Book Intervensions

HEALTH TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT
VOLUME 20 ISSUE 69 SEPTEMBER 2016

ISSN 1366-5278
The effectiveness, acceptability and cost-effectiveness

of psychosocial interventions for maltreated children
and adolescents: an evidence synthesis
Geraldine Macdonald, Nuala Livingstone, Jennifer Hanratty,

Claire McCartan, Richard Cotmore, Maria Cary, Danya Glaser,
Sarah Byford, Nicky J Welton, Tania Bosqui, Lucy Bowes,
Suzanne Audrey, Gill Mezey, Helen L Fisher,
Wendy Riches and Rachel Churchill
DOI 10.3310/hta20690
The effectiveness, acceptability and
cost-effectiveness of psychosocial
interventions for maltreated children
Geraldine Macdonald,1,2* Nuala Livingstone,1

Jennifer Hanratty,1 Claire McCartan,1
Richard Cotmore,3 Maria Cary,4 Danya Glaser,5
Sarah Byford,4 Nicky J Welton,6 Tania Bosqui,1
Lucy Bowes,7 Suzanne Audrey,6 Gill Mezey,8
Helen L Fisher,4 Wendy Riches9 and Rachel Churchill6
1Instituteof Child Care Research, School of Sociology, Social Policy and Social
Work, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK
2School for Policy Studies, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
3Evaluation Department, National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Children (NSPCC), London, UK

4King’s Health Economics, King’s College London, London, UK
5University College London and Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children,
London, UK
6School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
7Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
8Population Health Sciences and Education, St George’s, University of London,
London, UK
9Riches and Ullman Limited Liability Partnership, London, UK
*Corresponding author
Declared competing interests of authors: none
Published September 2016

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
This report should be referenced as follows:
Macdonald G, Livingstone N, Hanratty J, McCartan C, Cotmore R, Cary M, et al. The effectiveness,

acceptability and cost-effectiveness of psychosocial interventions for maltreated children
and adolescents: an evidence synthesis. Health Technol Assess 2016;20(69).
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DOI: 10.3310/hta20690 HEALTH TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT 2016 VOL. 20 NO. 69
Abstract
The effectiveness, acceptability and cost-effectiveness of

psychosocial interventions for maltreated children
Geraldine Macdonald,1,2* Nuala Livingstone,1 Jennifer Hanratty,1

Claire McCartan,1 Richard Cotmore,3 Maria Cary,4 Danya Glaser,5
Sarah Byford,4 Nicky J Welton,6 Tania Bosqui,1 Lucy Bowes,7
Suzanne Audrey,6 Gill Mezey,8 Helen L Fisher,4 Wendy Riches9
and Rachel Churchill6
1Instituteof Child Care Research, School of Sociology, Social Policy and Social Work,
Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK
2School for Policy Studies, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
3Evaluation Department, National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC),
London, UK
4King’s Health Economics, King’s College London, London, UK
5University College London and Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children, London, UK
6School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
7Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
8Population Health Sciences and Education, St George’s, University of London, London, UK
9Riches and Ullman Limited Liability Partnership, London, UK
*Corresponding author [email protected]
Background: Child maltreatment is a substantial social problem that affects large numbers of children and
young people in the UK, resulting in a range of significant short- and long-term psychosocial problems.
Objectives: To synthesise evidence of the effectiveness, cost-effectiveness and acceptability of
interventions addressing the adverse consequences of child maltreatment.
Study design: For effectiveness, we included any controlled study. Other study designs were considered
for economic decision modelling. For acceptability, we included any study that asked participants for
their views.
Participants: Children and young people up to 24 years 11 months, who had experienced maltreatment
before the age of 17 years 11 months.
Interventions: Any psychosocial intervention provided in any setting aiming to address the consequences
of maltreatment.
Main outcome measures: Psychological distress [particularly post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
depression and anxiety, and self-harm], behaviour, social functioning, quality of life and acceptability.
Methods: Young Persons and Professional Advisory Groups guided the project, which was conducted in
accordance with Cochrane Collaboration and NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination guidance.
Departures from the published protocol were recorded and explained. Meta-analyses and cost-
effectiveness analyses of available data were undertaken where possible.
© Queen’s Printer and Controller of HMSO 2016. This work was produced by Macdonald et al. under the terms of a commissioning contract issued by the Secretary of State for
Health. This issue may be freely reproduced for the purposes of private research and study and extracts (or indeed, the full report) may be included in professional journals
provided that suitable acknowledgement is made and the reproduction is not associated with any form of advertising. Applications for commercial reproduction should be
vii
addressed to: NIHR Journals Library, National Institute for Health Research, Evaluation, Trials and Studies Coordinating Centre, Alpha House, University of Southampton Science
Park, Southampton SO16 7NS, UK.
ABSTRACT
Results: We identified 198 effectiveness studies (including 62 randomised trials); six economic evaluations
(five using trial data and one decision-analytic model); and 73 studies investigating treatment acceptability.
Pooled data on cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT) for sexual abuse suggested post-treatment reductions
in PTSD [standardised mean difference (SMD) –0.44 (95% CI –4.43 to –1.53)], depression [mean difference
–2.83 (95% CI –4.53 to –1.13)] and anxiety [SMD –0.23 (95% CI –0.03 to –0.42)]. No differences were
observed for post-treatment sexualised behaviour, externalising behaviour, behaviour management skills of
parents, or parental support to the child. Findings from attachment-focused interventions suggested
improvements in secure attachment [odds ratio 0.14 (95% CI 0.03 to 0.70)] and reductions in disorganised
behaviour [SMD 0.23 (95% CI 0.13 to 0.42)], but no differences in avoidant attachment or externalising
behaviour. Few studies addressed the role of caregivers, or the impact of the therapist–child relationship.
Economic evaluations suffered methodological limitations and provided conflicting results. As a result,
decision-analytic modelling was not possible, but cost-effectiveness analysis using effectiveness data from
meta-analyses was undertaken for the most promising intervention: CBT for sexual abuse. Analyses of the
cost-effectiveness of CBT were limited by the lack of cost data beyond the cost of CBT itself.
Conclusions: It is not possible to draw firm conclusions about which interventions are effective for
children with different maltreatment profiles, which are of no benefit or are harmful, and which factors
encourage people to seek therapy, accept the offer of therapy and actively engage with therapy. Little is
known about the cost-effectiveness of alternative interventions.
Limitations: Studies were largely conducted outside the UK. The heterogeneity of outcomes and
measures seriously impacted on the ability to conduct meta-analyses.
Future work: Studies are needed that assess the effectiveness of interventions within a UK context, which
address the wider effects of maltreatment, as well as specific clinical outcomes.
Study registration: This study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42013003889.
Funding: The National Institute for Health Research Health Technology Assessment programme.
viii
Contents
List of tables xvii
List of figures xix
List of boxes xxi
List of abbreviations xxiii
Plain English summary xxvii
Scientific summary xxix
Chapter 1 Background, aims and objectives 1

Categories of maltreatment 1
Prevalence, aetiology, contributory factors 2
Consequences of maltreatment 2
Economic consequences of maltreatment 3
Psychosocial interventions 3
Timing of, and pathways to, treatment 4
Treatment acceptability and engagement 4
Importance of this evidence synthesis 5
Research aims and objectives 5
Chapter 2 Review methods 7

Focus of the review 7
Project oversight 7
Professional Advisory Group 7
Young Persons’ Advisory Groups 8
Early planning with advisory groups 8
Final Professional Advisory Group meeting 9
Final Young Persons’ Advisory Group meeting 9
Protocol 10
Inclusion and exclusion criteria 10
Types of study 10
Types of populations/patients 11
Types of interventions 12
Types of comparisons 12
Types of outcomes 12
Search methods 13
Search term generation 13
Electronic searches 13
Grey literature and other resource searches 13
Reference lists 13
Targeted author searches 14
Data collection and analysis 14
Screening of citations and study selection 14
Data extraction and management 14
Assessment of risk of bias/study quality 15
ix
CONTENTS
Data synthesis: effectiveness studies 16

Data synthesis: acceptability studies 17
Data synthesis: economic evidence 17
Changes from the original protocol 18
Overview of the evidence base 19
Chapter 3 Description of studies 21

Effectiveness studies 21
Included studies 21
Summary of study characteristics 22
Outcomes 96
Excluded studies 98
Economic studies 99
Included studies 99
Summary of study characteristics 99
Excluded economic studies 102
Acceptability studies 102
Description of included acceptability studies 102
Chapter 4 Results 105

Cognitive–behavioural therapy 105
Description of studies 105
Outcomes and measures used in studies of cognitive–behavioural therapy for sexually
abused children 110
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of cognitive–behavioural therapy for sexually
abused children 111
Results: cognitive–behavioural therapy for sexually abused children 112
Effectiveness of cognitive–behavioural therapy for children who have been
sexually abused 122
Economic evidence 123
Cognitive–behavioural therapy: children who have been physically abused 123
Outcomes and measures used in studies of cognitive–behavioural therapy for
physically abused children 125
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of cognitive–behavioural therapy for
physically abused children 126
Results: cognitive–behavioural therapy for physically abused children 126
The effectiveness of cognitive–behavioural therapy for children who have been
physically abused 127
Cognitive–behavioural therapy: children who have experienced different types
of maltreatment 129
Outcomes and measures used in studies of cognitive–behavioural therapy for children
who have experienced different types of maltreatment 132
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of cognitive–behavioural therapy for children
who have experienced different types of maltreatment 134
Results: cognitive–behavioural therapy for children who have experienced different
types of maltreatment 136
Effectiveness of cognitive–behavioural therapy for children who have experienced
different types of maltreatment 137
x
Economic analysis: cognitive–behavioural therapy 139

