sea, which is doing so at the fastest rate.
 Previously, tropical cyclones in the Arabian Sea were restricted to Gujarat.
 In the past decade though, Kerala and Karnataka have also become more vulnerable to
cyclones. A recent example is ‘Ockhi’.
 The Arabian Sea is quickly responding to climate change signals, heating rapidly and driving
more and more cyclones, and excessive rainfall, although, experts still do not understand
how much of a performance climate change must work on Ockhi.
 The rise in Arabian Sea surface temperature makes it warmer than other seas all through
this period.
 Global warming adds to climate variability and weather changes.
 A sophisticated climate model to compare the conditions in 2015 to conditions in 1860,

keeping in mind the carbon footprints. The findings suggest that 64 per cent of the cyclone
risk in the Arabian Sea was due to climate change.
 The coastal areas surrounding the Arabian Sea are at specific risk since the geographical
location offers cyclones nowhere to go but the land.
Way Forward
 Develop a Climate Risk Atlas to map critical vulnerabilities such as coasts, urban heat stress,
water stress, and biodiversity collapse.
 Develop an Integrated Emergency Surveillance Systemto facilitate a systematic and

sustained response to emergencies.
 Mainstream risk assessment at all levels,including localised, regional, sectoral, cross-

sectoral, macro and micro-climatic level.
 Enhance adaptive and resilience capacityto climate-proof lives, livelihoods and

investments.
 Increase the participatory engagement of all stakeholders in the risk assessment process.
 Integrate risk assessment into local, sub-national, and national level plans.
Conclusion
Global warming has presented us with new challenges such as rapid intensification of cyclones,
which need to be closely monitored at higher resolution and accuracy using on-site platforms such
as buoys and moorings. Improving the Indian Ocean Observing System (IndOOS) and incorporating
the global warming signals in the weather models can help us tackle the challenges of intense
cyclones in the future.

Discuss the factors affecting and the major features of tropical rainforest climate. Write
a short note on its vegetation. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write causes and features of tropical rainforest climate and the nature of its vegetation.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by giving a brief about tropical rainforest climate
Body:
First, write the about the various factors that contribute to the development of tropical rainforest
climate.
Next, write in detail the unique features of tropical rainforest climate.
Next, write about the nature of vegetation in tropical rainforest climate and its economic and
ecological importance.
Conclusion:
Introduction
Tropical rainforests occur in regions of the tropics where temperatures are always high and where
rainfall exceeds about 1,800 to 2,500 mm (about 70 to 100 inches) annually and occurs fairly evenly
throughout the year. Similar hot climates in which annual rainfall lies between about 800 and 1,800
mm and in which a pronounced season of low rainfall occurs typically support tropical deciduous
forests—i.e., rainforests in which up to about three-quarters of the trees lose their leaves in the dry
season.
Body
Major features
 Rainfall:
o The word “rainforest” implies that these are the some of the world’s wettest
ecosystems.
o Rainforests generally receive very high rainfall each year, although the exact amount
varies among different years and different rainforests.
o For example, South America’s tropical rainforests receive between 200 and 300
centimeters (80 and 120 inches, or 6.5 to 10 feet!) of rain in a typical year.
o Despite relatively consistent rain in these ecosystems, there are distinct dry seasons
in some rainforests. Wet and dry seasons of tropical rainforests vary in their timing,
duration and severity around the globe.
 Humidity:

o Tropical rainforests also have high humidity; about 88% during the wet season and
approximately 77% in the dry season.
 Temperature:
o Tropical rainforests are found near the equator, between the Tropic of Cancer
(23°27’N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23°27’S).
o The equator receives direct sunlight. This steady flow of radiation produces
consistently high temperatures throughout the year.
 Soil Composition:
o The rainforest soils are nutrient-poor because nutrients are not stored in them for
very long.
o The heavy rains that occur in rainforests wash organic material from the soil.
o Although decomposition occurs rapidly in the hot, moist conditions, many of the
dead, fallen leaves and other organic detritus are swept away before releasing all of
their nutrients.
o In addition, rainwater seeps into the ground and leaches away nutrients.
 Biodiversity:
o Tropical rainforests are areas of extremely high biodiversity compared to other

ecosystems.
o In the tropical rainforests of Borneo, scientists have documented more than 15,000
plant species, including 2,500 species of orchids
Factors affecting the rainforest climate
 The principal determining climatic factor for the distribution of rainforests in lowland regions
of the tropics, therefore, is rainfall, both the total amount and the seasonal variation.
 Topographic factors influence rainfall and consequently affect rainforest distribution within
a region. For example, coastal regions where prevailing winds blow onshore are likely to
have a wetter climate than coasts that experience primarily offshore winds.
 Soil, human disturbance, and other factors also can be important controlling influences.
Vegetation
 High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant tropical rain forest.
 In the Amazon lowlands, the forest is so dense that it is called ‘selvas’.
 Unlike the temperate regions, the growing season here is all the year round-seeding,
flowering, fruiting and decaying do not take place in a seasonal pattern.
 The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical
hardwood, e.g. mahogany, ebony, dyewoods etc.
 Many parts of the tropical rain forests have been cleared either for lumbering or shifting
cultivation.

 In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests
 From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of foliage, broken only
where it is crossed by large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
 All plants struggle upwards (most ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer
arrangement.
Conclusion
The tropical rainforest is one of the world’s most threatened biomes, despite being home to some of
the most diverse and unique species on the planet. Many of the world’s most colorful creatures
reside in rainforests, and animals from tiny organisms to large wild cats find homes amongst the
range of plant life.
The development and distribution of pressure belts on Earth are a result of the complex
interactions between solar energy distribution, atmospheric circulation patterns, and
geographic features. Discuss. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about factors affecting horizontal movement of air, causes behind pressure belts and their
distribution.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Define pressures belts.
Body:
First, draw a neat labelled diagram showing the global distribution of various pressure belts and
explain each belt in detail.
Next, explain the factors that lead to the development of pressures belts – Atmospheric Pressure
Gradient, Coriolis Effect, Frictional Force etc, Earth’s revolution, Seasonal variations.
Conclusion:
Write about the significance of pressure belts.
Introduction
The distribution of atmospheric pressure across the latitudes is termed global horizontal distribution
of pressure. Its main feature is its zonal character known as pressure belts. All air movements have
their roots in pressure differentials in the atmosphere, called pressure gradients. Systematic
differences in the Earth’s land temperature affect air pressure, and significant patterns of pressure
that persist over time are called pressure belts, or wind belts. Wind belts depend on temperature, so
temperature changes can move the belts and also change wind patterns.
Body

The horizontal distribution of air pressure across the latitudes is characterized by high or low-
pressure belts. These pressure belts are:
 Equatorial Low-Pressure Belts
o This low-pressure belt extends from 0 to 5° North and South of Equator.
o Due to the vertical rays of the sun here, there is intense heating.
o The air, therefore, expands and rises as convection current causing low pressure to
develop here.
o This low-pressure belt is also called as doldrums because it is a zone of total calm
without any breeze.
 Subtropical High-Pressure Belts
o At about 30°North and South of Equator lies the area where the ascending
equatorial air currents descend.
o This area is thus an area of high pressure. It is also called as the Horse latitude.
Winds always blow from high pressure to low pressure.

o So, the winds from subtropical region blow towards the Equator as Trade winds and
another wind blow towards Sub-Polar Low-Pressure as Westerlies.
 Circum-Polar Low-Pressure Belts
o These belts located between 60° and 70° in each hemisphere are known as Circum-
Polar Low-Pressure Belts.
o In the Subtropical region, the descending air gets divided into two parts.
o One-part blows towards the Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt. The other part blows
towards the Circum-Polar Low-Pressure Belt.
o This zone is marked by the ascent of warm Subtropical air over cold polar air blowing
from poles. Due to the earth’s rotation, the winds surrounding the Polar region blow
towards the Equator.
o Centrifugal forces operating in this region create the low-pressure belt appropriately
called the Circumpolar Low-Pressure Belt.
o This region is marked by violent storms in winter.
 Polar High-Pressure Areas
o At the North and South Poles, between 70° to 90° North and South, the
temperatures are always extremely low.
o The cold descending air gives rise to high pressures over the Poles. These areas of
Polar high pressure are known as the Polar Highs.
o These regions are characterized by permanent Ice Caps.
The development of pressure belts:
 Thermal Factors
o When air is heated, it expands and, hence, its density decreases. This naturally leads
to low pressure.
o On the contrary, cooling results in contraction. This increases the density and thus
leads to high pressure.
o Formation of equatorial low and polar highs are examples of thermal lows and
thermal highs, respectively.
 Dynamic Factors
o Apart from variations of temperature, the formation of pressure belts may be

explained by dynamic controls arising out of pressure gradient forces and rotation of
the earth (Coriolis force).
Conclusion
The shifting of the pressure belts causes seasonal changes in the climate, especially between
latitudes 30° and 40° in both hemispheres. The Monsoon climate is the result of the shifting of
pressure and wind belts.

Even though local winds operate on a smaller scale and shorter timespan compared to
larger atmospheric systems, their effects can be deeply felt on economies and natural
systems within a specific region. Comment. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about impact of local winds on livelihood of the people in the region they flow.
Directive word:
opinion thereupon.
Introduction:
Start by writing about the nature of local winds and their features.
Body:
First, write the major local winds witnessed across the globe and causes for it.
Next, write their impact of livelihood of the people – positive impact – influencing climate, agriculture
etc. Cite examples for the same.
Next, write the negative impact of the local winds – destruction of crops, extreme conditions. Cite
examples for the same.
Conclusion:
Conclude by mentioning ways to adapt to the negative impacts.
Introduction
Local winds occur on a small spatial scale, their horizontal dimensions typically several tens to a few
hundreds of kilometres. They also tend to be short-lived lasting typically several hours to a day.
There are many such winds around the world, some of them cold, some warm, some wet, some dry.
There are many hazards associated with the winds.
However, it is important to remember that some of the local winds can have very large dimensions
like, Northers of North America, which originate in Arctic Canada and reach as south as the Gulf of
Mexico.
Body:

Types and Impact of local winds on the weather:
Periodical winds: The winds originating from diurnal temperature and pressure variation are known
as Periodical and they generally complete their cycle in a day/ 24 hour like Land & Sea Breeze and
Mountain & Valley Breeze.
Land and Sea Breeze: Land and Sea Breeze is generated by the diurnal variation of pressure. Due to
this reason, the Land and Sea Breeze are sometimes known as diurnal Monsoon.
Land Breeze:
 At night reversal of sea breeze may occur but with somewhat weaker characteristics as the
temperature and pressure gradient are less steeper during the night.
 During night land breeze is established since land cools to a temperature lower than the
adjacent water setting up a pressure gradient from land to sea
 The horizontal and vertical extent of the Land Breeze helps in moderation of temperature of
a coastal area during night-time as it maintains regular circulation
 Land Breeze usually attains its maximum intensity in the early morning hours and dies out
soon after sunup.
Sea Breeze:
 The sea breeze develops along seacoasts or large inland water bodies when the land heats
much faster than the water on a clear day and a pressure gradient is directed high over the
water to low over the land.
 Impact of Sea breeze rapidly declines landward and impact is limited to 50km.

