DIPLOMA IN

MANAGEMENT STUDIES
(DMSQF)

ENGLISH FOR BUSINESS

ENGLISH FOR BUSINESS
INTRODUCTION

This module is designed to help you become a good communicator able to

transfer messages effectively to specific audiences. As a student pursuing a Diploma
in Management Studies, this module aims to equip you with the fundamental skills
needed by a Business student to complete assignments and projects effectively.

COURSE OBJECTIVES (LEARNING OBJECTIVES)

Upon completion of the course students are expected to:

1. Recognize the functions of communication in major business disciplines.

2. Identify some of the common grammatical elements in business writing and learn to
consider various factors such as message, purpose and audience.
3. Develop critical thinking, reading and writing skills.
4. Learn to craft effective paragraphs with clear topic sentences, and supporting details.
5. Write coherent essays, paying attention to the strategies for effective introduction and
conclusion.
6. Analyse persuasive writing and understand text structure and language features of
persuasive texts.
7. Evaluate and write effective advertisements through carefully selected activities.
8. Recognise different text types and learn strategies that help them describe a process,
classify ideas, narrate cause and effect and compare and contrast ideas.
9. Learn to revise and edit their own writing pieces.

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COURSE SYLLABUS

SESSION TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES ACTIVITIES

• Identify the communication
1 Communication in skills needed in major
Business Disciplines business disciplines
[Part 1]
• Gain a general overview of
the 3 key aspects in
business writing

• Writing correctly
- Sentence Fragment
- Dangling Modifiers
- Faulty Parallelism
- Subject Verb Agreement

2 Communication in • Writing Concisely

Business Disciplines
• Writing Coherently

3 Critical Thinking, • Define critical thinking

Reading and Writing
[Part 1] • Recognize the
characteristics of critical
thinkers

• Read critically

• Write critically

Submit
4 Critical Thinking, • Make important names of
Reading and Writing distinctions Group
[Part 2] members for
• Respond critically to an End-of –
article Course
Assessment
(CA3)to
Lecturers

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 • Understand language use
5 MAP of Writing & in various contexts
Effective Reading
• Identify the Message,
Audience and Purpose

• Use different text type

according to purpose and
audience

• Identify the basic

meanings of long and
complex sentences

6 Drafting Paragraphs • Apply the three steps

involved in the writing
process

• Understand the purpose of

topic sentences in
paragraphs

• Understand how
paragraphs cohere and
produce meaning for the
reader

7 Drafting Essays &

Citation • Know the elements of a
good introduction

• Know how to structure and

develop body paragraphs

• Know how to end a piece

of writing with an effective
conclusion

• Basic introduction to
referencing and citation
(APA format)

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 8 Persuasive Writing
• Recognize the function of
persuasive essays in the
business context

• Analyse the text structure

of a persuasive essay

9 Visuals
• Use critical reading skills to
deconstruct advertisements
and articles and
discriminate between fact,
and opinion

• Articulate how persuasion

manipulates thinking

• Develop an awareness of
advertisements

 Incorporate visuals in
persuasive writing
 Learn how to create and
explain visuals

10 Text types: • Compare the text

- Process Essays structures and language
- Classification Essays features of different types
of texts

• Know how to describe

process systematically

• Know the various ways of

classifying ideas

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 11 Text types:
- Cause and Effect • Know how to show cause
Essays and effect relationships
- Compare and clearly
Contrast Essays
• Know how to compare and
contrast ideas in a piece of
writing

12 Revising and Editing

• Understand how to revise
and edit the writing piece

• Edit for accuracy and

appropriateness of form

13 End-of-Course • Presentation of Group End of Course

Assessment Project Assessment:
Presentation

14 End-of-Course • Presentation of Group End of Course

Assessment Project Assessment:
Presentation

Teaching and Learning Strategies

Lectures are given to introduce strategies and provide a framework of the elements of business
communication. In-class activities and group work provide the students the opportunity to apply
and practice these strategies.

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Assessment Scheme
1. Continuous Assessment 1 (CA 1): 40%
Common Test
2. Continuous Assessment 2 (CA2):
Group Project 30%
Presentation 10%

3. Continuous Assessment 3 (CA3):

On line Quiz 20%

Reading List

Bovee, C. & Thill, J.V. (2012). Business communication essentials. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson.

Cotton, D., Falvey, D., & Kent, S. (2008). Intermediate business English course book. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

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 Session Communication in
1 Business Disciplines [Part 1]
OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Identify the communication skills needed in major business disciplines
• Gain a general overview of the 3 key aspects in business writing
• Writing Correctly
o Sentence Fragments
o Dangling Modifiers
o Faulty Parallelism
o Subject Verb Agreement

The field of business is divided into several disciplines. They are namely Accounting,
Business Law, Management and Marketing. Each of these disciplines has a focus that
determines its personality. Regardless of the differences, there are certain needs and
goals they share, and the most important one is the need to write and communicate
well!

Study the table below and understand the writing skills needed in these disciplines:
Disciplines Main Function Communication Skills Needed
Accounting • Record financial effects • Able to write accurate and
• Provide analysis on precise records
performance • Able to write sound and logical
• Design and implement insights and interpretations
methods to control access to
assets

Business • Interpret legal • Craft accurate sentences that

Law phrases express complex ideas for
• Construct legal business contracts
Documents • Analyse, compare, contrast and
synthesize information to be
presented

Management • Handle human resource • Draft and write various types of

• Convey strengths and letters and reports
competencies of company
to clients

Marketing • Product development • Develop analytical tools such as

• Create a sense of need surveys and studies
among customers • Design accurate questions that
elicit information objectively

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Structure of a company
The general division of a company comprises three important groups:
• The Shareholders - those who provide the capital / funds
• The Management - the people who operate the company
• The Workforce - the ones who report to the management and get the work done

Activity 1
Let's take a look at the organizational chart below that shows the company hierarchy.
Can you complete the chart? Look at the clues in the brackets to help you determine
the titles.

__________________
(Head of the company)

___________________________________
(In- charge of company strategy and general policy)

____________________________________
(Responsible for running the business and implementing the policies)

Finance & Information HR Communication

Accounting Technology Management and PR

General points

In all organizations, there are different company structures and different job titles. In
fact, this is what makes each company unique. However, there are also some common
features.
Firstly, it is conceivable that larger companies would tend to have more levels due to
the sheer size. Secondly, whether there are many levels or just two, there is still a
definite hierarchy, i.e. a system of people, ranked one above another.

Is there a hierarchy in your family? Who is the head of your family?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

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Activity 2
The following are descriptions of some of the communication responsibilities of people
from different departments. Can you deduce which department they come from and
what business communication tools they are likely to produce? Besides emails and
phone calls, are there communication tools that are unique to the department in
question?

In today's world we cannot do without computers. My team and I make sure all systems
are working well and we design applications that make it easy for every member of staff
to exchange information. When we create these systems, we must make sure we
provide instructions that the staff can easily follow so they can make use of the
systems.

Department:

__________________________________________________________________

Communication tools:

__________________________________________________________________

My team and I produce a thorough report at least twice a year to demonstrate how the
company has performed. We need to communicate well in order to give an accurate
picture of the performance and I have to be skillful in explaining graphs and charts.

Department:

__________________________________________________________________

Communication tools:

__________________________________________________________________

My team and I need to be creative and must at all times, comprehend the needs of our
consumers. We are constantly thinking of ways to reach out to them and make them
interested in our products.

Department:

__________________________________________________________________

Communication tools:

__________________________________________________________________

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Day after day we get enquiries from our customers and sometimes we even have to
communicate with the press to inform them of our products or any changes in the
company.

Department:

__________________________________________________________________

Communication tools:

__________________________________________________________________

Whenever the company grows bigger or down-sizes, my team and I get busy
communicating with staff. It is fun organizing events when we welcome new staff but on
other occasions, it gets rather difficult when you have to inform the staff that they may
be retrenched.

Department:

__________________________________________________________________

Communication tools:

__________________________________________________________________

Basic Rules in Business Writing

It is clear that there are some basic rules that you need to observe in ALL disciplines:
business writing does not tolerate structural writing errors.
• It has to be concise and precise
• It follows formal conventions or format
• It requires critical thinking, reading and writing

Principles of Business Writing

We will begin this module by looking at 3 important Principles of Business Writing:

• Principle of Correctness
• Principle of Conciseness
• Principle of Coherence

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Writing with Correctness

Sentence Structure
Before proceeding, we should go through some basic sentence structures.

Subject + Verb

He swims daily. She refused.

Subject + Verb + Object

Disasters can hit us any moment.

Subject + Predicate

Good opportunities are hard to come by.

This is a golden opportunity.

Notice that almost all sentences include a subject and a verb?

The only exception would be imperative sentences. Commands/requests such as

“Please pass the salt.” and “Get out of the way!” are examples of imperative sentences.

Below are some of the trouble spots commonly found in business writing:

SENTENCE FRAGMENT

A sentence is a complete thought. It has a subject and a verb. Sentence

fragmentation occurs when a group of words are used as if they were a sentence but
not a complete thought. Sentence fragments occur commonly in speaking; hence, it is
no wonder that sentence fragments are found in formal writing as well.

Example 1-
James: “Hey, Radhika, Let’s get some Radhika’s response demonstrates the way
lunch”. we use fragmentation in speech.

Radhika: “I can’t. Too much work to Though the remark includes the verb
finish.” "finish" and several nouns, the sentence is
a fragment.

It lacks a subject and verb to define the

sentence. A corrected response would
include a subject and verb:

“I can’t. I have too much work to finish.”

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Example 2 -

"At the meeting today we talked about The first sentence can stand on alone with
staff promotion and pay raise. Also staff the subject “We” and verb “talked”. The
medical benefits and how it affects staff second phrase includes several nouns and
turnover.” a verb, but it cannot stand alone.

Clue - sentence fragment usually begins

with a subordinator ( also, when, until,
after, before, however, while, because,
since, though, although, if, so that, so and
where)

Correct sentence fragments by adding "At the meeting today we talked about
comma staff promotion, pay raise as well staff
medical benefits and how it affects staff
turnover.”

Correct sentence fragments by creating a "At the meeting today we talked about
second sentence staff promotion and pay raise. We also
discussed staff medical benefits and how it
affects staff turnover.”

Correct fragments by adding a subject I can’t join you. I have too much work to
finish.

Correct fragments by removing word or Rick and Lon, the duo who were providing
phrase. the entertainment that night for the club.

Activity 3

Now, you correct the sentence fragments below:

1. We will give you a 10% discount. Unless you fail to pay before 21st January.

2. The meeting agreed that United Bank should assign two full-time branch
officers to handle internal communication. Another for inter-bank matters.

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 3. The sales department proposed two revised versions of the order forms for the
committee’s consideration. As well as approval by the committee.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

For further practice, go to http://www.chompchomp.com/frag01/frag01.htm

DANGLING MODIFIERS

A modifier is a word or group of words used to describe, or modify, another word in the
sentence. A dangling modifier appears either at the beginning or ending of a sentence and
seems to be describing some word other than the one the writer obviously intended. It
makes the sentence confusing and sometimes ridiculous.

Example 1- The correct versions:

Driving along Pasir Ris, the new
recreational centre was seen. Driving along Pasir Ris, we saw the
[It seems as if the new recreational centre recreational centre.
was driving.]

Example 2-
Worried at that price of the machine, the Worried at the price of the machine, the
decision to purchase was aborted in the committee aborted the decision to purchase.
committee.
[It seems that the decision was worried.] The confusion is largely due to the use of
passive voice. Often dangling modifiers
occur because the actor [the main noun] in
the sentence is either distanced from the
modifier or left out by the passive voice verb.

Clue - examine all modifiers at the beginning

or ending of sentences (especially those
ending with –ing or –ed) and see if the
modified word is close enough to the phrase.
If the actor has been left
out, you need to create a subject for the
modifier to describe as in the “we” in
Example 1.

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Activity 4
Now, you correct the sentence below:
1. Stunned, the television broadcast the CEO’s announcement of his departure.

2. While talking on the phone, the fax arrived.

3. Stacked up next to the filing cabinet, James began clearing the old files.

For further practice, go to http://aliscot.com/bigdog/dmmm_exercise.htm

FAULTY PARALLELISM

Parallelism means using the same grammatical pattern for all the items in a sentence
that have the same function. Similar ideas should have similar wordings. If the
parallelism of a passage is not carefully maintained, the writing can seem sloppy and
out of balance.

Example 1- Connective structures such as not

only…but
also, and both…and introduce elements
that
The product managers promise not only to should be parallel.
reorganize the sales division, but also the
giving of raises to all remaining The product managers promise not only to
employees. reorganize the sales division, but also to
give raises to all remaining employees.

Example 2 -

The cost of doing nothing is greater than The cost of doing nothing is greater than
the cost to upgrade the production facility. the cost of upgrading the production
facility.

Activity 5
Now, you correct the sentence below:
1. The annual report serves two primary functions: (1) The presentation of financial
data to stockholders (2) To build company public relations in the business
community.

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 2. The accountant in this department has the responsibility for the formation of
budget procedures, maintenance of related records, rendering financial information,
and submitting special reports.

3. To complain is easy, but finding solutions is difficult.

4. There are four parallelism mistakes in the following passage. Identify the
faulty sentences and rewrite them correctly.

Some consumers today are “survivalists.” These people, because they fear

some great disaster in the near future (like economic collapse or nuclear war), are

preparing for a catastrophe. Hoarding food, stockpiling supplies, and the achievement

of self-sufficiency are some of the activities of survivalists. In a remote village in Asia,

for example, one group has built a mountain fortress to defend its supplies of rice and

staying safe. Many find that the attitude of survivalists is selfish and greed. These

people say that such a philosophy turns society into a “dog-eat-dog” race for life. Other

people believe that after a nuclear war, the world, with radiation and where there would

be disease, wouldn’t be worth living in.

Adapted from - http://class.georgiasouthern.edu/writingc/handouts/parallel1.htm

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Subject-Verb Agreement

You have seen above some of the common trouble spots in business writing. Poor
writing can also be the result of problems with subject-verb agreement and
inconsistent use of tenses. You have to develop the habit of scrutinizing words and
phrases to look out for these common errors when you edit your work for your
assignments and business documents. In this way, you will develop the appropriate
skills to be effective in the field of business communication.

What is SVA?
This applies to the simple present tense.
Basically, the verb used has to be consistent with the subject of the sentence.
That is to say, singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs.

E.g.
My brother is a nutritionist.
My sisters are mathematicians.

However, there are some common mistakes made. Here are ten of them.

1) The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are

always singular and, therefore, require singular verbs.

• Everyone has done his or her homework.

• Somebody has left her purse.

2) Words such as ‘Each’/‘One’/‘None’ are often followed by a prepositional phrase

ending in a plural word (e.g. Each of the students), thus confusing the verb
choice. Each/One/None, too, are always singular and require a singular verb.
Don't let the word "students" confuse you.

• Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work.

• One of the students is responsible for this.

3) Phrases such as ‘together with’, ‘as well as’, ‘and along with’ are not the same as
‘and’. The phrase introduced by ‘as well as’ or ‘along with’ will modify the earlier
word (mayor in this case), but it does not compound the subjects (as the word
‘and’ would do).

• The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.

• The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.

4) The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even
though they seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things.

• Neither of the two traffic lights is working.

• Which shirt do you want for Christmas?
Either is fine with me.
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 5) When ‘nor’ or ‘or’ is used, the subject closer to the verb determines the number
of the verb. i.e. the proximity determines whether it is singular or plural.

• Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.

• Either my brothers or my father is going to sell the house.

6) The words ‘there’ and ‘here’ are never subjects.

• There are two reasons for this.

• There is no reason for this.
• Here are two apples.
• Here is the answer sheet.

7) Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it and
anything those words can stand for) have s-endings. Other verbs do not add s-
endings.

• He loves and she loves and they love

• ‘He doesn’t know.’ instead of ‘He don’t know.’
• ‘Mommy misses you’ and NOT ‘Mommy miss you’

8) The adverb ‘always’ is not a verb.

• ‘He always goes to the gym.’ and NOT ‘He always go to the gym.’

9) Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and require
singular verbs.

• The news from the front is bad.

• Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.

10) Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of
are sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. (The
same is true, of course, when all, any, more, most and some act as subjects.)
• Some of the voters are still angry.
• A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.
• Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.
• Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.
• Forty percent of the students are in favour of changing the policy.
• Forty percent of the student body is in favour of changing the policy.
• Two and two is four.
• Four times four divided by two is eight.

Please also note that ‘A number of students’ is PLURAL,

while ‘The number of students’ is SINGULAR.
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Activity 6
Choose and circle the correct verb.

1) I do not know the answer. He doesn’t / don’t either.

2) A company always puts / put profit as the first priority.

3) Nobody has / have a copy of the notes.

4) Everyone in class does / do not has / have a copy of the notes.

5) The mayor, who has / have been convicted along with his four brothers on four
counts of various crimes, is / are finally going to jail.

6) Either James or his cousins is / are going to have to pay for it.

7) Jane, together with her siblings and cousins, was / were going to Paris for 2
weeks.

8) Sixty percent of the population is / are against the controversial policy.

9) Only two fifths of the voters is / are in favour of the new rule.

10) Keep searching. There has / have got to be more survivors.

For further practice, go to http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/sv_agr.htm and

attempt the 2nd and 3rd quiz.

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 Session Communication in
2 Business Disciplines [Part 2]
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
• Write Concisely
• Write Coherently

There also will be additional exercises to reinforce your understanding of the 3Cs of
business writing.

Writing with Conciseness

Business writing needs to be concise. However, it is common to find memo, letters and
reports that contain redundant words and phrases. Redundancy, rather than poor
grammar and spelling, is the biggest source of problems in business writing.

