CHAPTER 8

PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS
AMONG THE ELEMENTS
Problem Categories
Biological: 8.134, 8.146, 8.150.
Conceptual: 8.48, 8.55, 8.56, 8.69, 8.91, 8.92, 8.103, 8.111, 8.114, 8.119, 8.123, 8.124, 8.129, 8.130, 8.131, 8.134,
8.137, 8.142.
Descriptive: 8.19, 8.21, 8.22, 8.37, 8.38, 8.39, 8.40, 8.41, 8.42, 8.43, 8.44, 8.45, 8.46, 8.47, 8.51, 8.52, 8.53, 8.54, 8.61,
8.62, 8.63, 8.64, 8.67, 8.68, 8.69, 8.70, 8.71, 8.72, 8.73, 8.74, 8.75, 8.76, 8.77, 8.78, 8.79, 8.80, 8.81, 8.83, 8.84, 8.85,
8.86, 8.89, 8.90, 8.93, 8.94, 8.95, 8.96, 8.97, 8.99, 8.106, 8.108, 8.113, 8.115, 8.116, 8.117, 8.118, 8.120, 8.121, 8.123,
8.125, 8.128, 8.132, 8.133, 8.134, 8.135, 8.136, 8.138, 8.139, 8.141, 8.143, 8.146, 8.147, 8.151, 8.152, 8.153.

8.19 Hydrogen forms the H+ ion (resembles the alkali metals) and the H- ion (resembles the halogens).

8.20 Strategy: (a) We refer to the building-up principle discussed in Section 7.9 of the text. We start writing the
electron configuration with principal quantum number n = 1 and continue upward in energy until all
electrons are accounted for. (b) What are the electron configuration characteristics of representative elements,
transition elements, and noble gases? (c) Examine the pairing scheme of the electrons in the outermost shell.
What determines whether an element is diamagnetic or paramagnetic?

Solution:

(a) We know that for n = 1, we have a 1s orbital (2 electrons). For n = 2, we have a 2s orbital (2 electrons)
and three 2p orbitals (6 electrons). For n = 3, we have a 3s orbital (2 electrons). The number of
electrons left to place is 17 - 12 = 5. These five electrons are placed in the 3p orbitals. The electron
2 2 6 2 5 2 5
configuration is 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p or [Ne]3s 3p .

(b) Because the 3p subshell is not completely filled, this is a representative element. Without consulting a
periodic table, you might know that the halogen family has seven valence electrons. You could then
further classify this element as a halogen. In addition, all halogens are nonmetals.

(c) If you were to write an orbital diagram for this electron configuration, you would see that there is one
unpaired electron in the p subshell. Remember, the three 3p orbitals can hold a total of six electrons.
Therefore, the atoms of this element are paramagnetic.

Check: For (b), note that a transition metal possesses an incompletely filled d subshell, and a noble gas has a
completely filled outer-shell. For (c), recall that if the atoms of an element contain an odd number of
electrons, the element must be paramagnetic.

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318 CHAPTER 8: PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE ELEMENTS

8.21 (a) and (d); (b) and (f); (c) and (e).

8.22 Elements that have the same number of valence electrons will have similarities in chemical behavior.
Looking at the periodic table, elements with the same number of valence electrons are in the same group.
Therefore, the pairs that would represent similar chemical properties of their atoms are:

(a) and (d) (b) and (e) (c) and (f).

2 2 5 2 6
8.23 (a) 1s 2s 2p (halogen) (c) [Ar]4s 3d (transition metal)
2 2 10 3
(b) [Ar]4s (alkaline earth metal) (d) [Ar]4s 3d 4p (Group 15)

8.24 (a) Group 1 (b) Group 15 (c) Group 18 (d) Group 10

Identify the elements.

8.25 There are no electrons in the 4s subshell because transition metals lose electrons from the ns valence subshell
before they are lost from the (n - 1)d subshell. For the neutral atom there are only six valence electrons. The
element can be identified as Cr (chromium) simply by counting six across starting with potassium (K,
atomic number 19).