 Land- Sea Breeze system is very shallow as the average depth of the land and sea breeze,
varies from 1000-2000M in tropical regions and over the lakes, the depth is even lesser.
 Sea Breeze brings cool marine air and thus help in moderation of coastal temperature and
due to the sea breeze, coastal regions record a drop of 5-10 0C in their temperature
 It also frequently causes late afternoon rainfall in these coastal areas, particularly during
summer.
 Due to the location nearer to the lakes, places experience the Lake Effect like Chicago, due
to its location near a lake presents a typical example of lake effect- where lakeside areas are
cooler than the much warmer outlying areas in the summer.
Mountain and Valley Breeze: These winds develop over areas with large differences in relief and
majorly caused by the temperature gradient that exists between Mountain Slopes and valleys.
Valley Breeze:
 Due to the intense insolation during the daytime, the slopes of the mountain heat up rapidly
but the free atmosphere above the lowlands is not heated to some extent.
 As the valleys receive comparatively lesser insolation so relatively high pressure sets up in
the valleys while along the mountain slopes due to more heating the warm air is uplifted,
and low pressure sets up.
 Thus, the air moves from the Valleys towards the slopes (High pressure to the low pressure)
and this upslope movement of air is known as valley breeze.
 Valley breezes are also known as Anabatic Wind.
 Weather associated with the Valley Breeze

 This type of upslope winds in the Mountainous region may cause occasional and afternoon
thundershowers on warm and humid days.
 Sometimes, the valley breezes are also accompanied by the formation of cumulus cloud near
mountain peaks or over slopes and escarpments.
Mountain Breeze:
 On mountainsides under the clear night sky, the higher land (upslope land) radiates heat and
is cooled and in turn cools the air in contact with it. The cool denser air flows down the
mountain slope due to the pressure difference since the valley is warmer and at relatively
lower pressure.
 This flow of the air is termed as Mountain Breeze and they are also known as Katabatic wind.
 Weather associated with the Mountain Breeze
 By the morning the mountain breeze produces temperature inversions and valley bottom
becomes colder than the Mountain Slopes.
 Thus, the valley floors are characterised by frost during the night while upper part/ hillside
are free from frost in cold areas.
Non-Periodical winds: Only present during a season and are classified as Hot and Cold Winds.
Hot Local Winds: Hot Local winds are produced generally by the mechanism of downslope
compressional heating also known as adiabatic heating. The examples of the Hot Local Winds include
Chinook, Harmattan, Foehn, Sirocco, Norwester, Brickfielder, Khamsin, Santa Ana, Loo etc.
 Chinook:
o These are warm and dry winds blowing on the eastern slopes (leeward side) of the
Rocky Mountain. They are the result of adiabatic heating which occurs due to
downslope compression on the leeward side, as the mountain barrier creates
frictional drag which tends to pull the air from the higher level down on the leeward
and air forced down is heated adiabatically and at the same time its relative
humidity is also lowered.
o The temperature in Chinook is so warm that it can remove the underlying snow
cover/ice and sometimes these winds are so dry that in spite of their below freezing
temperatures the entire snow cover on the ground disappears, by process of
sublimation. Thus, these winds are also known as Chinook, which literally means
‘Snow Eater’.
o Ordinarily, a Chinook wind is accompanied by the cyclonic activity which produces

Cloud and precipitation on the windward side of the Rocky Mountain Range.
o The latent heat released into the air through the condensation process warms the
air and which passes across the mountain range and since the air has lost its
moisture it becomes drier.
o During winter Great Plain of North America are very cold and frozen, Chinook with
its arrival increase the temperature and bring relief to the people and at the same

time, the rise in temperature due to Chinook also helps in early sowing of spring
wheat in the USA.
 Foehn:
o Foehn is dry and warm wind resulting due to adiabatic heating on the leeward side
of the Mountain range.
o These winds are more common on the northern side of Alps in Switzerland and with
the arrival of these winds, there is a rapid rise in temperature.
o The low relative humidity and high temperature are due to the adiabatic heating of
the down-slope winds
o The Foehn winds are present throughout the winter and due to the presence of such
winds the temperature increases, and valleys of Switzerland are called ‘Climatic
Oasis’ during the winter season
 Harmattan:
o These hot and dry wind originate from the Sahara Desert and blow towards the
Guinea coast of Africa.
o Due to their journey over the Sahara Desert, these winds become extremely dry and
as they pass over the Sahara Desert, they pick up more sand especially red sand and
turn dusty.
o As these winds arrive in the western coast of Africa, the weather, which is warm and
moist before its arrival, turns into pleasant dry weather with low relative humidity,
thus bringing great relief to the people. Due to this reason, they are also known as
“doctor” winds in the Guinea coast area of Western Africa
 Loo:
o It originates from the Thar desert and has north-westerly to a westerly direction.
o They dominate during early summer in the months of March to May and create heat
waves like condition in Northern India and adjoining parts.
o They have desiccating effects and are considered as environmental hazards.
Cold Local Winds: Cold local winds are dust-laden winds and as they have a temperature below
freezing point, they create Cold Wave condition. The examples of Cold Local winds include-Mistral,
Bora, Northers, Blizzard, Purga, Laventer, Pampero, Bise etc.
 Mistral:
o It is a cold and dry wind which blows in the Spain and France from North-west to
South-East direction, mostly occur during winter months.
o Due to the presence of the Rhome River, these winds are channelized into the
Rhome valley due to which they become extremely cold.
o As they pass through the narrow Rhome Valley, they turn into stormy northerly cold
winds

o Such stormy cold northerly winds cause a sudden drop in temperature to below
freezing point.
 Bora:
o These are cold and dry north-easterly winds which blow from the mountains
towards the eastern shore of Adriatic Sea.
o Bora is more effective in North Italy since here it descends the southern slopes of
the Alps, although due to descend it gets adiabatically heated still its temperature is
very low in comparison to the coastal area and these are the typical example of fall
winds.
o Bora has often associated with the passage of a temperate Cyclone and at times the
Bora winds themselves attain the hurricane force at the foot of the mountain and
may cause disastrous impacts on properties.
 Blizzard:
o Blizzard is cold, violent, powdery polar winds (pick dry snow from the ground)
o They are prevalent in the north and south polar regions, Canada, USA, Siberia etc.
Due to the absence of any east-west Mountain barrier, these winds reach to the
southern states of USA.
Conclusion
Local differences of temperature and pressure produce local winds. Such winds are local in extent
and are confined to the lowest levels of the troposphere.
While natural tectonic processes are the primary drivers of earthquakes, anthropogenic
activities can trigger seismic events under specific conditions. Analyse. (250 words)
Why the question: Why the question:
To write about causes of earthquakes and natural and anthropogenic causes behind it.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by defining an Earthquake.
Body:
In first part, give a brief about the mechanism of an earthquake and how it occurs.
Next, write about the various natural causes of earthquakes – movement of plates at divergent,
convergent, and transform boundaries. Volcanic activity and faulting etc.
Next, write about anthropogenic causes of earthquakes – dam construction, mining operations,
nuclear tests etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing about the importance of preparedness to deal with earthquakes.

Introduction
An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy
in the Earth‘s lithosphere that creates seismic waves. It is a natural event. Earthquake is the form of
energy of wave motion transmitted through the surface layer of the earth. The location below the
earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location directly above
it on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.
Body
Natural Causes
Fault Zones
 The release of energy occurs along a fault. A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks.
 Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite directions. As the overlying rock strata press
them, the friction locks them together.
 However, their tendency to move apart at some point of time overcomes the friction. As a
result, the blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide past one another abruptly.
 This causes earthquake in the form of release of energy, and the energy waves travel in all
directions.
Plate tectonics
 The most common ones are the tectonic earthquakes.
 The Earth’s crust consists of seven large lithospheric plates and numerous smaller plates.
 Tectonic plates (Lithospheric plates) are constantly shifting as they drift around on the
viscous, or slowly flowing, mantle layer below.
 This non-stop movement causes stress on Earth’s crust. When the stresses get too large, it
leads to cracks called faults.
 When tectonic plates move, it also causes movements at the faults. Thus, the slipping of
land along the faultline along convergent, divergent and transform boundaries cause
earthquakes.
Volcanoes
 A special class of tectonic earthquake is sometimes recognised as volcanic earthquake.
However, these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.
 Earthquakes produced by stress changes in solid rock due to the injection or withdrawal of
magma (molten rock) are called volcano earthquakes.
 These earthquakes can cause land to subside and can produce large ground cracks. These
earthquakes can occur as rock is moving to fill in spaces where magma is no longer present.
 Volcano-tectonic earthquakes don’t indicate that the volcano will be erupting but can occur
at any time.
Anthropogenic causes
 In the areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of underground mines collapse
causing minor tremors. These are called collapse earthquakes.
 Blasting of rock by dynamites for construction purposes.
 Deep underground tunnel excavations
 Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices. Such
tremors are called explosion earthquakes.
 The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to as reservoir
induced earthquakes. E.g: Koyna reservoir earthquake in Maharastra
 Hydrostatic pressure of man-made water bodies like reservoirs and lakes.

 Huge gatherings of population. Eg: Taylor Swift‘s recent concerts in Seattle have caused
seismic waves comparable to a 2.3 magnitude earthquake, according to seismologists.
Conclusion
Unlike other disasters, the damages caused by earthquakes are more devastating. Since it also
destroys most of the transport and communication links, providing timely relief to the victims
becomes difficult. It is not possible to prevent the occurrence of an earthquake; hence, the next best
option is to emphasis on disaster preparedness and mitigation rather than curative measures.
What is temperature inversion? Explain the several mechanisms that can lead to
temperature inversions. What are the impacts of temperature inversions? (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about the mechanism of temperature inversions, its types and impact.
Directive word:
associated facts.
Introduction:
Begin by defining temperature inversion.
Body:
First, explain the various Types of Temperature Inversion – Ground Inversion, Turbulence Inversion,
Subsidence Inversion, Air drainage type of Inversion and Frontal Inversion etc.
Next, explain the impact of temperature inversion on agriculture, air quality, energy consumption,
transportation, and other sectors
Conclusion:
Conclude by Summarising.
Introduction
Temperature inversion, also called thermal inversion, a reversal of the normal behaviour
of temperature in the troposphere (the region of the atmosphere nearest Earth’s surface), in which a
layer of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of warmer air. (Under normal conditions air

temperature usually decreases with height.) Inversions play an important role in

determining cloud forms, precipitation, and visibility.
Body
The various mechanisms of inversions of temperature
There are five kinds of inversions: ground, turbulence, subsidence, air drainage and frontal.
Ground Inversion:
 A ground inversion develops when air is cooled by contact with a colder surface until it
becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere; this occurs most often on clear nights, when
the ground cools off rapidly by radiation.
 If the temperature of surface air drops below its dew point, fog may result.
 Topography greatly affects the magnitude of ground inversions.
 If the land is rolling or hilly, the cold air formed on the higher land surfaces tends to drain
into the hollows, producing a larger and thicker inversion above low ground and little or
none above higher elevations.
Turbulence Inversion
 A turbulence inversion often forms when quiescent air overlies turbulent air.
 Within the turbulent layer, vertical mixing carries heat downward and cools the upper part
of the layer.
 The unmixed air above is not cooled and eventually is warmer than the air below; an
inversion then exists.
Subsidence Inversion:
 A subsidence inversion develops when a widespread layer of air descends.