Eliminate Unnecessary Determiners & Modifiers

Writers sometimes clog up their letters and memo with one or more extra words or
phrases that seem to determine narrowly or to modify the meaning of a noun but don't
actually add to the meaning of the sentence. Although such words and phrases can be
meaningful in the appropriate context, they are often used as "fillers" and can easily be
eliminated.

Example 1-

Clearing the supplies by June is an Clearing the supplies by June is

impossibility without some form of special impossible without a special plan.
plan.

For all intents and purposes, Singapore’s economic productivity

Singapore’s economic productivity depends more on social than on
generally depends on certain factors technological factors.
that are really more social in kind than of
any given technological aspect.
Here's a list of some words and phrases
that can often be pruned away to make
sentences clearer:

kind of definitely
sort of actually
type of generally
really individual
basically specific
for all intents & particular
purposes

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CHANGE UNNECESSARY that, who, and which CLAUSES INTO PHRASES
Example 2 -
The report, which was released recently The recently released report was
was disputed. disputed.

The system that is most efficient and The most efficient and accurate system
accurate is used today. is used today.
OMIT REPETITIVE WORDING
Example 3 - Specific words imply their general
categories, so we usually don't have to
During that time period, many car buyers state both.
preferred cars that were pink in color
and shiny in appearance. During that period, many car buyers
preferred pink, shiny cars.

Activity 1
Correct the sentences below to make them more concise:

1. In the year 2008, the company took steps to encourage family centredness.

2. It is our opinion that you should not attempt to move forward until such time as
you seek and obtain approval of the plan from the team leader prior to beginning
this project.

3. This is to advise you that beginning with the date of April 1 all charges made
after that date will be charged to your new credit card number.

4. Pursuant to your request, enclosed please find a copy of your August statement.

English for Business Page 21

Writing with Coherence
Business writing needs to be coherent. A message is made up of bits of information
that needs to be linked together to form a flow of thought that starts from the beginning
of the message and ending with a close. The way to link the information together
effectively is through the use of transitional words. Now compare Paragraph A & B:

Paragraph A

The duties of most cashiers include receiving money, making change and filling out
charge forms. They need to have good arithmetic skills. They must often handle a lot
of money on a single day. They must be honest. Cashiers meet the public. They
should look neat, act friendly and helpful.

Paragraph B

The duties of most cashiers include receiving money, making change and filling out
charge forms. Therefore, they need to have good arithmetic skills. They must also be
honest, because they must often handle a lot of money in a single day. In addition,
since cashiers meet the public, they should look neat, act friendly, and be helpful.

Note how the words in italics in Paragraph B help signal the reader to connect ideas
made in the paragraph:

Therefore - shows effect

Also - shows addition
Because - shows cause
In addition - shows addition
Since - shows cause and effect

TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES

The following are transitional words that help to connect ideas more smoothly. They
provide logical organization and understandability. Transitions indicate relations
whether within a sentence, paragraph or a complete paper.
Transitions Showing ADDITION
again, also, and, and then, besides, equally, finally, first, further,
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, likewise, moreover, next,
nor, then, th ird, too
Transitions Showing COMPARISON
also, as well as, at the same time, equally important, in like manner, in
the same way, likewise, similarly

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Transitions Showing CONTRAST
although, and yet, at the same time, but, conversely, despite, even so,
even though, for all that, however, in contrast, instead of, in spite of,
nevertheless, nonetheless, regardless, notwithstanding, on one hand, on
the contrary, yet, on the other hand, otherwise, rather than, still, whereas,
while

Transitions Showing CAUSE and EFFECT

accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, evidenced by, for this
reason, hence, if, providing that, since, so, so that, that, then, therefore,
thereupon, thus, unless, whenever

Transitions Showing TIME

after, afterwards, and then, as long as, as soon as, at last, at length, at
present, at the same time, before, currently, finally, during, eventually,
ever since, in the meantime, gradually, immediately, in the future, now,
in the past, later, meanwhile, until, soon, suddenly, then, fir st,
second…etc, when, whenever, while

Transitions Show ing SUMMARY OR RESTATEMENT

again, as has been noted, as you have read, for these reasons, in brief,
in conclusion, in fact, in other words, in sum, of course, on the whole,
that is, to be sure, to su m up

Transitions Show ing EX AMPLE

an example is, an illustration is, for another thing, for example, for
instance, for one thing, in fact, one such, some examples are, specially,
such as

Transitions Show ing PURPOSE

By the way, for this purpose, for th is reason, if, in order to, lest, so that,
to this end, whenever, with this object in mind

Transitions Show ing EMPHASIS

above all, especially, indeed, in any event, in fact, in particular, most
important, to tell the truth

Transitions Show ing LOCATIO N

above, adjacent to, below, beside, beyond, closer, further, here, inside,
nearby, closer, further, here, inside, nearby, next to, outside, there,
where, opposite to, on the opposite side, north (east, south , west) of

Important Note:
When selecting a transition, do NOT base the decision on how it sounds, in relation
with the sentence.
Instead,
• understand the function of each category of transitions
• choose the most suitable transition based on the relationship of the sentences /
the phrases before/after the blank.

English for Business Page 23

Activity 2

Using appropriate Transition Words, write a paragraph connecting the ideas found in
the boxes in the following exercise. The topic sentence for each of the paragraph is
given:

Q.1 o not enough time to study

o requires tight scheduling
o not enough free time

Holding a job while going to school is not easy.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Q.2 Put the following points in the box below in the right order before you write your
paragraph.

o considered other job possibilities

o filled out many applications
o decided on job I wanted to look for
o was unhappy with old job
o was called in for a few interviews

I finally got the job I wanted.

English for Business Page 24

Activity 3 - Revision

Exercise on Parallel Structure

1. Jennifer is smart, beautiful, and loves everyone.

2. Andy’s day is so long that he gets up at 6:00 a.m., leaves for work at 6:30 a.m., is

eating dinner at 11:00 p.m., and goes to bed at 2:00 a.m.

3. Bob was not only Sam’s roommate, but also he was his best friend.

4. If you go to the store, please remember to pick up your prescription, buy some

shampoo, and a notebook.

5. I spent two hours with Ms. Smith, reviewing my job performance, evaluating my

goals, and my future with the company was also discussed.

6. Most people play golf for pleasure, for exercise, and so they can meet people.

7. The most dangerous forms of transportation are bicycles, cars, and riding a

motorcycle.

8. Many people share the same three fears: making speeches, being in high places,

and numbers.

9. At the workshop, the car was sanded to the bare metal, painted with primer, and

blue enamel was sprayed on.

English for Business Page 25

Activity 4 - Revision

Exercises on Transitions

Because instead consequently furthermore

A vegetarian can be defined as someone who does not eat meat, fish, or other animal
products, such as eggs or cheese; 1) _____, he or she eats vegetables, fruits, grains,
and seeds. 2) _____ this diet consists of non-meat food sources, a vegetarian typically
consumes less fat and cholesterol than an individual who consumes meat. 3) _____,
raising animals for food uses valuable land, water, and energy. 4) _____, adopting a
vegetarian diet helps conserve the valuable resources that our future depends on.

in fact moreover but unfortunately for example

Massive energy consumption is having a negative impact on the planet. 1) _____, in

the summer of 2006, Western Europe experienced some of the hottest weather on
record. 2)______, this temperature increase is not an isolated occurrence. 3)_____,
almost every credible scientist today believes that the earth is experiencing climate
change due to the emissions of greenhouse gases from cars and coal-burning power
plants. Ninety per cent of the energy used in the US comes from fossil fuels, oil, coal,
and natural gas, 4)_____ problems arise from other sources, too (e.g., nuclear power
plants leave radioactive by-products, making storage difficult). 5)______, dams are not
much better, as nearby populations must be relocated, and the surrounding habitat is
destroyed.

Recently By contrast For example In other words Whereas And

1) _____, studies investigating the pros and cons of single-sex versus coeducation
schools have come to public attention, 2)_____ the results show some dramatic
differences between the genders. 3)_____, single-sex schools appear to help girls with
their work habits; 4)_____, boys achieve a higher success rate in a coeducational
system. 5)_____, girls seem to work best when communication and co-operation are
stressed, 6)_____ boys may be more comfortable with individual and competitive styles
of learning.

English for Business Page 26

 Session Critical Thinking,
3 Reading and Writing [Part 1]
3
OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Define critical thinking
• Recognize the characteristics of critical thinkers
• Read critically

Defining Critical Thinking

Our understanding of the world depends on what a smart thinker we are. Smart
thinking improves the ways in which we can work with knowledge and information. As
a student pursuing a diploma in Business, smart thinking helps you to study. Academic
work requires the use of reasoning. You are expected to understand the content,
digest information, pick out key issues to learn, grasp underlying concepts and
comprehend unfamiliar ideas. This unit is designed to equip you with the skills to think,
read and write critically.

So what is ‘critical thinking’? Are we all born thinkers? This is the illusion that we
believe in. We have been so conditioned to accept that as long as we have been to
school we can think. This is not really true. Yes, we can think simple thoughts and we
can make simple inferences like if a child is crying then he/she must be hungry, sleepy,
hurt, unhappy or disturbed by the environment. These inferences are based on
assumptions and this is a result of stereotyping. These are conditioned thoughts i.e.
thoughts that we have picked up because we have seen others use it successfully.
These are universally accepted thoughts.

But individual thinking and thinking critically and creatively are tools that have to be
taught. We need to train our minds to pick up the hidden aspects of what is being said.
We need to train our minds to see how things can be done differently.

So critical thinking means actively seeking to understand analyze and evaluate

information. If you develop critical thinking skills, you will be empowered in all areas of
your life, and you will be able to work more productively - especially in teams - because
you will be able to look at things objectively and intelligently as a critical thinker.

English for Business Page 27

Activity 1

Study the table below, and see which characteristics you can identify in yourself. How
far are you already a critical thinker? If you have more characteristics from list A than
from list B, what do you think this means? For each of following, think of examples or
episodes where you demonstrate these characteristics.

List A List B
1 I practice honesty with myself, acknowledge I pretend that I know more than I do,
what I don’t know, recognize my limitations ignoring my limitations, and assume
and I am watchful of my own errors. that my views are error-free.

2 I regard problems and controversial issues I regard problems and controversial

as exciting challenges. issues as nuisances or ego threats.

3 I strive for understanding, and keep I am impatient with complexity and

curiosity alive. I remain patient with thus would rather remain confused
complexity, and am ready to invest time to than make the effort to understand.
overcome confusion.

4 I base judgements on evidence rather than I base judgements on first

personal preferences. I defer judgement impressions and gut reactions. I am
whenever evidence is insufficient and revise not concerned about the amount or
my judgement when new evidence reveals quality of evidence, and I cling
error. steadfastly to earlier views.

5 I show interest in other people’s ideas, and I I am preoccupied with my own

am willing to read and listen attentively, opinion, and am therefore unwilling
even when I tend to disagree with the other to pay attention to others’ views. At
person. the first sign of disagreement, I tend
to think, “how can I refuse this?”

6 I recognize that extreme views (whether I ignore the need for balance and
conservative or liberal) are seldom correct, give preference to views that
so I avoid them, and practice fair- support their established views.
mindedness and adopt a balanced view.

7 I practice restraint and control my feelings I tend to follow my feelings and act
rather than be controlled by them, and think impulsively.
before acting.

Adapted from Santrock & Halonen (1999)

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Critical Reading

Critical reading is active and thoughtful reading. Reading at a higher level is more than
just being able to read the written word. At your level of education, you should be able
to read critically and interact with the writer’s ideas and thoughts. This requires you to
evaluate what you read and determine if it is accurate and reasonable. Critical readers
are less vulnerable to deception and manipulation.

Critical reading requires you to understand the writer’s intention and assumptions. So
when you read something, you ask yourself, “What does the writer mean?” “What is
he implying?” “Why does he say that the idea or model was brilliant?” “What
exact words did he use to convey the meaning/message, and why?”

In other words, as readers we want to know if there is more than just a surface level in
the written words. We want evidence for the writer’s personal opinions. Once writers
justify their views, we can understand the real message clearly and then decide
whether or not to accept the views expressed. Even when they do not make their own
views clear, we need to ask ‘What do they really mean?’ (Sometimes we may even
suspect they have a “hidden agenda” - a reason for writing which they are not telling
us. What clues might make us suspect that?)

Two Modes of Reading

It is helpful to think of critical reading as involving two modes of reading: reading with
the author, or trying to completely understand the author's views, and reading the
author critically, or questioning the author's views. The first mode is necessary for the
second to be possible. By reading in two modes, you will be able to develop your own
ideas and theories—but only after thoroughly understanding the author's arguments.

Reading with the author: understanding the author's perspective

1. Make sure you truly understand the author's views and ideas. Summarizing and
paraphrasing his/her argument in your own words may be helpful at this stage.
2. Accept the author's ideas temporarily (even if you disagree). Use the author's
ideas as a lens with which to look at your world, extending the author's theories with
examples of your own that are in agreement

Reading the author critically: engaging the author in a dialogue

1. Looking through your own lens now, question and challenge the author. Some
things to look for include: limitations, biases, faulty reasoning, questions left
unaddressed, and problems with or alternate interpretations of the author's
examples.
2. Now you can form your own ideas and theories. What parts of the author's ideas
do
you agree with? What parts would you revise? What is your perspective?

English for Business Page 29

Activity 2
Read the two articles below on Mrs. Thatcher (the ex-Prime Minister of Britain) that
appeared in two newspapers on the same day before Mrs. Thatcher became the Prime
Minister. Answer the questions that follow:

Article 1 - (Daily Mirror)

On Behalf of Mrs Thatcher, the reply to a plea for HELP!

COUNCIL tenant Evelyn Collingwood was stunned by the letter she

received from the office of Tory leader Margaret Thatcher.

Mrs. Collingwood had dropped a chatty note "to let Mrs. Thatcher know what
ordinary people are thinking." The reply she got, sent in the Tory leader's name, came
as a bombshell.
Mrs. Collingwood described it last night as "grossly insulting." She said, “'This
letter makes out that all council house tenants are scroungers. Mrs. Thatcher must think
we are all blooming peasants.”
Mrs. Thatcher was upset, too. She said she hadn't known about Mrs.
Collingwood's letter OR the reply.
And she sent a messenger with a hand-written apology to 53 year-old
Mrs.Collingwood's home at Erith, Kent.

Article 2 - (Daily Mail)

You're on your way, Mrs. T.

AFTER Wednesday night's triumph Mrs. Thatcher did not get to sleep until
after 230 a.m. But by 7 a.m. she was awake and reading the morning
papers' accounts of her victory.

Then it was a large cooked breakfast, and soon after Mrs. Thatcher emerged from
her home in Flood Street, Chelsea.
Wearing a floral-patterned silken headscarf and camel coat she beamed at
waiting newspapermen and said: "My troops are ready and we are looking forward to
the election campaign."
"We have been ready since October and we are confident of victory. We will just
keep working hard. We are organizing our election strategy. There are great issues to
be decided." With that she was driven away flanked by three police outriders for what
she termed "a pretty busy day."

She went straight to her office at the Commons where already messages of
congratulations and good will were pouring in. A team of secretaries answered endless
phone calls and opened letters delivered by hand to beat the postmen's go-slow.
In the mid-morning she presided over a Shadow Cabinet meeting in their oak-
panelled room hung with oil paintings of Winston Churchill and Nelson.
(adapted from F. Grellet (1981), Developing Reading Skills)

English for Business Page 30

 a) Underline the words or expressions that, according to you, bias the opinions of
the readers.

b) Which article favours Mrs. Thatcher?

c) Considering those two articles, would you rely on the information given by one
newspaper rather than other? Justify your answer.

d) Besides the choice of words or expressions you have underlined other devices
are used to bias the reader's opinion.

For instance:
o Whose words are most often quoted in Article 1?
o Whose words are most often quoted in Article 2?

e) Which article will most appeal to people

o who admire activity?
o who want to defend justice?
o who think one should fight for one's right?
o who admire organization?
o who think the way a Prime Minister looks and behaves in public is
important?

Reading Assignment Questions Critically

As a diploma student, you will have to tackle many assignments, but do remember that
a “beautifully” written and presented assignment, handed in by the due date, does not
guarantee you a good grade or even a pass if it doesn’t answer the question!. Hence,
the first lesson you have to take is to learn how to critically read an assignment
question.

English for Business Page 31

Activity 3
Look at the directive words (adapted from Marshall and Rowland, 1985) in the table
below – do you recognize them in some of your assignments and examination
questions? Note what each of these words mean. Attempt a description for the ones
that have been left out.

Directives:
1. Analyse Show the essence of something by
breaking it down into its component parts
and examine each part in detail.

2. Argue

3. Compare

4. Criticise Use your judgement regarding the merit of

theories or opinions in reference to the
truth of facts, and reinforce your
judgement by discussion of the evidence.

5. Define

6. Describe Give a detailed or graphic account.

7. Discuss Investigate or examine by argument, sift

and debate, giving reasons
For‐and‐against.

8. Enumerate

9. Evaluate Make an appraisal of the worth of

something, in the light of its apparent
truth or utility; include your personal opinion.

10. Examine Present in depth and investigate the

implication.

11. Explain Make plain, interpret and account for in detail.

English for Business Page 32

 12.. Illustrate

13. Interpret Bring out the meaning of, and make clear and
explicit, usually also by expressing your own
judgement.

14. Justify Show adequate grounds for decision or

conclusions

15. Outline

16. Prove Demonstrate truth or falsity by presenting

evidence.

