CHEM3012

Separation Process (II)

Learning Materials-Topic 2-Week 3
Rate of drying

Course Learning Outcomes

Evaluate efficiency and energy requirements of evaporators and drying systems

encountered frequently in process engineering.

Lecturer Name: Dr Mostafa Ghasemi Baboli

Academic Year: 2022-2023
Course Coordinator Name: Dr Mostafa Ghasemi Baboli

References:
1.Geankoplis, C.J., (2003). Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles. Prentice Hall PTR, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
2. McCabe W, Smith J, and Harriott P,(2001). Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering. 7th Edition, McGraw Hill.
Drying in Falling Rate Period by Diffusion or
Capillary Flow

• Empirical method were used to predict the time of drying

Actual rate-of-drying curve was numerically or
graphically integrated to determine the time of drying
Approximate straight line between critical free
moisture content to the origin at zero free moisture
• Rate of moisture movement in falling rate period-
governed by the rate of internal movement of the liquid
by liquid diffusion or capillary movement

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Drying in Falling Rate Period by Diffusion or
Capillary Flow

• Liquid Diffusion
• Relatively slow drying in non-granular material (e.g. soap,
gelatin, glue) and later stages of drying of bound water (e.g.
in wood, textiles, leather, paper, foods, starches)
• Difficulty in analyzing drying data – initial moisture
distribution is not uniform throughout the solid
• During drying period – resistance to mass transfer of water
vapor from the surface is usually small
• Diffusion in the solid control the drying process

l
LSS dX  2
LS D L 4 x12 8X 1
R  X t ln
 DL  2X
2 2
A dt 4 x1 A
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Example:
Drying Slabs of Wood when diffusion of moisture controls
The experimental average diffusion coefficient of
moisture in a given wood is 2.97x10-6m2/h (3.2x10-5 ft2/h).
Large planks of wood 25.4mm thick are dried from both
sides by air having a humidity such that the equilibrium
moisture content in the wood is X* = 0.04 kg H2O/ kg dry
wood. The wood is to dried from a total average moisture
content of Xt1 = 0.29 to Xt = 0.09. Calculate the time
needed.

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Example
Drying Slabs of Wood when diffusion of moisture controls

Solution: The free moisture content

X1 = Xt1 - X* = 0.29 - 0.04 = 0.25,
X = Xt - X* = 0.09 - 0.04 = 0.05.
The half-slab thickness x1 = 25.4/(2 x 1000) =
0.0127 m. Substituting into Eq. (9.9-6),

Alternatively, Fig. 5.3-13 for the average

concentration in a slab can be used. The
ordinate Ea = X/X1 = 0.05/0.25 = 0.20.
Reading off the plot a value of 0.56 = ,
substituting, and solving for t,

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Drying in Falling Rate Period by Diffusion or
Capillary Flow
• Capillary Movement of Moisture in Drying
• Water can flow from regions of high concentration to low
concentration region as a result of capillary action rather than by
diffusion if the pore sizes of the granular materials are suitable.
• Capillary Theory
• Assumes that a packed bed of non-porous spheres contains a
void space between the sphere called pores
• As water is evaporated, capillary forces are set-up by the
interfacial tension between water and solid
• Force provide driving force for moving the water through the
pores to the drying surface
• Effects of variables gas velocity, temperature of gas, humidity
of gas – will be the same as for the constant rate drying period

x1  S W X C XC
t  ln
h(T  TW ) X 6
Drying in Falling Rate Period by Diffusion or
Capillary Flow
• Comparison of liquid diffusion and capillary flow
Unaccomplished moisture changes – ratio of free moisture
present in the solid after drying for t hours to the total free
moisture present
If the equation for capillary flow apply, slope of the falling
rate line B related to constant drying rate Rc
 the value of RC is calculated from the measured slope of the line
–Rc/x1ρSXC
If it agrees with experimental/predicted value of Rc, moisture
movement is by capillary flow
If value of Rc do not agree – movement is by diffusion and the
slope should equal to –2DL/4x12

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Through Circulation Drying in Packed Beds

• Granular solids arranged on a screen

• Gas passes thru’ the screen and thru’ the open spaces or voids
between the solid particles.
- Time a constant-rate period
 S W x1  X 1  X C 
t