Results 139
Relationship-based interventions 145
Outcomes and measures used in studies of relationship-based interventions 150
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of relationship-based interventions 151
Risk of bias: controlled observational studies of relationship-based interventions 152
Results: relationship-based interventions 152
Effectiveness of relationship-based interventions for maltreated children 156
Systemic interventions 158
Outcomes and outcome measures: systemic interventions 161
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of systemic interventions 162
Risk of bias: quasi-experimental and controlled observational studies of
systemic interventions 163
Effectiveness of systemic interventions for maltreated children 166
Psychoeducation 167
Outcomes: studies of psychoeducation 171
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of psychoeducation 172
Quality assessment of quasi-experimental and controlled observational studies
of psychoeducation 173
Results: psychoeducation 174
Effectiveness of psychoeducational interventions for maltreated children 177
Group work with children 178
Outcomes: group work with children 180
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of group work for children 180
Quality assessment of quasi-experimental and controlled observational studies of
group work for children 181
Results: group work for children 181
Effectiveness of group work interventions for maltreated children 182
Psychotherapy/counselling 182
Outcomes: psychotherapy/counselling 185
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of psychotherapy/counselling 186
Risk of bias: controlled observational studies of psychotherapy/counselling 187
Results: psychotherapy/counselling 187
Effectiveness of psychotherapy/counselling for maltreated children 188
Peer mentoring 189
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of peer-mentoring interventions 190
Results: peer-mentoring interventions 191
Effectiveness of peer mentoring for maltreated children 192
Intensive service models 192
Outcomes: treatment foster care 194
xi
CONTENTS
Risk of bias: randomised trials of Treatment Foster Care models 196

Quality assessment of controlled observational studies of intensive service models 197
Results: treatment foster care 197
Therapeutic residential and day care services 199
Outcomes 200
Risk of bias: randomised trial 201
Quality assessment of controlled observational studies 201
Results: therapeutic day care 201
Co-ordinated care 202
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trial of co-ordinated care 203
Results: co-ordinated care 203
The effectiveness of intensive service models 204
Activity-based therapies 205
Outcomes: activity-based interventions 207
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trial of play therapy 208
Quality assessment of quasi-experimental and controlled observational studies of
activity-based interventions 208
Results: activity-based interventions 209
Effectiveness of activity-based interventions 210
Chapter 5 Acceptability 211

Introduction 211
Overview of included studies 211
Defining acceptability 216
What young people said 216
Cognitive–behavioural interventions 217
Characteristics of those who complete treatment 228
Acceptability 230
Summary: acceptability of cognitive–behavioural therapy interventions 231
Relationship-based interventions 232
Attachment-based interventions 232
Parent–child interaction therapy 237
Parent training interventions 239
Characteristics of treatment completers 242
Acceptability 242
Summary: acceptability of relationship-based interventions 242
Systemic interventions 243
Acceptability 248
Summary: acceptability of systemic interventions 249
Psychoeducation 250
Characteristics of treatment completers 250
Acceptability 254
Summary: acceptability of psychoeducational Interventions 254
xii
Group work with children 255

Acceptability 255
Summary: acceptability of group work interventions 261
Counselling/psychotherapy interventions 261
Counselling interventions 262
Psychotherapy interventions 273
Summary: acceptability of psychotherapy/counselling interventions 276
Peer mentoring 276
Overview of this study 276
Participants 276
Intervention 276
Acceptability 277
Summary: acceptability of peer-mentoring interventions 278
Intensive service models 278
Therapeutic residential care 278
Enhanced foster care 284
Summary: acceptability of intensive service interventions 289
Activity-based therapies 289
Acceptability 290
Summary: acceptability of activity-based interventions 292
Studies of general relevance 292
Acceptability 298
Summary 299
Summary: key messages about acceptability 299
What the studies said 299
Definitions matter 300
Key themes 301
Keeping the first appointment 302
Starting but not finishing 303
Correlates of treatment engagement and attrition 303
Ambivalence about the value of therapy 304
Addressing the needs of caregivers 305
Talking to therapists 306
Children in foster and adoptive placements 307
Other barriers to treatment engagement and completion 308
Summary 309
The studies 309
Synergies with the views of young people 309
Chapter 6 Discussion 311

Aim of the review 311
Evidence base 311
Coverage of maltreatment and relevance to the UK 312
Maltreatment severity 312
Maltreatment focus 312
Interventions evaluated 313
Focus of interventions 313
Theories of change 314
Comparisons 315
xiii
CONTENTS
Outcomes and measures 315

Relevance of outcomes and measures 316
Synergies with the views of young people and professionals 316
Relevance to clinicians 317
Quality of the overall evidence base 317
Summary of findings 320
What interventions are effective for which children, with what maltreatment profiles,
in what circumstances? 320
Summary overview of what works, for whom, in what circumstances? 322
Where two or more interventions might be appropriate, which is the most likely to be
effective? 322
Children who have been physically abused 326
Multisystemic therapy 328
Children who have experienced different kinds of maltreatment 328
Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up 328
Child–parent psychotherapy 329
Other 329
What interventions are of no benefit or may result in harm? 330
What interventions are most accessible and acceptable to carers, children and
young people? 330
What do we know about the economic benefits? 331
Conclusions 332
Strengths and limitations of this evidence synthesis 335
Implications for practice 336
Future research 337
Acknowledgements 339
References 341
Appendix 1 Research team and Steering Group members 389
Appendix 2 Professional Advisory Group members 391
Appendix 3 Examples of search strategies for different database types 393
Appendix 4 Citations of included and excluded studies 399
Appendix 5 Types of interventions 421
Appendix 6 List of databases searched, with dates 429
Appendix 7 Other searches 431
Appendix 8 Checklist: quality of data within economic evaluations 433
Appendix 9 Outcome domains and measures used 435
Appendix 10 Risk-of-bias graphs for included randomised trials 441
xiv
Appendix 11 Summary of findings: cognitive–behavioural therapy for sexually

abused children 465
Appendix 12 Attrition analyses 473
Appendix 13 Overview of acceptability evidence by intervention group 479
Appendix 14 Overview of acceptability evidence by study interventions 481
Appendix 15 Report of consultations with young people and professionals 495
xv
List of tables
TABLE 1 Intervention categories identified by study design 21
TABLE 2 Summary of included studies by abuse type: total number of studies

(controlled studies, uncontrolled studies) 22
TABLE 3 Characteristics of participants in included studies 23
TABLE 4 Characteristics of interventions and comparators in included studies 31
TABLE 5 Outcomes domains and measures used in included studies 61
TABLE 6 Uncontrolled studies: participant characteristics 90
TABLE 7 Excluded studies: effectiveness 98
TABLE 8 Characteristics of included economic studies 100
TABLE 9 Performance of economic studies on the Economic Evaluation Critical

Appraisal Checklist 101
TABLE 10 Excluded economic studies 102
TABLE 11 Cost and outcome parameters and cost-effectiveness results 140
TABLE 12 Summary of acceptability 212
TABLE 13 Acceptability of cognitive/behavioural interventions 218
TABLE 14 Acceptability of attachment-based interventions 233
TABLE 15 Acceptability of PCIT 238
TABLE 16 Acceptability of parent training interventions 240
TABLE 17 Acceptability of family/systemic interventions 244
TABLE 18 Acceptability of psychoeducation interventions 251
TABLE 19 Acceptability of group work for children 256
TABLE 20 Acceptability of counselling interventions 263
TABLE 21 Acceptability of psychotherapy interventions 274
TABLE 22 Acceptability of peer-mentoring interventions 277
TABLE 23 Acceptability of therapeutic residential care interventions 279
TABLE 24 Acceptability of enhanced foster care interventions 285
xvii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 25 Acceptability of activity-based interventions 293
TABLE 26 General studies 296
TABLE 27 Summary of effect sizes and confidence analyses from meta-analyses 319
TABLE 28 Overview of what works, for whom, in what circumstances 323
TABLE 29 Studies comparing the effectiveness of different interventions for

children who have been sexually abused 327

children who have been physically abused 328

children who have experienced different kinds of maltreatment 329
TABLE 32 Advisory group sessions 496
TABLE 33 Highest-ranked outcomes by Young People’s Groups 498
TABLE 34 Highest-ranked facilitating factors by Young People’s Groups 500
TABLE 35 Factors rated highest by young people as barriers 501
TABLE 36 Responses to series of statements about interventions 502
xviii
List of figures
FIGURE 1 Maltreatment review: flow chart 20
FIGURE 2 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for PTSD 114
FIGURE 3 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for depression 115
FIGURE 4 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for anxiety 116
FIGURE 5 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for sexualised behaviour 118
FIGURE 6 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for child externalising