What is the electron configuration of neutral chromium?

8.26 You should realize that the metal ion in question is a transition metal ion because it has five electrons in the
3d subshell. Remember that in a transition metal ion, the (n-1)d orbitals are more stable than the ns orbital.
Hence, when a cation is formed from an atom of a transition metal, electrons are always removed first from
the ns orbital and then from the (n-1)d orbitals if necessary. Since the metal ion has a +3 charge, three
electrons have been removed. Since the 4s subshell is less stable than the 3d, two electrons would have been
lost from the 4s and one electron from the 3d. Therefore, the electron configuration of the neutral atom is
2 6
[Ar]4s 3d . This is the electron configuration of iron. Thus, the metal is iron.

8.27 Determine the number of electrons, and then “fill in” the electrons as you learned (Figure 7.23 and
Table 7.3 of the text).
2 2 10 6
(a) 1s (g) [Ar]4s 3d 4p (m) [Xe]
2 2 10 6 2 14 10
(b) 1s (h) [Ar]4s 3d 4p (n) [Xe]6s 4f 5d
2 2 6 10
(c) 1s 2s 2p (i) [Kr] (o) [Kr]5d
2 2 6 2 14 10
(d) 1s 2s 2p (j) [Kr] (p) [Xe]6s 4f 5d
2 6 2 10 14 10
(e) [Ne]3s 3p (k) [Kr]5s 4d (q) [Xe]4f 5d
2 10 6
(f) [Ne] (l) [Kr]5s 4d 5p

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 CHAPTER 8: PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE ELEMENTS 319

8.28 Strategy: In the formation of a cation from the neutral atom of a representative element, one or more
electrons are removed from the highest occupied n shell. In the formation of an anion from the neutral atom
of a representative element, one or more electrons are added to the highest partially filled n shell.
Representative elements typically gain or lose electrons to achieve a stable noble gas electron configuration.
When a cation is formed from an atom of a transition metal, electrons are always removed first from the ns
orbital and then from the (n-1)d orbitals if necessary.

Solution:

(a) [Ne] (e) Same as (c)

6 2 4
(b) same as (a). Do you see why? (f) [Ar]3d . Why isn’t it [Ar]4s 3d ?
9 2 7
(c) [Ar] (g) [Ar]3d . Why not [Ar]4s 3d ?
10 2 8
(d) Same as (c). Do you see why? (h) [Ar]3d . Why not [Ar]4s 3d ?

8.29 This exercise simply depends on determining the total number of electrons and using Figure 7.23 and Table
7.3 of the text.
6 9
(a) [Ar] (f) [Ar]3d (k) [Ar]3d
5 10
(b) [Ar] (g) [Ar]3d (l) [Kr]4d
7 14 10
(c) [Ar] (h) [Ar]3d (m) [Xe]4f 5d
3 8 14 8
(d) [Ar]3d (i) [Ar]3d (n) [Xe]4f 5d
5 10 14 8
(e) [Ar]3d (j) [Ar]3d (o) [Xe]4f 5d

3+
Sc +
3 3+ 3+
8.30 (a) Cr (b) (c) Rh (d) Ir

8.31 Two species are isoelectronic if they have the same number of electrons. Can two neutral atoms of different
elements be isoelectronic?

C and B- are isoelectronic.

2+
and Fe + are isoelectronic.
3
(a) (b) Mn

Ar and Cl- are isoelectronic. Zn and Ge + are isoelectronic.

2
(c) (d)

With which neutral atom are the positive ions in (b) isoelectronic?

8.32 Isoelectronic means that the species have the same number of electrons and the same electron configuration.

Be + and He (2 e-) F- and N - (10 e-) Fe + and Co

3+
(24 e-)
2-
and Ar (18 e-)
2 3 2
S

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320 CHAPTER 8: PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE ELEMENTS

8.37 (a) Cs is larger. It is below Na in Group 1. (d) Br is larger. It is below F in Group 17.

(b) Ba is larger. It is below Be in Group 2. (e) Xe is larger. It is below Ne in Group 18.