 The layer is compressed and heated by the resulting increase in atmospheric pressure, and,
as a result, the lapse rate of temperature is reduced.
 If the air mass sinks low enough, the air at higher altitudes becomes warmer than at lower
altitudes, producing a temperature inversion.
 Subsidence inversions are common over the northern continents in winter and over the
subtropical oceans; these regions generally have subsiding air because they are located
under large high-pressure centres.
Air drainage type of Inversion
 Sometimes, the temperature in the lower layers of air increases instead of decreasing with
elevation. This happens commonly along a sloping surface.
 Here, the surface radiates heat back to space rapidly and cools down at a faster rate than
the upper layers. As a result the lower cold layers get condensed and become heavy.
 The sloping surface underneath makes them move towards the bottom where the cold layer
settles down as a zone of low temperature while the upper layers are relatively warmer.

 This condition, opposite to normal vertical distribution of temperature, is known as

Temperature Inversion.
 In other words, the vertical temperature gets inverted during temperature inversion.
 This kind of temperature inversion is very strong in the middle and higher latitudes. It can be
strong in regions with high mountains or deep valleys also.
Frontal Inversion
 A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a warm air mass and lifts it aloft;
the front between the two air masses then has warm air above and cold air below.
 This kind of inversion has a considerable slope, whereas other inversions are nearly
horizontal. In addition, humidity may be high, and clouds may be present immediately above
it.
Economic importance of temperature inversion
 Sometimes, the temperature of the air at the valley bottom reaches below freezing point,
whereas the air at higher altitude remains comparatively warm.
 As a result, the trees along the lower slopes are bitten by frost, whereas those at higher
levels are free from it.
 Due to inversion of temperature, air pollutants such as dust particles and smoke do not
disperse in the valley bottoms.
 Because of these factors, houses and farms in intermontane valleys are usually situated
along the upper slopes, avoiding the cold and foggy valley bottoms.
 For instance, coffee growers of Brazil and apple growers and hoteliers of mountain states of
Himalayas in India avoid lower slopes.
 Fog lowers visibility affecting vegetation and human settlements.
 Less rainfall due to stable conditions.
Conclusion
Thus, Inversions play an important role in determining cloud forms, precipitation, and visibility.
Climate change has led to more temperature inversions and the rise of ‘super pollution events’
The theory of plate tectonics is considered more complete than the continental drift
theory because it incorporates and explains a broader range of geological phenomena
and observations related to the movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates. Examine. (250
words)
Why the question:

Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by write about plate tectonics and the movement of continents and various theories put
forward to explain them.
Body:
Write in brief about the continental drift theory and explains it briefly – forces it considers for the
movement, supporting evidences it considers, critique of theory regarding the movement of the
continents and its acceptance among scientists etc.
In the next part, write about plate tectonic theory, the mechanism of it and how it successfully
explained the movement of continents. Use small and neat diagrams for better representation.
Conclusion:
Mention about general importance of the two theories and conclude your answer.
Introduction
Continental drift describes one of the earliest ways geologists thought continents moved over time.
It was a theory that explained how continents shift position on Earth’s surface due to various forces
existing on the earth. The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth’s solid outer crust, the
lithosphere, is separated into plates that move over the asthenosphere, the molten upper portion
of the mantle. Oceanic and continental plates come together, spread apart, and interact at
boundaries all over the planet. Today, the theory of continental drift has been replaced by the
science of plate tectonics.
Body:
Continental drift

 The theory of continental drift is most associated with the scientist Alfred Wegener. In the
early 20th century, Wegener published a paper explaining his theory that the
continental landmasses were “drifting” across the Earth, sometimes ploughing through
oceans and into each other. He called this movement continental drift.
 Pangaea
o Wegener was convinced that all of Earth’s continents were once part of
an enormous, single landmass called Pangaea.
o According to Wagener’s theory, during the Jurassic period, about 200 to 130 million
years ago, Pangaea started to break up into two smaller continents, which he called
Laurasia and Gondwanaland.
 His theory was inspired by the fact that edges of the continents south America and Africa fit
together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle, fossil remains of the same extinct animal or plant
can be found across several continents, identical rocks could be found on both sides of the
Atlantic Ocean. These rocks were the same type and the same age , evidence from ancient
glaciers.
 Scientists did not accept Wegener’s theory of continental drift. One of the elements lacking
in the theory was the mechanism for how it works, why did the continents drift and what
patterns did they follow
Plate tectonics:
 Wegener’s idea eventually helped to form the theory of plate tectonics, but while Wegener
was alive, scientists did not believe that the continents could move.

 Continents rest on massive slabs of rock called tectonic plate The plates are always moving
and interacting in a process called plate tectonics.
 Plate tectonics is the theory explaining the motion of the outer crust or the lithosphere of
earth. Lithosphere is divided into tectonics plates. The crust moves due to convective forces
generated within the asthenosphere, fuelled by the internal heat of the earth’s core.
How plate tectonics is an improvement over continental drift theory:
 Plate tectonic explains the mechanism of the motion of the tectonic plates while continental
drift theory left this question completely unanswered.
o Tectonic plates have been constantly moving over the globe throughout the history
of the earth. It is not the continent that moves as believed by Wegener. Continents
are part of a plate and what moves is the plate.
 Wegener had thought of all the continents to have initially existed as a super continent in
the form of Pangaea. However, later discoveries reveal that the continental masses, resting
on the plates, have been wandering all through the geological period, and Pangaea was a
result of converging of different continental masses that were parts of one or the other
plates.
 At the time that Wegener proposed his theory of continental drift, most scientists believed
that the earth was a solid, motionless body. However, concepts of sea floor spreading and
the unified theory of plate tectonics have emphasised that both the surface of the earth
and the interior are not static and motionless but are dynamic.
 Sea floor spreading:
o The mobile rock beneath the rigid plates is believed to be moving in a circular
manner. The heated material rises to the surface, spreads and begins to cool, and
then sinks back into deeper depths. This cycle is repeated over and over to generate
what scientists call a convection cell or convective flow
o The ultimate proof of this was the discovery of “magnetic stripes “on the seafloor
later in the 1960s: the magnetic domains in oceanic rocks recorded reversal of
Earth’s magnetic field over time. The pattern was symmetric to the ridge, supporting
the idea of symmetric seafloor spreading. The idea of subduction zoneswas born
o With plate tectonics, we have a theory that explains Wegener’s observations and
how lithosphere can be produced and consumed so that Earth does not change its
size
 Wegener’s continental drift theory lacked was a propelling mechanism. Other scientists
wanted to know what was moving these continents around. Unfortunately, Wegener could
not provide a convincing answer. The technological advances necessitated by the Second
World War made possible the accumulation of significant evidence now underlying
modern plate tectonic theory.
 The following two forces are too small to bring in change:
o Pole-fleeing or centrifugal force:

 The spinning of Earth on its own axis creates a centrifugal force i.e., force
oriented away from the axis of rotation towards the equator. Wegener
believed the centrifugal force of the planet caused the super continent
to break apart and pushed continents away from the Poles toward the
equator. Therefore, He called this drifting mechanism as the “pole-fleeing
or centrifugal force”
o Tidal force:
 Wegener tried to attribute the westward drift of the Americas to lunar-solar

drag i.e., by invoking tidal force that is the gravitational forces of the sun and
the moon .He also admitted that it is probable that pole- fleeing or
centrifugal force and tidal force are responsible for the journey of
continents. Wegener failed to devise a sound mechanism for the movement
of the continents. For Wegener the drifting mechanism was the most
difficult question to solve.
o Plate tectonicsis the grand unifying theory of geosciences that explains
 Movement of continents
 Earthquakes, volcanism most major features on Earth’s surface, including

mountain building, formation of new lithosphere ,consumption of old
lithosphere, mid-ocean ridges
Conclusion:
It took nearly 60 years for the idea of continental drift to be scientifically confirmed in the form of
plate tectonic theory. Ultimately it added new dimension in the understanding of the global
distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes and identification of disaster-prone areas.
Geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features

(including water-bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of
such changes.
Floodplain ecosystem are very beneficial. However, rapid urbanization and improper
land use in floodplains have led to reduced water retention capacity, increasing the risk
of floods. Effective zoning can help minimize the impact of floods and ensure the long-
term safety and sustainability of floodplain ecosystem. Analyse. (250 words)
Why the question:
The article discusses the significance of zoning floodplains and its importance in managing and
mitigating the impacts of flooding.
To write about the floodplain ecosystem, its benefits, threat it faces and ways to restore it.
Directive word:

Introduction:
Begin by defining floodplain ecosystem.
Body:
First, write the benefits offered by floodplain ecosystem – support rich ecosystems and provide
critically important benefits to people, including the largest freshwater fisheries in the world. Cite
examples
Next, write about the various threats faced by them.
Next, write about ways to protect and restore the flood plain ecosystem of India.
Conclusion:
Introduction
A floodplain is a generally flat area of land next to a river or stream. It stretches from the banks of
the river to the outer edges of the valley. A floodplain consists of two parts. The first is the
main channel of the river itself, called the floodway. Beyond the floodway is the flood fringe.
The flood fringe extends from the outer banks of the floodway to the bluff lines of a river valley.
Body
Benefits offered by floodplains of India