17. Relate

18 Review Make a survey of, examining the subject

critically

19. State Specify fully or clearly

20. Summarise

21. Trace

English for Business Page 33

The following steps are necessary in critical reading of assignment questions:

Analysing the question

Assignment questions usually consist of 3 elements:

o SUBJECT – which tells you what the general area is

o LIMITING WORDS – which tells you which part of the subject you must limit
yourself to and focus on
o DIRECTION WORDS – which tell you what to do
Let’s take a look at the example taken from:
http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/writing/answering#special on how to analyze an
assignment question.

Assignment question:

What is a Value Added Statement? Outline the assumptions underlying the Value
Added Statement, and argue the case for and against the inclusion of this statement in
company annual reports.

Subject: The Value Added Statement

Limiting words (1): What the Value Added Statement is.
Direction words (1): What is...?
Limiting words (2): The assumptions underlying the Value Added Statement.
Direction words (2): Outline...
Limiting words (3): The inclusion of the Value Added Statement in annual reports.
Direction words (3): Argue the case for and against...
The assignment question is therefore asking you to do three things:

1. describe or define the Value Added Statement;

2. focus on its underlying assumptions (giving the essential details);
3. focus on its inclusion in annual reports (with arguments for and against).

NOTE:
In every case, you are expected to focus only on the limiting words. You are not being
asked to write everything you know about the Value Added Statement. If you do this,
you will lose marks for providing information that is irrelevant.

Once you get used to the limiting words, you will be able to understand the demands of
all assignment as well as examination questions.

Now, let’s put to practice what you have learned on the following questions.

English for Business Page 34

Activity 4

Analyze the following questions using the above steps and state what the questions are
asking you to do:

Question 1
When a government runs a severe budget deficit, one of the main concerns is the
crowding out effect. Explain with the aid of Keynesian Cross diagram, what is a
crowding out effect and how will it affect an economy.

Question 2
In Sri Lanka, there are many tea farmers producing identical tea. The tea market can
be considered as perfectly competitive where price is determined by market demand
and supply. Analyze the effects of price, market quantity and quantity of farmer when
research shows that drinking tea is bad for health. Illustrate with appropriate industry
and firm diagrams. Analyze both the short run and long run equilibrium.

Note these important points:

• Make sure that you understand all the key words in the question.
• Make sure that you understand what the direction words mean—then carry
out those directions.
• Focus on the limiting words.

English for Business Page 35

 Session Critical Thinking,
4 Reading and Writing [Part 2]
OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Make important distinctions
• Respond critically to an article

Making Important Distinctions

Now that you have an idea on how to analyze questions – we move on how to read
critically the resources that help you answer the assignment questions. Don’t take that
everything printed and found on the net are valid. You need to be able to evaluate what
you read carefully. A fundamental requirement for critical reading is making
distinctions. The most important ones are as follows:

1. Distinction between Person and Idea

Activity 1

Which of the following words would best describe your reaction when you read about
the opinions coming from the following people?

Anger Compassion Suspicion Pride

1. Adolf Hitler _______________________

2. An ex-child abuser _______________________
3. Mother Theresa _______________________
4. Nelson Mandela _______________________

Note that a critical thinker does not allow the tendency to accept or reject ideas on the
basis of who expresses them. Guard against confusing the person and the idea.

English for Business Page 36

 2. Distinction between Facts and Inference

Activity 2

Read the following scenario carefully before attempting to answer the questions which
follow.

Chris Stevenson is the supervisor of a customer telephone help desk in a computer

software company. Chris has been asked to go into the manager’s office. Chris is
accused of failing to deal with an ineffective team member. Colleagues and customers
are complaining about a lack of understanding of customers’ enquiries. Chris is told that
the solutions being offered are based on inadequate knowledge of the software system
and that the failure to listen properly is suspected as a symptom of this inadequacy.
An hour later, in the cafeteria, Chris is seen to be uncharacteristically rude and angry,
complaining about the standard of the food (which has always been regarded by
management as offering excellent value) and the sloppy hygiene standards. A tray of
food is dumped in the cashier’s lap as company security staff arrive on the scene. Chris
bursts into tears.

Answer the following questions:

Please answer True (T)
False (F)
Note: When there isn’t adequate evidence, the statement is (F)

1. Chris has been interviewed by a manager.

2. An interview took place in the manager’s office.
3. Chris is a woman.
4. The ineffective team member is thought to be covering up inadequate knowledge of
the software system.
5. At least one person is unhappy about the standard of service offered by at least one
member of the help desk team.
6. The accusations are so unfair that, an hour later, Chris is venting pent-up anger on
innocent cafeteria staff.
7. Chris’s complaints about food standards are unfounded.
8. Chris has thrown a tray of food at the cashier in anger.
9. The arrival of company security personnel signals an unpleasant escalation of the
situation.
10. As the security personnel arrive, Chris realises that the situation has got out of
hand, and breaks down.
Adapted from : 50 activities for Interpersonal Skills Training,
Sue Bishop and David Taylor, Gower, Aldershot, 1991.

English for Business Page 37

What were your conclusions? Were they based on facts or assumptions?

When we interpret the meaning of facts, we draw inferences about them. Often, we
make inferences based on our own observations or on the observations of others as
they are presented to us through speech or print. These observations often consist of
facts, i.e. information that can be verified. For example, Susan is wearing a red hairpin
today. John is wearing a pair of Adidas track shoes. Facts come in a variety of forms-
statistics, names, events-and are distinguished by their ability to be verified.
Conclusions are drawn from the inferences we make from facts presented to us.

We have to note that the greater the number of possible interpretations, the less
reliable the inference. For example, a friend of yours has not called you for a few
months. This is a fact. You can verify it. You can infer that she is angry with you.
However, your friend may not have called you for a number of other reasons: she is
busy with a school project, she has met with some crisis in her life, she is out of town.
All these other explanations weaken the reliability of the original inferences. The more
evidence you have to support your inference and the fewer the possible
interpretations, the more we can trust its accuracy.

One way to check the reliability of your inference is to constantly check them against
facts. Do not fall into the trap of building inference on top of inference (which some of
you might be guilty while doing Activity 5). This can lead different people to entirely
different conclusions based on the same set of facts. In this situation, the conscious
person is alert to check each inference against available evidence, while the
unconscious person sinks deeper into illusion at each step.

English for Business Page 38

The following example will illustrate the point. Note the different chains of inference
drawn by the two different neighbours from the same set of facts:

Neighbour 1:

Facts:
I see my neighbour sitting on the front steps of his house.
It is Monday morning. He usually is at work at this time.

Inferences:
He must be taking the day off.
He probably called work to say he was sick.
If he were really sick, he’d be in bed.

Conclusion:
He’s pretending to be sick.

Inference:
If he is pretending, he’s a loafer.

Conclusion:
He is a loafer.

Inferences:
If this keeps up, he’ll lose his job.
If he’s unemployed, his property will deteriorate and that will affect the value of my
property.
Maybe he’s unemployed already.

Conclusion:
I had better sell my house now.

Neighbour No. 2:
Facts:
I see my neighbour sitting on the front steps of his house
It is Monday morning. He usually is at work at this time.

Inference:
Either he is sick or on vacation or he’s lost his job.
In any case, I don’t think he’d mind talking to me.

Conclusion:
I’ll go over and ask him what’s up.

English for Business Page 39

Activity 3
Questions for Discussion:
1. Why do the inferences drawn by neighbour 1 and neighbour 2 go in such different
directions?
2. What is the difference between the way neighbour 1 and neighbour 2 work with their
facts and inferences?
3. Is it all right to build inferences on inferences?

Activity adapted from : Thinking for Yourself : Developing Critical Thinking Skill through Writing
Marlys Mayfield, 1991.

3. Distinction between Idea’s Validity and Quality of Its Expression

Activity 4
Compare the two passages and state which of the passages offer a valid idea:
Passage 1

Ain’t right to treat some good folks good and others bad. If a man don’t treat all equal,
he ain’t much of a man.

Passage 2

To achieve success in a competitive world, you must honour the first principle of
success. Treat well those who can benefit you and ignore the others.

Note that a critical thinker makes a special effort to separate form from content before
judging. Critical thinkers are able to appraise the passages correctly because they are
aware that expressions can deceive.

English for Business Page 40

Responding Critically to an Article

With reference to the two modes of reading (Pg 29)

1. Understanding the author's perspective

2. Engaging the author in a dialogue

Please read the article a few times to understand the writer’s perspectives. Making
notes of the main points will help identify areas for critical responses and engaging the
author’s points of view. It would be helpful to list the critique in terms of strengths and
weaknesses.

The following are articles used for critical responses in the individual assignments
(CA2). The recommended approach, as well as suggested answers, should provide
more clarity on how to handle the individual assignment.

Educational Benefits of Social Networking Sites

Researchers at the University of Minnesota have discovered the educational benefits of

social networking sites such as MySpace and Facebook. The same study found that
low-income students are in many ways just as technologically proficient as middle- and
upper-income students, going against what results from previous studies have
suggested.

The study found that, of the students observed, 94 percent used the Internet, 82
percent go online at home, and 77 percent had a profile on a social networking site.
When asked what they learn from using social networking sites, the students listed
technology skills as the top lesson, followed by creativity, being open to new or diverse
views, and communication skills.

Data were collected over six months from students, ages 16 to 18, in 13 urban high
schools in the Midwest. Beyond the surveyed students, a follow-up, randomly selected
subset was chosen. Students in this group were asked questions about their Internet
activity as they navigated MySpace, an online forum that provides users with e-mail,
web communities, and audio and video capabilities.

"What we found was that students using social networking sites are actually practicing
the kinds of 21st-century skills we want them to develop to be successful today," says
Christine Greenhow, a learning technologies researcher in the University's College of
Education and Human Development and principal investigator of the study. "Students
are developing a positive attitude towards using technology systems, editing and
customizing content, and thinking about online design and layout. They're also sharing
creative original work like poetry and film, and practicing safe and responsible use of
information and technology. The Web sites offer tremendous educational potential."

English for Business Page 41

Greenhow says that the study's results, while proving that social networking sites offer
more than just social fulfillment or potential job contacts, also have implications for
educators, who now have a vast opportunity to support what students are learning on
the Web sites. "Now that we know what skills students are learning and what
experiences they're being exposed to, we can help foster and extend those skills," says
Greenhow. "As educators, we always want to know where our students are coming
from and what they're interested in so we can build on that in our teaching. By
understanding how students may be positively using these networking technologies in
their daily lives and where the as-yet-unrecognized educational opportunities are, we
can help make schools even more relevant, connected, and meaningful to kids."

Interestingly, researchers found that very few students in the study were actually aware
of the academic and professional networking opportunities that the Web sites provide.
Making this opportunity more known to students, Greenhow says, is just one way that
educators can work with students and their experiences on social networking sites.

(Adapted from an article written for the University of Minnesota eNews website)

References:

Educational benefits of social networking sites. (2008, July 10).Retrieved from

University of Minnesota website:
http://www1.umn.edu/news/features/2008f/UR_191308_REGION1.html

Prewriting Activity

1. Reading with the author - read a few times, to a point where we understand the
writer’s main points.
2. To help prepare and organize your critical responses, create a list of strengths
and weaknesses.
3. As you draft out your main points, make sure to elaborate or expand on each of
your critique.

English for Business Page 42

Responding Critically to an Article – A Suggested Answer

Thesis
The article stated that social network sites (SNS) provide educational benefits. It further
implied that low-income students are as computer savvy as their higher income
counterparts because of SNS. It went on to provide statistics to support its statement
and, even identified the types of important skills that the users learn.

Critical Response
The evidence provided is certainly encouraging. Besides being a source of
communication and entertainment, SNS is also equipping students with essential life
skills. Furthermore, it seems that social status or economic well-being is no longer
barriers to learning in the virtual world. The writer followed up on how skills such as
creativity and communication are sharpened on SNS such as Myspace.

However, there are some concerns regarding the article itself.

In the first paragraph, the writer undermined his/her own work when it stated that the
results of this study went against the results from previous studies. Although it is
common to have studies with conflicting results, it seems like the studies against SNS
being an educational tool outnumber the single study that supports the positive findings.
As if that wasn’t enough, there was only one expert cited in the whole article.

Speaking of the solitary study, there were only brief and vague descriptions of the main
researcher’s, Christine Greenhow, qualifications and credentials. There were no details
of her expertise and previous work or research. If there were some details on the
researcher’s background, it would have given the article and the figures stated more
credibility. If that was done, it would have been much more persuasive.

Furthermore, details on how the evidence is gathered are also suspect. If there had
been more elaboration and explanation on the method(s) of gathering data, it would
have been more convincing. Examples of some of the questions used in the study
would also add substance to the article.

English for Business Page 43

As for the identity of the writer of this article, there was literally no information. All that
was mentioned was that it had been contributed to eNews at the University of
Minnesota. The writer is completely anonymous. Without this vital information, critical
readers would have further doubts on the validity of this article.

The overall tone was one-sided and consequently, biased. The paper spoke on all
things positive about the Social Media. It did not acknowledge any possible dangers
and blind-spots of SNS. When a writer only discussed one aspect of the issue, the
natural response would be whether it was written in an objective manner. Even
introducing one negative element would have made it a more balanced argument.

Overall, the intention of the writer was focus on yet another positive aspect of a modern
phenomenon. However, it has fallen short in terms of the evidence presented. It only
based its views on one research, and with one expert. We do not even know who wrote
this article. This fact is made even more apparent when we consider the length (all 485
words) of the article.

English for Business Page 44

The following are some additional pointers on writing a critical response

Content

• The student’s critical responses should be directly linked to the main points in
the article. They should highlight the problems / issues directly related to
some of the author’s views. Examples include statements that might be
biased, not well-supported or subjective.

• This also means avoid discussing the topic generally. Providing your views
on the topic alone is NOT responding critically to an article.

• It is not necessary to respond to every point made in the article.

• Students are also encouraged to look beyond the content of the article.
Researching on the writer’s background or credentials, and the sources used
are other avenues for critical responses.

• You may even critique the tone or unsuitable phrases used in the article.
Naturally, please suggest suitable replacements so that your response is
credible and convincing.

Language

• The general tone of your critical response should still be respectful and
formal.

• Using ‘I’ statements makes the responses personal and less convincing.
Therefore, when editing, students should rephrase their sentences and
remove ‘I agree / I disagree’, ‘I believe’, ‘I think’ and etc.

• Please use linking words / signposts within each paragraph, as well as

transitioning from one segment to another.

Watch out for grammatical basics such as singular/plural, sentence fragment and
subject verb agreement. These 3 are the most common types of errors made.

English for Business Page 45

 Session MAP of Writing and
5 Effective Reading
OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Understand language use in various contexts
• Identify the Message, Audience and Purpose
• Use different text types according to purpose and audience
• Identify the basic meanings of long and complex sentences.

1. What is Writing?

Writing is an integral part of the thinking and learning process. It is a way of

• expressing / discovering what we mean, as well as what others are trying to

tell us.
• remembering and manipulating information, of preserving it for later
reflection and better understanding.
• taking apart ideas and concepts, of examining relationships and meaning.

Writing helps us to make sense of ourselves, others and our world. It is a powerful
tool, not just for learning but for the world at large. The help that writing gives you
with learning and controlling what you have learned is why you are expected to write
substantially when pursuing a diploma in business. Learning the complex and
diverse world of business professional takes more than a passive understanding of
facts or a passion for numbers. You have to understand theories and practices of
the business world well enough to be able to apply them to a variety of situations
and environments.

Writing is the entryway into business. Everything that happens in business happens
on paper first. Often, in business as elsewhere, gaining recognition for our ideas
depends less upon what we say than upon how we say it. Accurate and persuasive
writing is absolutely vital to the business leader and to those who aspire to lead.

Task: Convert the above into a mind-map. Using ‘Writing’ as the centerpiece, use the
keywords to construct a mind cluster that would help you understand the functions
and benefits of writing.

English for Business Page 46

2. Elements of Good Writing?

The three most important elements of good writing are:

• Message
• Audience
• Purpose

Keeping these three elements in mind will help your writing stay focused.

2.1 Message

The message refers to ‘What’ do I want to write about? It refers to a topic or an

area of study that interests you and that you know and understand well. It is
important to narrow down the message until you find an appropriate topic.

2.2 Purpose

Before writing, it is important to determine the purpose of the writing task. In other
words, the writer has to ask himself/herself, “Why am I writing this?”
Purpose is your reason for writing. It provides direction and limits. There are seven
main purposes for writing:

• To interact
• To inform
• To find out
• To influence
• To regulate
• To entertain
• To record

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Activity 1

The table below describes the function of each of the purposes of writing. Look at the
examples of texts that follow and identify the purpose of each of the text and complete
the table. As you are reading the texts, highlight some the elements and language
used in the text that show the purpose of the text.

Purpose of writing Function Examples of types Text

of Business Writing

To Interact Help us to get on Personal emails,

with other people invitations,
postcards etc

To inform Help us to put Manuals,

across the facts reports,
clearly and information
according to the brochures,
needs of the articles
audience.

To find out Help us to ask the Questionnaires or

right questions in surveys
writing and then
follow them up with
further enquiries

To persuade/ Helps you to Adverts, letters to Text 1

To influence convince the solicit favour or help
reader. Hence, you
need more than
opinion; you need
facts or examples to
back your opinion.
In order to influence
or persuade, you
would need to make
use of these:
-Make a claim
-Chose an
emotional or
rational appeal
-Support the claim
-Anticipate and
respond to
objection

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Purpose of writing Function Examples of types Text
of Business Writing

To regulate Helps us to follow a Manual,

particular course of instructions, rules
action. Advertisers and regulations etc
and manufacturers
make use of
language to
regulate
our actions.