(c) Sb is larger. It is below N in Group 15.

8.38 Strategy: What are the trends in atomic radii in a periodic group and in a particular period? Which of the
above elements are in the same group and which are in the same period?

Solution: Recall that the general periodic trends in atomic size are:

(1) Moving from left to right across a row (period) of the periodic table, the atomic radius decreases due to
an increase in effective nuclear charge.

(2) Moving down a column (group) of the periodic table, the atomic radius increases since the orbital size
increases with increasing principal quantum number.

The atoms that we are considering are all in the same period of the periodic table. Hence, the atom furthest to
the left in the row will have the largest atomic radius, and the atom furthest to the right in the row will have
the smallest atomic radius. Arranged in order of decreasing atomic radius, we have:

Na > Mg > Al > P > Cl

Check: See Figure 8.5 of the text to confirm that the above is the correct order of decreasing atomic radius.

8.39 Pb, as can be seen in Figure 8.5 of the text.

8.40 Fluorine is the smallest atom in Group 17. Atomic radius increases moving down a group since the orbital
size increases with increasing principal quantum number, n.

2 1
8.41 The electron configuration of lithium is 1s 2s . The two 1s electrons shield the 2s electron effectively from
the nucleus. Consequently, the lithium atom is considerably larger than the hydrogen atom.

8.42 The atomic radius is largely determined by how strongly the outer-shell electrons are held by the nucleus. The
larger the effective nuclear charge, the more strongly the electrons are held and the smaller the atomic radius.
For the second period, the atomic radius of Li is largest because the 2s electron is well shielded by the filled
1s shell. The effective nuclear charge that the outermost electrons feel increases across the period as a result
of incomplete shielding by electrons in the same shell. Consequently, the orbital containing the electrons is
compressed and the atomic radius decreases.

8.43 (a) Cl is smaller than Cl-. An atom gets bigger when more electrons are added.

(b) Na+ is smaller than Na. An atom gets smaller when electrons are removed.

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 CHAPTER 8: PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE ELEMENTS 321

2-
is smaller than S -. Both elements belong to the same group, and ionic radius increases going down
2
(c) O
a group.

Al + is smaller than Mg +. The two ions are isoelectronic (What does that mean? See Section 8.2 of the
3 2
(d)
text) and in such cases the radius gets smaller as the charge becomes more positive.

Au + is smaller than Au+ for the same reason as part (b).

3
(e)

In each of the above cases from which atom would it be harder to remove an electron?

8.44 Strategy: In comparing ionic radii, it is useful to classify the ions into three categories: (1) isoelectronic
ions, (2) ions that carry the same charges and are generated from atoms of the same periodic group, and
(3) ions that carry different charges but are generated from the same atom. In case (1), ions carrying a greater
negative charge are always larger; in case (2), ions from atoms having a greater atomic number are always
larger; in case (3), ions that have a smaller positive charge are always larger.

Solution: The ions listed are all isoelectronic. They each have ten electrons. The ion with the fewest
protons will have the largest ionic radius, and the ion with the most protons will have the smallest ionic
radius. The effective nuclear charge increases with increasing number of protons. The electrons are attracted
more strongly by the nucleus, decreasing the ionic radius. N - has only 7 protons resulting in the smallest
3

3- 2+
attraction exerted by the nucleus on the 10 electrons. N is the largest ion of the group. Mg has 12 protons

resulting in the largest attraction exerted by the nucleus on the 10 electrons. Mg + is the smallest ion of the
2

group. The order of increasing atomic radius is:

Mg + < Na+ < F- < O - < N -

2 2 3

The Cu+ ion is larger than Cu + because it has one more electron.
2
8.45

8.46 Both selenium and tellurium are Group 16 elements. Since atomic radius increases going down a column in

the periodic table, it follows that Te - must be larger than Se -.

2 2

8.47 Bromine is liquid; all the others are solids.

8.48 H- is larger. Both H- and He have 2 electrons (they are isoelectronic), but they have different numbers of

protons in the nucleus. Since H- has only 1 proton, the two electrons will experience less nuclear charge, and

H- will be larger than He.