 When inundated with water, floodplains act as natural filters, removing excess sediment and
nutrients, which can degrade water quality and increase treatment costs.
 These sandy floodplains are exceptional aquifers and any withdrawal is compensated by
gravity flow from a large surrounding area.
 It can replenish underground water sources (or aquifers), which serve as a primary source of
water for many communities and which are critical for irrigation that grows much of the
world’s crops.
 Floodplains are home to some of the most biologically rich habitats on Earth. They provide
spawning grounds for fish and critical areas of rest and foraging for migrating waterfowl and
birds.
 Floodplains of rivers have immense potential for ensuring sustained water supplies for urban
settlements if preserved.
 Many outdoor recreational activities – like fishing, hunting, camping, hiking, wildlife
watching and boating – are made possible by or greatly enhanced by the natural processes
of rivers and healthy floodplains.
various threats to floodplains
 Flood plains are among the most altered landscapes world-
 wide and they continue to disappear at an alarming rate, since
 the ‘reclamation’ rate is much higher than for most other
 landscape types (

 Flood plains are among the most altered landscapes worldwide and they continue to
disappear at an alarming rate, since the ‘reclamation’ rate is much higher than for most
other landscape types
 For river–floodplain ecosystems, expected impacts vary latitudinally.
 In tropical ecosystems, land use is expected to have the greatest effect, with climate change
being minimal.
 In temperate systems, both land-use change and invasion of non-native species can be
expected equally to affect biodiversity
 In high latitude/altitude systems climate change is by far the most dominant driver, although
region-specific differences exist.
 Species invasion is one of the most important causes of the overall decline in aquatic
biodiversity. The higher percentage of exotic plants and animals in flood plains compared to
uplands demonstrates the vulnerability of the riparian zone to invasion
 As the human footprint intensified on the floodplains, the landscape was increasingly
“developed and engineered”.
 The engineered and planned landscape has affected the floodplains in two ways: It has
undermined their ability to store and absorb water and reduced their capacity to transport
sediment.
Way forward and conclusion
 Flood Plain Zoning has been recognized as an effective non-structural measure for flood
management. Flood-plain zoning measures aim at demarcating zones or areas likely to be
affected by floods of different magnitude or frequencies and probability levels, and specify
the types of permissible developments in these zones, so that whenever floods actually
occur, the damage can be minimised.
 Rejuvenate flood-plain ecosystems

o Floods cause disruption and damage but they also generate a bounty of
fish and rejuvenate flood-plain ecosystems.
o g: all along the Brahmaputra, including in the Kaziranga; this landscape has been
shaped over millions of years with the help of an active monsoonal environment
and mighty rivers that carry sediments weathered from the still-rising Himalaya.
 Over millions of years, this depositing of sediment into the floodplains has produced at least
two results: Raising the lowlands and regularly adjusting river beds. These ensure
that impacts of flooding remained moderate.
 Construction projects that impede the movement of water and sediment across the
floodplain must be reconsidered.
 Floodplain management and restoration strategies must also take into account climate
change models that predict significant changes to flow regimes in most of the world’s rivers,
especially in temperate and arid regions.
 Flood plains are unique and dynamic ecosystems that link rivers with their catchments. They
are highly productive environments, supporting a diverse biota, but are also intensively used
by humans for agricultural and urban development, resulting in loss of biodiversity and
ecological functioning.
 The priority for flood plains is to conserve those that are still intact and to attempt to
rehabilitate those that are degraded.
 In both cases, protecting or restoring key components of the natural flow regime is essential,
while maintaining sustainable use of floodplain resources by local communities, particularly
in developing countries.
 Finding this compromise between conservation and resource use requires a greater
understanding of the role of flow relative to other stressors in driving ecological processes in
flood plains.
Distribution of key natural resources across the world (including South Asia and
the Indian sub-continent);
In the 19th century, silk production in India was centered around traditional sericulture
regions like Mysore, Bengal, and Assam. However, over time, there have been shifts in
the location of silk industries due to various factors. Explain. (250 words)
Why the question:
Explain the factors that determine the location of Silk industries in India and as well trace the change
in these locations from 19th century till the present times.
Directive word:

associated facts.
Introduction:
Briefly first bring out the current locations of silk industries in the country.
Body:
Explain the factors that determine the location of silk industry. Comment on the key factors – labor,
raw material and market. Use the map of India to highlight the factors and respective locations –
Karnataka, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir etc. Then move onto trace the changes in the location;
discuss the factors such as technology, advancement in science etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude with importance of the industry in the country.
Introduction
India’s Silk Industry is world’s second largest after China. The total production of silk in India stood
at around 23,000 tons in the year 2011-12. India produces four varieties of silk produced,
viz. Mulberry, Eri, Tasar and Muga. About 80% of silk produced in country is of mulberry silk,
majority of which is produced in the three southern States of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu. Sericulture Provides gainful occupation to around 63 Lakh persons in rural and semi-urban
areas in India. About 97% of raw silk in India is produced in five Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Jammu and Kashmir.
Body
Factors that determine the location of Silk industries in India

 Raw Material: Mulberry plants can be grown in any type of soil even in forest fringes, hill
slopes. They can withstand draught and grows well in non-green revolution, non-irrigated
areas of East and NE India.
 Labour: Sericulture does not involve hard labor. Silkworms can be reared by women and old
people. In Eastern States, Farmers earlier used to grow Jute but Jute demand declined so
they shifted to Sericulture.
 Capital: works on simple technology, no sophisticated equipment needed and can be done
by small and marginal farmers, tribals.
 Market: There is still good demand for Silk Saris in India. With rise in the e-commerce, the
demand has now spread across the globe.
 Technology: Technology has enabled faster processing of the silkworms leading to variety of
products in large scale.

Changes in the location of these industries from 19th century till the present times
 Technology: Central Silk board located in Bangalore. Further, technical knowledge sharing by
Japan Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
 Machinery /devices: Machinery / devices used for drying, cooking, reeling and re-reeling
processes. Move from handlooms to machine looms has helped in mass production of silk
sarees.
 Government Policy: Sericulture done via cooperatives, SHGs which are more efficient and
standard production compared to individual farmer.
 Extension services: Government provides extension service, training to farmers which act as
secondary source of income.
 Export policies which has helped the spread of market to countries across world.

 Market: The sale of silk sarees through e-Commerce websites.
Conclusion
High Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) with potential to generate huge employment involving
women, augmenting income of farmers, eco-friendly options which help in preserving the
biodiversity makes Sericulture a viable option in India.
Livestock plays a significant role in India’s farmers’ economy as a source of livelihood,

income diversification, nutritional security, and employment generation. Discuss. (250
words)
Why the question:
To examine the role of livestock in India farmers’ economy and ways to further augment it.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by giving the statistic related to livestock as part of agriculture in India.
Body:
First, explain the contributions of livestock in ensuring better returns to Farmers, additional income,
giving choice and security in the period of distress.
In the next part, write about the various measures taken by promote livestock in the country and
further measures that are required so that it yield maximum returns.
Conclusion:
Introduction
India’s livestock sector is one of the largest in the world. About 20.5 million people depend upon
livestock for their livelihood. Livestock contributed 16% to the income of small farm households as
against an average of 14% for all rural households. Livestock provides livelihood to two-third of rural
community. It also provides employment to about 8.8 % of the population in India. India has vast
livestock resources. Livestock sector contributes 4.11% GDP and 25.6% of total Agriculture GDP.
Body
Trends in livestock population: (Source: 20th Livestock Census)
 Total Livestock population is 535.78 million- an increase of 4.6% over Livestock Census-2012.
 Total Bovine population (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and Yak)-79 Million in 2019- an increase of
about 1% over the previous census.
 A decline of 6 % in the total Indigenous/ Non-descript cattle population over the previous
census.

 The population of cows in the country has risen by 18 per cent in the last seven years, while
that of oxen dipped by 30 per cent, according to the latest census of livestock.
 there was a spectacular 16.8 per cent increase in the poultry population in the country to
851.81 million, mainly on account of a 46 per cent rise in backyard poultry birds, whose
numbers have gone up to 317 million.
 The number of female cattle is 145.12 million, which is 18 per cent over the 122.98 million in
2012. The number of male cattle, on the other hand, dropped to 47.4 million as against
67.92 million in 2012.
 While cattle accounted for 35.94 per cent of total livestock in the country, goats accounted
for 27.80 per cent, buffaloes: 20.45 per cent, sheep: 13.87 per cent and pigs: 1.69 per cent.
Role of livestock in socio-economic life of India:
The livestock plays an important role in the economy of farmers. The farmers in India maintain
mixed farming system i.e. a combination of crop and livestock where the output of one enterprise
becomes the input of another enterprise thereby realize the resource efficiency. The livestock serve
the farmers in different ways.
 Income:
o Livestock is a source of subsidiary income for many families in India especially the
resource poor who maintain few heads of animals.
o Cows and buffaloes if in milk will provide regular income to the livestock farmers
through sale of milk.
o Animals like sheep and goat serve as sources of income during emergencies to meet
exigencies like marriages, treatment of sick persons, children education, repair of
houses etc.
o The animals also serve as moving banks and assets which provide economic security
to the owners.
 Employment:
o A large number of people in India being less literate and unskilled depend upon
agriculture for their livelihoods.
o But agriculture being seasonal in nature could provide employment for a maximum
of 180 days in a year.
o The land less and less land people depend upon livestock for utilizing their labour
during lean agricultural season.
 Food:
o The livestock products such as milk, meat and eggs are an important source of
animal protein to the members of the livestock owners.
o The per capita availability of milk is around 355 g / day; eggs is 69 / annum;
 Social security:

o The animals offer social security to the owners in terms of their status in the society.
o The families especially the landless which own animals are better placed than those
who do not.
o Gifting of animals during marriages is a very common phenomenon in different parts

of the country.
o Rearing of animals is a part of the Indian culture. Animals are used for various socio
religious functions.
o Cows for house warming ceremonies; rams, bucks and chicken for sacrifice during
festive seasons;
o Bulls and Cows are worshipped during various religious functions. Many owners
develop attachment to their animals.
 Gender equity:
o Animal husbandry promotes gender equity.
o More than three-fourth of the labour demand in livestock production is met by