To entertain Helps us to Writing in the form

entertain and add short stories,
some fun to the anecdotes or
writing. poems can be
entertaining to
attract readers’
attention to a
product or service

To record Helps us to keep a Order list, an

record with the attendance register,
primary intention of a log, minutes of
getting something meeting, report
down on paper so
that it is not
forgotten.

Note that these purposes are not always mutually exclusive. It is possible for a
piece of writing to accomplish several purposes at the same time. For example,
an advertisement can be entertaining but also informative and persuasive.

English for Business Page 49

 TEXT 1

LOOKS CAN BE DECEIVING

It isn’t just the sleek design that makes BeoCentre 9300 so satisfying to own. It’s
also the way it’s constructed to be at the forefront of technology to give you the very
best in sound quality. The way it functions is equally impressive too. Take the CD
and cassette doors. Watching them glide back and forth is a pleasure in itself.
Touch ‘play’ with your fingertips and the real beauty of the 9300 will be revealed to
you. Would it be going too far to describe the sensation as sensual? Perhaps.
Perhaps not. So why don’t you experience it for yourself at one of our dealers -
seeing is believing.

TEXT 2

25 First Avenue
Singapore 200400
15 September 2008

Dear Dr Malone

Thank you once again for the wonderful presentation. The staff found the
demonstration particularly enlightening. We will be implementing some of the
strategies you mentioned during your presentation in the next review exercise.

I hope we could arrange for you to conduct more talks in the future.

Sincerely
DCooke
David Cooke

TEXT 3

Winnipeg City Route 23 is a city route in Winnipeg, Manitoba, connecting Route

180 (McPhillips St.) and Route 52 (Main St.).

Route 23 is a minor arterial road connecting Main St. and the Garden City business
district. The road is mainly known as Leila Ave. There is a one-way section
between the railroad crossing and Main St. where Leila Ave. is the westbound
section of road, and the eastbound section becomes Partridge Ave. The speed limit
is 60 km/h (37 mph).

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 TEXT 4

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 TEXT 5

A. STARTING SAMPLING.

o Place the sampling equipment on the employee so that it does not interfere with work
performance.

o Attach the collection device (filter cassette, charcoal tube, etc.) to the shirt collar or as close as
practical to the nose and mouth of the employee, i.e., in a hemisphere forward of the shoulders
with a radius of approximately six to nine inches. The inlet should always be in a downward
vertical position to avoid gross contamination. Position the excess tubing so that it does not
interfere with the work of the employee.

o Turn on the pump and record the starting time.

o Observe the pump operation for a short time after starting to make sure it is operating correctly.

o Record the information required by the Air Sampling Data Form (OSHA 91A).

TEXT 6

Number of years in the present line of work

• Below 5 years
• 6 to 9 years
• 10 to 19 years
• 20 years and more

Types of nationalities with whom you liaise with often.

• Americans
• English
• Asians (e.g. Japanese, Taiwanese, etc) (Please specify_______________ )
• Others (Please specify) __________________________

TEXT 7

The Queen of Hearts

She made some tarts
All on a Summer’s day
The Knave of Hearts
He stole those tarts
And with them ran away
Because they were baked with
Ceresota Flour

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TEXT 8

(Source: www.vahealth.org/teeth/pubsden.asp)

TEXT 9

1. Apologies for absence Action By

Apologies for absence were received from Nicholas Chua who was on
reservist training.

2. Minutes of previous meeting

There were no amendments to the minutes of the previous meeting.
Chairperson confirmed the minutes.

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 2.3 Audience

What you write about (message) and your reason for writing (purpose) are greatly
affected by whom you are writing for (audience). Knowing your audience helps you
determine:

• What kind of vocabulary to use

• What the audience already knows about the subject
• What the audience is interested in
• What you believe the audience needs or wants to learn from your writing

Activity 2

Read the following passages and state how the audiences differ?

Passage 1

A new gift and home furnishing store, Dan’s Discount Dishes, opened at Guild Road
near Sixth Avenue a few weeks ago. You’d love shopping there. They have earthen
ware, china and porcelain starter sets and serving pieces. Of course, you can get
individual place settings in Lenox, Wedgwood, Rosenthal, Mikasa and others. Best
of all, the salespeople are knowledgeable and helpful.

Passage 2

A new gift and home furnishing store, Dan’s Discount Dishes, opened at Guild Road
near Sixth Avenue a few weeks ago. You’d love shopping there. They have all kinds
of dish sets with great designs and in all terrific colours we’re seeing in magazines
these days. You can even get some of the square-shaped sets that are trendy and
popular. Best of all, the prices are lower than in most other stores.

In sum, the writer is multi-faceted. He/she writes in order to meet and match the
demands and needs of a varied segment of society. Thus, the story Hansel and Gretel
or Snow-white and the Seven Dwarfs can be written to meet the needs of any group of
audience be they young children, teenagers, young adults or adults. All you need is to
be sensitive to the needs of the audience, their maturity level, their interest, their
language competence and other such categories.

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Activity 3

Given below are three paragraphs. Read the three paragraphs carefully a number of
times and then decide on the responses you will give to the questions which follow.

Paragraph 1

Life is a matter of organising the varied elements that we face daily into categories. The
human mind is a kind of computer that reads information and then documents them into
files that can be kept in the hard disk or in the floppy convolutions of our grey matter.
We term this storage as the long or the short term memories respectively. We need
both to be effective users of information. We need both as information needs to be
classified and organised for ease of retrieval.

Paragraph 2

Our mind is like a computer. You know that you can play games and store things in a
computer. Just like that we too use our mind like a computer. All the important pieces of
news that we think we need to remember we keep in our memory. Some of this
information we keep for a long time and some we keep for a short time. You will know
that we need to keep information

Paragraph 3

A long time ago in Never-Never Land there lived a bonny little lass by the name of Noni.
Noni was as sweet as sweet sugar can be. She had pretty little curls that were the envy
of all the little girls in Never-Never land. One day Noni sat in the shade of the coconut
tree and thought to herself, “How come I can remember some things from so long ago
and some things from just about now?” So Noni came to realize that we have long and
short memories and that her head keeps all this information for her to use when she
needs to convince Mommy that something has happened.

1. Do all three paragraphs have the same main message on the whole? Provide some
support from the paragraphs to substantiate your answer.

2. Who are the audiences that the writer is trying to reach? How do you know?

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Activity 4

You are given three scenarios below which describe the audience for whom you will be
writing. The message you wish to impart to them is one that concerns the need to
develop the habit of saving for the future. Write at least one paragraph but not more
than three for each of the scenarios making sure that you are conveying the same
message.

SCENARIO ONE:

You could be writing for a group of adults who are professionals. This group is well
educated, is widely read and composed of individuals who enjoy a well written text.
They can be highly critical if the written text is not what they had expected.

SCENARIO TWO:

You could be writing for a group of teenagers who are in tertiary education. They are
young, easy going and enjoy light reading. The issue of saving for the future has not
touched them and they are in a bubble state cushioned by the financial support given to
them by their parents. You need to write in order to inform and alert them that there is a
need to start now.

SCENARIO THREE:

You think that little children who are in the early years of primary education are the
ones who need to be educated on the habit of saving for the future. These young
people have a really curious mind. They are trusting and will believe what they are told
as long as you offer them an interesting story.

References

• Ready to Write More – From Paragraph to Essay by Blanchard and Root

• Oxford Guide to Effective Writing & Speaking by Seely
• Good Writing! by Meiser

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EFFECTIVE READING

In the previous section, we focused on the 3 key elements of writing. We learned that,
as writers, we should bear in mind the importance of who our audience are, what our
message and purpose are. What happens when we are on the receiving end? What if
we are the readers? As the recipients, we no longer have an influence on the writing
itself, our goal then shifts to making sense of the words and the intended meaning.

We have often encountered long complex sentences in course notes, business reports,
financial news, exam passages, and research journals, just to name a few. We have
not even touched on online articles, where long complex sentences are the norm. One
of the probable causes would be the notion that complicated sentences somehow seem
more intelligent, and therefore more credible.

The common readers, on the other hand, spend countless hours scratching their heads
and pulling their hair, trying to figure out what the authors are really trying to express.
Therefore, reading, especially long sentences, requires skill sets that are different from
writing.

Before that, let’s revise the basic sentence structure.

Pre-Activity
Basic Sentence Structure

Subject + Predicate
[The main noun] [tells the reader something about the subject; what it is
or what it is doing]

Identify and circle the subject in each sentence.

1. Gary conducts lectures on Thursdays and Fridays.
2. The lectures can be quite dry sometimes.
3. Needless to say, the students in this class have to revise the notes.
4. This is a golden opportunity.

What about the rest of the sentence? What did it do?

Most importantly, regardless of the length or complexity of most sentences, almost all of
them follows the basic structure of having a subject (the main ‘thing’) and a predicate.

English for Business Page 57

The only exception would be the imperative, i.e. giving commands or asking directly.
Examples of imperatives would be “Please have a seat.” or “Charge!”.

Otherwise, you will realize that all other sentences follow Subject + Predicate format.
Long and complex sentences merely have more details/ additional thoughts that may
sometimes interfere with comprehension. The following is a guide on how readers can
temporarily filter the extra details, in order to understand the main idea in a sentence.

Identifying the basic meaning

When sentences are really long and complex, identify the basic meaning by
1. Identifying the basic sentence and/or
2. Removing extra details

Example
If businesses reduce their marketing budgets during these difficult economic times, they
are going to see a decrease in sales, while their competitors will continue to grow.

To simplify the above, readers should first identify the main subject and predicate in the
sentence, and filter the extra details.

If businesses reduce their marketing budgets during these difficult economic times, they
are going to see a decrease in sales, while their competitors will continue to grow.

Comparing the before and after, it’s clear which is easier to understand.

Practice
Now it’s your turn to give it a try. Simplify the following.

In today's very competitive marketplace, a strategy that ensures a consistent approach

of offering your products or services to the customer is critical.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

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Specific Tips

1. Remove phrases within double commas

Information within double commas are extra details that can be temporarily removed to
make it easier to understand. Simplify the following.

Any successful business model, no matter how well-known it is, needs to be adapted
accordingly to suit the situation.

Simplified: _____________________________________________________________

2. Remove the adjectives / adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are basically descriptors that adds information / details to the
subject or predicate. Filtering them would also help make the key idea clearer. Try the
following.

Any successful business model needs to be adapted accordingly to suit the situation.

Simplified: _____________________________________________________________

3. Remove phrases with that / which / who / where

That / which / who / where are commonly used as relative clauses, where additional
information is introduced. Try removing phrases that proceed these clauses to simplify
sentences.

This marketing approach which may work in the short term, may not be as effective in
the long run.

Simplified: _____________________________________________________________

Conclusion
The basic idea of effective reading is sacrificing details of long and complex sentences
to achieve comprehension. Once the main idea is identified, those details can be added
back on.

Readers have no direct influence on the writers and their writing styles. However,
readers can adapt to make it easier to comprehend what was being written.

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 Session
6 Writing Paragraphs
OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

• Apply the three steps – prewriting, drafting, revising/editing
• Understand the purpose of topic sentences in paragraphs
• Understand how paragraphs cohere and produce meaning for the reader

1. The 3 Stages of Writing

The writing process goes through three stages:

STAGE 1: PREWRITING
Generating ideas, planning, organizing
your ideas

STAGE 2: WRITING/DRAFTING
Putting the content /ideas together and
writing it all out

STAGE 3: REVISING & EDITING

Rearranging text, improving wording
and sentence structure

2. Stage 1: Prewriting

The following prewriting techniques will help you think about and develop a topic
and get your thoughts on paper. Prewriting is a central part of the writing process.

2.1 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a quick way of generating a lot of ideas on a subject. These ideas
may be unrelated, disjointed and incomplete but the process of letting loose is
valuable for writing.

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 2.2 Clustering/Mapping

Clustering or mapping is one of the most visual strategies we have for exploring a
writing topic. Clustering enables our brain to make connections because it is graphic
and concrete. Since the cluster shows the relationship among ideas, you can quickly
see which area holds the most potential for development. Thus, you can review
your cluster and choose one area that interests you or one that you believe might be
best for further exploration and development.

2.3 Freewriting

Freewriting is a good strategy when you have no idea at all of what you want to
write about. It is a technique where you write as much as you can and as fast as you
can. Then you read your free writing to see if there are any ideas you can develop.

2.4 Using Reporters’ Questions

The story goes that reporters are taught to ask five questions in order to get all the
information they need to write a news item: Who? What? Where? When? Why?
Asking questions of a topic is another way of exploring it in a systematic way. You
might also add three more: How? What if? So what?

2.5 Making a Simple Outline

You can organize your thoughts and ideas generated from the earlier techniques to
make a simple outline. The outline helps you to plan and organize your ideas and it
can be used a guide or reference while you are composing your draft.

Suggested template

Intro - [general statements]

- [opinion]
- [thesis statement]

Body – Main Point 1+ explanation(s) + example(s)

- MP 2+ explanation(s) + example(s)
- MP 3

Conclusion – Solution(s) - summary

- prediction - final comments

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 Basic example

[Introduction]
Running is becoming an extremely popular sport for all ages.
Running is a great form of exercise because it helps people control their weight,
develop muscles, and improves mental and physical performance.

[Body]
Weight control
Aids self-control - Burns calories - Encourages a healthy diet - Suppresses appetite
Muscular Development
Improves tone - Enhances contours - Increases strength - Improves endurance
Psychological well-being
Aids sleep - Inhibits depression - Intensifies vitality

[Conclusion]
Benefits of running make it an excellent exercise.
People who want to improve their health should consider running.

3. Stage 2: Writing/Drafting

Once you have a subject narrow enough to write about, you are ready to construct
the series of related sentences about it that will make a paragraph.

A paragraph is a series of related sentences on one topic that makes a single point
or a main idea. All the sentences in it support the one main idea. The statement of
the main idea in a paragraph is called topic sentence. It gives the reader
(audience) two important pieces of information.

o It tells the subject or what the paragraph is about

o It tells what the author wants the reader to know about that subject.

The other sentences in a paragraph add details to the topic and are called
supporting sentences. Some paragraphs also have a final concluding sentence
that summarizes the ideas of the paragraph. It is the last sentence of the paragraph.
Read the following and underline the topic sentence and concluding statement.
Compare them. Notice how all the other sentences supports the topic sentence.

Parents can help their children be successful in school by encouraging them.

Children usually enjoy playing games instead of studying, so parents have to take
the responsibility to monitor their children’s activities at home after school and to
remind them to do their homework. Parents should also encourage their children by
buying materials that help children learn to spell or read. The best way to encourage
children to study efficiently is to reward them. Therefore, parents play a major role in
their children’s studies and success.

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 3.1 Topic Sentence

A topic sentence must be the one that you can work with to build a paragraph.

Therefore, it must:

o Be limited to a single idea

o Be a complete sentence (not a question)
o Express an attitude or belief (or make a statement that needs explanation)
o Contain specific words
o Be broad enough to allow you to support it with further sentences

Activity 1

3.1.1 Be Limited to a Single Idea

Example 1: Distributing food to the homeless is a never-ending job but

volunteers do it efficiently.

Comment: There are two ideas mentioned. One idea is that it is a never-
ending job. The other is that volunteers do it efficiently. Both cannot
be in the same topic sentence.

Corrected: ______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

3.1.2 Be a Complete Sentence (Not a Question)

Example 2: Witnesses who are eager to cooperate at a trial.

Comment: This is not a complete sentence. It is a fragment.

Corrected: ______________________________________________________

Example 3: When is the right time to teach children responsibility?

Comment: A question cannot be a topic sentence.

Corrected: ______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

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 3.1.3 Express an attitude / belief, or make a statement that needs explanation

Example 4: The rug in my office is blue.

Comment: Where do we go from there? It is a dead-end statement.

Corrected: _____________________________________________________

3.1.4 Contain specific words

Example 5: Some environmental groups are very active.

Comment: Which groups? How active is ‘very active’?

Corrected: _____________________________________________________

3.1.5 Be broad enough to allow support

Example 6: The moon appears 30% larger when it is close to the horizon than
when it is higher in the sky.

Comment: Idea is too specific to be a topic sentence.

Corrected: _____________________________________________________

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 3.2 Position of Topic Sentences

Topic sentences usually occur at the beginning or at the end of a

paragraph. One reason has to do with emphasis: the paragraph's most
emphatic spots are its beginning and its end. Much less frequently, topic
sentences may appear in the middle of the paragraph or may simply be
implied.

At the paragraph's beginning:

Topic sentences appear most frequently as the first sentence in a

paragraph. This position helps readers become oriented immediately to
the paragraph's topic and facilitates communication (e.g., an estimated
95% of paragraphs in professional/technical writing begin with their topic
sentences): Look at the example below on a write-up about a vacation
spot.

A midwinter vacation at Club Tropic has its good points and bad
points. The beaches are clean and uncrowded. The surrounding
countryside is lush and soothing to winter-weary eyes. Furthermore, being
able to take sailing and scuba diving lessons, while friends back home
shovel snow, makes the outdoor activities extra-enjoyable. On the other
hand, several features of Club Tropic are substandard. The food is poor,
and, because the club is isolated, eating elsewhere is impossible. Security
could also be better, as thefts from several guests' rooms indicated. So for
some vacationers, nice scenery and fun activities may not be enough to
offset the possibility of poor service and lax security. (Leggett, 376)

At the paragraph's end:

If the topic sentence is not the first sentence in the paragraph, it is often
the last sentence in the paragraph, summarizing or generalizing the
paragraph's information. Take a look at the paragraph below which
promotes a parenting workshop.