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322 CHAPTER 8: PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE ELEMENTS

8.51 Ionization energy increases across a row of the periodic table and decreases down a column or group. The
correct order of increasing ionization energy is:

Cs < Na < Al < S < Cl

8.52 The general periodic trend for first ionization energy is that it increases across a period (row) of the periodic
table and it decreases down a group (column). Of the choices, K will have the smallest ionization energy. Ca,
just to the right of K, will have a higher first ionization energy. Moving to the right across the periodic table,
the ionization energies will continue to increase as we move to P. Continuing across to Cl and moving up the
halogen group, F will have a higher ionization energy than P. Finally, Ne is to the right of F in period two,
thus it will have a higher ionization energy. The correct order of increasing first ionization energy is:

K < Ca < P < F < Ne

You can check the above answer by looking up the first ionization energies for these elements in Table 8.2 of
the text.

8.53 Apart from the small irregularities, the ionization energies of elements in a period increase with increasing
atomic number. We can explain this trend by referring to the increase in effective nuclear charge from left to
right. A larger effective nuclear charge means a more tightly held outer electron, and hence a higher first
ionization energy. Thus, in the third period, sodium has the lowest and neon has the highest first ionization
energy.

8.54 The Group 13 elements (such as Al) all have a single electron in the outermost p subshell, which is well
2
shielded from the nuclear charge by the inner electrons and the ns electrons. Therefore, less energy is needed
to remove a single p electron than to remove a paired s electron from the same principal energy level (such as
for Mg).

8.55 To form the +2 ion of calcium, it is only necessary to remove two valence electrons. For potassium, however,
the second electron must come from the atom’s noble gas core which accounts for the much higher second
ionization energy. Would you expect a similar effect if you tried to form the +3 ion of calcium?

8.56 Strategy: Removal of the outermost electron requires less energy if it is shielded by a filled inner shell.

Solution: The lone electron in the 3s orbital will be much easier to remove. This lone electron is shielded
from the nuclear charge by the filled inner shell. Therefore, the ionization energy of 496 kJ/mol is paired with
2 2 6 1
the electron configuration 1s 2s 2p 3s .

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 CHAPTER 8: PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE ELEMENTS 323

2 2 6
A noble gas electron configuration, such as 1s 2s 2p , is a very stable configuration, making it extremely
difficult to remove an electron. The 2p electron is not as effectively shielded by electrons in the same energy
level. The high ionization energy of 2080 kJ/mol would be associated with the element having this noble gas
electron configuration.

2 2 6 1
Check: Compare this answer to the data in Table 8.2. The electron configuration of 1s 2s 2p 3s
2 2 6
corresponds to a Na atom, and the electron configuration of 1s 2s 2p corresponds to a Ne atom.

8.57 The ionization energy is the difference between the n = ¥ state (final) and the n = 1 state (initial).

æ1ö æ1ö
2 2

DE = E¥ - E1 = (-2.18´10 -18
J)(2) çç ÷÷÷ - (-2.18´10-18 J)(2)2 çç ÷÷
2
çè ¥ ø çè1ø÷

æ1ö
2

DE = 0 + (2.18´10-18 J)(2)2 çç ÷÷ = 8.72 ´10-18 J

çè1÷ø

1 kJ 6.022 ´1023
In units of kJ/mol: (8.72 ´10-18 J)´ ´ = 5.25´10 3 kJ /mol
1000 J 1 mol

Should this be larger than the first ionization energy of helium (see Table 8.2 of the text)?

8.58 The atomic number of mercury is 80. We carry an extra significant figure throughout this calculation to avoid
rounding errors.

æ1 1 ö
DE = (2.18´10-18 J)(802 ) çç 2 - 2 ÷÷÷ = 1.395´10-14 J/ion
èç1 ¥ ø

1.395´10-14 J 6.022 ´10 23 ions 1 kJ

DE = ´ ´ = 8.40´10 6 kJ /mol
1 ion 1 mol 1000 J

8.61 See Table 8.3 of the text.

(a) K < Na < Li (b) I < Br < F < Cl (c) Ca < Ba < P < Si < O

8.62 Strategy: What are the trends in electron affinity in a periodic group and in a particular period? Which of
the above elements are in the same group and which are in the same period?