women.
o The share of women employment in livestock sector is around 90% in Punjab and
Haryana where dairying is a prominent activity and animals are stall-fed.
 Draft:
o The bullocks are the back bone of Indian agriculture.
o The farmers especially the marginal and small depend upon bullocks for ploughing,
carting and transport of both inputs and outputs.
 Dung:
o In rural areas dung is used for several purposes which include fuel (dung cakes),
fertilizer (farm yard manure), and plastering material (poor man’s cement).
Measures to strengthen Livestock sector
 Increase in the market share depends on how dairy firms’ capabilities and their resources
are utilised given the opportunities and threats emanating from emerging markets
economies.
 Contract/corporate dairying and emerging global dairy trade are required to rope in dairy
supply chains stakeholders in order to expand their outreach and “on-the-go” product
positioning into the target segment.
 Digital technology-enabled dairy firms need to identify their compatible partners and
competitors for co-creation through product-process innovation via relationship/value-
based marketing.
 Freshness in milk, and convenience to store milk or milk products can be a technology
innovation brought in by large dairy firms in association start-ups.
 Education and Training at Panchayat level for small and medium size farmers
 Subsidizing cattle production and encouraging cattle markets
 Facility of logistics for produced milk
 Improved Veterinary facility specially in artificial insemination of cattle
 Encouraging private sector firm to procure dairy produced at rural level
 Low interest loans for small and medium scale farmers for cattle purchase
 Encouraging rural women to take up animal husbandry
 Insurance of cattle against diseases like Anthrax, Foot and Mouth, Peste des Ruminantes,
etc.
 Nurture dairy entrepreneurs through effective training of youth at the village level coupled
with dedicated leadership and professional management of farmers’ institutions.
 Agricultural practices, sanitation, quality of drinking water & fodder, type and quality of
pipelines – all of these need to be aligned to the goal of healthy milk
Conclusion
With increasing population, persistent rise in food inflation, unfortunate rise in farmer’s suicide and
majority of the Indian population having agriculture as the primary occupation, the practice of
animal husbandry is no more a choice, but a need in contemporary scenario. Its successful,
sustainable and skilful implementation will go a long way in ameliorating the socio-economic
condition of lower strata of our society. Linking the animal husbandry with food processing industry,
agriculture, researches & patents has all the possible potential to make India a nutritional power
house of the world. Animal husbandry is the imperative hope, definite desire and urgent panacea for
India as well as the world.
India’s geological diversity has endowed the country with a wide range of metallic and
non-metallic mineral resources. These minerals play a pivotal role in various industrial
sectors, infrastructure development, and energy production, contributing significantly
to the country’s economic growth. Discuss. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about to diversity of minerals in India and distribution of major metallic and non-metallic
minerals.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Start by mentioning about minerals profile of India and their importance.

Body:
First, with a neat illustrative map, highlight the distribution of major non-metallic minerals such as
coal, iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite and copper etc
Next, with a neat illustrative map, highlight the distribution of major non-metallic minerals such as
Mica, Limestone, Dolomite, Asbestos, Magnesite, Gypsum and Kyanite etc.
Next, write about vertical distributions of Salinity – increases with increasing depth, draw a small
diagram to show the same.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising the importance of the above.
Introduction
Metals are material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous
appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Non-metals are minerals (Non-metallic
minerals) which, as a rule, do not serve as raw material for the extraction of metal. The group of
non-metals, which is widespread amongst the variety of minerals, is of great economic significance.
Body
Distribution of major metallic minerals in India
 Iron Ore
o It is a metal of universal use, and backbone of modern civilization
o Haematite has around 70% of metallic content
 Found in Dharwad and Cuddapah rock systems of peninsular India
 Most of it is found in states of Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Andhra

Pradesh
 In western section, major concentration is in Karnataka, Maharashtra and

Goa
o Magnetite is the second best ore, with metallic content varying from 60-70%
 These have magnetic quality, and occur in Dharwad and Cuddapah systems
 Most reserves are found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan,

Tamilnadu and Kerala
o Limonite are inferior ores, which contain 40-60% iron metal
 These are found in Raniganj coal field, Garhal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in

Uttar Pradesh and Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh
o Siderite contain concentration less than 40%. It contains many impurities and hence
mining not economically viable
 Manganese
o It is an important mineral for making iron and steel; and it acts as a basic raw
material for manufacturing alloys

o The total Manganese ores are distributed in Odisha(44%), Karnataka(22%), Madhya

Pradesh(13%), Maharashtra(8%), Andhra Pradesh(4%) and Jharkhand & goa(3%
each),
 Copper
o Copper ore is found in ancient as well as in younger rock formations and occurs as
veins, as dissemination and as bedded deposits
o Rajasthan has around 50% of total copper ore in the country; followed by Madhya
Pradesh, Jharkhand
o The rest are accounted for by Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamilnadu, Uttarakhand and
West Bengal
 Nickel
o It doesn’t occur free in nature and is found in association with copper
o The important occurrences of Nickiliferous limonite are found in Jajapur district of

Odisha
o Nickel is found in Sulphide form in Jharkhand
o Other important occurrences of Nickel are in Karnataka, Kerala and Rajasthan
 Lead and Zinc
o Lead is a widely used metal due to its malleability, softness, heaviness and bad heat
conductivity
o Rajasthan is endowed with the largest resources of lead-zinc ore, followed by

Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Maharashtra
o Resources are also established in Gujarat, Meghalaya, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu,
Uttarakhand and West Bengal
 Bauxite
o This is an important ore for making Aluminium
o Among states, Odisha accounts for 52% of country’s resources of bauxite followed
by Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra, Madhya pradesh and
Jharkhand
o When it comes to production, Odisha is the largest producer followed by Chattisgarh
 Gold
o It is a valuable metal, used for making ornaments and is an international currency

due to universal use
o In term of metal content, Karnataka has the highest reserves followed by Rajasthan,
reserves followed by Rajasthan, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand
 Silver

o The chief ore mineral of silver are agentine, stephanite, pyargyrite
o The main production comes from Zawar mines in Udaipur district of Rajasthan
o Some silver is produced in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh as well
Distribution of major non-metallic minerals in India
 Mica
o India is one of the foremost suppliers of mica to the world.
o Andhra Pradesh (41 per cent), Rajasthan (21 per cent), Odisha (20 per cent),
Maharashtra (15 per cent), Bihar (2 per cent), Jharkhand (Less than 1 per cent)
 Limestone
o Limestone deposits are of sedimentary origin and exist in all the geological
sequences from Pre-Cambrian to Recent except in Gondwana.
o Over three-fourths of the total limestone of India is produced by Madhya Pradesh,

Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh and Tamil Nadu.
 Asbestos
o Two states of Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh produce almost the whole of asbestos
of India.
 Magnesite
o Major deposits of magnesite are found in Uttaranchal, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan.
o Tamil Nadu is the largest producer [three-fourth] of magnesite in India.
o The largest in India are found at Chalk Hills near Salem town.
 Salt
o Rock salt is taken out in Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh and in Gujarat. It is less
than 1 per cent of the total salt produced in India.
o Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan produces about 10 per cent of our annual production.
o Sea brine is the source of salt in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
o Gujarat coast produces nearly half of our salt.
Conclusion
Mineral resources of a country and the extent of its utilization are important determinants of growth
and prosperity of a nation and its people. Though the actual value of mineral production accounts
for only a small percentage of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of a country, it plays a vital role in
world economy, as it has a direct bearing to the industrial growth and developments in the frontiers
of science and technology.

The diversity in Indian soils can be attributed to the interaction of various factors across
the vast and varied geographical and climatic conditions in the country. This diversity
has important implications for agriculture, land use planning, and environmental
management. Explain. (250 words).
Why the question:
To explain the factors responsible for the formation of soil and its implications.
Directive word:
associated facts.
Introduction:
Start by mentioning about the diversity of soils in India and their profile across major regions they are
found in.
Body:
Talk about reasons for diversity in the Indian soil profile and some important characteristics and
crops sown in each soil briefly. A small map of major soil regions of India could be drawn for better
presentation purpose.
Then in detail mention about the various factors responsible for (Pedogenesis) soil formation in India.
Explain about factors such as Parent Material, Relief. Climate and Natural Vegetation. Substantiate
your answer with relevant examples.
Next, write about the implications of soil diversity in India.
Conclusion:
Complete the answer by stressing on the importance of diversity in the soil profile of India.
Introduction
Soil is our prime natural and economic resource. Soils in India differ in composition and structure. In
India, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has classified soils into 8
categories. Alluvial Soil, Black Cotton Soil, Red Soil, Laterite Soil, Mountainous or Forest Soils, Arid
or Desert Soil, Saline and Alkaline Soil, Peaty and Marshy Soil are the categories of Indian Soil.
Body:
There are a variety of reasons for these variations in soil. Primarily soils are different from region to
region due to the climatic conditions (like temperature, rainfall etc). The variety of flora and fauna of
a region also has an influence on the soil profile. And there can even be a human influence.

 Alluvial Soil:
o These are formed by the deposition of sediments by rivers.
o They are rich in humus and very fertile. These soils are renewed every year.
o This soil is well-drained and poorly drained with an immature profile in undulating
areas. This soil has potash deficiency.
o The colour of soil varies from light grey to ash.
o This soil is suited for Rice, maize, wheat, sugarcane, oilseeds etc.
o They are found in Great Northern plain, lower valleys of Narmada and Tapti and
Northern Gujarat.
o This soil is divided into Khadar Soil (New) and Bhangar Soil (Old).
 Black or Regur Soil:
o These soils are made up of volcanic rocks and lava-flow.
o It is concentrated over Deccan Lava Tract which includes parts of Maharashtra,

Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
o It consists of Lime, Iron, Magnesium and also Potash but lacks in Phosphorus,
Nitrogen and Organic matter.
o It has high water retaining capacity and good for the cotton cultivation, Tobacco,
citrus fruits, castor, and linseed.
 Red Soil:
o These are derived from weathering of ancient metamorphic rocks of Deccan Plateau.
o The presence of ferric oxides makes the colour of soil red. The top layer of the soil is
red and horizon below is yellowish.
o Generally, these soils are deficient in phosphate, lime, magnesia, humus and
nitrogen.
o This soil is good for the cultivation of wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, millets,
orchards, potato, and oilseeds.
o They cover almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Karnataka, Maharashtra and parts of Orissa.
 Laterite Soil:
o These soft, when they are wet and ‘hard and cloddy’ on drying.
o These soils are formed due to intense leaching and are well developed on the
summits of hills and uplands.
o They are commonly found in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh and
hilly areas of Orissa and Assam.
o These are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, potassium, lime and potash.
o These iron and aluminium rich soils are suitable for the cultivation of rice, ragi,
sugarcane and cashew nuts.
 Mountain Soil:
o These soils are formed as a result of the accumulation of organic matter derived
from forest growth.

o They are found in Himalayan region and vary in different regions according to
altitude.
o Tea is grown in those areas which receive sufficient rainfall.
o These soils are immature and dark brown in colour.
o This soil has very low humus and it is acidic in nature.
o The orchards, fodder, legumes are grown in this soil.
 Desert Soil:
o This soil is deposited by wind action and mainly found in the arid and semi-arid areas
like Rajasthan, West of the Aravallis, Northern Gujarat, Saurashtra, Kachchh,
Western parts of Haryana and southern part of Punjab.
o They are sandy with low organic matter.
o It has low soluble salts and moisture with very low retaining capacity. If irrigated
these soil give a high agricultural return.
o These suitable less water requiring crops like Bajra, pulses, fodder, and guar.
o As evaporation is in excess of rainfall, the soil has a high salt content and saline layer
forms a hard crust.
 Peaty and Marshy Soils:
o This soil originates from the areas where adequate drainage is not possible.
o It is rich in organic matter and has high salinity.
o They are deficient in potash and phosphate.
o These mainly found in Sunderbans delta, Kottayam, and Alappuzha districts of