behaviour 119
FIGURE 7 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for behaviour management

skills of parents 120
FIGURE 8 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for parental support to child 121
FIGURE 9 Cost-effectiveness plane for PTSD and anxiety outcomes post treatment 140
FIGURE 10 Cost-effectiveness plane for PTSD and anxiety outcomes at 12-month

follow-up 141
FIGURE 11 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves for PTSD and anxiety outcomes

post treatment 142
FIGURE 12 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves for PTSD and anxiety outcomes

at 12-month follow-up 142
FIGURE 13 Cost-effectiveness plane for CDI outcomes post treatment 143
FIGURE 14 Cost-effectiveness plane for CDI outcomes at 12-month follow-up 143
FIGURE 15 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curve for CDI outcomes post treatment 144
FIGURE 16 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves for CDI outcomes at 12-month

follow-up 144
FIGURE 17 Secure attachment 153
FIGURE 18 Disorganised attachment 153
FIGURE 19 Avoidant attachment 155
FIGURE 20 Child externalising behaviour 155
FIGURE 21 Externalising behaviours 176
FIGURE 22 Internalising behaviours 176
xix
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 23 Risk-of-bias graph: cognitive–behavioural studies (sexual abuse) 442
FIGURE 24 Risk-of-bias summary: cognitive–behavioural studies (sexual abuse) 443
FIGURE 25 Risk-of-bias graph: cognitive–behavioural studies (physical abuse) 444
FIGURE 26 Risk-of-bias summary: cognitive–behavioural studies (physical abuse) 445
FIGURE 27 Risk-of-bias graph: cognitive–behavioural studies (multiple abuse) 446
FIGURE 28 Risk-of-bias summary: cognitive–behavioural studies (multiple abuse) 447
FIGURE 29 Risk-of-bias graph: RBIs 448
FIGURE 30 Risk-of-bias summary: RBIs 449
FIGURE 31 Risk-of-bias graph: systemic interventions 450
FIGURE 32 Risk-of-bias summary: systemic interventions 451
FIGURE 33 Risk-of-bias graph: psychoeducation 452
FIGURE 34 Risk-of-bias summary: psychoeducation 453
FIGURE 35 Risk-of-bias graph: group work with children 454
FIGURE 36 Risk-of-bias summary: group work with children 455
FIGURE 37 Risk-of-bias graph: psychotherapy/counselling 456
FIGURE 38 Risk-of-bias summary: psychotherapy/counselling 457
FIGURE 39 Risk-of-bias graph: peer mentoring 458
FIGURE 40 Risk-of-bias summary: peer mentoring 459
FIGURE 41 Risk-of-bias graph: intensive service models 460
FIGURE 42 Risk-of-bias summary: intensive service models 461
FIGURE 43 Risk-of-bias graph: activity-based interventions 462
FIGURE 44 Risk-of-bias summary: activity-based interventions 463
xx
List of boxes
BOX 1 UK evidence 312
BOX 2 Coverage of maltreatment 313
BOX 3 Interventions and evidence 314
BOX 4 Relevance to the UK 319
xxi
List of abbreviations
AAT animal-assisted therapy CPP child–parent psychotherapy

ABC Attachment and Biobehavioral CPS Child Protective Services
Catch-up
CPSS Child PTSD Symptom Scale
ANCOVA analysis of covariance
CROPS Child Report of Post-traumatic
ARRM AIDS Risk Reduction Model Symptoms
BDI Beck Depression Inventory CS controlled study
BDI-II Beck Depression Inventory-Second CSA child sexual abuse
Edition
CSATP Child Sexual Abuse Treatment
BPC Behavior Problem Checklist Program
BSI Brief Symptom Inventory CSBI Child Sexual Behavior Inventory
CAMHS Child and Adolescent Mental CSI Coping Scales Inventory
Health Services
CTQ Childhood Trauma Questionnaire
CAPI Child Abuse Potential Inventory
CTS Conflict Tactics Scale
CBCL Child Behavior Checklist
DDP dyadic developmental
CBCT Cognitively-Based Compassion psychotherapy
Training
DERS Difficulties with Emotion
CBT cognitive–behavioural therapy Regulation Scale
CCI Child Conflict Index DISC Diagnostic Interview Schedule
for Children
CCT child-centred therapy
DPICS Dyadic Parent–Child Interaction
CD conduct disorder
Coding System
CDI Children’s Depression Inventory
DSM-IV Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
CDirI child-directed interaction of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition
CEAC cost-effectiveness acceptability ECBI Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory
curve
ECI Early Childhood Inventory
CEI Child Evaluation Inventory
EFT emotional freedom techniques
CES-D Center for Epidemiologic Studies
EMDR eye movement desensitisation
Depression Scale
and reprocessing
CGAS Children’s Global Assessment Scale
FAD Family Assessment Device
CI confidence interval
FAF Family Assessment Form
CITES-R Children’s Impact of Traumatic
FASM Functional Assessment of
Events Scale-Revised
Self-Mutilation
CONSORT Consolidated Standards of
FES Family Environment Scale
Reporting Trials
FHF Fostering Healthy Futures
COS controlled observational study
FT family therapy
CPC-CBT combined parent–child
cognitive–behavioural therapy GE gradual exposure
xxiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
GP general practitioner MTFC-A Multidimensional Treatment Foster

Care for Adolescents
HFD human figure drawing
MTFC-P Multidimensional Treatment Foster
HoNOSCA Health of the Nation Outcome
Care Program for Preschoolers
Scales for Children and Adolescents
NML-2 Nijmegen Motivation List 2
HTA Health Technology Assessment
NSPCC National Society for the Prevention
ICER incremental cost-effectiveness ratio
of Cruelty to Children
ICU-P Inventory of Callous and
OR odds ratio
Unemotional Traits-Parent Report
OSIQ-R Offer Self-Image
IES Impact of Events Scale
Questionnaire-Revised
IFA Independent Fostering Agency
PAD Parent Attachment Diary
IGT individual and group therapy
PAG Professional Advisory Group
IPP infant–parent psychotherapy
PCIT parent–child interaction therapy
IPV intimate partner violence
PDI parent-directed interaction
IT individual therapy
PENN Penn Inventory for Posttraumatic
ITT intention to treat Stress Disorder
IY Incredible Years Program PERQ Parent Emotional
Reaction Questionnaire
KGAS Kiddie Global Assessment Scale
PFR Promoting First Relationships
KSADS Kiddie Schedule for Schizophrenia
and Affective Disorders PHV psychoeducational home visitation
KSADS-PL Kiddie Schedule for Schizophrenia PI Project Image
and Affective Disorders, Present
PPI psychoeducational parenting
and Lifetime Version
intervention
LMM linear mixed model
PPP Pre-School–Parent Psychotherapy
LSI Life Story Intervention
PPQ Parenting Practices Questionnaire
LSS Life Satisfaction Survey
PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for
M mean Systematic Reviews and
Meta-Analyses
m-CBT modified CBT intervention
PROPS Parent Report of Post-traumatic
MANOVA multivariate analysis of variance
Symptoms
MASTR motivation–adaptive skills–trauma
PSI Parenting Stress Index
resolution
PTSD post-traumatic stress disorder
MD mean difference
QALY quality-adjusted life-year
MFGT multifamily group therapy
QEx quasi-experimental
MMP MOSAC Massage Programme
RBI relationship-based intervention
MST multisystemic therapy
RCMAS Revised Children’s Manifest
MST-CAN Multisystemic Therapy for Child
Anxiety Scale
Abuse and Neglect
RCT randomised controlled trial
MTFC Multidimensional Treatment
Foster Care RET reminiscing and emotion training
xxiv
RFC regular foster care SSRS Social Skills Rating System

RPT resilient peer treatment STAI State-Trait Anxiety Inventory
RRFT Risk Reduction through Family STAI-C State-Trait Anxiety Inventory
Therapy for Children
RSES Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale STEP-TEEN Systematic Training for Effective
Parenting of Teens
RTC residential treatment centre
STI sexually transmitted infection
SAFE Sexual Abuse Fear Evaluation scale
T3 time 3
SAS-CBT Sexual Abuse-Specific
Cognitive–Behavioural therapy TAU treatment as usual
SCARED Screen for Child Anxiety TF-CBT trauma-focused cognitive
Related Disorders behavioural therapy
SD standard deviation TN trauma narrative
SDQ Strengths and Difficulties TRF Teacher Report Form
Questionnaire
TSC-40 Trauma Symptom Checklist-40
SEI Self-Esteem Inventory
TSCC Trauma Symptom Checklist
SES socioeconomic status for Children
SESBI-R Sutter–Eyberg Student Behaviour TSCYC Trauma Symptom Checklist for
Inventory-Revised Young Children
SFI Self-Report Family Inventory TV/PCIT time-variable parent–child
interaction therapy
SIT stress inoculation therapy
UC usual care
SMD standarised mean difference
UCLA-A University of California Los Angeles
SOF Summary of Findings
PTSD Index for DSM-IV
S/PCIT standard parent–child interaction (Adolescent version)
therapy
VOYPIC Voice of Young People in Care
SPPC Self-Perception Profile for Children
YSR Youth Self-Report
SSRI selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitor
xxv
Plain English summary
What is the problem?
Sometimes children and adolescents are abused or neglected by their parents or other adults. Abuse can
be physical, sexual or emotional, and many children experience more than one kind of abuse and neglect.
We call this child maltreatment. Maltreated children often do less well than other children. For example,
they often have poorer physical and mental health, do less well at school and find it more difficult to
establish good relationships than non-maltreated children. Psychosocial interventions are ways of helping
that do not rely on drugs, for example counselling, group work and music therapy.
What did we do?
We looked internationally for studies that assessed the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions for
maltreated children and whether or not they were worth paying for (cost-effectiveness). We also looked
for studies that told us something about what children and other people (such as parents or therapists)
think about psychosocial interventions. We completed our searches in June 2014.
What did we find?
We found 198 effectiveness studies, six cost-effectiveness studies and 73 studies that told us what people
thought of these interventions. Only a handful of these were conducted in the UK and most did not
address outcomes that young people told us were important.
What does this mean?
Although we found some interventions that might improve outcomes for maltreated children, these need
to be independently evaluated in the UK. Importantly, many of the interventions currently offered to
children in the UK have not been evaluated at all. Our report makes recommendations for improving
services for maltreated children, including looked-after children, and for future research.
xxvii
Scientific summary
Background
Maltreatment adversely affects the development of children and young people in many ways, often over long
periods of time, and the cumulative consequences of maltreatment in early childhood can be particularly
devastating. Despite recent emphasis on the importance of early intervention, significant numbers of children
continue to have to deal with the realities of physical and emotional abuse, physical and emotional neglect,
and sexual abuse, whether directly, or indirectly as the result of witnessing the abuse of others.
Objectives
We set out to answer the following questions:
i. What interventions are effective, for which children, with what maltreatment profiles, in
what circumstances?
ii. When two or more interventions might be appropriate, which is most likely to be effective?
iii. Which interventions are of no benefit or may result in harm?
iv. Which interventions are most accessible and acceptable to carers, children and young people?
v. What do we know about the economic benefits of interventions, and the potential value of
undertaking future research?
Project oversight
The research team were experienced in systematic review methodology and provided topic expertise in this
field. A Steering Group was also established to guide the overall direction of the project and to ensure that
a range of expertise and perspectives were properly considered.
The evidence synthesis work was planned in accordance with guidance provided by the Centre for Reviews
and Dissemination and The Cochrane Collaboration. A protocol for the review consistent with Preferred
Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses criteria was developed and agreed with the
Steering Group. The review protocol is registered with PROSPERO (PROSPERO 2013:CRD42013003889).
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
As this review was designed to address questions of effectiveness, acceptability and economic benefits,
it was necessary to consider different study types. The inclusion criteria were tailored accordingly and our
inclusion criteria and associated searches were kept deliberately broad to identify studies that were
relevant to our aims.
Types of study
Synthesis of evidence of effectiveness

Any controlled study in which psychosocial interventions were evaluated for this population was considered,
including randomised and quasi-randomised trials, quasi-experimental (QEx) controlled studies and
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SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY
controlled observational studies (COSs). Where no controlled effectiveness studies were identified, other
study designs were considered, purely for the purposes of informing the development of future research.
Synthesis of acceptability studies

Studies that asked participants for their views were included, irrespective of study design or data type.
Economic evaluation
In addition to the study designs included in the synthesis of evidence of effectiveness, uncontrolled costing
studies were considered. For the purposes of the synthesis of economic studies, randomised controlled
trials (RCTs) were prioritised, although QEx controlled studies and COSs (cohort studies and case–control
studies) were also considered.
Types of populations/patients
Studies were eligible if they involved children aged between 0 and 17 years 11 months, who had
experienced maltreatment. Whole studies were included if recruitment was targeted at maltreated children
and young people of this age range. Studies of young people up to the age of 24 years 11 months were
included if the maltreatment had taken place before the age of 17 years and 11 months.
Types of interventions
Any psychosocial intervention provided to maltreated infants, children or adolescents in any setting
(e.g. family, community, residential, school) and by any provider, aiming specifically to address the
consequences of any form of maltreatment, with or without the involvement of a carer or carers.
We included any intervention based on cognitive theories [e.g. cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT),
trauma-focused CBT (TF-CBT), and abuse-focused CBT]; eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing;
interventions based primarily on forms of expression and communication drawn from the arts (e.g. art therapy,
drama therapy, music therapy, play therapy and narrative group therapy); attachment-based interventions;
interventions based on psychoanalytic theories, offered to the child or parent–child dyads; family/systemic
interventions; multisystemic therapy; peer mentoring; enhanced foster care, including treatment foster care; and
residential care, including models of therapeutic residential care. We included studies where interventions were
targeted at those responsible for the child (e.g. parents or services) and that included outcomes for children.
Studies where psychotropic medication was provided alongside psychosocial interventions were included.
Types of comparisons
Studies comparing psychosocial interventions with no-treatment arms, wait-list control groups, treatment
as usual (TAU) and other active treatment controls were included.
Types of outcomes
Primary outcomes
Psychological distress/mental health [particularly post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression and anxiety,
and self-harm]; behaviour (particularly internalising and externalising behaviours); social functioning, including
attachment and relationships with family and others; cognitive/academic attainment; and quality of life.
xxx
Secondary outcomes
Substance misuse, delinquency, resilience and acceptability. We were also interested in any outcome
related to carer distress, carer efficacy and, where appropriate, placement stability.
Consultations were undertaken with key stakeholders in order to identify appropriate primary and
secondary outcomes.
Search methods
One overarching search strategy was developed to ensure coverage across all elements of the review.
Research, professional, policy and grey literature were searched using systematic and comprehensive
search strategies. No language limits or study design filters were applied. The main databases for health
and allied health literature, social sciences and social welfare literature, education literature, other
evidence-based research repositories and economic databases were searched to June 2014.
We searched the following databases from their date of inception between 28 February and 5 March 2015
and conducted an updated search of the main databases between 29 May and 2 June: Ovid MEDLINE,
CINAHL, PsycINFO, EMBASE, CENTRAL, CDSR, DARE, Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE), Health
Managing Information Consortium (HMIC), Social Care Online, Social Science Citation Index, Campbell
Library of Systematic Reviews, ERIC, Australian Education Index, British Education Index, Database of
Promoting Health Effectiveness Reviews (DoPHER), Trials Register of Promoting Health Interventions
(TroPHI), NHS Economic Evaluation Database (NHS EED), Paediatric Economic Databae Evaluation (PEDE),
Health Economic Evaluations Database (HEED), EconLit and the IDEAS economics database.
Data collection and analysis
Screening of citations and study selection

The original search was completed on 26 June 2013 and an updating search was undertaken on
4 June 2014. Two reviewers read full reports and determined eligibility for all studies.
Data extraction and management