Solution: One of the general periodic trends for electron affinity is that the tendency to accept electrons
increases (that is, electron affinity values become more positive) as we move from left to right across a
period. However, this trend does not include the noble gases. We know that noble gases are extremely stable,
and they do not want to gain or lose electrons. Therefore, helium, He, would have the lowest electron
affinity.

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324 CHAPTER 8: PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE ELEMENTS

Based on the periodic trend discussed above, Cl would be expected to have the highest electron affinity.
Addition of an electron to Cl forms Cl-, which has a stable noble gas electron configuration.

8.63 Based on electron affinity values, we would not expect the alkali metals to form anions. A few years ago
most chemists would have answered this question with a loud “No”! In the early seventies a chemist named
J.L. Dye at Michigan State University discovered that under very special circumstances alkali metals could be
coaxed into accepting an electron to form negative ions! These ions are called alkalide ions.

1
8.64 Alkali metals have a valence electron configuration of ns so they can accept another electron in the ns
2
orbital. On the other hand, alkaline earth metals have a valence electron configuration of ns . Alkaline earth
metals have little tendency to accept another electron, as it would have to go into a higher energy p orbital.

8.67 Basically, we look for the process that will result in forming a cation of the metal that will be isoelectronic
1
with the noble gas preceding the metal in the periodic table. Since all alkali metals have the ns outer electron

configuration, we predict that they will form unipositive ions: M+. Similarly, the alkaline earth metals, which

have the ns outer electron configuration, will form M + ions.

2 2

8.68 Since ionization energies decrease going down a column in the periodic table, francium should have the
lowest first ionization energy of all the alkali metals. As a result, Fr should be the most reactive of all the
Group 1 elements toward water and oxygen. The reaction with oxygen would probably be similar to that of
K, Rb, or Cs.

What would you expect the formula of the oxide to be? The chloride?

8.69 Let’s consider the second row of the periodic table. As we move from Li to Ne, the number of core electrons
2
(1s ) remain constant while the nuclear charge increases. The electrons that are added across the row are
valence electrons which do not shield each other well. Therefore, moving across a period of the table, the
valence electrons experience a greater effective nuclear charge. Of the elements in a given row, the valence
electrons of the noble gas would experience the greatest effective nuclear charge and hence, noble gases tend
not to give up electrons.

When adding an electron to a noble gas, the electron would be added to a larger orbital in the next higher
energy level (n). This electron would be effectively shielded by the inner, core electrons and hence the
electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and this added electron would be low. Therefore, noble gases tend
to not accept additional electrons.

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 CHAPTER 8: PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE ELEMENTS 325

8.70 The Group 11 elements are much less reactive than the Group 1 elements. The Group 11 elements are more
stable because they have much higher ionization energies resulting from incomplete shielding of the nuclear
1
charge by the inner d electrons. The ns electron of a Group 1 element is shielded from the nucleus more
effectively by the completely filled noble gas core. Consequently, the outer s electrons of Group 11 elements
are more strongly attracted by the nucleus.

8.71 Across a period, oxides change from basic to amphoteric to acidic. Going down a group, the oxides become
more basic.

8.72 (a) Lithium oxide is a basic oxide. It reacts with water to form the metal hydroxide:

Li2O(s) + H2O(l) ¾¾
 2LiOH(aq)

(b) Calcium oxide is a basic oxide. It reacts with water to form the metal hydroxide:

CaO(s) + H2O(l) ¾¾
 Ca(OH)2(aq)

(c) Sulfur trioxide is an acidic oxide. It reacts with water to form sulfuric acid:

SO3(g) + H2O(l) ¾¾
 H2SO4(aq)

8.73 LiH (lithium hydride): ionic compound; BeH2 (beryllium hydride): covalent compound; B2H6 (diborane, you
aren’t expected to know that name): molecular compound; CH4 (methane, do you know that one?): molecular
compound; NH3 (ammonia, you should know that one): molecular compound; H2O (water, if you didn’t know
that one, you should be ashamed): molecular compound; HF (hydrogen fluoride): molecular compound. LiH
and BeH2 are solids, B2H6, CH4, NH3, and HF are gases, and H2O is a liquid.