Kerala, Rann of Kachchh, deltas of Mahanadi etc.
 Saline and Alkaline Soils:
o Theses also called as Reh, Usar, Kallar, Rakar, Thur and Chopan.
o These are mainly found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
Maharashtra.
o Sodium chloride and sodium sulphate are present in this soil.
o It is suitable for leguminous crops.
Conclusion:
However, in south and central India, floods wash away rich, weathered soil, which are deposited in
reservoirs or as sand bars along the river bed or in the sea. Any rehabilitation programme must
consider this lost soil. Organic matter plays a key role in maintaining soil fertility by holding nitrogen
and sulphur in organic forms and other essential nutrients such as potassium and calcium. The loss
of organic matter is accelerated by frequent tillage. The need of the hour is to educate farmers in
other regions as well about what they can do to improve the health of their nutrient-depleted soil by

following practices such as crop rotation, and using organic manure boosters such as cow dung and
dried leaves.
India’s diverse climatic conditions have given rise to a wide range of natural vegetation
types, each adapted to specific environmental conditions. Examine the major threats to
vegetation in India. (250 words).
Why the question:
To mention in detail about different types of vegetation in India and to identify major threats to
Indian vegetation.
Directive:
Introduction:
Begin by talking about how the varied climatic conditions has given rise to wide range of natural
vegetation.
Body:
Mention about the different types of vegetation present in India. Draw a simple representative map
of India highlighting major vegetation in India.
Explain in detail, the types of vegetation. Account for the major climatic factors responsible for it, the
major features of each vegetation and major flora – fauna found there.
In the next part, bring out the major threats to Indian vegetation such as deforestation, mining, over
grazing, climate change and invasive species etc. Cite some facts from recently released Indian State
of Forests Report 2019 to substantiate above.
Conclusion:
Conclude with a way forward on how to safeguard the Indian vegetation.
Introduction
The natural vegetation is the endowments of nature. They grow naturally by following the climatic
variables. The types of natural vegetation differ according to precipitation, soil, climate, and
topography. The cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of vegetation, but not natural
vegetation. India is bestowed with a wide range of flora and fauna. Due to a diverse geographical
and climatic condition, an extensive range of natural vegetation grows in India.
Body
Types of Natural Vegetation in India
 Tropical Evergreen Rain forests
o The Tropical Evergreen rain forests are found in the areas where precipitation is
more than 200 cm.
o They are largely found in the Northeastern regions of Arunachal Pradesh,

Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, the Western Ghats, the Tarai areas of the Himalayas,
and the Andaman groups of Islands.

o They are also found in the hills of Khasi and Jaintia.
o The trees in this area have intense growth.
o The major trees found in this area are Sandal Wood, Rosewood, Garjan, Mahogany,
and bamboo.
o It has copious vegetation of all kinds – trees, shrubs, and creepers giving it a
multilayered structure.
o The elephants, monkey, lemur are the common animals found in these areas.

 Deciduous or Monsoon type of forests
o The Deciduous forests are found on the lower slope of the Himalayas, West Bengal,
Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Orissa, Karnataka, Maharashtra Jharkhand, and the adjoining
areas.
o The precipitation in this area is between 100 cm and 200 cm.
o Teak is the dominant species seen in the area.
o Along with that Deodar, Blue Gum, Pal Ash, Sal, Sandalwood, Ebony, Arjun, Khair,
and Bamboo are also seen.
o The trees in this forest shed their leaves during dry winter and dry summer.
o Based on the availability of water, these forests are again divided into moist and dry
deciduous.
 Dry deciduous forests
o These forests grow in areas where the precipitation is between 50 cm and 100 cm.
o These are mainly seen in the areas of the Central Deccan plateau, Punjab, Haryana,
parts of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and South-east of Rajasthan.
 Mountain Forests/Montane Forests
o Montane forests are those found in mountains.
o Mountain forests differ significantly along the slopes of the mountain.
o On the foothills of the Himalayas until a height of 1500 meters, evergreen trees like
Sal, teak, and bamboo grow copiously.
o On the higher slope, temperate conifer trees like pine, fir, and oak grow.
o At the higher elevation of the Himalayas, rhododendrons and junipers are found.
o Further, then these vegetation zones, alpine grasslands appear up to the snowfield.
 Tidal or Mangrove forests
o The tidal or mangrove forests grow by the side of the coast and on the edges of the
deltas
o Ex: the deltas of the Cauvery, Krishna, Mahanadi, Godavari, and Ganga.
o In West Bengal, these forests are known as ‘Sundarbans’.
o The ‘Sundari’ is the most major tree in these forests.
o The important trees of the tidal forests are Hogla, Garan, Pasur, etc.
o This forest is an important factor in the timber industry as they provide timber and
firewood.
o Palm and coconut trees beautify the coastal strip.
 Semi-deserts and Deserts vegetations

o This area receives rainfall of less than 50 cm.
o Thorny bushes, acacia, and Babul are found in this vegetation region.
o The Indian wild date is generally found here.
o They have long roots and thick flesh.
o The plants found in this region store water in their stem to endure during the
drought.
o These vegetation are found in parts of Gujarat’s, Punjab, and Rajasthan.
Major threats to vegetation in India:
 Encroachments:
o Organized encroachment of forest land started as early as 1950s.
o The direct impact of encroachment is habitat loss, besides the existence of constant
threat on the forests by the fringe people.
o In addition to their involvement directly in the illegal activities they provide shelter
for the unscrupulous offenders of the plains who are engaged in all kinds of illegal
activities.
 Cattle grazing:
o Grazing by cattle in forest, although not rampant as elsewhere in the country, is

identified as a threat to biodiversity.
o The grazing not only removes the biomass and competes with wild herbivores, but
also spread contagious diseases to wild animals.
o Intensive grazing will lead to domination of a single or a few species, changing the
species composition of natural vegetation.
o Cattle grazing speeds up the invasion of weeds.
 Collection of Fire Wood:
o Firewood collection directly poses threat in the form of removal of biomass, which
affects microhabitat of flora and fauna, and indirectly leads to extensive fire and
other illegal activities.
o The proximity of settlements to the forests is the main factor, which determines the
intensity of firewood collection.
o The firewood collection leads to degradation of habitats which subsequently alters

the species composition and vegetation types.
 Man-Animal Conflict:
o A major problem associated with the conservation of wild animals especially the
herbivores like elephants in India is that of crop depredation and man-slaughter.
o Animals such as elephants, gaur, sambar, wild boar and birds like peacock, cause
extensive damage to the crops.
o This phenomenon has registered significant increase in recent years due to habitat
fragmentation and degradation of natural forests and corridors.
o Almost all the Protected Areas and Non-Protected Areas contain a large number of
settlements either inside or on the periphery.
o This leads to degradation of surrounding habitats.
o The traditional tolerances among the people who live inside the forests or its
adjacent areas are fast disappearing and people have become increasingly
antagonistic.
o As a result, the people tend to kill the animals either by poisoning or by other
means, like keeping crackers in fruits, etc.
 Poaching:
o The abundance of wild animals and high demand for their products in the
clandestine, market pose threat to wild animals.
o Herbivores like gaur, sambar, chital etc. are being poached for their meat.
o A lot of other not so spectacular species of animals ranging from reptiles to birds as
well as plants and medicinal herbs are all part of the illegal wildlife trade.
o The major impact of poaching is species loss and change in their demography apart
from extensive fire and other illicit activities.
 Illegal and unsustainable/unscientific collection of Non-Timber Forest Produce:
o Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) collection is one of the major livelihoods of the
local people.
o The NTFP consist of a variety of products, which are sources of food, fiber, manure,
construction materials, cosmetics and cultural products.
o The users of NTFP range from local individuals to multinational companies. With the
development of modern techniques, the number of products and uses based on
NTFP has increased by many folds.
o This market driven utilization became instrumental in their unsustainable
exploitation and resulted in degrading the natural vegetation.
 Mining:
o Mining is also a severe threat to the biodiversity.
o Sand mining is prevalent in the central and southern parts.
o It is a threat to the stability of a landscape, which results in land sliding and lowering
of water table.
o The removal of habitat will endanger the survival of riparian species since most of
them occupied a very narrow habitat niche.
 Mass Tourism and Pilgrimage:

o Mass Tourism and Pilgrimage are considered to be one of the major and increasing
threats to biodiversity conservation.
o Approximately 13 million people visit forest areas annually either as pilgrims or

visitors.
o Among all the Protected Areas in India, Periyar Tiger Reserve receives a maximum
number of tourists.
o The large influx of people into the forests in short duration makes severe changes to
habitat.
o The major impact of tourism and pilgrimage is littering and over-utilization of

resources such as soil erosion; fire, disturbance to wild animals for feeding, ranging
etc. are also reported due to a large number of pilgrims and unruly behavior of
visitors.
 Forest Fires:
o Fire is one of the major threats facing the forests of India.
o People who are engaged in grazing livestock often burn the area to get fresh shoots
for their cattle, during lean season.
o Apart from this, those who are involved in illicit activities such as ganja cultivation,
poaching, tree felling, NTFP collection and very often the ignorant tourists and
pilgrims are also responsible for big forest fires.
o The effect of fire depends on the type of vegetation, frequency and intensity of fire
and season of burning.
o Fire causes extensive damage in deciduous forests and grasslands due to heavy fuel
load.
 Illicit Felling:
 Tree felling is one of the severe threats to biodiversity conservation in the state.
 The primary effect of tree felling on bio diversity is the removal of biomass and loss of
habitat for many epiphytic and arboreal species.
 Tree felling leads to soil erosion and change of the soil properties.
 In some cases, people involved in tree falling set fire to the forests.
 Invasive species:
o These are non-indigenous or non-native plants and animals that adversely affect the
habitats and bio regions they invade economically, environmentally and ecologically.
o Examples of plant invasion include Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and

Lantana (Lantana Camara).
Conclusion

There is an urgent need to address these problems and Environment Management Act is a
dire need along with Environment Service Cadre for better management of forests and wildlife in
India.
The marine resources of the Indian Ocean directly impact the livelihoods of millions of
people who depend on fishing, aquaculture, and related industries. Discuss. (250
words)
Why the question:
To write about the resource richness of the Indian ocean and its economic implications.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by giving brief of Indian ocean and its vast ocean resources.
Body:
First, draw a neat diagram showing major resources. Write in detail the economic implications of the
resources mentioned in the introduction.
Next, write about the importance of marine resources – Fishing, Marine Biotechnology, Minerals,
Tourism & Leisure and Education and research etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising and ways to sustainably harness the above.
Introduction
The Indian Ocean matters today, arguably more than ever. It is a major conduit for international
trade, especially energy. Its littoral is vast, densely populated, and comprised of some of the world’s
fastest growing regions. The Ocean is also a valuable source of fishing and mineral resources. The
Indian Ocean basin is of particular importance for India, as the region’s most populous country and
geopolitical keystone.
Body