Forms tailored to review objectives were developed and refined for both the effectiveness and acceptability
studies. Two review authors independently extracted and recorded the data.
Data synthesis: effectiveness studies
All studies were mapped against type of maltreatment (specific or multiple) and goals of treatment
(outcome domains and measures). Interventions were grouped according to a simple classification system.
Priority was given to randomised and quasi-randomised trials.
Dichotomous measures of treatment effect: we calculated effect sizes as odds ratios (ORs) with 95%
confidence intervals (CIs).
Continuous measures of treatment effect: we extracted unadjusted data where possible, both for
consistency of interpretation across studies and because we anticipated that this data source would be less
susceptible to selective reporting bias (in particular, the strategy prevents the possibility of biased selection
of covariates for inclusion in the model). We converted continuous outcome data (e.g. post-intervention
depression) into standardised mean differences (SMDs) and presented data with 95% CIs.
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SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY
Where appropriate data were available, data synthesis was performed to pool the results. As clinical and
trial heterogeneity were expected (even similar interventions are provided under different circumstances,
by different providers, to different groups), we used a random-effects model.
Assessment of heterogeneity We explored the extent to which age (< 10 years old vs. > 10 years old),
gender, ethnicity, type of maltreatment (sexual vs. physical), intervention type and parent involvement
(child-only intervention vs. parent-and-child intervention) might moderate the effects of
psychosocial interventions.
Sensitivity analyses Publication bias and small study effects were investigated using standards methods
(e.g. funnel plots) and also within the synthesis models. When the data did not support such methods,
the likelihood of publication bias was summarised narratively.
We examined the impact of trial/study factors, including risk-of-bias domains and cointerventions.
For outcomes for which there was an indication of intervention efficacy, we checked the robustness of
results to using a ‘change from baseline’ measure, rather than post-treatment ‘follow-up’ measure as part
of our sensitivity analyses.
Data synthesis: acceptability studies
A synthesis of acceptability data was undertaken using a narrative approach. Studies were grouped into
the same intervention groups used for the synthesis of effectiveness studies.
Data synthesis: economic evidence
We conducted cost-effectiveness analyses for the most promising intervention using SMDs from
meta-analyses as the measure of outcome and additionally using the results of a meta-analysis of a
subgroup of studies that reported outcomes in terms of a single clinical measure: for example, the Children’s
Depression Inventory (CDI). Intervention costs were calculated from data included in each paper on the
nature of the intervention under evaluation, including the number and duration of sessions, and the format
of delivery (group or individual). Unit costs were estimated using nationally applicable UK unit costs per hour
of face-to-face contact for relevant professionals (www.pssru.ac.uk/project-pages/unit-costs/2014/). It was
not always clear from the papers what professionals had delivered the interventions and thus we estimated
costs for three categories of professional: (1) clinical psychologist; (2) psychologist; and (3) counsellor.
Cost-effectiveness was explored initially through the calculation of incremental cost-effectiveness ratios,
defined as the difference in mean costs divided by the difference in mean effects between the two groups.
Uncertainty was explored using probabilistic sensitivity analysis, a form of analysis that involves assigning
probability distributions to parameters (costs and effects) and sampling at random from the distributions to
generate an empirical distribution for each parameter.
Results
We identified 198 studies assessing the effectiveness of relevant psychosocial interventions for maltreated
children (including 62 trials); six studies assessing the cost-effectiveness (including five carried out using data
from a trial and one decision-analytic model); and 73 studies that looked at acceptability of treatment.
Meta-analyses of effectiveness were possible only for CBT for sexual abuse and relationship-based
interventions (RBIs). Summarising data in this way for studies of CBT for sexual abuse suggested a
post-treatment reduction in PTSD [SMD –0.44 (95% CI –4.43 to –1.53)]; a post-treatment reduction in
xxxii
depression [CDI mean difference –02.83 (95% CI –4.53 to –1.13)]; and a post-treatment reduction
in anxiety [SMD –0.23 (95% CI –0.03 to –0.42)]. No differences were observed for post-treatment
sexualised behaviour, externalising behaviour, behaviour management skills of parents or parental support
to the child. It was not possible to undertake meta-analyses for the remaining comparisons. Findings from
attachment-focused interventions suggested improvements in secure attachment [OR 0.14 (95% CI 0.03
to 0.70)], reductions in disorganised behaviour [SMD 0.23 (95% CI 0.13 to 0.42)], but no differences in
avoidant attachment or externalising behaviour. Effectiveness research rarely considers issues of accessibility/
acceptability and, although this project highlighted the important role of parents/other caregivers, relatively
few studies had addressed this, or indeed the impact of the therapist–child relationship.
The results of the six ‘full’ economic evaluations located were conflicting. Exploration of the cost-effectiveness of
the most promising intervention, CBT for children who had been sexually abused, using outcome data from
meta-analysis, was still unable to provide a clear conclusion. Very limited economic evidence of RBIs,
psychoeducation, co-ordinated models of care and intensive service models was available. No economic
evaluations of systemic interventions, group work, psychotherapy/counselling, peer mentoring, therapeutic
residential or day-care services, or activity-based therapies with children who have been maltreated, were located.
Conclusions
The available evidence provides only partial answers to our review questions.
1. It is difficult to draw very firm conclusions about which interventions are effective for which children,
with what maltreatment profiles, in what circumstances. The use of other-treatment controls, plus
susceptibility to bias, may account for the evidence being less than clear cut in relation to some
interventions. For some interventions, the results of studies are unequivocally positive, but they are few
in number and some also suffer from weaknesses in design and implementation. In almost all cases
they have been conducted in policy and practice contexts that differ markedly from the circumstances
in which interventions might be offered in the UK. Furthermore, the intervention has often been
monitored and quality assured to an extent that the studies evaluating them are closer to efficacy trials
than effectiveness trials. This means that even where we have identified evidence of positive outcomes
following specific therapeutic approaches, there can be no expectation that these results would
necessarily be observed in practice.
For treating the symptoms of PTSD, TF-CBT currently enjoys the strongest evidence of effectiveness,
although there have been few independent evaluations of this intervention. The most effective CBT
interventions for children who have been sexually abused appear to be those that involve the
non-offending parents. Therapeutic day care and peer mentoring may also provide opportunities to
address developmental and social-specific sequelae of maltreatment in preschool children. For infants
and preschool children, the evidence suggests that interventions that target parental sensitivity and
responsiveness [Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC); child–parent psychotherapy;
multidimensional treatment foster care for preschoolers] may be effective in promoting secure
attachments with birth parents and foster carers. Given the importance of secure attachment in
promoting children’s overall development and well-being, these are important findings.
2. Although a number of studies compared an intervention with TAU, few studies compared treatments
‘head to head’, and it was not possible to confidently draw conclusions about the comparative effects
of different interventions.
3. On the basis of the studies identified in this review, it is not currently possible to conclude, with any
certainty, which interventions were of no benefit, or may result in harm, but we identified a total
absence of robust evidence for many of the interventions currently provided to maltreated children
within the UK.
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SCIENTIFIC SUMMARY
4. Few unequivocally clear answers are to be found from studies seeking to ascertain which factors
encourage people to seek therapy, to accept an offer of therapy, to actively engage with therapy and
to ‘stick with it’. A key observation is that researchers routinely miss the opportunity to consider issues
of accessibility and acceptability, although there are some low-cost strategies that could be deployed to
explore the barriers and facilitators both of engagement or retention in therapy. Given the difficulty of
disinterring retention in a study from retention in an intervention, there is a research gap in relation to
these important issues within the UK. Some of the studies did focus on issues that mattered to the
young people in our advisory group, and some of the findings resonate with their concerns. The pivotal
role that parents and other caregivers play in ensuring the availability of therapy to young people,
particularly younger children, was recognised as an issue in our consultations, and mirrored in the
findings from the included studies. Only one study included in this review mentioned the importance of
being believed, but the concern about not being believed was a very significant issue for some of the
young people with whom we talked.
5. The profile of included studies indicates a bias towards the psychiatric sequelae of maltreatment.
Although these are important, they represent only one of the many adverse consequences of
maltreatment on children’s development, and studies of interventions that promote children’s social,
emotional and physical development are needed.
6. Little is known about the cost-effectiveness of alternative interventions for maltreated children. Only six
economic evaluations that could be considered ‘full’ economic evaluations (comparative analysis of
alternative interventions in terms of both costs and effects) were located and the results are conflicting.
7. Well-designed and carefully implemented RCTs are required to test the relevance of promising
interventions in the UK context, and to evaluate those interventions that are most commonly provided,
but which currently lack empirical support. The particular needs of seriously maltreated children raise
important issues about the most appropriate conceptualisations of need and their implications for
professional training and the nature of services required.
Study registration
This study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42013003889.
Funding
Funding for this study was provided by the Health Technology Assessment programme of the National
Institute for Health Research.
xxxiv
Chapter 1 Background, aims and objectives

C hild maltreatment is a serious public health issue and a major cause of health inequality.1 Children who
experience serious or persistent maltreatment are at risk of a range of social, emotional, behavioural
and economic adversities, alongside the impact of maltreatment on their physical and mental health. The
major focus of UK policy has been on preventing serious abuse and neglect, triggered and sustained by
periodic reports of the circumstances surrounding child deaths.2–4 Little attention has been given to how
best to address the consequences of maltreatment for those who have experienced it or been adversely
affected by it. While prevention is preferable to dealing with the consequences of maltreatment, the reality
is that in 2014 almost 50,000 children in England were subject to a child protection plan because
of maltreatment or risk of significant harm. Behind those 50,000 children are many more who also
experience maltreatment, but who either do not come to the attention of social services or whose
maltreatment falls below the undoubtedly high thresholds of harm currently operated by Children’s
Services Departments. In 2012, the Health Technology Assessment (HTA) programme commissioned two
evidence syntheses that were relevant to the needs of maltreated children. One was a review of
interventions aimed at improving outcomes for children exposed to domestic violence (PHR 11/3007/01).5
The second was an evidence synthesis of psychosocial interventions aimed at improving outcomes for
children who experienced maltreatment, and this is the focus of this report.
Categories of maltreatment
Child maltreatment has been defined as any act or series of acts of commission (physical abuse, sexual
abuse, emotional/psychological abuse) or omission (neglect) by a parent, caregiver or other person, which
leads to harm, the potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child (someone under 18 years). Most child
maltreatment takes place within the family home, but it can also occur in an institutional or a community
setting. The perpetrators of maltreatment are usually known to the children concerned, but more rarely
they may be strangers. Although most maltreatment is attributable to adults, child-to-child maltreatment is
also a concern. Some forms of maltreatment can take place on the internet.
Detailed definitions can be found in a number of guidelines.6–9
Briefly:
l Physical abuse may involve hitting, shaking, throwing, poisoning, burning or scalding, drowning,
suffocating or otherwise causing physical harm to a child. Physical harm may also be caused when a
parent or carer fabricates the symptoms of, or deliberately induces, illness in a child.
l Emotional/psychological abuse is the persistent emotional abuse of a child such as to cause severe and
persistent adverse effects on the child’s emotional development. Emotional maltreatment may take the
form of age or developmentally inappropriate expectations on children. It may involve conveying to
children that they are worthless or unloved; not giving them opportunities to express their views or
‘making fun’ of what they say or how they communicate; seeing or hearing the ill-treatment of
another; being seriously bullied (including cyberbullying), or exploited or corrupted. Emotional abuse
is involved in all types of maltreatment, although it may occur alone. Children who are the subject of
fabricated illness are also subject to emotional abuse, either as a result of being brought up in a
fabricated sick role, or because of an abnormal relationship with their carer, or disturbed family
relationships.10–15 More recently, domestic violence has been recognised as maltreatment, and is a
common cause of emotional or psychological harm to children.
l Sexual abuse involves forcing or enticing a child or young person to take part in sexual activities, not
necessarily involving a high level of violence, whether or not the child is aware of what is happening.
Activities may involve physical contact, including assault by penetration or non-penetrative acts and
non-contact activities, such as involving children in watching sexual activities, encouraging them to
1
BACKGROUND, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
behave in sexually inappropriate ways, or grooming them in preparation for abuse (including via the
internet). Sexual abuse is perpetrated by men and women, although the majority of sexual abuse
of children is by male perpetrators against female children, typically someone known to them
(i.e. a family member or family friend). Abuse by a stranger is less common. Sexual abuse can occur
between children.
l Neglect is the persistent failure to meet a child’s basic physical and/or psychological needs, likely to
result in the serious impairment of his or her health or development. Neglect may occur during
pregnancy as a result of maternal substance abuse. Once a child is born, neglect may involve a parent
or carer failing to provide a child with adequate food, clothing and shelter (including exclusion from
home or abandonment); failing to protect him or her from physical and emotional harm or danger;
or failing to ensure access to appropriate medical care or treatment. It may include neglect of, or
unresponsiveness to, a child’s basic emotional needs.
Most children experience more than one form of maltreatment, and there is growing recognition of the
need to better take into account children’s profiles of maltreatment in order to improve policy and
practice.16–18 Although maltreatment can result in death, serious injury or impairment (see below), it is not
itself a disorder but an event or exposure; not all maltreated children experience impairment.
Prevalence, aetiology, contributory factors
Child maltreatment poses significant threats to children’s health, development and well-being. It is
recognised that statistics on the number of referrals to child protection services, and the numbers of
children for whom there is a child protection plan, let alone the number of criminal offences against
children, are an underestimate of the scale of the problem within the UK. The term ‘registration’ is used
here to describe children for whom there is a child protection plan (England) or whose names are on child
protection registers (Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland). As at March 2009, registrations in the UK were
England, 34,100; Wales, 2512; Northern Ireland, 2488; and Scotland, 2682. It is important to note that
these data may not be measuring precisely the same thing in each jurisdiction. Data on trends in child
maltreatment are difficult to interpret,19 but, overall, the numbers of children registered in each jurisdiction
has increased steadily since 2002, although there is some evidence of a fall in the numbers of violent child
deaths in infancy and middle childhood within the UK.20 The 2014 figure for children subject to a child
protection plan in England as at 31 March was 48,300 (excluding unborn children), an increase of 12.1%
on the numbers at the same time in 2013. This represents an increase of 23.4% since 31 March 2010.
In 2011 the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) published a cross-sectional,
self-report survey of 2275 children aged 11–17 years and adults aged 18–24 years. Their findings indicated
that 18.6% of the 11- to 17-year-olds ‘had been physically attacked by an adult, sexually abused, or
severely neglected’ and 25.3% of the 18- to 24-year-olds reported severe maltreatment during childhood.21
Consequences of maltreatment
A growing body of evidence suggests that being exposed to maltreatment may result in structural and
functional changes to the developing brain,22–24 as well as long-lasting changes in the way genes are
expressed in the brain.25–27 The adverse effects of maltreatment can be found across multiple domains of
functioning, including physical and mental health and well-being, security of attachment, cognitive and
emotional development, aggression, violence and criminality, and socioeconomic attainment.28–33
Maltreatment is a non-specific risk factor for a wide range of adverse long-term health and social care
outcomes, and children who experience multiple forms of maltreatment are at increased risk.34–36 There is
also some evidence of maltreatment type-specific risks, although generally this is stronger for sexual abuse
than other forms of child maltreatment. Widom et al.37 found that both child physical abuse and neglect,
but not sexual abuse, were associated with an increased risk for lifetime major depressive disorder in
young adulthood, with children exposed both to physical abuse and neglect being most at risk.
2
A longitudinal study by Kotch et al.38 concluded that neglect within the first 2 years of life, in the absence
of other forms of maltreatment, predicted levels of aggression at ages 4, 6 and 8 years. Preschool
children exposed to severe physical neglect have been found to evidence increased rates of internalising
symptomatology and withdrawn behaviour compared with other maltreated children.39 Generally though,
the fact that few children experience only one form of maltreatment makes it difficult to link particular
forms of maltreatment with specific risks or adverse outcomes.
The impact of maltreatment may depend on the interaction of a number of factors, including the child’s
genetic endowment, age, gender, type(s) of abuse, severity, frequency and duration of maltreatment, and
the availability of protective factors that function to enhance a child’s resilience.40–45 Children who appear
to be ‘asymptomatic’ following maltreatment may, nonetheless, be at risk for the development of later
psychosocial problems, triggered by subsequent stressors and the need to negotiate key developmental
tasks, for example forming intimate relationships, managing interpersonal conflict, becoming a parent and
so on.
For the child who is removed from their birth parents or other primary carers under relevant legislation, the
adverse effects of maltreatment may be compounded by delays arising from lengthy care proceedings and
instability of placements. For infants and young children, these factors may exacerbate attachment
difficulties or disorders. In developing effective interventions, it is therefore important to understand how
and why maltreatment impacts throughout the life course, and the variables that either mediate or
moderate adverse sequelae.
Economic consequences of maltreatment
The economic costs of maltreatment, both to individuals46–50 and to society,51–55 are well documented.
Costs to individuals include adverse effects on physical and mental health; social and emotional
development; cognitive development and levels of educational attainment; and employment status and
earnings. Societal costs include the health and social care costs of illness or injury; the intergenerational
costs of teenage pregnancy and poor parenting; criminal justice system costs; and losses in productivity.
Psychosocial interventions
There is a wide range of psychosocial interventions currently available to children and young people who
have experienced maltreatment, although availability varies enormously.56–58 These are based on a variety
of theoretical underpinnings and include:
l interventions based on cognitive theories, including cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT), trauma-focused

CBT (TF-CBT) and abuse-focused CBT
l eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR)
l interventions based primarily on forms of expression and communication drawn from the arts,
including art therapy, drama therapy, music therapy, play therapy and narrative group therapy
l attachment-based interventions
l interventions based on psychoanalytic theories, offered to the child or parent–child dyad.
l family/systemic interventions.
l multisystemic therapy (MST)
l peer mentoring.
l enhanced foster care, including treatment foster care
l residential care, including models of therapeutic residential care, such as CARE® (Cornell University,
Ithaca, NY, USA) and Sanctuary® (Sanctuary Institute, Philadelphia, PA, USA).
3
BACKGROUND, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Interventions may be delivered in one or more of a range of contexts, for example clinic, school,
community. Interventions may be individual or group based, or a combination, and may involve only the
child or the child and his or her primary carer(s). Some entail a change of caregiver, as in adoption, kinship
care, foster care or residential care. Most are commissioned, or provided by, the UK NHS. Some are
available from a range of voluntary and private sector providers, and some are primarily social care or
education based.
Timing of, and pathways to, treatment
For some forms of maltreatment, treatment can be offered appropriately only after the child is protected
from further abuse. This applies to sexual abuse and serious physical injury, and here protection can be
ensured only when the contact between the child and the abuser is constantly supervised or halted. In the
more persistent or chronic forms of maltreatment – emotional abuse and neglect – treatment may be
offered to the child and caregivers simultaneously to deal both with the effects of the maltreatment and
with the harmful parent–child interactions.
Maltreatment per se may be the trigger for some referrals to Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services
(CAMHS). For example, a child may be referred following recognition of a specific form of maltreatment,
most commonly sexual abuse. Sometimes children are referred as a result of maltreatment although the
precise nature of that maltreatment may not be known. Other children may be referred because they have
experienced several forms of maltreatment. Emotional maltreatment is often seen as integral to other
forms of abuse or neglect.
Some children will be referred for help with specific symptoms, for example post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), depression or anxiety. In some cases this will be clearly identified as the results of exposure to
maltreatment, such as physical or sexual abuse or intimate partner violence (IPV). Others will be referred
when there is no mention or initial awareness of the existence or relevance of previous maltreatment, but
where a causal link is subsequently found. This review focuses on those children whose pathways to
referral are clearly linked with maltreatment.
Treatment acceptability and engagement
Children who have experienced abuse and neglect can be difficult to engage, not least because of the
adverse impact of maltreatment on their ability and willingness to engage with, or trust, adults. Evidence
from a NSPCC survey21 indicated that some 80% of young adult women who reported abuse by a
caregiver said they had talked to a professional following the abuse taking place, compared with just 18%
of boys. However, those who sought help from a professional did not always think that it had brought
about a better outcome. Carers too can feel excluded from some therapeutic approaches, when their
involvement may be critical.
But many children do not have the opportunity of help. Historically, child maltreatment has been seen
as a problem for social care, rather than CAMHS,59 and effective interagency working between CAMHS
and social services continues to be elusive. Referral pathways to CAMHS are long and complex,60,61
and, for those referred, acceptance thresholds are high and waiting lists are often extremely long.
Little, if anything, is known about what maltreated children want from health-care professionals or what
kinds of intervention or service arrangements they find acceptable, and possible to engage with,
or unacceptable.
4
Importance of this evidence synthesis
Reviews in this area suffer from a number of weaknesses.62 These include (1) searches that are out of date,
have restricted search dates or language restrictions; (2) the predominance of research conducted in
North America, with little or no consideration of the generalisability of evidence to other policy contexts;
(3) a lack of adequate consideration of the maltreatment profiles of study participants; (4) a lack of
consideration of the logic models underpinning included interventions; (5) inadequate, and sometimes no,
consideration of the risk of bias of included studies; (6) heterogeneity of outcomes and measures used;
and (7) a lack of consideration of issues of acceptability or accessibility of interventions for children and
their families.
Most reviews, for good methodological reasons, restrict their inclusion criteria to randomised or
quasi-randomised trials. Although it is arguably unethical to expose maltreated children to interventions of
unknown effectiveness, the technical challenges of implementing randomised trials of maltreatment
interventions are considerable, sometimes resulting in studies with high risk of bias63,64 or little useful
information. Other types of study may provide valuable information about interventions not yet subjected
to more rigorous evaluation, and may provide a picture of the evidence gaps when compared with the
profile of available services.
As with studies and reviews of interventions, most studies of the cost-effectiveness of interventions appear
to have focused on primary prevention rather than secondary and tertiary prevention, or the treatment
of children who have experienced maltreatment.65–67 A review by Goldhaber-Fiebert et al.68 identified
19 reviews and 30 original papers reporting research on the costs and effectiveness of interventions for
children at risk of (the majority), or already involved in, child welfare (protection) services. They observe
that existing model-based evaluations of secondary prevention have, so far, used ‘relatively simple
multiplicative decision trees’ that do not reflect the variety of pathways that children follow, how these
may impact on the effectiveness of subsequent interventions or adequately address factors such as the
child’s age (p. 737). They concluded that current epidemiological data, combined with evidence from
well-conducted outcome studies and improved modelling techniques, make it timely to revisit the
cost-effectiveness of interventions for maltreated children.
Research aims and objectives
This review aimed to bring high standards of evidence synthesis to bear in this important but challenging
area of public health. It provides an up-to-date overview of research on interventions aimed at addressing
the adverse consequences of child maltreatment, and a synthesis of what we know about their
effectiveness and cost-effectiveness. The objectives of the research were to answer the following questions:
i. Which interventions are effective, for which children, with what maltreatment profiles, in
what circumstances?
ii. When two or more interventions might be appropriate, which is most likely to be effective?
iii. Which interventions are of no benefit or may result in harm?
iv. Which interventions are most accessible and acceptable to carers, children and young people?
v. What do we know about the economic benefits of interventions, and the potential value of
undertaking future research?
5
Chapter 2 Review methods
Focus of the review
In line with the HTA brief, this review sought to include effectiveness studies of any psychosocial
intervention provided to maltreated infants, children or adolescents in any setting (e.g. family, community,
residential) specifically to address the consequences of maltreatment. We included studies of any
intervention aimed at addressing the consequences of any type of maltreatment, irrespective of service
provider or setting (e.g. family, institution, school), whether or not provided to children individually
or in a group format, and whether or not the treatment involved parents or other carers. We included
studies in which the intervention was delivered to a child by, or through, a parent or other carer, as long
as this was concerned with addressing the consequences for the child of his or her experiences
of maltreatment.
This meant excluding two groups of studies that are also relevant to improving outcomes for children
experiencing maltreatment or who are at risk of maltreatment, namely:
1. Studies aimed at the secondary prevention of maltreatment. These are studies of interventions aimed
primarily at improving quality of parenting in families in which there are concerns about maltreatment.
Arguably, by improving parenting in ways that prevent future maltreatment and enhance the quality
of parenting and family relationships, such interventions make an important contribution towards
addressing the adverse consequences caused by maltreatment to children within these families. There
are a number of parenting programmes that specifically target these vulnerable families, but their focus
is primarily the parents and their parenting, rather than the children. Only if the programme combined
an intervention aimed specifically at the child, as well as the parents, were such studies included in
this review.
2. Studies concerned with evaluating interventions that addressed problems known to be associated with
maltreatment (such as depression or PTSD) but for which the target population was any child
experiencing the health problem. In other words, these studies did not set out to recruit children who,
because of maltreatment, were experiencing depression, anxiety, behaviour problems and so on. Our
searches identified many studies of this kind, in which the study sample included participants (typically
adolescents or young adults) who might have experienced maltreatment, but whose maltreatment was
not the reason for their recruitment.
Project oversight
The research team were experienced in systematic review methodology and provided topic expertise in this
field. Alongside the research team, a Steering Group was established to guide the overall direction of
the project, and to ensure that a range of expertise and perspectives, particularly those of guideline
developers, were properly considered in decisions taken during the course of the review. The research
team and Steering Group members are listed in Appendix 1.
Professional Advisory Group

To enhance the clinical and professional representation in the project, a Professional Advisory Group (PAG)
was established to help shape the work, interpret the evidence and draw conclusions from the data.
Approximately 50 professionals were invited to participate. They represented a range of disciplines (including
mental health nursing, general practice, psychology, psychiatry, social work, teaching and foster care) from
different settings (tertiary care, CAMHS, residential care, community, etc.) and different providers (NHS,
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private and voluntary sectors). The objective of the PAG consultations was to help ensure relevance to health
and social care provision in the UK. In particular, these consultations helped with the identification of
potential barriers and facilitators to implementation from the perspective of those (1) involved in identifying
children who need psychosocial interventions as a result of maltreatment; (2) responsible for referring them
to appropriate services; and (3) delivering services. Information was shared with the PAG throughout the
project and two face-to-face meetings were convened in London. The first meeting, involving around
40 participants, took place near the start of the project on 1 May 2013, and was designed to help
identify and prioritise key issues. The second meeting, involving around 20 participants, took place on
27 November 2014 once the initial findings were available, and was intended to take the form of a
consensus meeting. The names of PAG participants are provided in Appendix 2.
Young Persons’ Advisory Groups

Several Young Persons’ Advisory Groups were convened to provide advice on general issues relevant to the
project. In particular, the groups were established to help us understand the experience of receiving
treatment from professionals concerned with maltreated children, the factors that enhance acceptability
of treatment, and what outcomes matter most to children and adolescents. One group in Belfast, Voice of
Young People in Care (VOYPIC) and one Cardiff-based group, Voices from Care, were approached and
invited to participate in the project. At the beginning of the project, an initial meeting of seven young
people aged between 16 and 24 years from the VOYPIC group was convened in Belfast on 27 March
2013. A subsequent meeting of seven young people aged ≥ 18 years from the Voices from Care group
was convened in Cardiff on 9 April 2013. Both meetings were coconvened by dedicated facilitators from
their respective organisations, who were experienced in consulting with young people in care or previously
in care, as well as one member of the research team (either NL or JH). Towards the end of the project, a
group of six young people aged between 15 and 19 years contributed to the interpretation of the project’s
findings during a NSPCC participation event held on 27 October 2014.
Early planning with advisory groups

A plan for undertaking consultations was agreed with the project Steering Group. The early advisory groups
were intended to help shape the plan of the review. The key questions and methods used for these initial
advisory group meetings were broadly similar. Both professionals and Young Persons’ Advisory Groups were
consulted on relevant outcomes following psychosocial interventions for maltreated young people, factors
that would facilitate their getting the help they needed, and factors that would act as barriers to their
getting that help. The Young Persons’ Advisory Groups were asked to consider three additional questions:
1. What difference would ‘helpful help’ make for a child or young person who had been treated badly?
2. What would make it easier to ask for help or get help?
3. What would make it harder to ask for help or get help?
In both the PAG and the Young Persons’ Advisory Groups, a sorting and ranking exercise called the
Q-sort was used to elicit individual views and help develop some consensus views. On the basis of their
knowledge of the field, the research team and the Steering Group agreed an initial set of potential
outcomes, facilitators for getting help, and barriers to getting the help they needed. Group members were
presented with a group of cards, each of which had a different possible outcome, facilitator or barrier.
Group members were first asked to review the cards individually and consider their own opinions on
where each card should be placed on the large Q-sort pyramidal grid. They were then asked to discuss
their opinions in the group, and to work together to create one single agreed Q-sort pyramid. Cards
placed to the right of the grid would be those that were the most important outcomes/facilitators/barriers
and the least important to the left. Group members were informed that they could amend the cards if
necessary. They were also welcome to add new cards if they felt that any potential factors were missing
and to remove any cards that they felt were irrelevant.
The Q-sort process proved to be quite effective at engaging the young people and serving as a basis for
discussion. Based on the experience of the first group, the process was slightly modified for the following
8
sessions, so that the sequence of issues was revised and part of the session was spent in smaller
subgroup discussions.
In view of the large size of the PAG, to enable meaningful discussion the Steering Group decided to
establish smaller groups based on professional discipline for the Q-sort task. This allowed all groups to
contribute, but also highlighted areas of agreement and differences between the groups, so that potential
reasons could be discussed. Each small group was facilitated by a member of the research team/
Steering Group.
Final Professional Advisory Group meeting