8.74 As we move down a column, the metallic character of the elements increases. Since magnesium and barium
are both Group 2 elements, we expect barium to be more metallic than magnesium and BaO to be more basic
than MgO.

8.75 (a) Metallic character decreases moving left to right across a period and increases moving down a column
(Group).

(b) Atomic size decreases moving left to right across a period and increases moving down a column
(Group).

(c) Ionization energy increases (with some exceptions) moving left to right across a period and decreases
moving down a column.

(d) Acidity of oxides increases moving left to right across a period and decreases moving down a column.

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326 CHAPTER 8: PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE ELEMENTS

8.76 (a) bromine (b) nitrogen (c) rubidium (d) magnesium

S- + e-  S - Ti +  Ti + + e-
2 2 3
8.77 (a) (b)
2+
+ e-  Mg+
2-
(c) Mg (d) O  O- + e-

P -, S -, Cl-, K , Ca , Sc , Ti , V , Cr , Mn
3 2 + 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+
8.78

8.79 Ionic compounds are usually combinations of a metal and a nonmetal. Molecular compounds are usually
nonmetal-nonmetal combinations.

(a) Na2O (ionic); MgO (ionic); Al2O3 (ionic); SiO2 (molecular);

P4O6 and P4O10 (both molecular); SO2 or SO3 (molecular);
Cl2O and several others (all molecular).

(b) NaCl (ionic); MgCl2 (ionic); AlCl3 (ionic); SiCl4 (molecular);

PCl3 and PCl5 (both molecular); SCl2 (molecular).

8.80 According to the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (1966–67 edition), potassium metal has a melting point
of 63.6C, bromine is a reddish brown liquid with a melting point of -7.2C, and potassium bromide (KBr)
is a colorless solid with a melting point of 730C. M is potassium (K) and X is bromine (Br).

8.81 (a) matches bromine (Br2), (b) matches hydrogen (H2), (c) matches calcium (Ca),
(d) matches gold (Au), (e) matches argon (Ar)

O+ and N
2-
Ne and N -
3+
Cs+ and Xe
3
8.82 Ar and S Zn and As

8.83 Only (b) is listed in order of decreasing radius. Answer (a) is listed in increasing size because the radius
increases down a group. Answer (c) is listed in increasing size because the number of electrons is increasing.

8.84 (a) and (d)

8.85 The equation is: CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq)  CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

The milky white color is due to calcium carbonate. Calcium hydroxide is a base and carbon dioxide is an
acidic oxide. The products are a salt and water.

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 CHAPTER 8: PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE ELEMENTS 327

8.86 Fluorine is a yellow-green gas that attacks glass; chlorine is a pale yellow gas; bromine is a fuming red liquid;
and iodine is a dark, metallic-looking solid.

8.87 (a) This reaction represents the first ionization of sodium (Na) and the electron affinity of chlorine (Cl).

Na(g)  Na+(g) + e- DH = 495.9 kJ/mol

Cl(g) + e-  Cl-(g) DH = -349 kJ/mol

Na(g) + Cl(g)  Na+(g) + Cl-(g) DH = 147 kJ/mol

(b) This reaction represents the first and second ionizations of calcium (Ca) and the electron affinity of
bromine (Br).

Ca(g)  Ca+(g) + e- DH = 589.5 kJ/mol

Ca (g)  Ca2+(g) + e-
+
DH = 1145 kJ/mol

2Br(g) + 2e-  2Br-(g) DH = 2(-325 kJ/mol)

Ca(g) + 2Br(g)  Ca2+(g) + 2Br-(g) DH = 1085 kJ/mol

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