The Economic importance of IOR for India includes:
 Trade and Commerce:
o It enjoys a privileged location at the crossroads of global trade, connecting the major
engines of the international economy in the Northern Atlantic and Asia-Pacific. This
is particularly important in an era in which global shipping has burgeoned.
o Today, almost 90,000 vessels in the world’s commercial fleet transport 9.84 billion
tonnes per year. This represents an almost four-fold increase in the volume of
commercial shipping since 1970.
o The Indian Ocean has vital sea lanes of communication crisscrossing it and which
feeds Asia’s largest economies. Around 80 per cent of the world’s seaborne oil
trade passes through the choke points of this ocean and therefore it literally
connects the east to the west with 40 percent passing through the Strait of Hormuz,
35 percent through the Strait of Malacca and 8 percent through the Bab El-Mandab
Strait.
o The Ocean’s vast drainage basin is important in its own right, home to some two
billion people. This creates opportunities, especially given the high rates of
economic growth around the Indian Ocean rim, including in India, Bangladesh,
Southeast Asia, and Eastern and Southern Africa.
o 95 per cent of India’s trade by volume and 68 per cent of trade by value come via
the Indian Ocean.

o Presence of 13 major ports and over 200 minor ports provide avenues for exports of
Indian goods to world.
 Blue Economy: The Indian Ocean is rich in natural resources.
o Oil and Natural Gas:
 Forty per cent of the world’s offshore oil production takes place in the
Indian Ocean basin.
 Energy security and resources are absolutely critical. The Indian Ocean
Region is immensely rich in that.
 28 million barrels per day—or nearly 80 per cent of India’s crude oil
requirement—is imported by sea via the Indian Ocean. Taking into account
India’s offshore oil production and petroleum exports, India’s sea
dependence for oil is about 93 per cent, according to the Indian Navy.
 India is also the fourth-largest importer of liquefied natural gas (LNG), with
about 45 per cent coming by sea.
 India has her own oil rigs in the Indian ocean region. Example: Bombay high
o Minerals:
o Mineral resources with nodules containing nickel, cobalt, and iron, and massive
sulphide deposits of manganese, copper, iron, zinc, silver, and gold present in
sizeable quantities on the sea bed.
o Indian Ocean coastal sediments are also important sources of titanium, zirconium,
tin, zinc, and copper.
o Additionally, various rare earth elements are present, even if their extraction is not
always commercially feasible.
o In 2014, the International Seabed Authority issued licenses for the Indian Ocean
ridge, opening up new opportunities for deep seabed mining. This region is
estimated to have massive reserves of manganese, as well as cobalt, nickel, and
copper, all of which are scarce on Indian soil.
o Placer Deposits – Vitally important, thorium resources in placer sands of Malabar

coast are a promise to Nuclear Energy security. Similarly Placers of Thailand, Indo-
China and Australia are source of precious heavy metals critically important for
Electronics and semiconductors industry.
o Fishing and Aquaculture:
o Fishing in the Indian Ocean now accounts for almost 15 per cent of the world’s total.
o Aquaculture in the region has also grown 12-fold since 1980. Although global fishing
is reaching its natural limitations, the Indian Ocean may be able to sustain increases
in production.
o The largely unregulated overexploitation of its fishery resources. The consequences

of over fishing, which is actually largely a result of activity by countries outside the

region, could eventually have serious consequences for littoral states that depend
heavily on maritime resources to feed their populations and also provide valuable
export revenues.
o India captured 4.1 million tonnes of fish in 2008, placing it sixth in the world and its
fishing and aquaculture industries employ some 14 million people.
o Fisheries and aquaculture industries are also a major source of exports. India’s
maritime exports grew 55 times in volume between 1962 and 2012 and fisheries
exports now account for Rs. 16,600 crore or about $2.5 billion.
o Tourism:
o Coral atolls in Lakshadweep, Andaman & Nicobar Islands attract many tourists from
India as well as abroad. This helps the livelihood of many islanders.
Conclusion
Indian Ocean is an “ocean of economic opportunities” for India. The security threats posed by State
and non-state actors are impeding the progress. The Government initiatives like SAGAR, IORA,
Sagarmala etc. should ensure that the fruits of Blue Economy is well reaped.
Factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector
industries in various parts of the world (including India).
Non-geographical factors play a crucial role in determining the location of industries
across different sectors. Discuss. (250 words)
Why the question:
Explain the non- geographical factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary
sector industries in various parts of the world in detail with suitable examples.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Explain that Industrial locations are complex in nature. These are influenced by the availability of
many factors. Some of them are: raw material, land, water, labor, capital, power, transport, and
market. However there are many non-geographical factors too.
Body:
Discuss the non-geographical factors in detail – Capital investment, Availability of loans, Investment
climate, Government policies/regulations, Influence of pressure groups etc. manufacturing activity
tends to locate at the most appropriate place where all the factors of industrial location are either
available or can be arranged at lower cost. In general, it should also be noted that both lower
production cost and lower distribution cost are the two major factors while considering the location

of an industry. Sometimes, the government provides incentives like subsidized power, lower transport
cost, and other infrastructure so that industries may be located in backward areas.
One should quote relevant examples from India and across the world to justify the answer.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising the importance of above.
Introduction
Industry refers to an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods, extraction of
minerals or the provision of services.
Body
Many important geographical factors involved in the location of individual industries are of relative
significance. But besides such purely geographical factors influencing industrial location, there are
factors of historical, human, political and economic nature which are now tending to surpass the
force of geographical advantages. Consequently, the factors influencing the location of industry can
be divided into two broad categories – Geographical and Non- Geographical factors.
Non- Geographical factors:
 Capital:
o Modem industries are capital-intensive and require huge investments.
o Capitalists are available in urban centers.

o Big cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, and Chennai are big industrial centers,
because the big capitalists live in these cities.
 Government Policies:
o Government activity in planning the future distribution of industries, for reducing

regional disparities, elimination of pollution of air and water and for avoiding their
heavy clustering in big cities, has become no less an important locational factor.
 Industrial Inertia:
o Industries tend to develop at the place of their original establishment, though the
original cause may have disappeared.
o This phenomenon is referred to as inertia, sometimes as geographical inertia and
sometimes industrial inertia.
o The lock industry at Aligarh is such an example.
 Efficient Organization:
o Efficient and enterprising organization and management is essential for running

modem industry successfully.
o Bad management sometimes squanders away the capital and puts the industry in
financial trouble leading to industrial ruin.
 Banking Facilities:
o Establishment of industries involves daily exchange of crores of rupees which is

possible through banking facilities only.
o So the areas with better banking facilities are better suited to the establishment of
industries.
 Insurance:
o There is a constant fear of damage to machine and man in industries for which
insurance facilities are badly needed.
 Political and economic situation:
o Political harmony and peace in a particular region encourage the establishment of

industrial units.
o On the other hand, disturbed political and economic set up discourages the growth
of industries in the region.
o On account of Naxalites movement in West Bengal, Industries started moving out of

West Bengal.
o Similarly, is the case in certain other states where, on account of political

disturbances, manufacturers have started thinking to settle elsewhere and further
industrial expansion has been greatly affected.
 Availability of research facilities:
o The main aim of any industrial undertaking is to have maximum production with
minimum cost.
o Constant research and experimentation is undertaken to develop products and

improved methods of production.
 Possibilities of future expansion:
o The area for location should be such as to provide all possible opportunities for
future development and expansion of the industrial unit without involving extra
cost.
o Every industrial undertaking is established with the aim to expand in future.
Conclusion
Thus, the location of industries is dependent on a combination of geographical and non-geographical

factors.
Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic

activity, cyclone etc.
Regional tsunami warning systems are critical components of a comprehensive
approach to minimize the devastating impacts of tsunamis. Analyse. (150 words)
Why the question:


To write about the impact of Tsunami and role of tsunami warning systems in its mitigation.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by defining a Tsunami.
Body:
First, explain the mechanism a Tsunami with a small neat diagram.
Next, write about the trail of destruction of Tsunami – Inundation, Wave Impact and Erosion. Also,
give examples of few recent Tsunami including 2004 Indian Ocean.
Next, write about the role of tsunami warning systems in its mitigation – Risk Assessment &
Reduction, Detection, Warning & Dissemination, and Awareness & Response.
Conclusion:
Introduction
Tsunami means a “harbour wave” in literal translation and comes from the Japanese characters for
harbour (tsu) and wave (nami). A tsunami also called seismic sea waves, is one of the most powerful
and destructive natural forces. It is a series of extremely long waves caused by a large and sudden
displacement of the ocean due to earthquake, volcanic eruptions etc. When they reach the coast,
they can cause dangerous coastal flooding and powerful currents that can last for several hours or
days.
The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) was established at Indian National Centre for
Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad, an autonomous body under Ministry of Earth
Sciences which continues to provide timely tsunami advisories to stake holders. The ITEWC is also
providing tsunami services to 25 Indian Ocean Countries as part of the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO framework.
Body
Tsunami early warning system

 It is made up of two equally important components:-
o A network of sensors to detect tsunamis
o A communications infrastructure to issue timely alarms to permit evacuation of the

coastal areas.
o It ismade up of a network of seismic-monitoring stations and sea-level gauges. These

detect earthquakes and abnormal changes in sea level and help scientists decide
whether a tsunami hasbeen triggered by an earthquake.
 When operating, seismic alerts are used to instigate the watches and warnings; then, data
from observed sea level height (either shore-based tide gauges or DARTbuoys) are used to
verify the existence of a tsunami.
 Other systems have been proposed to augment the warning procedures; for example, it has
been suggested that the duration and frequency content of t-wave energy (which is
earthquake energy trapped in the ocean SOFAR channel) is indicative of an earthquake’s
tsunami potential.
 At present, early warning systems rely on measuring the movement of dart buoys which
record changes in the sea level or assessing the bottom pressure of the propagating tsunami.