Gcs T1  TW  1  e  hax1 / Gc s 
- Time for falling-rate period.
 S W x1 X C ln  X C / X 
t

Gcs T1  TW  1  e  hax1 / Gc s 

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Through Circulation Drying in Packed Beds
where,
S = density of solid
W = latent heat at TW
x1 = bed thickness
X1, XC = free moisture content at point 1 and 2,
respectively.
G = gas mass velocity (kg/s.m2)
cS = humid heat of the air-water vapor mixture (kJ/kg dry air. K)
T1 = temperature of entering gas
TW = wet bulb temperature of solid
h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)
a = surface area of solids/m3 bed volume.

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Through Circulation Drying in Packed Beds
• Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K) for thru’ circulation drying:

Gt0.59
h  0.151 0.41 D p Gt
350
Dp 
Gt0.49
where, h  0.214 0.51 D G
p t
350
DP = diameter of a sphere having the samesurface area as the
Dp
particle in the bed (m).
= DC hC + 0.5 DC2)0.5 for a cylinder
Gt = total mass velocity entering the bed (kg/h.m2)
 = viscosity (kg/m.h)

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Through Circulation Drying in Packed Beds

• Surface area of solids/m3 bed volume, a:

- Packed bed for spherical particles

61   
a
Dp

- Cylindrical particles

41   h  0.5 DC 

a
DC h

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Example:
Through-Circulation Drying in a Bed

A granular paste material is extruded into cylinders with a

diameter of 6.35mm and length of 25.4mm. The initial moisture
content Xt1 = 1.0 kg H2O/kg dry solid and the equilibrium moisture
is X* = 0.01. The density of the dry solid is 1602 kg/m3. the
cylinders are packed on a screen to a depth of x1=50.8mm. The bulk
density of the dry solid in the bed is ρ = 641 kg/m3. the inlet air has
a humidity H1 = 0.04 kg H2O/ kg dry air and a temperature T1 =
121.1ºC. The gas superficial velocity is 0.811 m/s and the gas
passes through the bed. The total critical moisture content is
XtC. = 0.50Calculate the total time to dry the solids to Xt = 0.1 kg
H20/kg dry solid.

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Example:
Solution: For the solid,

For the gas, T1 = 121.1°C and H1 = 0.04 kg H2O/kg dry air. The wet bulb
temperature TW = 47.2°C and HW = 0.074. The solid temperature is at TW if
radiation and conduction are neglected. The density of the entering air at 121.1°C
and 1 atm is as follows:
Equation 9.3-7

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Example:
The mass velocity of the dry air is

Since the inlet H1 = 0.040 and the outlet will be less than 0.074, an approximate average H
of 0.05 will be used to calculate the total average mass velocity. The approximate average
Gt is

For the packed bed, the void fraction is calculated as follows for 1 m3 of bed containing
solids plus voids. A total of 641 kg dry solid is present. The density of the dry solid is
1602 kg dry solid/m3 solid. The volume of the solids in 1 m3 of bed is then 641/1602, or
0.40 m3 solid. Hence, = 1 - 0.40 = 0.60. The solid cylinder length hc = 0.0254 m.
The diameter Dc = 0.00635 m. Substituting into Eq. (9.10-16),

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Example:
To calculate the diameter Dp of a sphere with the same area as the
cylinder using Eq. (9.10-17),

The bed thickness x1 = 50.8 mm = 0.0508 m.

To calculate the heat-transfer coefficient, the Reynolds number is first
calculated. Assuming an approximate average air temperature of
93.3°C, the viscosity of air is μ = 2.15 x 10-5 kg/m s
= 2.15 x 10-5(3600) = 7.74 x 10-2 kg/m · h. The Reynolds number is

Using Eq. (9.10-13),

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Example:
For TW = 47.2°C, λW = 2389 kJ/kg, or 2.389 x 106 J/kg (1027 btu/lbm), from steam
tables. The average humid heat, from Eq. (9.3-6), is

To calculate the time of drying for the constant-rate period using Eq. (9.10-11) and
G = 2459/3600 = 0.6831 kg/s · m2,

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Example:
For the time of drying for the falling-rate period, using Eq. (9.10-12),

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TRAY DRYING WITH VARYING AIR CONDITIONS

• Time of drying t :
- for the constant-rate period

Lt  S W x1  X 1  X C 
t

Gcs bT1  TW  1  e  hLt / Gc s b 
- for falling-rate period (approximately)

Lt  S W x1 X C ln  X C / X 
t
where, 
Gcs bT1  TW  1  e  hLt / Gc s b 
b = spacing between the trays (m)
G = dry air flow (kg dry air/s. m2 cross-sectional area)
Lt = length of tray (m)

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Continuous Dryer:

• Heat of wetting & adsorption – neglected.

• Moisture material balance;
GH2 + LS X1 = GH1 + LS X2

• Enthalpy of gas HG’

HG’ = cs (TG – To) + Ho
where,
o = latent heat of water at To= 0 ºC
cs = humid heat
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Continuous Dryer:
• Enthalpy of wet solid HS’

H S'  c pS TS  To   Xc pA TS  To 

where,
cpS = heat capacity of the dry solid (kJ/kg dry solid.K)
cpA = heat capacity of liquid moisture (kJ/kg H2O.K)

• Heat balance on the dryer.

GH G' 2  LS H S' 1  GG' 1  LS H S' 2  Q

where,
Q = heat loss in the dryer (kJ/h)
= 0 (adiabatic)
= -ve (heat is added)
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Example:
Heat Balance on a Dryer
A continuous countercurrent dryer is being used to dry 453.6 kg dry solid/h
containing 0.04 kg total moisture/kg dry solid to a value of 0.002 kg total
moisture/kg dry solid. The granular solid enters at 26.7ºC and is to be
discharged at 62.8 ºC. The dry solid has a heat capacity of 1.465 kJ/kg.K,
which is assumed constant. Heating air enters at 93.3ºC, having a humidity of
0.010 kg H2O/kg dry air, and is to be leave at 37.8 ºC. Calculate the air flow
rate and the outlet humidity, assuming no heat losses in the dryer.
The flow diagram is given below,
Q =0 G
TG1 = 37.8 ºC. TG2 = 93.3 ºC.
H1 H2 = 0.010 kg H2O/kg dry air
cPA = 4.187 kJ/kg H2O.K

solid
LS = 453.6 kg/h dry solid X2 = 0.002 kg H2O/kg dry solid
cPS = 1.465 kJ/kg dry solid .K TS2 = 62.8 ºC.
X1 = 0.040 kg H2O/kg dry solid
TS1 = 26.7 ºC. 21
Example:
Solution
Making a material balance on the moisture,

GH2 + LS X1 = GH1 + LS X2 ………(1)

G(0.010) + 453.6(0.040) = GH1 + 453.6(0.002)

For the heat balance, the enthalpy of the entering gas at 93.3ºC,
using 0 ºC as a datum and 0 = 2501 kJ/kg from the steam table,

H’G2 = cS (TG2 – T0) + H2 0

= [1.005 + 1.88(0.010)](93.30)+0.010(2501)
= 120.5 kJ/kg dry air.

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Example:
For the exit gas,
H’G1 = cS (TG1 – T0) + H1 0
= (1.005+1.88H1)(37.8-0)+H1(2501)
= 37.99 + 2572H1
Solution
For the entering solid,
H’S1 = cPS (TS1 – T0) + X1 cPA (TS1 – T0)
= 1.465(26.7-0)+0.040(4.187)(26.7-0)
= 43.59 kJ/kg dry solid.
H’S2 = cPS (TS2 – T0) + X2 cPA (TS2 – T0)
= 1.465(62.8-0)+0.002(4.187)(62.8-0)
= 92.53 kJ/kg
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Example:

Substituting into heat balance equation with Q= 0 for no heat loss,

GH’G2 + LS H’S1 = GH’G1 + LS H’S2 + Q ………(2)
G(120.5)+453.6(43.59) = G(37.99+2572H1)+453.6(92.53)+0

Solving (10 and (2) simultaneously,

G = 1166 kg dry air/h
H1 = 0.0248 kg H20/kg dry air.

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