Introduction To Psychology

Introduction to Psychology: An Overview
Psychology
is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It deals with behavior and mental
processes in scientific ways. Behavior is an observable action emitted by an organism. Mental
processes, though more difficult to observe directly, include thoughts, feelings, and beliefs. If our
ways of studying something are scientific, they are based on systematic observation, and their
goals are to describe, explain, predict, and change.
We can label the scientific method as the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures that scientists
use to conduct empirical research. Empirical research methods include collecting, analyzing,
and interpreting data, reaching conclusions, and sharing information.
Statements that cannot be objectively measured or objectively determined to be true or false are
not within the domain of scientific inquiry. Scientists generally do not attempt to prove values,
beliefs, or opinions to be true or false. Because values cannot be either true or false, science
cannot prove or disprove them. Nevertheless, research can sometimes provide facts that can help
people develop their values. For instance, scientists may be able to objectively measure the effect
of capital punishment on the crime rate in the United States. This factual information can and
should be made available to help people formulate their values about capital punishment.
Personal value Scientific fact

Handguns should be outlawed. There were 33,599 deaths caused by handguns
in the United States in 2014.
It is important to quit smoking. Smoking increases the incidence of cancer
and heart disease.
Scientific Method
Describe. To describe something scientifically, it must first be observed. In Psychology, we
describe behavior and mental processes, i.e., we convey their characteristics using words.
Complete, reliable, and accurate descriptions allow us to address the what of behavior. What
am I observing? What is he doing? What am I thinking? What are those kids doing to that other
kid?
Explain. To explain behavior and mental processes, we build on observation and description to
address the how and why of behavior. In other words, we are stating what we believe to be the
mechanisms and/or the causes. Why is this happening? Why is he doing that? Why are those
kids doing that?
Predict. To predict behavior and mental processes, we are drawing upon our observations,
descriptions, and explanations to state what we think will happen in the future. This is the
essence of hypothesis testing in experiments as well as projected outcomes based on previous
knowledge. Our predictions are only as good as our science. Prediction addresses the what if of
behavior. What is likely to happen if we don’t change a thing? What is likely to happen if we
intervene?
Change. To change (or control) behavior and mental processes, we must first have the knowledge
and ability to predict behavioral outcomes, and then we must make a decision to apply our
knowledge—whether under the more controlled conditions of the laboratory or the less
controlled conditions of the real world.
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Research Methods in Psychology
Although more than half of psychologists are engaged in applied practice (i.e., changing
behavior), the evidence that guides their interventions is the result of behavioral research.
Psychologists are scientists searching for answers to questions and solutions to problems.
Research methods are the indispensable tools of their investigations.
1. Methods:
1.1. Descriptive Methods. There are three common descriptive methods: naturalistic observation,
case study, and survey.
• Naturalistic observation is a research method that places the researcher/observer in the natural
habitat of the observed, which provides an opportunity to witness and record the behavior
directly, without interacting with the observed. It is, however, difficult to observe behavior
without actually affecting the behavior by your very presence.
• Case study is a research method whereby the researcher gathers a great deal of information
about one person through a combination of techniques, including interview, history, and review
of records. Usually, the subject of the case study is a person who exhibits behaviors that are of
interest to the researcher. Though much can be learned about the behavior of one individual
through case study, the findings cannot be extended or applied to other individuals.
• Survey methods are able to gather a lot of information about a lot of people by asking them to
respond to questions about their behavioral practices, beliefs, or opinions. Surveys conducted on
samples of a population have the ability to make predictions about the larger group, but only if
the survey items are well constructed and the sample is representative.
1.2. Correlational Methods. Whenever we go beyond the first goal of science, which is to describe
behavior, we are venturing into the realm of explanation, wherein we can focus on how something
works or even why it happens. Descriptive methods shed light on the what of behavior, and in the
process, may lead the researcher to seek additional information that would explain how two
things are related. If these “things” vary along some dimension, scientists refer to them as
variables. Correlational research methods allow us to answer this important question—how
are two variables related?
Example:
Say you chose drinking coffee and tardiness. Each of these variables varies along many
dimensions, so we’ll use just one for each—drinking coffee varies in frequency of use, and
tardiness varies on how often it occurs. Let’s say we conducted a research project to
investigate the relation between drinking coffee and tardiness. We asked hundreds of college
students to record their frequency of drinking coffee over the course of several weeks. During
the same period, they also recorded their tardiness to class and work. We found that, as
drinking coffee increased, tardiness also increased. This is known as a positive correlation—
the variables are changing together in the same direction.
1.3. Experimental Methods. Experiments explain. They do so because they contain elements
of control that do not exist in any other research method. Experimental methods attempt to
isolate cause by manipulating a variable that is hypothesized to be the cause of another
variable. Psychologists who use experimental methods have built upon previous descriptive
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and correlational research in their areas of interest. The purpose of an experiment is to answer
a basic question: What is the effect of one variable on another variable?
Example:
The theory predicts that the people who play violent video games will behave more
aggressively than people who do not. This prediction is also referred to as the hypothesis. An
experiment could be designed where some people played violent video games and some
people played non-violent video games. All participants would then be observed for
aggressive behavior.
2. Statistics
Descriptive Statistics. Descriptive statistics do just that—describe observed information. When

we describe an entire data set, we are looking for a way to efficiently and clearly express what we
have. Numbers do this better than words.
Inferential Statistics. Inferential statistics do just that—allow inferences about the real world to
be made based on the observed information. When we make an inference, we are making a
judgment about whether our research findings are due to chance or are due to the manipulation
of the independent variable.

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Introduction to Psychology: An Overview

Personal value Scientific fact

Descriptive Statistics. Descriptive statistics do just that—describe observed information. When

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