Beginning at breakfast with flying globs of oatmeal, spilled

juice, and toast that always lands jelly-side down, a day with
small children grows into a nightmare of frantic activity,
punctuated with shrieks, cries, and hyena-style laughs. The
very act of playing turns the house into a disaster area:
blankets and sheets that are thrown over tables and chairs to
form caves, miniature cars and trucks that race endlessly up

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 and down hallways, and a cat that becomes a caged tiger,
imprisoned under the laundry basket. After supper, with more
spilled milk, uneaten vegetables and tidbits fed to the cat
under the table, it's finally time for bed. But before they fall
blissfully asleep, the children still have time to knock over one
more bedtime glass of water, jump on the beds until the
springs threaten to break, and demand a last ride to the
bathroom on mother's back. Constant confusion is a way of
life for parents of small children. (Leggett, 379-380)

In the middle of a paragraph:

The middle position is not very emphatic; hence, topic sentences are less
frequently found there. One pattern, however, that offsets the lack of
emphasis is the "pivoting paragraph." In this structure, the paragraph
begins by ‘going against’ the topic sentence with one or more limiting
sentences" (Crews, 104). Usually there is a strong turn word (Crews calls
it "a conspicuous transition word," 104) such as but, yet, however. The
sentence introduced by that strong turn word is the topic sentence
of the paragraph, and it dominates the rest of the paragraph. In other
words, the writer creates a different form of emphasis -- one based on
tension rather than on position -- to offset the emphasis lost by not using
the beginning or ending sentence slot. In the following example, the first
sentence is limiting; but is the turn word that introduces the topic
sentence:

When we think of Gandhi fasting, plastering mud poultices

on his belly, and testing his vow of continence by sharing a
bed with his grand-niece, we can easily regard him as a
fanatic who happened to be politically lucky. But the links
between his private fads and his political methods turn out to
be quite logical. Gandhi's pursuit of personal rigors
helped him to achieve a rare degree of discipline that
allowed him to approach political crises with amazing
courage. The example of his self-control, furthermore, was
contagious; a more worldly man could not have led millions
of his countrymen to adopt the tactic of nonviolent
resistance. (Crews 104)

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Activity 2

Identify the topic sentences in the following paragraphs.

Paragraph 1

The maintenance of order in pre-state societies is rooted in

a commonality of material interests. The greater the amount
of common interests, the less need there is for law-and-
order specialists. Among band-level cultures, law and order
stem directly from the relations between people and the
natural habitat from which subsistence is derived. All adults
usually have open access to this habitat: the rivers, lakes,
beaches, oceans; all the plants and animals; the soil and the
subsoil. In so far as these are basic to the extraction of life-
sustaining energy and materials they are communal
"property." (Marvin Harris, (1975), Culture, People Nature, p.
356)

Paragraph 2

Though the United States has spent billions of dollars on

foreign aid programs, it has captured neither the affection
nor esteem of the rest of the world. In many countries today
Americans are cordially disliked; in others merely tolerated.
The reasons for this sad state of affairs are many and
varied, and some of them are beyond the control of anything
this country might do to try to correct them. But harsh as it
may seem to the ordinary citizen, filled as he is with good
intentions and natural generosity, much of the foreigners'
animosity has been generated by the way Americans
behave. (Edward Hall, (1973), The silent language, p. xiii)

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Paragraph 3

Anthropology is the study of humankind, especially of Homo

sapiens, the biological species to which we human beings
belong. It is the study of how our species evolved from more
primitive organisms; it is also the study of how our species
developed a mode of communication known as language
and a mode of social life known as culture. It is the study of
how culture evolved and diversified. And finally, it is the
study of how culture, people, and nature interact wherever
human beings are found.
(Marvin Harris, (1975), Culture, People Nature, p. 1)

Paragraph 4

No matter how you slice it, there are only 24 hours in a day.
To be successful at university, students need to learn good
time-management skills. The first skill is not taking on more
than you can handle. If you are a working part-time, have a
family and are involved in a community organisation, then
taking a full course-load at university will be too much.
Another time management skill is reasonably estimating the
time required to perform each of the tasks at hand. For
example, deeply reading a chapter from a course text
cannot be completed in between television programmes.
Finally, actually doing what needs to be done seems
obvious, but is a very difficult skill. You may find that
cleaning out your wardrobe becomes vital when you are
avoiding study. Procrastination is a time manager's enemy.
By learning time management skills your university study will
be successful and most importantly enjoyable.

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Paragraph 5

The heart weighs about 11 ounces and is the size of a

clenched fist. The heart of a man performs at about 60 to 80
beats a minute. In a year it beats some 40 million times. At
each beat it takes in nearly a quarter of a pint of blood; in a
single day it pumps 2,200 gallons of blood, and in the
course of a single lifetime about 56 million gallons. Is there
any other engine capable of carrying on such heavy work
over such a long period of time without needing to be
repaired? Obviously the human heart is a small yet highly
efficient piece of equipment.

Paragraph 6

The rules of conduct during an examination are clear. No

books, calculators or papers are allowed in the test room.
Proctors will not allow anyone with such items to take the
test. Anyone caught cheating will be asked to leave the
room. His or her test sheet will be taken. The incident will be
reported to the proper authority. At the end of the test
period, all materials will be returned to the proctor. Failure to
abide by these rules will result in a failing grade for this test.

English for Business Page 69

Activity 3
Now, produce a suitable topic sentence for each of the following paragraphs.

Paragraph 1

Topic Sentence:
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

The most important factor is a student's past experience of study. If a student

has already developed good study habits, study at university should not be
difficult. Good study habits need to be complemented by interest and
motivation, factors which are important when competition gets tough. We should
however not underestimate the distracting effects of financial and personal
difficulties. All students have to grapple with these at some stage of their
university life. Beyond the personal factors it has to be said that there is also a
certain element of luck involved in success: this includes finding excellent
teachers and the subject matter that inspires one to give one's best.

Paragraph 2
Topic sentence:

______________________________________________________________

Animal breeding for particular features may soon become obsolete with the
new-found ability of scientists to work at the level of genes. On the one hand
there are those who embrace the new bio-technology: genetic engineering.
They argue that many genetic changes will be hugely beneficial and harmless.
As long as safeguards are in place, they claim, humans would be foolish not to
take advantage of the many benefits genetic engineering has to offer. Others
have seen the speed with which gene manipulation can get out of hand, mixing
species so that vegetable and animal are no longer distinguishable. They want
to wind the clock back. But can they?

English for Business Page 70

 3.2 Supporting Sentences

The topic sentences of a paragraph must be supported or explained, by specifics in

the other sentences. By turning the ideas you have generated through the pre-
writing activities into sentences and linking them, you will be able to write a
paragraph that supports the topic sentence.

Stick to buy
list Make
list Ads for
special
Careful
shopping
Don’t
overbuy
No – spoilt
fruit and
vegetables Use
Only if
coupons
brand is not
expensive

The paragraph may be as follows:

Careful shopping will keep your grocery bill down. You should go to the store with a
shopping list and stick to it. Then you won’t buy on impulse because every item
added to the shopping cart adds to your bill. Read ads in the newspaper to find out
what specials are in effect. Include them in your list if you need them or expect to
buy them in the next two weeks. Using coupons for food and household items will
also save you money. You can be sure that with such careful shopping, you will
certainly save money.

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 3.3 Drafting a Paragraph

To write a fully developed paragraph, you need to provide details to strengthen your
supporting statements. In order to do so, you need to consider

o The words you choose

o The details in sentences
o The examples or illustrations, if you use them
o The transitions that connect ideas within the paragraph

3.3.1 Using Specific Words

VAGUE SPECIFIC
tall 1.85m tall
everybody Students in my Accounting class
car Blue Mazda 6

3.3.2 Expanding Sentences for Details

Example 1: My cousin Arnold likes to watch football.

Expanded: My first cousin Arnold, who lives with us, likes to watch football on
TV every Monday night.

Example 2: This book puts me to sleep.

Expanded: The book I was assigned to read for Literature is called Shelter
Now and the combination of small print and long sentences puts
me to sleep every time I try to read it.

3.3.3 Writing Examples

Writers use examples or illustrations to:

o Make familiar what may be unfamiliar

o Paint a word picture to aid understanding

Example: Burning off calories will lead to faster weight reduction.

Helpful: Naming some of the ways to burn off calories.

English for Business Page 72
 Activity 4

Paragraph Structure

The following three paragraphs describe the same economic and social divisions in
a country. Read them and answer these questions:
1. In what ways are they different?
2. Which do you prefer as an academic text and why?

Paragraph A

The country has rich, modern cities with towering buildings, eight-lane highways and
luxurious shopping centres. On the other hand, there is the poor countryside, where
people have retained their traditional lifestyle. A stark contrast can clearly be observed
between the cities and the countryside. The rich are separated from the poor, and,
correspondingly, the modern from the traditional. The country is thus marked by two
major, related socio-economic divisions.

Paragraph B

The country is marked by two major, related socio-economic divisions. The first is
between the rich and the poor, while the second is a corresponding division between
the modern and the traditional. These distinctions can clearly be observed in the
contrast between the cities and the countryside. The great wealth and modernity of the
cities with their towering buildings, eight-lane highways and luxurious shopping centres
offer a stark contrast with the poverty and traditional life of the countryside.

Paragraph C

The rich of the country are separated from the poor, and, correspondingly, the modern
from the traditional. The country is thus marked by two major, related socio-economic
divisions. There are rich, modern cities with their towering buildings, eight-lane
highways and luxurious shopping centres. On the other hand, there is the poor
countryside, where people have retained their traditional lifestyle. A stark contrast can
clearly be observed between the cities and the countryside.

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A Prelude to Referencing / Citation
How would you know if the information collected is credible and trustworthy?

Research assignments and academic reports are the bread and butter of tertiary
students. The quality of these reports is often reflected by not just the amount, but also
the credibility of the research done. So how do we determine whether the data collected
can be trusted? Are there guidelines we can follow?

Have a look at the You Tube clip titled:

‘Researching Online for College Students: Five Easy Steps’

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ylp9nJpGak4

The proposed 5 guidelines

1. ____________________________

2. ____________________________

3. ____________________________

4. ____________________________

5. ____________________________

English for Business Page 74

 Session
7 Writing Essays & Citations
OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

• Know the elements of a good introduction
• Know how to structure and develop body paragraphs
• Know how to end a piece of writing with an effective conclusion
• Basic introduction to referencing and citation (APA format)

1.0 Parts of an Essay

An essay has three main parts:

• An introduction
• Several supporting paragraphs (body)
• A conclusion

Note that a typical essay contains five paragraphs. However, the number of
paragraphs may vary according to the length of the essay and its purpose.

Read the sample essay below:

The Hazards of Moviegoing

By John Langan
From College Writing Skills with Readings

Introductory I am a movie fanatic. When friends want to know what picture won
paragraph the Oscar in 1980 or who played the police chief in Jaws, they ask
me. My friends, though, have stopped asking me if I want to go out
(Thesis) to the movies. The problems in getting to the theater, the theater
itself, and the behavior of some patrons are all reasons why I often
wait for a movie to show up on TV.

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First First of all, just getting to the theater presents difficulties. Leaving a
supporting home equipped with a TV and a video recorder isn't an attractive
paragraph idea on a humid, cold, or rainy night. Even if the weather
cooperates, there is still a thirty-minute drive to the theater down a
congested highway, followed by the hassle of looking for a parking
space. And then there are the lines. After hooking yourself to the
end of a human chain, you worry about whether there will be
enough tickets, whether you will get seats together, and whether
many people will sneak into the line ahead of you.

Second Once you have made it to the box office and gotten your tickets,
supporting you are confronted with the problems of the theater itself. If you are
paragraph in one of the run-down older theaters, you must adjust to the musty
smell of seldom-cleaned carpets. Escaped springs lurk in the faded
plush or cracked leather seats, and half the seats you sit in seem
loose or tilted so that you sit at a strange angle. The newer twin and
quad theaters offer their own problems. Sitting in an area only one-
quarter the size of a regular theater, moviegoers often have to put
up with the sound of the movie next door. This is especially jarring
when the other movie involves racing cars or a karate war and you
are trying to enjoy a quiet love story. And whether the theater is old
or new, it will have floors that seem to be coated with rubber
cement. By the end of a movie, shoes almost have to be pried off
the floor because they have become sealed to a deadly compound
of spilled soda, hardening bubble gum, and crushed Ju-Jubes.

Third Some of the patrons are even more of a problem than the theater
supporting itself. Little kids race up and down the aisles, usually in giggling
paragraph packs. Teenagers try to impress their friends by talking back to the
screen, whistling, and making what they consider to be hilarious
noises. Adults act as if they were at home in their own living rooms
and comment loudly on the ages of the stars or why movies aren't
as good anymore. And people of all ages crinkle candy wrappers,
stick gum on their seats, and drop popcorn tubs or cups of crushed
ice and soda on the floor. They also cough and burp, squirm
endlessly in their seats, file out for repeated trips to the rest rooms
or concession stand, and elbow you out of the armrest on either
side of your seat.

Concluding After arriving home from the movies one night, I decided that I was
paragraph not going to be a moviegoer anymore. I was tired of the problems
involved in getting to the movies and dealing with the theater itself
and some of the patrons. The next day I arranged to have cable TV
service installed in my home. I may now see movies a bit later than
other people, but I'll be more relaxed watching box office hits in the
comfort of my own living room.

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Activity 1
Complete the outline of a five-paragraph essay based on the above passage:
Outline for a Five-Paragraph Essay

Title: ____________________

I. Introduction
A. Introductory statement
B. Thesis statement: ____________________

II. Body
A. First Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence):
___________________________________
1. ___________________________________
2. ___________________________________
3. ___________________________________

B. Second Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence):

___________________________________
1. ___________________________________
2. ___________________________________
3. ___________________________________

C. Third Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence):

___________________________________
1. ___________________________________
2. ___________________________________
3. ___________________________________

III. Conclusion
A. Closing statement
B. Restate thesis: ____________________

The five-paragraph essay is a basic format for essay writing. As business students, we
need to learn to write in the most comprehensive way and learn to write to the point.
Look at the pointers below on what to consider when writing a Five-paragraph essay.

English for Business Page 77

2.0 General Structure of a Five-Paragraph Essay

The five-paragraph essay follows a defined format. The first paragraph introduces us to
the thesis of the essay and directs us to the three main supporting subtopics. The
second through fourth paragraphs are all similar in format. They individually restate the
subtopics, and are developed by giving supporting information. The fifth and last
paragraph restates the main thesis idea and reminds the reader of the three main
supporting ideas that were developed. All of these paragraphs are important.

Introductory Paragraph

Attention grabber
Thesis statement mentioning the 3 subtopics

Transition

First Supporting Paragraph

Restate Subtopic One

1. First Supporting Detail or Example

2. Second Supporting Detail or Example
3. Third Supporting Detail or Example

Transition

Second Supporting Paragraph

Restate Subtopic Two

1. First Supporting Detail or Example

2. Second Supporting Detail or Example
3. Third Supporting Detail or Example

Transition

Third Supporting Paragraph

Restate Subtopic Three

1. First Supporting Detail or Example

2. Second Supporting Detail or Example
3. Third Supporting Detail or Example

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2.1 The Introductory Paragraph

The introductory paragraph is the place where the writer introduces the reader to the
topic. The introductory paragraph introduces us to the thesis of the essay and directs
us to the three main supporting subtopics It is important to make this a clear and limited
statement. This is where the writer grabs the reader's attention. Because of its
purpose, the attention grabber is often the first few sentences of the paragraph. It is
followed by three subtopics that develop the thesis. Between this paragraph and all
paragraphs of the essay, there needs to be some kind of a transition word, phrase, or
sentence.

Introductions, also called leads are critical to the success of the essay. Effective
introductions do two things immediately.

• Focus the reader’s attention on the subject

• Provoke the reader’s curiosity or interest

2.1.1 Thesis Statement

Effective essays centre on a thesis or main point that a writer wishes to express. This
central idea is usually presented as a thesis statement in the introduction. A good thesis
statement tells the audience the topic of discussion and presents the writer’s attitude,
opinion, idea or point about that topic. For example, look at the following thesis
statement:
Owning a pet has several important benefits.

In this thesis statement, the topic is owning a pet; the writer’s main point of view is that
owning a pet has several important benefits.

Another alternative is a more specific thesis statement – Owning a pet has several
benefits such as providing companionship, encouraging the owners to physical
exercise, and promoting a sense of responsibility

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Thesis Statement

 Is a single, clear, sharply-focused sentence

 Is the topic sentence for the whole essay
 Identifies the subject of your essay
 Is focused enough so you can cover the topic thoroughly
 Can be "open" or "closed"
 An effective thesis statement is one which
– tells the audience the topic
– presents your attitude, opinion or idea about a topic

 Open (Broad & general)

Nuclear energy is too dangerous to be used as a source of electrical energy.

 Closed (Specific & detailed)

Nuclear energy is too dangerous to be used as a source of electrical energy
because of its potential hazard for people in the vicinity of the power plant and its
detrimental effects on the environment.

2.1.2 Strategies for Introductions

• The importance / benefits for the readers

‘What’s in it for me?’ That is the question almost all readers will ask
themselves in the first minute or two. If they can immediately identify the
benefit(s) / importance of the topic, they have vested interest to continue and
find out more.

• Emphasis on the problem

Bad news is another aspect that readers like to gravitate towards. It is no

surprise that the majority of news broadcasts focuses on the crisis and
problems. Likewise, highlighting the seriousness / magnitude of the issue in
the introduction will likely attract the readers’ attention and encourage them to
read on.

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 • Quotation

This is a common strategy used for academic writings. The quotation can
come from an expert on the subject you are exploring, an ordinary person
with related experience or any number of well-known sources (e.g., literature,
religious or philosophical writings) or well-known people (e.g., politicians,
scientists, management gurus, educators). The quotation helps focus the
reader on your subject. Even music lyrics, poems etc. may provide an
interesting introduction to your subject.