The problem is that these systems require the tsunami to physically reach the measurement
location.
 With the speed at which tsunami waves travel through open water, no system can protect
against a very sudden tsunami, where the coast in question is too close to the epicenter.
Significance of Tsunami Early Warning System
 It will assist all persons, especially in vulnerable coastal communities, are prepared and
respond appropriately and in a timely manner upon recognition that a potential destructive
tsunami (local or regional) may be approaching
 It is imperative to detect tsunamis in advance and issue the warnings to prevent loss of life
and damage to property as witnessed in India during the 2004 Tsunami.
 Many critical infrastructure of national importance is situated on India’s coastline. Eg:

Kudankulam Nuclear plant, Ports, Naval bases. Etc.
 Livelihoods of millions dependent on seas. Eg.: fishermen families
 Early detection by the monitoring networks of tsunami warning centers (TWC) will trigger
authoritative warnings that must immediately trigger emergency responses by emergency
management and first responder agencies.
 To respond quickly and efficiently, well-known and clear standard operating procedures
should be in place and practiced so that stakeholders are familiar with and understand their
roles and responsibilities, and the timely actions that must take place for public safety.
Measures for mitigation of Tsunami waves
Structural measures
 A robust techno-legal regime through efficient land use practices, bio shields, and shelter
belt plantation and mangrove regeneration with community involvement is the need of
the hour.
 Setting up tsunami prediction and warning systems such as INCOIS of India. India is much
safer against tsunami threat than it was in 2004, thanks to the state-of-the-art tsunami
early warning system established at Indian National Centre for Ocean Information System
(INCOIS).
 Construction of seawalls, breakwaters, tsunami river gates and developing forest

barriers may also help in preventing extensive damage.
 Building tsunami evacuation structures
 Limiting new development in tsunami hazard zones
 Designing, siting, and building structures to minimize tsunami damage
 Adopting building codes that address tsunamis
 Protecting and strengthening existing structures and infrastructure that if damaged would
negatively affect response and recovery

 Moving important community assets and vulnerable populations out of tsunami hazard
zones
 Other ways to prepare for and mitigate the potential impacts of a tsunami
emphasize thoughtful land-use planning and building design in tsunami hazard zones.
Non-structural measures
 Communities can use the tsunami hazard zone maps to determine where people and other
important community assets (e.g., buildings, facilities, bridges, schools, hospitals) are at risk
so they can decide where to focus preparedness, response, and mitigation efforts.
 Educating the public (residents and visitors) about tsunamis and tsunami safety before a
tsunami strikes.
 A strong mechanism has been recommended for effective emergency response by

involving local police network, civil defence volunteers wherever available, home guards,
State Disaster Response Forces and National Disaster Response Force is also imperative.
 The focus in recent times has been on enhancing community awareness and
responsethrough several capacity building activities, biennial Indian Ocean wide tsunami
drills and piloting of the UNESCO-IOC Tsunami Ready initiative.
 Protection of coastal ecosystems like mangroves and coral reefs may help in lowering
tsunami-related hazards.
Way forward
 Initiatives like Tsunami Ready has to be replicated in other vulnerable coastal communities
as it enhances ability to respond to cyclones and storm surges too.
 The best of warning systems could fail, if communities are not prepared, if they do not
understand the official and natural warning signs of a tsunami, and if they do not take
appropriate and timely response.
 Building resilient infrastructure, setting up early warning systems, and spreading awareness
among people is critical in preventing tsunami-related risks in the future.
Conclusion
More than 700 million people live in low-lying coastal areas and Small Island Developing States
exposed to extreme sea-level events including tsunamis. Resilient infrastructure, early warning
systems, and education is critical to saving people and protecting their assets against tsunami risk in
the future.
The Volcanic landforms can vary widely in shape, size, and composition depending on
the type of volcanic eruption and the characteristics of the lava and other volcanic
materials involved. Explain. (150 words)

Why the question:

To write about volcanic landforms and their types.
Directive:
Explain – Give a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the particular context.
You must be defining key terms where ever appropriate, and substantiate with relevant associated
facts.
Introduction:
Begin by giving context about volcano and volcanism.
Body:
First, write in detail about the different types of volcanic landforms – Volcanic landforms are divided
into extrusive and intrusive landforms etc.
Next, write about the various subtypes of the above landforms. Use a small representative diagram
to represent the same.
Conclusion:
Introduction
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava,
volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. The process is called
Volcanism and has been ongoing on Earth since the initial stages of its evolution over 4 billion years
ago.
Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive and intrusive landforms based on weather magma
cools within the crust or above the crust. Rocks formed by either plutonic (cooling of magma within
the crust) or volcanic (cooling of lava above the surface) are called ‘Igneous rocks’.
Body

Extrusive Volcanic Landforms: These are formed from material thrown out during volcanic activity.
The materials thrown out during volcanic activity includes lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic
bombs, ash and dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds and minor
amounts of chlorine, hydrogen and argon.
 Conical Vent and Fissure Vent:
o A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent through which magma flows out violently.
Conical vents are common in andesitic (composite or strato volcano) volcanism.
o A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic fissure or eruption fissure, is a narrow, linear
volcanic vent through which lava erupts, usually without any explosive activity. The
vent is often a few meters wide and may be many kilometres long. Fissure vents are
common in basaltic volcanism.
 Composite Cones or Strato volcanoes:
o They are conical or central type volcanic landforms.
o Along with andesitic lava, large quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes find their
way to the ground.
o They are accumulated in the vicinity of the vent openings leading to formation of
layers, and this makes the mounts appear as composite volcanoes.
o The highest and most common volcanoes have composite cones.
o Example:Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji, Stromboli (Lighthouse of the Mediterranean) etc.
 Shield Volcanoes or Lava domes:

o These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid when
erupted. They are not steep.
o They become explosive if somehow water gets into the vent; otherwise, they are
less explosive.
o Example: Mauna Loa (Hawaii).
 Lava Plains and Basalt Plateaus:
o Sometimes, a very thin magma escapes through cracks and fissures in the earth’s
surface and flows after intervals for a long time, spreading over a vast area, finally
producing a layered, undulating (wave like), flat surface.
o Example: Deccan traps (peninsular India), Snake Basin, U.S.A, Icelandic Shield,
Canadian Shield etc.
 Cinder cone (Tephra cones):
o Cinder cones are small volume cones consisting predominantly of tephra that result
from strombolian eruptions.
o They usually consist of basaltic to andesitic material.
 Calderas:
o After the eruption of magma has ceased from the cones, the crater frequently turns
into a lake at a later time.
o Water may collect in the crater. This lake is called a ‘caldera’.
o Example:Lake Toba in Sumatra, Crater Lake in Oregon, USA.
 Mid-Ocean Ridges
o These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas. There is a system of mid-ocean ridges
more than 70,000 km long that stretches through all the ocean basins. The central
portion of this ridge experiences frequent eruptions.
o The lava is basaltic in nature.
o Cools slowly and flows through longer distances.
o The lava here is responsible for sea floor spreading.
o Example: Mid-Atlantic ocean ridge; extension is seen in the Iceland.
Intrusive Volcanic Landforms: Intrusive landforms are formed when magma cools within the crust.
The intrusive activity of volcanoes gives rise to various forms.
 Batholiths:
o These are huge mass of igneous rocks, usually of granite.
o These rock masses formed due to cooling down and solidification of hot magma
inside the earth.

o They appear on the surface only after the denudation processes remove the
overlying materials and may be exposed on surface after erosion.
o Example: Wicklow mountains of Ireland; the uplands of Brittany, France.
 Laccoliths:
o These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies connected by a pipe-like conduit from
below.
o These are basically intrusive counterparts of an exposed domelike batholith.
o Example:The laccoliths of Henry mountains in the Utah, USA.
 Lopolith:
o As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may tend to move in a
horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane.
o In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called Lopolith.
o Example:The Bushveld lopolith of Transvaal, South Africa.
 Phacolith:
o A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of synclines or at the
top of anticline in folded igneous country.
o Such wavy materials have a definite conduit to source beneath in the form of
magma chambers (subsequently developed as batholiths). These are called the
Phacoliths.
o Example: Corndon hill in Shropshire, England.
 Sills:
o These are solidified horizontal lava layers inside the earth.
o The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet,
depending on the thickness of the material.
o The thinner ones are called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are called sills.
o Example: Great whin sill of NE England
 Dykes:
o When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land,
it solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground.
o It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure. Such structures
are called dykes.
o These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra
area. These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the
development of the Deccan traps. Cleveland Dyke of Yorkshire, England.
Conclusion

Volcanoes have a huge impact on man and material as urbanization and globalization increases. The
effects have impacts on flora, fauna and the global warming which can accelerate the climate
change.



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INSIGHTSIAS

IA SIMPLIFYING IAS EXAM PREPARATION

INSTA SECURE SYNOPSIS

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Revolutionary nationalism introduced a more confrontational approach to the national

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Diversity of Indian literature

o It showed an advanced civilisation, a settled life, and an organised human relation.

o It is known as the Itihasa Purana, or Mythical History

o Grand public sacrifices to be performed by rulers are recorded in Shrautasutra while

o This literature was compiled between c. 600–300 B.C

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o Of the most important non-religious Buddhist literature are the Jatakas.

o Vishakadatta’s political intrigue Mudrarakshasa, which was written in the sixth

o Kalidasa also wrote the play Vikramorvasiyam, literary masterpiece Raghuvamsa,

o The first examples of Dravidian literature were these literary works.

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 In addition, Buddhist literature in Pali language grew in popularity. It contains Buddhist

Key features of modern Indian paintings

 A certain freedom from invention

 The emergence of the artist as a distinct individual.

 It is product of Indian Renaissancethrough heavy influence of west on traditional Indian art.

 Formcame to be regarded as separate entity and with its increasing emphasis

significance of modern Indian paintings

 A painting stood or fell in terms of colour, compositional contrivance or sheer texture.

Eventually, the modern school came to be characterised by an international aesthetic of abstract

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Features of Indus Valley Civilization

 Town planning Architecture

 The elite class stayed in the citadel part of the town.

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o Eg: Unicorn seal, Pashupathi seal made of Steatite.

The concept of Dhamma, as propounded by Emperor Ashoka, played a crucial role in

Why the question:

Nature of Dhamma as propounded by Ashoka:

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 None of Ashoka successors continued the propagation of Dhamma.

Reasons for decline of Dhamma

 Major Rock Edict I: Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive fathering’s.

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The Freedom Struggle – its various stages and important contributors

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Factors that led to the rise of Indian nationalism

 Western Thought and Education: The introduction of a modern system of education

 The English languagehelped nationalist leaders from different linguistic regions to

o This ever-expanding English educated class formed the middle-class intelligentsia

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o The newspapers, journals, pamphlets and nationalist literature helped in

 Socio-religious reforms:These reform movements sought to remove social evils which

 Impact of Contemporary Movements Worldwide:Rise of a number of nations on the ruins

Various views of Indian nationalists on nationalism

o Being staunch believers in liberalism they adopted ‘moderate’ politics based on

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 Gandhian nationalism:Unlike the pre- Gandhian nationalists conception of ‘swaraj’ as

o Gandhi introduced the technique of‘non-violent satyagraha’ as the only technique

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Objectives of Home Rule Movement: