KFUPM ENGINEERING

Department of Petroleum Engineering

PETE-313: Well Logging

Lecture [4]

Gamma Ray Logs

Dr. Mohamed Mahmoud

Semester 221
Passive Measurements

 Caliper
 Spontaneous Potential
 Gamma Ray
 Natural
 Spectral

2
 F Doesn't change with Chang in
hd

ae
G R is the most Important passive
method

Natural gives the Bulls Value

Of Radiation Ex 100 API

Spectral
mean Components

Ex too API
Th
5 Apt
Gc Aptos K

In Natural G R We expect one

Value

Radioactive elements in the well bone

Th h
This a isotope t of patassaim i s
Radioactive
 SP and Gamma Ray

G r
has more
Resultion f

3
SP is Good Indicator for KJ
G R is good Indicator for Shaley a formation

Radio activity is Antinous

decay process is Random

 incus
Radioactivity

qt
Some substances give out radiation all the time
– these are radioactive. They do not need
encouraging or triggering in any way.
 A new substance may form
 The process is called radioactive decay and
emission

4
Radioactivity
 The decay process is random

 No one can predict when 1 nucleus decays

 The emission is spontaneous

 It is possible to make a statistical

prediction
Ex half life
time 5
Geiger Counter

6
Types of Radiation
There are three types of radiation
1. Alpha -α
2. Beta -β
3. Gamma -γ
our interest
1. Radioactive rays cannot be seen
2. They are detected using a Geiger counter

7
Absorption of Radiation

β
2-10 cm lead

8
α
2-3 metres concrete

Thin paper 2-3mm metal 8

Absorption of Radiation

9
Absorption of Radiation

 Alpha – α – absorbed by 2-3 cm air and thin paper

 Beta – β – can penetrate paper absorbed by a few mm

of metal

 Gamma – γ – very penetrating absorbed by many cm

of lead and metres of concrete

stop
only lead can
y 10
Gamma Ray

Er
11
Gamma Ray

I as on here
0
Was Realese
as
12
 Gamma Ray Logs
 Uses Rock Formations
 Correlation
 Lithology indicator; exploration for
radioactive materials
 Mineral identification
 Open or cased hole; any fluids
 Evaluation of shale content

GR Tool
 Paleoenvironmental indicator
 Fracture detection
 Monitor movement of injected radioactive
material
 Properties
 Measures natural gamma radiation
13
 JE

We need to optimize the Speed

of the tool

Correlation well to hell corelation

It

Same formation
lithology Indicator

a
pale environment
Deposition enviramens
Monitor Radiactive fluid injected
to the wellbore
Properties
Measure Naturel Gamma Ray Radiation
Gamma Ray Tools

 The gamma ray tool records the natural

radioactivity of the formation without regard to
the source
Bulk
 The spectral gamma ray tool identifies the
source and gives the contribution of each
elements (potassium , uranium, and thorium ) to
K no ch th
the overall spectrum. Also, it is useful in
identifying fractures
14
Uranium is not in the Rock in the organic
matters
day minerals
K Th in ghq
Shale minor

Source Rock contain organic matter

high Potential Source Rock

Up Potential unconventional
Reser Voir s
Gamma Calibration

HOT AND COLD ZONES

• The Gamma tool is placed in the hot zone (200 API) and
the gamma counts are recorded.
• It is then placed in the cold zone and the gamma counts
are recorded. The difference in counts is converted by a
gain factor to represent 200 API.
•API UNIT: (1/200) of the difference in log reading
between a hot zone and a cold zone

15
 Hot and cold Zone

M
D

O
Ape
Radiation

Maximum Radiation 20 API

minimum Radiation o API

Natural GR Principle
Probability of Emission per Disintegration
1.46
 Cause
 Unstable isotopes in formation Potassium
 Isotopes decay
 Emit GR’s (various energies)
 Three main contributors Thorium Series
2.62
 K40 with half-life1.3x109 yrs
 Th232 with half-life 1.4x1010 yrs
 U238 with half-life 4.4x109 yrs
 Sources Uranium-Radium Series
 K40 feldspar, mica, illite 1.76
 Th232 heavy minerals, clays
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
 U238 organic material Gamma Ray Energy (MeV) 16
 Mica and Feldspar
 Mica - A group of minerals consisting of hydrous silicates of aluminum or
potassium which are common in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Mica
vary in color from pale brown or yellow to green or black and
characteristically split into very thin leaves. Sheets of mica used in
insulation and electrical equipment because of their resistance to
electricity. The transparent forms are used in lanterns, the doors of stoves,
etc.
 Feldspar is a name given to a class of aluminum-containing silicates which
form with no cleavage planes. The feldspars include orthoclase (KAlSi3O8)
and plagioclase ((Ca,Na)AlSi3O8). Note that the plagioclase differs from
the orthoclase in terms of the additional metals, plagioclase having calcium
or sodium and orthoclase having potassium. Other members of the
feldspar series are anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) and albite (NaAlSi3O8). These
are extreme members of the feldspar series. The feldspars are the most
abundant minerals on the earth
17
Sources of Passive Gamma Rays

1. Clays
o Kaolinite (very little K [potassium])
o Illite (4-8% K)
o Montmorillonite (smectite) (<1% K)
2. Sand and Silt
o Potassium (K) feldspar
o Heavy minerals
o Volcano-clastics
3. Natural Cements
o Fracture-filling
4. Uranium Ores Not our field 18
 Radioactivity

 Spontaneous disintegration of atoms accompanied

by the emission of radiation

 Unstable elements emit a, b, and g rays

 a has mass as that of 2He4

 b has a very small mass and –ve charge

 g has no mass and no charge but it has ????

19
 Radioactivity

 Half life time: is the time required for radioactive

isotope to lose 50% of its activity

 The radioactive materials originally occurred at

igneous rocks and rarely in sedimentary rocks

 Water passes from igneous rocks through sedimentary

beds, the radioactive elements restricted in shales and
other fine sediments

20
 Gamma Ray

 Are electromagnetic radiation or photons that are

emitted by nucleus in an excited state (has no mass, no
charge, but has an energy)

 Carbonates have a very low radioactivity level, but

during the formation of a secondary porosity or
dolomitization, radioactive elements may deposit by
formation water and this could show higher
radioactivity

21
 Y has energy By eV men Kev

electron a
Pozeton A

any deattachment of is falling

by a radiation

Radio activity deposit In shale

d
unlike Carbonate
 Scintillation Detectors
 Gamma rays interact with scintillation crystal

 Electrons excite phosphor atoms, which in turn decay

by emission of light

 These photons interact with the photocathode of the

tube producing electrons

 Ejected electrons are focused into photomultiplier string

 Electrons are accelerated through successive dynodes

producing multiplication at anode 22
Scintillation Detectors

23
Gamma Ray Corrections

Gamma ray is corrected for borehole effects

1. Hole size dh
Pps
BI
2. Mud density Pm
3. Tool position in hole (centering)
4. Casing diameter I D
5. Casing size and weight O O
6. Cement thickness
14 131
24
Example
• GR log = 67 API
• Hole size = 8 inches
• Mud weight = 16 lbs/gal
• Tool is centered
• OD. of the tool = 3-3/8 inches

25
 16
C.F=1.8

26
Solution

GR COR /GR LOG = 1.8

GR COR = 1.8 * GR LOG
= 1.8 * 67
= 120.6 API

27
Shale Washout
Washout should be
corrected
washout means enlarsment
of the Caliper healing
because of Shale
Increaseof washouts
increas of the factor
of correction

28
 Corrected and
Uncorrected GR
Curves In washout

g 29
Statistical Issues
API
0 120

 Measurement problem
 GR emissions random
 Tool moving Shale
 Results IFthe so

 Imprecise measurement
I
 Details smeared out
at 5,400 ft/hr
 Procedures
 New tools better detectors 1,800 ft/hr 4ft
 Limit logging speed sand
 Old tools 1800 ft/hr
 New tools 3600 ft/hr
 Exercise care interpreting Shale
boundaries 600 ft/hr It 30
 With 540 ft ha We content catch
the Sans formation

With 18 or ftp.r g We get the formation of

interest and some Shale

Me get the
with Go
far actual formation
Time Constant and Logging Speed

V t  Ja(t)=apparent intensity
J a t   reflected by the recorder
rQ r = resistor
  
t Q = charge
J a t   J1  J 2  J1 1  e rc  V = pulse rate
  c = condenser
Pulse rate varies from J1 to J2
 
t

If rc = t, then 
 1  e rc  = 0.63

 

Then the time constant is the time necessary for the equipment
to record 63% of the change in counts from the previous level.
31
 Jack J t I J l ett

Maximum Ja when f r c

o
f can not be greater than re

If 5 00 2

63pofCount per second was

Recorded

Thus to represent the time required

to record 634 of Court Per Second
Time Constant and Logging Speed

Problem
A 10 ft thick bed with average radioactive intensity 100 counts/sec
lies between two beds of zero radioactivity show the response of a
point detector having a time constant of 4 sec run at a speed 900
and 3600 ft/hr.
If a speed of 1800 ft/hr was used, what time constant should be
used to give the same response such as 900 ft/hr.


J a t   100 1  e 0.25t 
E
t is the time elapsed since the tool left the lower bed boundary

32
Time Constant and Logging Speed

The profile obtained with a speed of 900 ft/hr at a time constant

of 4 sec, can be reported at a logging speed of 1800 ft/hr at a
time constant of 2 sec.
Speed, ft/hr tc, sec (time constant)

ft n 3600 1
Ift
1sec
1800 2 21ft
1200 3 ft
Ift is
900 4 H
At
Log distance to be captured = time constant x logging speed = 1 ft
lowest speed requires
ks b fl 33
 Time Constant and Logging Speed

The faster the logging speed, the less time the tool can
sufficiently react and properly count the radiation intensity.
 Two effects:
 The tool response is shifted in the direction the tool is
moving. This lag or critical thickness (hc) is given by hc = v
tc; where v is logging speed (ft/sec) and tc is the time constant
(sec). EE
 The log cannot properly respond when h < hc
 The time constant and logging speed are regulated so that the GR
log is representative of the formation radioactivity.
 By experience, hc = 1 ft., avoids excessive distortion of the GR
curve. 34
Speed 3600ft n

time constant I see

3600ft
n go Iffy Is lf

dish
Captured

360 fth I
ftp 2s

b
lower resolution
This mean every
2ft data is
captured

faster logging tool less time constant

36.0 ft n Also needs 1ft

Go ft n Ya ft s needs ft
Since distance to be captured 1ft this
two speeds and Tners to will give same
data Resolution
Time Constant and Logging Speed

3 1
capture
shoo
high
Ie 4,410
35
Time Constant and Logging Speed

V3 43ft
4
more
accurate 1ft Yet Iff 36
Resolution
 time constant
he DC
fly
If he 7 Then the tool couldn't Respond properly

thickness

When is fixed Smaller gives high Resontin

when I t I i it

choose the
In open hole logging you can
speed
choose the speed
MWD you can't
GR Response In Common Formations
0 50 100 API units
Shaly sand
Reading
 Shales often radioactive Shale
bentonite Very shaly sand
o Clays
o Trace andIIHF
heavy minerals
Clean limestone

Dolomite
Shale
 Sandstones may be
Clean sand
radioactive
o Non-clay minerals, e.g., Coal
mica, feldspar Shaly sand
o Clays Anhydrite

Salt
Volcanic ash 37
Gypsum
GR Response In Common Formations

Rock Radium equivalent/10-12 g

Black Shale 26.1
Shale 20.3
Sandy Shale 11
Siltstone 10.3
Calcareous Shale 8.5
Shaly Sand 7.1
Granite 6.9
Sand 4.1
Limestone 3.8
Dolomite 3.1

clean Sand has small radioactivity 38

GR Response In Common Formations

39
Gamma Ray and Depositional Environment

40
Some GR Applications

 Reservoir discrimination
 Vsh cutoff Volume of Shale
 Correlation in t
 Well-to-well
 Open hole to cased hole
 Core-to-log
 Environment
 Uses curve shape to infer grain size changes, sedimentary
processes and environments
 Fracture detection
 Some deposits on fracture faces “hot”
 Depth control
 Lithology indicator 41
 Correlations
open hole cases hale

Open h
In Radioactivity Of fluid

Well to well correlation

o to determine an
of the Reservoir

Cone to log
Type of caring
hate Caring
Side caring
 Is
coring log

Matimum Count see in

lag he can get
is 631
Values are different but they have same
trend Signiture

Why Corry is different then kg

Reference of the company

Elongation or Increase in length may

Cause different Values in different Depth
Zonation

 Zonation - Defining intervals of similar lithologic and fluid properties to identify

lateral and vertical changes in reservoir properties
Criteria

 Lithology (correlation)Morethan one well
 Fluids
 Porosity and permeability
 Lithology - Identify correlation markers
 Distinctive shale spikes
 Distinctive log patterns
 Above and below interval of interest (bracket)
 Begin with coarse zonation
 Initially, well-to-well correlation of thick (several hundred ft) sedimentary
packages between distinctive markers
 Next, correlate finer intervals (100 - 300 ft)
 Finally, detailed evaluation of sedimentary facies (5 - 60 ft thick)
 Considerations
 Subtle lithologic (facies) changes
 Fluid changes
42
 Types of logs available
 Zonation
Litholes g jthl

I IÉF

we begin with coarse Zonation

We end with fine Zonation

Passive Log
Correlation
 GR, SP, and CAL
 often correlate
 different
measurements
 different reasons
 Correlation helps
 GR instead of SP in
OBM
 Easier detection of
shales
 Facilitates “zonation”
43
GB Passive log
bae
f powder
oil base

Fmonitoripwellsisdrilled to notify
if there's concern
any
 What is Vshale?
 Fraction of rock made up of shale sand
 Why calculate Vsh in Sandstone?
 Delimit reservoir quality rock silt
 Shale = clays Vsh
dry clay
 Clays reduce perm and porosity
 Estimates of Sw too large bound water
 Shales reduce net pay t
free water
 Vsh definition
matrix (silt + dry clay)
e HC
+
fluid (bound water)
Unit volume of rock
44
 Determination of Shake is the important

application of GR

Shale

Permeability lithology

Ja farah Carbonate
d
any Rock with Nano darcy Called shale

Shale lithology
consist of fine grains of Clay
and silt minerals
irreducible
Water connate
minimum worker saturation
k macro pores Lange Smi
n Micro is small 9 She
In archi's Sw is total water
eq
Saturation

Structural water Saturation

r gypsum Shiloh
Casey H Water the
only in
formuila
anhydrate
Deep
Casey

Bound water is the Same as Structral

Water
Volume of Shale

GR  GRMIN
Gamma Ray Index I SH 
GRMAX  GRMIN

RELATIONSHIP ark EQUATION

Linear
Clavier
Steiber
gg Vsh = Ish
Vsh= 1.7-(3.38-(Ish+.7)2 )1/2
Vsh= 0.5*(Ish/(1.5-Ish))
Bateman Vsh= Ish (Ish +GR Factor)
GR Factor = 1.2 –1.7
45
Calculating clay content (vshale)
 Shale Index 0 GR (API) 100
GR  GRmin
I sh  90 GAPI
GRmax  GRmin GR (max) Shale

 Calculating Vsh
 Numerous models GR Shaly
48 GAPI
 Always have Vsh < Ish sand

GR Tool
 May only apply locally Clean
GR 15 GAPI
Some Models: (min) sand
Vsh  I sh
Vsh  I sh /( 2  I sh ) 90 GAPI Shale

Vsh  I sh /( 4  3I sh )
Vsh  0.33(2 2  I sh  1) 46
Example from Slide 31 V SH Relationships
GR  GRmin
I sh 
GRmax  GRmin
48  15
I sh 
90  15
I sh  0.44
Example, slide 34
GR  GRmin
I sh 
GRmax  GRmin
26%

50  10 20%
I sh  14%
132  10

I
I sh  0.327
0.327 0.44 47
Example Problem

Choose value for GRmax

and GRmin and compute
Vsh in sand “C” using
linear, Clavier, and
Steiber methods

48
Solution

GRmin = 10API

GRlog =50 API

GRmax =132
49
Example from Slide 31 GR V Relationships
SH
GR  GRmin
I sh 
GRmax  GRmin
48  15
I sh 
90  15
I sh  0.44
Example, slide 34
GR  GRmin
I sh 
GRmax  GRmin
26%

50  10 20%
I sh  14%
132  10
I sh  0.327
0.327 0.44 50
Solution

GRmin = 10 API
GRmax = 132 API
Choosing a depth in Sand C , say GR =50 API
Linear Vsh = 0.327
Clavier Vsh = 0.175 We choose lowest

Steiber Vsh = 0.139 y Value

Volume
as shale

51
Spectral GR Analysis

 Gives the individual quantities of uranium,

potassium, and thorium

 Good fracture detector, because uranium tends to

precipitate with fracture-filling minerals

 A sharp uranium peak may indicate fractures

 Good for mineral identification

52
 U because of
organic
matters Matters

Th U Concentration By Ppm

K By weight f
a difference In calibration gives
lower than min Value sites

Th K from rock

C GR This

SER in K U

G Sto
Sgr Car h

a
Kfa can define the mineral

U became of fracture

became of O M
organic matter
K Th Can Indicate Shale Volume
Spectral GR

 Th, U, and K different energies  Output

 K, Th, U concentrations
 Tool measures
 Th + K gives CGR
 counts
 no-uranium GR curve
 energies  better measure for Vsh

CGR so Th
K
39
SGR U
53
of
 Spectral Analysis Principle

54
The radioactivities of the 3 elements differ, based on the energy level peaks
Spectral Gamma Ray Log
ppm Iwept
yooo

URANIUM
THORIUM

POTASSIUM

55
Decomposition of the natural gamma ray activity of
a carbonate section into concentrations of Th, U and
K

56
A spectral gamma ray log indicating the concentration of Th, U,
and K. The zone indicated as containing mica shows an abnormally
high K content

57
A log showing the effect of feldspar on the
spectral and total gamma ray logs

Tx w
43 140

k 3 000 58
A log showing the result of an anomaly of U. If
undetected, the volume of clay in the entire zone is
compromised

mikes
a the Caber
Clay

59
I

T X1o4
pm

60
Identification of clay minerals from thorium
and potassium

est
61
3 I
A cross plot of Th and K for determining shale volume and
distinguishing micaceous sands from shaly sands

62
Determination of Vcl for thorium and potassium
distributions

63
Spectral Gamma Ray

K40 Th232 U238

Illite Heavy minerals Phosphates

Potassium Feldspar Clays Uranium salts

Mica Phosphates Uranium ores

Smectite Organic materials

Volcano clastic

Kaolinite E Fracture filling

64
Clay Minerals

Clay Mineral Structure Sp. Gr. CEC, Specific Surface

meq/ are, m2/g
100 g
Illite (K,H3O)(Al,Mg,Fe)2 2.6 – 2.9 10 – 40 10 – 100
(Si,Al)4O10[(OH)2,(
H2O)]
Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 2.16 – 2.68 3 – 15 5 – 40

Smectite (Na,Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2 1.7 – 2.00 80 –120 40 – 800

(Si4O10)(OH)2·nH2O

Chlorite (Fe5Al)(AlSi3)O10(O 2.6 – 3.3 10 - 40 10 - 55

H)8

65
Potassium-bearing Evaporitic Minerals

66
Spectral Gamma Ray

Shale Index Can be Determined from The Spectral

Gamma Ray
to get Volume
CTh Log  CTh min of Tn in shots
I sh Th  For Thorium
CTh Max  CTh min
to set volume of
CK Log  CK min For Potassium
I sh K 
CK Max  CK min K in Shale
67
Spectral Gamma Ray

For Shlumberger Devices:

g , API  4CTh  8CU  16CK

CK = potassium concentration, wt% 7 tight

CTh = thorium concentration, ppm
CU = uranium concentration, ppm

To determine Vsh or Ish we have to determine uranium free GR

g UF  g  8CU
68
Y 4 Ctn 8
cut 16 CK
Ppm ppm
f
with all elements
But
If we want contribution of kith
only

Y Ecu
4a6
b
Yaf Y Ecu
I
Uranuim
free
Shake contain
contains The K

Sandstone
Carbonate
Carton fractured carbonate will emit

G R urannim

t shirt
b
shale

Organic material
inside Shale
Source Reck

F.netAnt
fractured
carbonate

Shale
 t

b
shale
No organic
material
Cap Rock

By Yin we can get minerals

source

Shale could be
cap
high th his kilown
Cap Rd

Ishak CGR

SGR Induce a

CG R now
We pick min stable Value for G R In Ap

h is not part of the Rock of Shale

Sien
is
4th
Reading
 S8 SGR CGR Manam

if low car no shale

If there's high up fractured

scary
carbonate
or Car The K

SGR Th K u

Car is called Natural G R

CGRe
Ct16CIIYu.f
SGR AD Ecu

CGR San Son

organic matters
up Fracture

Conventional Shale No organic matter

unconventional Shales with organic matters

high car high Thin Shale

In AD API is min Value So

it's clean formation Vsh o

lowest car clean formation If no U

carbonate if there's
fractures
Shale Inder
Isnt
Innin
m

Sand has more radioactivity than Carbonate

CGR
If SGR CGR low Clean Same
Stone

If SGR car low fractured

Carbonate
Sar GG R high Source Rock

S Gr ears high Conventional

Shale
Kd is Important to prevent swelling of
clays Shale Stabilizer
Spectral Gamma Ray

Example
stats
Level g, API CTh, ppm CU, ppm CK, wt%

A 10 0 1.25 0

B 61.2 8.5 0 1.7

C 24 0 3 0

69
 API 0Th
A total Ca CK
B
c

AO has
th Clean formation

Could
be fractured carbonate

Carbonate has low CGR Readings

If use
Ygtaptgmwronsmetne

D min t.o Vsh

man Uh look

at between Vsh 30

is this True

Ne Th K
free tuns no
me Use t of wrannim
to detect
shale
Volume of the
Shak
In prevents A.Bant
If we Depend on Yaf
A C Clean
B shaky
If we Depend on t
A clean
B Share

tf
c Shang
b
and the reason
for this contribution
is
of D

U not necessary means shakes it

Could be fractured carbonate
Spectral Gamma Ray using
By
Ms SER
g Car
using
Level guf, API Ish (1) Ish (2)

A 0 0 0

B 61.2 100 100

C 0 28 0

g  10 g uf  0

0
I sh 1  I sh 2  
61.2  10 61.2  0
70
Some GR Applications

 Lithology indicator
 Reservoir discrimination
 Vsh cutoff
 Correlation
 Well-to-well
 Open hole to cased hole
 Core-to-log
 Depth control
 Depositional Environment
 Uses curve shape, log responses, and characteristic of bedding
contacts to infer grain sizes and sedimentary processes and
environments
 Exploration for radioactive rocks
 Uranium, potassium chloride
 Fracture detection 71

 Some fracture-filling mineral deposits are “hot”

Shale Distribution

72