Example:

Former U.S. President J.F. Kennedy once said: “It is not what the country can
do for you, but what you can do for your country.” Most of the people around
us are always complaining about the problems in their community and the
country in general. However, they do little to help or to provide alternatives for
those problems. If you want to help, there are many things you could do!
Cleaning your neighborhood, participating in civil organizations, and acting as
a role model are just some examples of how you can help your country.

• Illustration

An example illustrating your topic may give the reader a sense of ‘being
there.’ Allowing the audience to sense the situation or issue (showing rather
than telling) may be essential in drawing them to the points you will explore or
argue.

Another common way to start an illustration would be ‘Imagine . . . ‘

E.g. of using an illustration

He was a fairly large man, who always appeared in dark suits that made his
cocoa brown skin seem even darker. He had a kind face with a high forehead
and sensitive eyes. While he looked like a man with a great capacity for love
and understanding, he also projected an image of strength with his sturdy
body and determined walk. His voice could be soft and soothing, or it could
be so powerful that it could rouse a thousand people to action. This man was
Martin Luther King, and no educated person in America should be ignorant of
his contributions to our nation.

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 • Anecdote

This is a common strategy used by newspaper and magazine writers.

Providing an interesting but brief story is a good way to raise interest in your
topic. If you are the main character in the story, you might also be showing
your reader why this topic is important to you. Your relationship to the topic
becomes immediately clear.

E.g. of using an anecdote

Last June while working in a construction firm, I met a lot of guys who were
going to university. They knew I would be attending UniSIM in July, so when
we take a break, they would always try to impress me by telling me how hard
university was. They spoke of impossibly difficult tests, hours upon hours of
homework, and stern professors who demanded nothing but the best from
their students. I must admit that they had me scared, but now that I have
been at UniSIM for a year, I know that students can do well in their studies if
they discipline themselves to study regularly, take good class notes, and miss
class only for illness and emergencies.

• Historical Background

A topic may need a brief background in order for the audience to understand
the rationale of your point of view or why a problem occurred.

E.g.
Sentosa - first it was a former fishing village, then a British military base, and
by 1972, Sentosa was transformed into an idyllic island resort for the
enjoyment and recreation of everyone. Situated half a km south of Singapore,
Sentosa (meaning peace and tranquility) is accessible within minutes by
cable car, ferry or via a 710-metre road link.

• Current Affairs
If your topic is on a current or controversial subject, you may find a
newspaper article that can serve as an introduction to your discussion. This
appeals to the readers because it implies relevance and therefore, immediate
interest.

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 • Statistics
Facts and figures may surprise your reader and gain interest in the topic.
Numbers appeal to the readers’ minds / logic. Having said that, effective
writers would pick one or two attention-getting figures, rather than
overwhelming the readers with too much data.

• Questions
Asking a question or a series of questions in the introduction is one way to
draw the reader into the main text, where you will answer those questions.

Example:
Did you ever see a soft drink commercial that talked about soft drinks? Well,
some might tell us that the drink being advertised will quench our thirst, or
that a particular diet pop has only so many calories or contains no caffeine.
But most of the time the emphasis in soft drink ads is on the people--surfers
on the beach, slim sexy women doing aerobic dances, carloads of preppies
waving pop cans, or break-dancers hip-hopping down a city street. These
ads are not selling pop; they are selling images. Most soft drink companies
want us to believe that if we drink their product we will be part of a happy
crowd.

NOTE: One or two thought-provoking questions will do. Any more than 2
questions, and the readers will be asking, ‘Where are all these going?’

• Controversial Statement

Saying something shocking is another way of getting readers into your

discussion. You have to use good judgement as to the degree of shock
value, though. You do not want to offend the audience right from the start
because you don’t get a second chance to form a good first impression. The
idea is to gain attention, not lose it.

E.g.

Only about a third of each class that enters this course each year ever
graduate. It is not that these students are not intelligent, and the reasons two-
thirds drop out are many. Some merely get homesick, others transfer to
different courses, and still others leave for personal or economic factors. Yet
a large number of students do leave for academic reasons, and most of these
students never graduate because they do not realize the time and dedication
to study that success in university requires.

English for Business Page 83

Activity 2

Write one Introductory paragraph using any of the Strategies of Introduction

found above and end each of the paragraphs with the thesis statement, ““Public
Transportation can solve our city’s pressing problem”.

3.0 Body (made up of several Supporting Paragraphs)

Next, the body of the essay contains paragraphs two through four. They are all similarly
constructed. Their topic sentences are restatements, often in original form, of the three
supporting ideas presented in the first paragraph. The subtopic of each of the body
paragraphs is again supported by three or more supporting sentences. These cement,
in the reader's mind, the relevancy and relationship of each of the subtopics to the
thesis statement.

In the earlier exercise, you have written 2 introductory paragraphs that ended with the
following Thesis Statement:

“Public Transportation can solve our city’s pressing problem”.

Assume that the following are the reasons for the above thesis statement mentioned in
your introductory paragraph

Reasons – a) Reduces traffic congestion

b) Reduces pollution

c) Any other reason you can think of?

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Step 1 – Examine your first reason; “Reduces traffic congestion”
Step 2 – Explain what you mean (How can traffic congestion can be reduced?) Use
examples to back up you ideas. You might draw examples from other
countries.
Step 3 – Put your ideas together in step two to create a paragraph. Keep in mind that
there should be only one main topic area within a paragraph.
Step 4 – Repeat steps 1-3 for the second and third reasons.

Activity 3
Now, write the body paragraphs using the step given above. You can use the
reasons given above or any other reasons you can think of.

4.0 Conclusion

Finally, the fifth paragraph is the summary paragraph. It is important to restate the
thesis and three supporting ideas in an original and powerful manner as this is the last
chance the writer has to convince the reader of the validity of the information presented.

The reader expects the conclusion to do some or all of the following

• rephrase the thesis statement

• summarize the supporting ideas
• give your opinion, if you haven't given it already
• look to the future (say what will happen if the situation continues or changes)

The reader DOES NOT expect new information in the conclusion. Never add a new
idea just because you have thought of it at the end! You must do all of this in just three
or four sentences

The conclusion is very similar to the introduction. However, you should avoid repeating
the same words. This is why a few minutes spent at the start of the exam writing down
synonyms (words with the same meaning) and related words is very helpful.

English for Business Page 85

4.1 Strategies for Conclusion

• Make a comment on (but do not repeat) the thesis statement

Example:

Watching movies at home, definitely, has several advantages over going to

the theater. This way you don’t spend so much money, you can use your time
more effectively, and you can enjoy the comfort of your house. There’s
nothing better than staying at home on a rainy day while enjoying a good
movie on your TV screen.

• Remind the audience what action you want them to take

• Use a question to keep the audience thinking

Example:

You can help your country by contributing in many ways. Are you going to sit
around waiting for the government to do everything? What will happen in the
future, when the government can no longer sustain your needs? What will
happen to your children and their future generations? Do they have to pay for
your laziness? Stand up and do something!

• Suggest a solution, make a recommendation or prediction

Example:

Nowadays, women are being more exploited than ever on TV commercials

and other propaganda. These commercials are denigrating the feminine
figure to the extremes. It’s time for women and society in general to stop this
pattern of abuse. Consumers should boycott companies and products whose
advertising continues to exploit women in such way.

English for Business Page 86

Activity 4

Write a concluding paragraph for the Introductory and Body paragraphs you
have written earlier on “Public Transportation can solve our city’s pressing
problem”.

References

• Ready to Write More – From Paragraph to Essay by Blanchard and Root

• The Elements of Basic Writing with Readings by Roth
• Basic College Writing – A Text with Readings by Martinez

English for Business Page 87

Referencing & Citation

Compare the following:

Writer A
As we all know, taking selfies can be dangerous, or even fatal. So many people put
themselves in harm’s way, just to take pictures that they can post on Instagram or
Facebook. For example, a recent research has shown countless drivers who take
pictures of themselves while driving. Unfortunately, all it takes is a split second’s
misjudgment or over-excitement, in one of these countless selfies, and he/she may end
up badly injured or even dead. Worse yet, these accidents may take away other lives.
This is true because we see it all the time.

Writer B
Taking selfies can be dangerous, or even fatal. So many people put themselves in
harm’s way, just to take photographs and later post them on Instagram or Facebook.
For example, an Instagram search for drivers taking selfies while driving produced
approximately 660,000 hits at any given time. The same research showed that mobile
phone use causes one in four car accidents (Cytowic, 2015). This shows that all it takes
is a moment’s misjudgment or over-excitement, and lives would be lost, or changed
forever. And these are just road accidents alone.

Similarities Differences

Which is more convincing? Why?

_____________________________________________________________________

Are statistics, on its own sufficient?

_____________________________________________________________________

English for Business Page 88

Activity 5
Work in pairs / threes – review the You Tube clips on APA referencing by Massey
University.
APA Referencing: The Basics https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOEmM5gmTJM
APA Referencing Electronic Sources https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V6KZK4-SXfU

What is referencing?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

What does not require referencing?

_____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

Why do it?

1. _______________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________________

4. _______________________________________________________

General Guidelines

The 2 places in your assignments that citation / referencing occurs are

1. ______________________________

2. ______________________________

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How is it done? Write down actual samples.

1. In-text referencing - E.g. ____________________________________________

2. End-of-text referencing - E.g. ________________________________________

What are the advantage and disadvantage of direct quotations?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

What is/are the advice from 7:20 to 8:20 in the first clip on referencing basics?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Write an example of in-text AND end-of-text referencing from an internet source.

(In-text) _________________________________________

(End-of-text)

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

Which parts of a report (Intro / Body / Conclusion) should there be referencing?

____________________________________________________________________

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End-of-Text Referencing – A General Guide

There is such a great variety of sources – books, journals, magazines, newspapers and
not to mention the different sources online. There are sources with multiple authors,
articles with no author; some do not even have dates. Each of them can have rather
different end-of-text references.

Here is the general formula for online sources –

Author(s). Year. Title. Details of the source

Using the referencing function in MS Word

Step 1 - In your MS-Word document, after paraphrasing the information from the
original source, click on the ‘References’ tab.

Step 2 – Select the ‘Style: APA Sixth Edition’ (once)

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Step 3 – Click ‘Insert Citation’

Step 4 – Select ‘Add New Source’

Step 5 - Select desired ‘Type of Source’ and ‘Show All Bibliography Fields’

English for Business Page 92

Step 6a – Fill in ‘Author’
‘Name of Web Page’ – which is the name of the article
‘Name of Web Site’ – which is name of the home page
‘Year’ & ‘Month’ – date when article was posted or revised

If there is no author, select ‘Corporate Author’ and type in the organization’s name.
In this case, DO NOT fill in ‘Name of Web Site’.

Step 6b – Scroll down and fill in ‘Year Accessed’ & ‘Month Accessed’
- Cut and paste URL into the field.

Step 7 – click ‘OK’ (In-text citation will appear upon clicking this button.)

English for Business Page 93

For example, an Instagram search for drivers taking selfies while driving produced
approximately 660,000 hits at any given time, in the U.S. alone. Another research
showed that mobile phone use causes one in four car accidents (Cytowic, 2015).

Start Step 1 here In-text citation will

appear after Step 7

Step 8 – Repeat Steps 1 to 7 for other sources throughout your report.

At the end of the report, click on ‘Bibliography’, then choose either ‘Bibliography’ or
‘Works Cited’, all sources used will be appear with full details.

Works Cited
Cytowic, R. E. (2015, December). Selfies Kill More People Than Sharks Do. Retrieved February
2016, from Psychology Today: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-fallible-
mind/201512/selfies-kill-more-people-sharks-do

Word of Caution
The referencing features in the MS Word document are not fully compliant to APA
citation formats. Please refer to the APA guide.

English for Business Page 94

 Session
8 Persuasive Writing
UNIT OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

• Recognize the function of persuasive essays in the business context
• Analyse the text structure of a persuasive essay

In persuasive writing, a writer takes a position FOR or AGAINST an issue and writes to
convince the readers to believe or do something.

Persuasive writing is often used in advertisements to get the reader to buy a product.
This is relevant for students of Diploma in Business who will soon be exposed to
subjects like Marketing and who are expected to write to prospective clients to convince
them on the feasibility of a proposed project. Persuasive writing is done essentially to
get the reader to accept a point of view. In order to convince the reader you need more
than opinion, you need facts or examples to back your opinion. So, be sure to do the
research!

Agree or Disagree?

Look at the statement below and decide if you AGREE or DISAGREE with the
statement.

"When deciding to employ a member of staff, experience is considered more important

than qualifications."

For Against

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Activity 1 - Persuasion is All Around You!
You might be surprised at how many people and businesses are trying to convince you
to do things every day. Can you name some sources of persuasion around you?
Look at following persuasive pieces and answer the questions below:
Persuasive example 1:

Should Marine Mammals Be in Captivity?

In my opinion there is no doubt that marine mammals should NOT be held in captivity.
Marine mammals are a part of nature and should not be bought, sold or thrown in an
aquarium. I believe that they have the right to be kept in their natural environment.

I have many convincing reasons to support my opinion. Captivity causes a number of

health problems in marine mammals. Many tanks have water full of chemicals and
bacteria; this results in blindness and serious skin problems in dolphins and other
marine mammals. Marine mammals in captivity die from pneumonia, ulcers and other
stress-related diseases. Most of these helpless creatures suffer from boredom.
Dolphins in the wild can swim up to 40-100 miles per day but in pools they go around
swimming in repetitive patterns. Due to boredom and limited space many dolphins
abuse themselves; they often bang their heads against tank and aquarium walls. Some
of these poor innocent creatures face abusive treatment by their caretakers, thus
shortening their life span. In fact, Keiko, the killer whale, the star of Free Willy, was a
victim of this type of abuse. It was said that he was 1,000 pounds underweight and
developed a warlike disease. His teeth were ground down from chewing the sides of
the pool due to boredom and he had a problem with his dorsal fin. Marine mammals
breed very poorly in captivity with very high infant death rates. For this reason, when a
baby dolphin is born into captivity its birth is usually kept a secret from its mother until it
shows signs of survival. Marine mammals do breed in captivity, but the birth rate in
captivity is not as successful as in the wild.

Many people think that marine mammals should remain in captivity. I realize that some
people may believe that captivity increases the life span of certain animals, but the truth
is if these creatures are so happy in captivity, why do they die so fast? Captivity
shortens animal life spans, it does not increase them. Wild dolphins can live 40 years in
the wild and oreas can live 90 years, but when held in captivity they rarely survive their
teens. Twenty-three out of 25 oreas have died in captivity. Some people think that
holding animals in captivity helps with study and research. But the truth is scientists
prefer to learn about animals in their natural environment so they get firsthand
knowledge.

In conclusion, I think marine mammals should definitely not be held in captivity. I think
Gandhi said it best when he mentioned, "The greatness of a nation and its moral
process can be measured by the way its animals are treated." In a world where much of
nature and the wild have already been lost to us, it is up to us to set these beautiful
marine mammals free.

English for Business Page 96

1. Where do you think you can find the persuasive writing?

__________________________________________________________________

2. Who is trying to persuade you?

__________________________________________________________________

3. What are they trying to persuade you to do?

__________________________________________________________________

4. Do you think their argument is convincing? Why or why not?

Yes, it’s convincing No, it’s not

English for Business Page 97

Persuasive example 2:

What appears in the text above:

Every year, over 11,000 people die on our roads and 30, 000 are seriously injured. That
means THOUSANDS of FAMILIES are picking up the pieces. Families are tortured at
the loss of a loved one crippled by a reduced income or the sudden need to care for a
relative with Permanent Brain damage. The sad truth is that 40% of these cases could
have been prevented simply by wearing a helmet. When you think about it, there are no
EXCUSES!

1. Where do you think you can find the above persuasive example?

__________________________________________________________________

2. Who is trying to persuade you?

__________________________________________________________________

3. What are they trying to persuade you to do?

__________________________________________________________________

4. Do you think their argument is convincing? Why or why not?

Yes, it’s convincing No, it’s not

English for Business Page 98

Persuasive Strategies
Activity 2
There are many strategies that can be employed to persuade others to accept the
author's point of view. Look at the strategies below and decide with a tick (V) which
strategies were employed for Example 1 and Example 2 and explain how the author
used it.

Persuasiv Example 1 Example 2 How the author used

e Strategy it?
Claim –
States the
main point or stance
Big Names -
Mentions experts
and important
people to support
the argument
Logos –
Uses logic,
numbers, or facts to
support the
argument
Pathos –
Appeals to the
audience's
emotions

Ethos-
Tries to build
trust and
credibility
Kairos-
Builds a sense of
urgency for the
cause

Research-
Uses studies and
information to make the
argument seem
more convincing; this
can be in the form of
words, graphs, tables,
or illustrations

English for Business Page 99

Persuasive Essays

The Introduction in Persuasive Writing

The introduction has a "hook or grabber" to catch the reader's attention. Remember
what you learned earlier on Strategies for Introductions? You can apply most of the
strategies in the introduction of your Persuasive Essay as long as you can grab the
reader’s attention.

Example Introduction:

[GRABBER-OPENING WITH A STRONG STATEMENT] Of all the problems facing the

environment today, the one that bothers me the most is global warming. Some
scientists say that the earth is getting warmer because of the greenhouse effect.
[THESIS STATEMENT] This paper will describe the greenhouse effect and whether the
earth's atmosphere is actually getting warmer.

The Body in Persuasive Writing

The writer then provides evidence to support the opinion offered in the thesis statement
in the introduction. The body should consist of at least three paragraphs. Each
paragraph is based on a solid reason to back your thesis statement. Since almost all
issues have sound arguments on both sides of the question, a good persuasive writer
tries to anticipate opposing viewpoints and provide counter-arguments along
with the main points in the essay. One of the three paragraphs should be used to
discuss opposing viewpoints and your counter-argument.

English for Business Page 100

Planning a Persuasive Essay using a Persuasive Mind Map

Activity 3

GOAL or THESIS
A goal or thesis is a statement that describes one side of an arguable viewpoint.
What is the thesis or point you are trying to argue?

MAIN REASONS
You will need some good reason to support your goals or thesis. Briefly state 3 main
reasons that would convince your thesis is valid.

Reason 1
Facts or Examples:
What are some facts and
examples you could state to
support this reason and validate
the argument

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Reason 2

Facts or Examples:
What are some facts and
examples you could state to
support this reason and validate
the argument

English for Business Page 102

Reason 3

Facts or Examples:
What are some facts and
examples you could state to
support this reason and validate
the argument

Reason 4 - Opposing Viewpoint: (This is optional, however highly recommended, so

that the reader will know you have considered another point of view and have a rebuttal
to it.)

English for Business Page 103

The Conclusion in Persuasive Writing:

A piece of persuasive writing usually ends by summarizing the most important details of
the argument and stating once again what the reader is to believe or do.

1. Restate your thesis or focus statement.

2. Summarize the main points: The conclusion enables your reader to recall the
main points of your position. In order to do this you can paraphrase the main
points of your argument.
3. Write a personal comment or call for action. You can do this:

• With a Prediction: This can be used with a narrative or a cause and

effect discussion. The conclusion may suggest or predict what the results
may or may not be in the situation discussed or in similar situations.
• With a Question: Closing with a question lets your readers make their
own predictions, and draw their own conclusions.
• With Recommendations: A recommendation closing is one that stresses
the actions or remedies that should be taken.
• With a Quotation: Since a quotation may summarize, predict, question,
or call for action, you may use a quotation within a conclusion for nearly
any kind of paper.

English for Business Page 104

 Persuasive Essay Outline

I. Introduction:

A. Get the readers attention by using a "hook."

B. Give some background information if necessary.
C. Thesis or focus statement.

II. First argument or reason to support your position:

A. Topic sentence explaining your point.

B. Elaboration to back your point.

III. Second argument or reason to support your position:

A. Topic sentence explaining your point.

B. Elaboration to back your point.

IV. Third argument or reason to support your position:

A. Topic sentence explaining your point.

B. Elaboration to back your point.

V. Opposing Viewpoint: (This is optional, however highly recommended, so that the

reader will know you have considered another point of view and have a rebuttal to it.)

A. Opposing point to your argument.(counter-argument)

B. Your rebuttal to the opposing point.
C. Elaboration to back your rebuttal.

VI. Conclusion:

A. Summary of main points or reasons

B. Restate thesis statement.
C. Personal comment or a call for action.

English for Business Page 105

Activity 4

Write a persuasive essay on the topic, "Qualifications are more important than
experience". You should provide the following:

• An Introduction - Use any of the Introduction strategies you have learnt

• Use the Persuasive Mind Map for the body of your essay. Indicate the
Persuasive strategies that you are using (e.g. Claims, Big Names, Pathos,
Ethos...etc.)

• Write a conclusion using Prediction, Question, Quotation or Recommendation as

mentioned earlier.

English for Business Page 106

 Session
9 Visuals
UNIT OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

• Use critical reading skills to deconstruct advertisements and articles and

discriminate between the stated and inferred and to differentiate between fact, and
opinion.
• Articulate how persuasion in media can affect and manipulate people's thinking.
• Develop an awareness of advertisements and persuasive writing that is part of our
daily lives
• Incorporate visuals in writing
• Evaluate good visuals
• Learn how to create and explain visuals

Visual Appeal

Visual appeals can add to the effectiveness of the written word. Using complementing
visuals can help strengthen arguments in persuasive writing. Visuals make the text
page more appealing and convincing to the readers.

Why does one advertisement make a lasting impression and sell merchandise, while
another falls flat and doesn’t generate enough revenue to pay its own cost?

Virtually all persuasive writing in advertisements contains the elements described

below:

1. Gains attention
2. Focuses on the customer
3. Stresses benefits
4. Differentiates your product or service from your competitor

English for Business Page 107

Activity 1

Think of the first brand name of product or service that comes to mind when you
mention the following:
• A fast-food restaurant _______________________
• Sports Shoes _______________________
• Soft-drinks _______________________
• Jeans _______________________
• Hand-phones _______________________
• Music Show on TV _______________________
• Airline _______________________
• MP3 Player _______________________

Now, compare your answers with the students sitting next to you. See if the same
brand names surfaces in their answers as well!

Using Visuals to Gain Attention

If an advert fails to gain attention, it fails totally. Unless you gain the prospective
customer’s attention, he or she won’t read any of your advertisement. And if the
prospective customer doesn’t read your advertisement, he or she won’t receive the
persuasive message you’ve so carefully crafted. There are numerous ways to gain
attention.

Advertisements are special types of persuasive writing. Their purpose is to sell a

product or a service. They do so by

• by aiming at a particular type of customer

• using carefully chosen, positive language
• appealing to some aspect of the reader's personality
• making opinions sound like facts

Adverts can affect and manipulate people's thinking. You need to use critical
reading skills to deconstruct advertisements and articles and discriminate between
the fact and opinion.

English for Business Page 108

Activity 2
Take a look at the adverts below and distinguish the facts from the opinions:

Advert 1

Mmm Milk - rich in

calcium – for strong bones and
teeth!

Are you getting enough?

Advert 2

To keep our bodies healthy, we should eat five

portions of fruit and vegetables every day.

Nursery
and Infant
children
Fruit is
receive a
delicious!
free piece
of fruit
every day
at school.

The worst tasting vegetables are brussell sprouts!

English for Business Page 109

Advert 3

It’s what A fashion statement on wheels!

everyone Multicoloured!
wants!
Cushioned saddle!
Rainbow
Cycle! Faster than the speed
of light!

Safety grip wheels!

Only $75:99!

Advert 4

Kool Kids always wear

KK designer footwear!
Kool Kids can walk
for miles!
Our cushioned sole
Kool Kids have cool feet! and shock absorbing
Our trainers have heels guarantee you
charcoal insoles to a pleasant walk, mile
absorb sweat and keep after mile after mile!
you cool and fresh all
day long!

Kool Kids have street cred!

Be the envy of your friends
in our stylish trainers.

http://www.primaryresources.co.uk/english/englishD10.htm#advertisements

English for Business Page 110

Activity 3

Now, do the following:

• Read the excerpt on the topic, “Appeals of Advertisements”

When we look at an advertisement, we see what the advertising company wants use to see in
the ad. They have the luxury to cut, paste, and airbrush the photos to their liking and desired
look and feel. When we look at ads, we think things and want things based on what we see or
what we think we want. Our brains and neglect of reality sell their products for them. They play
off human desires and tempt us with images of sexy people and fast cars to sway our view of
their product. When we look at photographs, we are strictly confined to the point of view of the
photographer. We see what they see and what they want us to see, even if that was not
their intention. Photography is a way of distorting reality.

Beer ads for Carlsberg and Tiger Beer specifically have a motive, which is obviously to
try to convince you to buy their product .They do that in this specific ad by posing a
beautiful girl with a lot of flesh showing, drinking one of their beers.

• Do you agree with the claims made above?

• Can you name some products which employ similar advertisement strategies like
Carlsberg?

Look at the products and services mentioned below and describe the kinds of visuals
(slogans and catch phrases) that are commonly used to help gain the attention of the
prospective consumers.

Product/Services Description Examples of

Product and Catch
Abdominal Exercise Phrases
Equipment

Beer

Chocolates

English for Business Page 111

Detergents

Health Products

Target Audience

The purpose of advertisements is for mass consumerism -a term that will be useful for a
business student. The sole goal is to reach out to as many potential consumers as possible.
However, a carefully crafted advertisement considers the characteristics of its target group.

Activity 4

Work in groups and look at the examples of the advertisements (in Activity 2) and
consider the following:

• Decide on the target audience for the product/service

• Describe the mood of the advertisement
• What techniques are used to convey the different moods?

Target Advert1 Advert 2 Advert 3

Gender

Age Range

Interest

Occupation

Comment on the
mood of the Adverts

English for Business Page 112

 Language Features of Advertisements

• Use mainly the present tense

• Use logical and cause and effect connectives
• Use emotive language
• Use technical language
• Use rhetorical questions
• Dare the reader to disagree
• Use powerful verbs and strong adjectives

Hence, aside from attractive visuals, making opinions sound like facts and clever use
of language, there are other important features that help make advertisements
effective. Below is a table that summarizes the features of an effective advertisement.

FEATURES OF AN EFFECTIVE ADVERT: TICK √

They ask questions

They use humour

They appeal to your senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell)

They use alliteration (repeated sounds) or a play on words

They create a memorable slogan or an image

They make you feel special and cause you to imagine yourself using
the product

They give tempting descriptions of the benefits of having

the product

They use exaggerated language full of adjectives and adverbs

English for Business Page 113

They use celebrities to help advertise the product

They use competitions to advertise their products

They list the benefits and good qualities of the product

They mention comments about the product made by other

customers

They offer good value for money or sale prices

Activity 5
Read the following texts, and use the table above to determine if the features are present in
the following advertisements. Tick the appropriate boxes.

Calling All Sleepyheads

Sleep is important. Nobody fully
understands why we need it, but
scientists think that the body
uses the time to recover and to
repair damage. When we fall
asleep our heart and breathing
rates slow down, muscles relax
and our senses rest. If this is the
case, are you giving your body
enough rest?

English for Business Page 114

 Lack of sleep means that the body and brain
do not work properly. If you don’t go to bed
at a reasonable time, you will be sleepy in
class and not learn so much. Tiredness
means you may not be able to think
clearly, and you may also be a danger to
other people. Accidents can happen. You
will lack energy, and even playing
becomes too much of an effort. Is staying
up late really worth it?

There is some truth in the old saying

“Early to bed and early to rise, makes us
healthy, wealthy and wise.”

Next time you start to argue about your

bedtime, remember your body needs a
break.

From: Have Your Say by Karavis and Matthews

http://www.primaryresources.co.uk/english/englishD10.htm#advertisements

English for Business Page 115

Activity 6
Now, it's your turn to try your hand at writing an advertisement for one of the following
products. Produce a poster or a leaflet for the chosen product:

• Screw driver
• Paper- weight
• Shaving cream
• Dustpan

Indicate the following:

1. What are the persuasive strategies used? Indicate the Persuasive
strategies that you are using (e.g. Claims, Big Names, Pathos, Ethos...
etc.)

2. What are the features of effective advertisement that are present in your
advert? (Refer to the table mentioned above)

3. Who is the target audience?

Note on Drafting Leaflets and Posters

• Your leaflet or poster must look attractive and should be easy to read
• Use headings with different font sizes and styles or writing to make the leaflet
look interesting
• Include all relevant facts in a logical and clear way
• Attempt to persuade the reader using slogans or persuasive language suitable
for the target audience
• Include pictures to enhance the leaflet, but don't spend too long on them

Visuals in the form of Tables, Bar charts, Line-Graphs

Visuals play a very important supportive role in the Findings section of reports
and proposals. They are important for the following reasons. They
• capture the reader's attention
• demonstrate trends
• highlight and better illustrate some important points in your report
• show the overall relationship between certain factors
• act as a summary of information

English for Business Page 116

Describing Movements in a Graph
Activity 7

When describing movements in a graph, we can use verbs to talk about

upward, downward or horizontal movements. Draw in the spaces below:

decline climb soar crash flatten- bounce fluctuate

decrease rise rocket collapse out, back,
drop increase climb plummet hold rally,
tall rise plunge steady, recover
slide increase level off
stabilise

These can be qualified with an adjective or adverb to describe a change more precisely

Adjective Adverb
Used to show a slight slightly
small change
Used to show a regular Gradual, steady Gradually, steadily
movement
Used to show striking, Sharp, dramatic, sudden, Sharply, dramatically,
unexpected change substantial, considerable, suddenly, substantially,
rapid, considerably, rapidly
Used to show stability Stabilized, reached a
plateau

English for Business Page 117

 Activity 8

Look at the graph below and complete the text that follows explaining the visual using the
terms you have learned earlier:

London Underground station passengers

10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00

Time

The graph shows the _________ in the number of people at a London

underground station over the course of a day.

The busiest time of the day is in the morning. There is a _________ between
06:00 and 08:00, with 400 people using the station at 8 o'clock. After this, the
numbers _________ to less than 200 at 10 o'clock. Between 11 am and 3 pm
the number _________, with a _________ of just under 300 people using the
station.

In the afternoon, numbers _________, with less than 100 using the station at 4
pm.
There is then a _________ to a _________ of 380 at 6pm. After 7 pm, numbers
_________, with only a _________again at 8pm, tailing off after 9 pm.

Overall, the graph shows that the station is most crowded in the early morning
and early evening periods.
English for Business Page 118
Describing trends

Hint: It is important to remember when describing trends that not all information should
be described. Start your description with a general comment and then go on to the
most significant or important information in the line graph. Study the following
commentary and line graph. Using what you have learnt previously, improve it.

"In 1985 the company's profits stood at $4,478. In 1986 they rose to $4,590. In

1988, mere was a slight decrease and the figure fell to $4,456. There was another

slight decrease in 1989 when profits stood at $4,400. In 1990, profits-saw a

dramatic increase to $7,900. Profits were also very good in 1991 and 1992 when

they were $7,805 and $7,800 respectively. The profits for 1993 were at an all time

high of $8,190."

Profits of ABC Store Pte Ltd (1985 – 1993)

9,000
7,000 __ profits
5,000
3,000
1,000
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
1993
Year

My improved version:

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

English for Business Page 119

 Session Process &
10 Classification Essays
UNIT OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

• Compare the text structures and language features of different types of texts
• Know how to describe process systematically
• Understand the various ways of classifying ideas

1.0 Process Writing

There are two kinds of process writing. They are

• How to do something
• How something works

Process essays are important in scientific and technical fields.

Example:

The right side of the heart receives blood from the body through the vena cava and
pumps it through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. There, the blood picks up
needed oxygen. The blood returns via the pulmonary vein to the left side of the
heart. The left side then pumps the oxygen-rich blood through the aorta to the body,
where oxygen is released for the use of tissues. Therefore, the heart acts as a
pump to carry oxygen to all parts of the body.

The key to process essays is to organize the information in a sequence of

steps.

Example:

• Blood enters the right side of the heart

• Blood is pumped to lungs for oxygen
• Oxygen-rich blood goes to the left side of heart
• Heart pumps blood to the body

English for Business Page 120

 1.1 Writing a Process

You should follow a four-step process:

• Choose the right subject

• List all the steps in the process
• Include information about equipment or parts, if they are relevant to the
process
• Develop a thesis statement

Thesis Statements for Process Essays

It is easy/simple/not difficult to ____ if you have the right tools/ equipment/

materials/ ingredients.
_______ is easy when you follow these steps /directions/ instructions/ this
procedure.
There are three/ four/ several major steps involved in _________.

Transitional signals for Process Essays

First The third step Meanwhile

The first step Then While
From then on At this point During
Next As The last step
The next step As soon as Finally
Before When
After whenever

Introduction:

1. Get the attention of reader.

2. State what the process is and why it is important.
3. Define the process.
4. State the purpose for explaining the process.
5. List any equipment, ingredients, safety precautions etc needed.
6. Write a thesis statement.

English for Business Page 121

 Supporting Paragraphs - Body
1. Describe the steps in the process (either by importance or by time).
2. If there are a lot of steps, group them into categories.

Conclusion
1. Explain why the process is important
2. Summarise the main steps and /or restate thesis statement
3. End with an interesting concluding remark

Activity 1
Choose a topic. Be prepared to present as a group on one of the
following.

 How to dress to impress a girl/guy

 How to make a pizza /sandwich/ salad etc.
 How to annoy your lecturer
 How to find a part-time job

English for Business Page 122

 2.0 Classification

Classification organizes a topic by dividing it first into individual parts and then
grouping the parts into sections that have something in common.

It is widely used in academic and scientific writing.

2.1 Dividing a Subject

Three Steps to Effective Classification:

 Sort things into useful categories
 Make sure all the categories follow a single organizing principle
 Give examples that fit into each category

Activity 2
What categories can you think of for the following?

Energy

Food

Are there more than one way of categorizing or classifying?

English for Business Page 123

 2.2 Writing a Classification Essay

Support equally each category with examples

In general, you should write the same quantity, i.e., give the same number of
examples, for each category. The most important category, usually reserved for
last, might require more elaboration.

Thesis Statements for Classification Essay

 There are three / four / several kinds / types / classes of ______
 I can divide / classify / categorize _________ into three parts / groups/
kinds/ types etc.
 _________ can be divided/ classified/ grouped into three groups/ three
categories etc.

2.3 ESSAY PLAN: CLASSIFICATION

Introduction
1. Grab the attention of the reader.
2. Explain the purpose for the classification.
3. State the number and names of groups.
4. Provide a thesis statement.

Supporting Paragraphs
1. Identify and describe one group in each supporting paragraph
2. Explain the characteristics
3. Give examples

Conclusion
1. Restate method of classification
2. Summarize
3. End with an interesting concluding remark

English for Business Page 124

 2.4 Format for Classification Essays

Here's the outline:

I. INTRODUCTION

A. BACKGROUND INFO: Name your overall group to be classified.

B. THESIS: State your Principle of Classification, and if needed, add a

sentence stating the purpose of your Principle of Classification.

C. PREVIEW: List your categories. Any disclaimers should also be

mentioned here.

II. MAIN BODY

A. 1st CATEGORY

1. TOPIC SENTENCE (TS): Name your 1st category.

2. GENERAL EXPLANATION (GE): Describe the characteristics of the

category. Sometimes these characteristics turn into something resembling
subcategories, which simply mean you have a list of the same 3 or 4
characteristics which you discuss with each category in turn. This is a good
way to ensure you have plenty to say about each category.

3. SPECIFIC EXAMPLE (SE): Tell a story about or describe an

individual who is a member of this category.

4. CONCLUDING SENTENCE (CS): End with a sentence simply

reminding the reader that you're telling this story about this particular
person because he/she is a typical member of the category you've been
discussing.

B. 2nd CATEGORY

1. TS

2. GE

3. SE

4. CS

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 C. 3rd CATEGORY

1. TS

2. GE

3. SE

4. CS

D. 4th CATEGORY (If Necessary; should contain the same four elements)

E. 5th CATEGORY (If Necessary; also the same four elements)

III. CONCLUSION

A. SUMMARY OF CATEGORIES: Simply list the categories again as

you did in the preview.

B. RESTATEMENT OF THESIS: This may require only restating your

Principle of Classification, or it may need also restating your purpose, along
with revealing your final opinion in regards to this purpose.

Source: http://www.odessa.edu/dept/english/mjordan/classification.htm

References

• Ready to Write More – From Paragraph to Essay by Blanchard and Root

• The Elements of Basic Writing with Readings by Roth
• College Writing Skills by Langan

English for Business Page 126

 Activity 3

Choose a topic
 Use a mind map to illustrate
 3 categories
 For each category, highlight at least 5
features / characteristics and 3 examples

TOPICS
 Successful people
 Females OR Males (Choose 1)
 Bad habits
 Friends
 Countries
 Modes of Transport
 Sports

English for Business Page 127

 Session
Text-Type – Cause and Effect Essays
11 & Compare and Contrast Essays

UNIT OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

• Know how to show cause and effect relationships clearly
• Know how to compare and contrast ideas in a piece of writing

1 Cause & Effect Writing

Cause and effect writing shows an ‘if-then’ relationship. It is the relationship or

connection between the ‘if’ and the ‘then’ that is important in cause and effect
writing. Sometimes, the ‘if’ elements are called ‘problems’ rather than causes. The
‘then’ elements may be called ‘results’ or ‘solutions.’ The subject you write about will
influence which of the words you want to use.

Take note that there may be several causes leading to one effect, or several effects
that can be traced to one cause.

1.1 Introduction

Example:

A paper on the causes of the popularity of disco dancing might provide the
following:

Background material: Disco dancing started in Europe, spread to the United States
several years ago, and is currently popular all over the U.S. among all age groups.

Thesis statement: Disco dancing has become the most popular form of
entertainment because it . . .

A paper on the effects of the popularity of disco dancing might use much the same
material in its introduction.

Thesis statement: The effects of the current craze for disco dancing are . . .

English for Business Page 128

 1.2 Body

• Analyze the causes or effects, giving a paragraph to each major cause or effect.
• Discuss causes or effects in a logical order:

1. least obvious to most obvious,

2. most obvious to least obvious,
3. most important to least important,
4. least important to most important, or
5. sequence (first, second, third [or final])

• Explore and elaborate each cause/effect thoroughly

• Devote a paragraph to each major cause or effect
• Use proper word indicators to show causes/effects
• Regularly highlight the main idea

Word Signals

Cause & Effect Degrees of Certainty Importance levels

As a result certainly above all
because may equally important
Consequently necessarily finally
due to perhaps first
If… then possibly initially
leads to probably last
therefore undoubtedly primarily
thus unquestionably second

1.3 Conclusion

 Summarise the main points

 Raise a thought-provoking question or
 Give a prediction about the causes or the effects

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 1.4 Format for Cause & Effect Essays

I. INTRODUCTION

A. BACKGROUND INFO: Describe the situation, belief, etc., which you will
discuss the causes or effects of. This could be somewhat lengthy depending on
your topic, and if so, you might even want to make it a separate paragraph.

B. THESIS: In general, this is your opinion about the topic you're writing about.

C. PREVIEW: List your causes or effects. (A note on sequencing: If there is no

obvious time sequence you need to follow, a good rule of thumb is to place your
strongest cause or effect last and your weakest, least interesting one in the
middle)

II. MAIN BODY

A. FIRST CAUSE (OR EFFECT)

1. TS (Topic Sentence)

2. GE (General Explanation)

3. SE (Specific Examples)

4. CS (Concluding Statement)

B. SECOND CAUSE (OR EFFECT)

1. TS

2. GE

3. SE

4. CS

C. THIRD CAUSE (OR EFFECT)

1. TS

2. GE

3. SE

4. CS

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 III. CONCLUSION

A. SUMMARY OF CAUSES (OR EFFECTS)

B. RESTATEMENT OF THESIS

(Source: http://www.odessa.edu/dept/english/mjordan/cause.htm)

Activity 1

Choose and present one of the topics listed

 Effects of The internet
 Causes of divorce
 Consequences of playing excessive computer games
 Effects of attaining university education
 Causes of unemployment
 Causes of the popularity of
B-pop/ J-pop/ K-pop idols

2 Comparison & Contrast

Comparison involves finding similarities among things, people or ideas.

Contrast means finding differences among things, people or ideas.

For example:

If you compare the Mississippi and the Nile rivers, you will discover they are similar
in the following ways:

Length: Both are the longest rivers on their continents

Formation: Other river systems flow into both
Endings: Each forms a delta and empties into a large body of water
Uses: Both are used for transportation and trade
Flooding for both makes rich soil for crops

To make a contrast, you would point out the differences:

Mississippi Nile
Direction Flows south Flows north
Length 2,350 miles 2,405 miles
Source Lake Itasca Lake Victoria
Location USA Sudan & Egypt

Take note that before you can write either comparison or contrast, you should
select subjects that have something in common.

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 2.1 Writing a Compare & Contrast Essay
Example: A quick outline of how a paper comparing and then contrasting
corsets and footbinding might look.

1. Introduction

2. Corsets and footbinding are similar

o Both practiced in the far past, through the 19th century, and into the
20th.
o Both restrict women's movement and impair health.
o Both practiced by women of all classes, though most people imagine
tight-lacing and footbinding were limited to the upper class.
o To use Veblen's argument, both enhance man's value in the culture to
be responsible for women who were too delicate to work.
o Both practiced by women on women. Women laced corsets; women
bound feet.

3. Corsets and footbinding are different

o Chinese culture is radically different from that of western Europe and

America.
o Every Chinese woman so bound was deformed for life; only most
extreme cases of tight-lacing did permanent damage.

Corsets trivialized by everybody since the end of the dress reform

movement.

4. Conclusion

(Source: http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/comparcontrast.html)

English for Business Page 132

 2.2 Formats for Compare & Contrast Essays

2.2.1 Horizontal Pattern

This pattern works best for longer papers and those with more subtopics. It can
be thought of as a seesaw, swinging back and forth between its two subjects.
Paragraphing is set up according to the two or three points on which you will
examine your subjects for differences and similarities.

For example:

Thesis statement: Boston is a more exciting city than San Francisco.

1. Cultural opportunities
a. Boston
b. San Francisco

2. Recreational opportunities
a. Boston
b. San Francisco

3. Sense of History
a. Boston
b. San Francisco

4. Physical Beauty
a. Boston
b. San Francisco

2.2.2 Vertical Pattern

This pattern tends to work better for short papers. The writer discusses one unit
in its entirety before going on to the other. Paragraphing is set up according to
each subject (Boston and San Francisco, for instance).

Thesis statement: Boston is a more exciting city than San Francisco.

1. Boston

a. Cultural opportunities

b. Recreational opportunities

c. Sense of history

d. Physical beauty

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 2. San Francisco

a. Cultural opportunities

b. Recreational opportunities

c. Sense of history

d. Physical beauty

2.2.3 Block by Block Pattern

Abortion is an example of a very controversial issue. The two opposing

viewpoints surrounding abortion are like two sides of a coin. On one side, there
is the pro-choice activist and on the other is the pro-life activist. The argument is
a balanced one; for every point supporting abortion there is a counter-point
condemning abortion. This essay will delineate the controversy in one type of
comparison/contrast essay form: the "Argument versus Argument," or, "Block-
by-Block" format. In this style of writing, first you present all the arguments
surrounding one side of the issue, and then you present all the arguments
surrounding the other side of the issue. You are generally not expected to reach
a conclusion, but simply to present the opposing sides of the argument.

Abortion Issue: Compare and Contrast Block-by-Block Format

One of the most divisive issues in America is the

Introduction: controversy surrounding abortion. Currently, abortion is legal
(the thesis is in America, and many people believe that it should remain legal.
underlined) These people, pro-choice activists, believe that it is the women's
right to chose whether or not to give birth. However, there are
many groups who are lobbying Congress to pass laws that
would make abortion illegal. These people are called the pro-life
Explains the
activists.
argument

Abortion is a choice that should be decided by each individual,

argues the pro-choice activist. Abortion is not murder since the
fetus is not yet fully human, therefore, it is not in defiance against
God. Regardless of the reason for the abortion, it should be the
Explains
woman’s choice because it is her body. While adoption is an
pro-choice
option some women chose, many women do not want to suffer
the physical and emotional trauma of pregnancy and labor only
to give up a child. Therefore, laws should remain in effect to
protect a woman's right to chose.

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 Abortion is an abomination, argues the pro-life activist. It makes
no sense for a woman to murder a human being not even born.
Explains The bible says, "Thou shalt not kill," and it does not discriminate
pro-life between different stages of life. A fetus is the beginning of life.
Therefore, abortion is murder, and is in direct defiance of God's
will. Regardless of the mother's life situation (many women who
abort are poor, young, or drug users), the value of a human life
cannot be measured. Therefore, laws should be passed to
outlaw abortion. After all, there are plenty of couples who are
willing to adopt an unwanted child.
If we take away the woman’s right to chose, will we begin limiting
her other rights also? Or, if we keep abortion legal, are we
devaluing human life? There is no easy answer to these
Conclusion questions. Both sides present strong, logical arguments. Though
it is a very personal decision, the fate of abortion rights will have
to be left to the Supreme Court to decide.

2.2.4 Point by Point Pattern

This second example is also an essay about abortion. We have used the same
information and line of reasoning in this essay; however, this one will be
presented in the "Point-by-Point" style argument. The Point-by-Point style
argument presents both sides of the argument at the same time. First, you
would present one point on a specific topic, and then you would follow that up
with the opposing point on the same topic. Again, you are generally not
expected to draw any conclusions, simply to fairly present both sides of the
argument.

The Abortion Issue: Compare and Contrast Point-by-

Point Format

Introduction: One of the most divisive issues in America is the

(the thesis is controversy surrounding abortion. Currently, abortion is legal
underlined) in America, and many people believe that it should remain legal.
These people, pro-choice activists, believe that it is the women's
Explains the right to chose whether or not to give birth. However, there are
argument many groups who are lobbying Congress to pass laws that
would make abortion illegal. These people are called the pro-life
activists.

Point One: Supporters of both pro-life and pro-choice refer to religion as

support for their side of the argument. Pro-life supporters claim
Pro-life and that abortion is murder, and is therefore against God's will.

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 Pro-choice However, pro-choice defenders argue that abortion is not murder
since the fetus is not yet a fully formed human. Therefore,
abortion would not be an act of defiance against God.
Another main point of the argument is over the woman's
personal rights, versus the rights of the unborn child. Pro-choice
Point Two: activists maintain that regardless of the individual circumstances,
women should have the right to chose whether or not to abort.
Pro-life and The pregnancy and labor will affect only the woman's body;
Pro-choice therefore it should be the woman's decision. Pro-life supporters,
on the other hand, believe that the unborn child has the right to
life, and that abortion unlawfully takes away that right.
If we take away the woman’s right to chose, will we begin limiting
her other rights also? Or, if we keep abortion legal, are we
devaluing human life? There is no easy answer to these
Conclusion
questions. Both sides present strong, logical arguments.
Though it is a very personal decision, t he fate of abortion rights
will have to be left for the Supreme Court to decide.

(Source: http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/writing/comconabort.html)

References

• Ready to Write More – From Paragraph to Essay by Blanchard and Root

• The Elements of Basic Writing with Readings by Roth

Activity 2

 You are undecided whether to buy a motorbike or a car. Compare and contrast
these 2 types of vehicles.
 You have been given an opportunity to study in your own country or in a foreign
country. Which would you choose and why?

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 Session a) Revising and Editing
12 b) Presentation Skills
UNIT OBJECTIVES

By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:

• Understand how to revise and edit the writing piece
• Edit for accuracy and appropriateness of form
• Demonstrate suitable body language & voice projection for presentations.

A) Revising and Editing

1) Revising

To revise a piece of writing means to look at it again with the intention of making
changes that will improve it. Since writing is an on-going process, you would
probably revise during drafting as well as after it. Some activities included in revision
are:

• Moving parts of the composition to another location

• Removing sections of the composition completely
• Adding new ideas
• Changing words
• Changing sentence structures
• Shifting a tense or pronoun for consistency

Revising, in short, is what you do before you edit or proofread your piece of work.

1.1 Revising for Logic and Coherence

Every sentence and every idea in a paragraph must follow the one before it in an
orderly way. The word ‘logic’ is used to describe the progression of one thought
following another.

A well-written paragraph is coherent where all the thoughts in a paragraph stick

together without interruption. Any ideas that do not fit tightly into a paragraph should
be deleted.

1.2 Revising Content for Information

A fresh re-reading of a paragraph sometimes shows that a detail or explanation is

missing; therefore, the sense of the work is interrupted. It’s as if you know what you
mean, but you didn’t let the reader know – so the reader has to stop and think “I
need more information here.” You need to put yourself in the place of the intended
audience so that you can pick up the gaps when you revise.

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 1.3 Revising for Consistency

When some elements of your writing change or shift unexpectedly, the audience will
find reading awkward or confusing. Two common problems you can spot in revision
are:

• Shifts in person
• Shifts in tenses

To keep the person consistent in your writing means you carry through each
paragraph with the individual you mean to be writing about. A common
inconsistency is to shift from “I” to “we” or “you.” The remedy is to revise the
paragraph by eliminating the changed person.

In good writing the tense remains consistent throughout the paragraph. That is, if
you start writing about the past, you should keep verbs in the past tense. Although
this is a good rule to keep, there are exceptions. Occasionally, there is a reason for
changing tenses. If you are writing about different times and the wording gives
readers different senses of time, then you need to change the tenses.

For example: I planted a guava tree two years ago and now I am eating fresh
guavas from it.

1.4 Revising to eliminate Wordiness

Three kinds of wordiness often show up in writing:

1.4.1 Using more words than are needed to say something

Example 1: Everyone should start studying at this point in time.

Revised: Everyone should start studying now.

1.4.2 The ending of one sentence is repeated at the beginning of another

Example 2: In secondary school I played soccer and basketball. By playing

soccer and basketball, I learnt a lot about teamwork.

Revised: I learnt a lot about teamwork by playing soccer and basketball in

secondary school.

1.4.3 Repeating the obvious

Example 3: The colour of my new shirt is blue.

Revised: My new shirt is blue.

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 1.5 Revising for Sentence Variety

When sentences have the same structure and the writing is repetitious, they
become boring to read.

Example 4: I rented a video. The video was ‘Return of the Killer Tomatoes.’ It
was meant to be serious. It was science fiction. It was very funny.

Revised: I rented the ‘Return of the Killer Tomatoes’ video that was meant to
be serious science fiction, but it turned out to be very funny.

2) Editing or Proofreading

Editing or proofreading means looking for and correcting mistakes in grammar,

spelling and punctuation. To revise a piece of writing means to look at it again with
the intention of making changes that will improve it. Since writing is an on-going
process, you would probably revise during drafting as well as after it.

Spelling errors – the Consequences

 Spelling errors cause you to lose valuable marks. Written tests/examinations do

not have the autocorrect function.

 They result in unprofessional writing. Imagine the impact on your career or

company image.

 Poor spelling communicates sloppy editing - it reflects your attitude.

Punctuations

 Use of commas and full stops

 Use of question marks
 Use of exclamation marks
 Use of semi-colons & colons
 Capitalization of proper nouns and the beginning of each new sentence
 Inappropriate use of ellipsis ( … )

English for Business Page 139

 Grammar Checklist

 Appropriate connective devices

 Relevant conjunctions
 Accurate prepositions – with nouns, verbs & adjectives
 Phrasal verbs
 Tenses
 Subject and verb must agree
 Consistent subject/object
 Pronouns – subject, object, possessive
 Adjectives, adjectival phrases/clauses
 Adverbs, adverbial phrases/clauses
 Nouns – common, countable, uncountable
 Quantifiers
 Articles – a, an, the & zero

References

• Ready to Write More – From Paragraph to Essay by Blanchard and Root

• The Elements of Basic Writing with Readings by Roth
• Basic College Writing – A Text with Readings by Martinez

B) Presentation Skills – Your Body Language and Voice

1) Body Language
o Posture
o Stand tall, i.e. don’t slouch, or lean at an angle.
o Walk purposefully with confident strides.

o Eye Contact

• Maintain eye contact with all members of the audience.

• Sweep eyes slowly across the room to do this.
• Identify friendly faces in the audience if nervous

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 o Gestures

o Use your hands to stress points.

o Sync your movements with your verbal commentary.
o Ensure your gestures can be seen.
o Not repetitive
o Not mechanical

o Smile
It is infectious.

Remember to

S_______________

E_______________

E_______________

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 2) Voice – take personal notes

o Volume

_______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

o Pitch

_______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

o Pace

_______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

o Pauses

_______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

o Tone

_______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

English for Business Page 142