A detailed and technical presentation of the review findings was provided for this PAG. The smaller number
of participants at this meeting enabled whole-group discussion.
Participants were first asked to consider a series of questions about the findings of the review, including
whether or not there were any important studies missing, any surprises about the coverage of
maltreatment types or the profile of evidence across different types of intervention, and whether or not
any of the findings were puzzling/unexpected. Participants were also asked the extent to which the review
findings matched their experience of what is offered through health and social care services and, if
different, what might account for this (e.g. training, therapeutic context, therapeutic preferences, resource
constraints or other explanations).
They were then asked to consider how clinicians were likely to react to the messages about the weight of
evidence in favour of CBT interventions, whether or not there were likely to be any barriers to implementing
the findings and how these issues might be considered in the final report.
Finally, in light of existing evidence, participants were asked to identify any priorities for future research.
Final Young Persons’ Advisory Group meeting

The young persons’ group was cofacilitated by members of the research team and Steering Group,
without an adult present whom the young people knew well. This session was part of a broader
participation event, for which known and trusted adults were available to support the young people
should they become distressed. We explained to them that during the session they would hear quite
powerful quotations from young people, which they might find unsettling. In such an event we told them
that they could let us know if they wanted a break or simply take themselves off to the agreed point to
find their identified adult supporter.
In the first part of the session, members of the research team provided an overview of the key
intervention types that were identified through the review: CBT; counselling or psychotherapy;
family intervention; attachment therapy; activity-based interventions; and therapeutic residential care.
In addition to talking about these, pictures were provided on large laminated sheets to help illustrate
key features of these approaches. The main part of the session was focused around three sets of
questions/statements:
1. Prioritising between interventions:
i. Which of these intervention types would young people want more?

ii. Some therapies have a lot of evidence showing that they work, but others do not. If you were the
government, to which ones would you give the money?
2. Responses to ‘acceptability’ statements:
i. ‘Therapy doesn’t help people to forget about abuse, they just make them talk about it over and
over again.’
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REVIEW METHODS
ii. ‘In some situations where the child starts therapy, they can get upset, and the parent then doesn’t
want them to go. What advice would you give a parent if their child was upset for the first time?’
iii. ‘It’s not just the child that needs help, parents do too.’
iv. ‘Do other people need to know what the therapist and child talk about?’
v. ‘Does a young person have to like their therapist for treatment to help?’
3. Disseminating research evidence and findings to young people: suggestions for how to do this
most effectively.
The group was given a range of tools to help the discussion. For example, they were given a pile of fake
bank notes to help them allocate the funds to different intervention types. The visual component to
this was important and the young people ensured that they distributed the money carefully, to reflect their
priorities. They were also given voting cards with which to respond to the acceptability statements, with
different colours representing different options.
Protocol
The evidence synthesis work was planned in accordance with guidance provided by the NHS Centre for
Reviews and Dissemination69 and the Cochrane Collaboration.70 The nature of the research objectives
required evidence syntheses of (1) studies of the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions provided for
children and adolescents who have suffered maltreatment; (2) studies of their acceptability to children,
adolescents and their carers; and (3) the cost-effectiveness of these interventions.
A protocol for the review based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
(PRISMA) criteria71 was developed and agreed with the Steering Group. The review protocol, which details
the objectives, types of study design, participants, interventions and outcomes considered, is registered
with PROSPERO (PROSPERO 2013: CRD42013003889). A copy of the review protocol is available at
www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.asp?ID=CRD42013003889.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria

As this review was designed to address questions of effectiveness, acceptability and economic benefits,
it was necessary to consider different study types. The inclusion criteria were tailored accordingly and our
inclusion criteria and associated searches were kept deliberately broad to identify studies relevant to the
aims set out in Chapter 1. The review considered both published and unpublished literature.
Types of study
Synthesis of evidence of effectiveness

Any controlled study (CS) in which psychosocial interventions were evaluated for this population was
considered, including randomised and quasi-randomised trials, quasi-experimental (QEx) controlled studies
and controlled observational studies (COSs). We used the following definitions.
Randomised controlled trial (RCT) Individuals followed in the trial are actively assigned to one of two
(or more) alternative forms of intervention or health care, using an entirely random method of allocation
(such as computer random number generation).
Quasi-randomised trial Individuals followed in the trial are actively assigned to one of two (or more)
alternative forms of intervention or health care, using a quasi-random method of allocation (such as
alternation, date of birth or case record number).
10
Quasi-experimental study Individuals followed in the study are actively assigned to one of two (or more)
alternative forms of intervention or health care, using a non-random method of allocation (such as
assignment based on experimenter’s choice).
Controlled observational study Individuals followed in the study are receiving one of two (or more)
alternative forms of intervention or health care. However, they are not actively assigned to the alternative
forms of intervention or health care. The control group is likely to comprise those who were not offered
the intervention or who refused to participate in the intervention.
Uncontrolled study All individuals followed in the study are given the same treatment or health care, and
simply followed for a period of time to see if they improve, with no comparison against another group
(control group) that is either taking another treatment or no treatment at all.
Where no controlled effectiveness studies were identified, other study designs were considered, but purely
for the purposes of informing the development of future research.
Case studies, descriptive studies, editorials, opinion papers and evaluations of pharmacological or physical
interventions without an adjunctive psychosocial component were excluded from the synthesis of
effectiveness studies.
Synthesis of acceptability studies

For this part of the review, studies that asked participants for their views were included, irrespective of
study design or data type.
Any studies that provided quantitative data on non-participation, withdrawal and adherence rates were
included as part of the effectiveness synthesis. We imposed no restrictions on design for this synthesis,
as long as the study was about psychosocial interventions for treating the consequences of
child maltreatment.
Economic evaluation
For this part of the review, we included economic evaluations that were carried out alongside trials and
decision-analytic models, and uncontrolled study designs – such as uncontrolled costing studies – were
considered, in addition to the study designs included in the synthesis of evidence of effectiveness. For the
purposes of the synthesis of economic studies, whether trial based or decision model, economic evaluations
based on data from RCTs were prioritised, although QEx controlled studies and COSs (cohort studies and
case–control studies) were also considered. Uncontrolled study designs and descriptive costing studies were
also considered, in addition to the study designs included in the synthesis of evidence of effectiveness, for
the purposes of populating a decision model.
Types of populations/patients
Studies were eligible if recruitment was targeted at maltreated. Because young people in care remain
entitled to support up until the age of 25 years, and because the effects of maltreatment are not always
immediate, we included studies in which maltreatment took place before 17 years 11 months, but where
the participants were aged up to 24 years 11 months. This also enabled us to minimize the loss of
potentially relevant data. If the age range of participants was broader (e.g. 10–30 years) but the study met
all other criteria, authors were contacted for further information, as appropriate.
Studies of interventions for a wide range of maltreatment types, including physical abuse, emotional and
psychological abuse (including those witnessing domestic violence), sexual abuse and neglect were
included. Studies were included if they involved maltreated participants as well as children and young
people who had suffered other kinds of trauma (e.g. violent assault by a stranger) only if the participants
were randomised and data for analyses were presented separately (or were obtainable). Studies that
described children as ‘at risk’ because they had already experienced maltreatment were included. Studies
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involving children in care were included only if there was evidence that the participants were maltreated
and the focus of the intervention was designed to address the sequelae of maltreatment. Studies were
included whether or not the children involved were displaying any symptoms.
We excluded studies that were designed to evaluate interventions for other kinds of trauma, including
teenage dating violence, those with children who had experienced violent physical assault by a stranger,
and those where maltreatment had occurred during a conflict/war situation. We excluded studies that may
have involved, but did not specifically target, maltreated children (e.g. studies of psychosocial interventions
for depression in children and adolescents) and studies in which children were described as ‘at risk’ of
maltreatment but which provided no evidence that they had already experienced maltreatment.
Types of interventions
Any psychosocial intervention provided to maltreated infants, children or adolescents in any setting
(e.g. family, community, residential, school), and by any provider, aiming specifically to address the
consequences of any form of maltreatment, with or without the involvement of a carer or carers.
Examples of eligible psychosocial interventions are listed in Chapter 1. We included any intervention based
on cognitive theories (e.g. CBT, TF-CBT and abuse-focused CBT); EMDR; interventions based primarily on
forms of expression and communication drawn from the arts (e.g. art therapy, drama therapy, music
therapy, play therapy and narrative group therapy); attachment-based interventions; interventions based
on psychoanalytic theories, offered to the child or parent–child dyads; family/systemic interventions; MST;
peer mentoring; enhanced foster care, including treatment foster care; and residential care, including
models of therapeutic residential care, such as CARE® and Sanctuary®. Further details about included
interventions are provided in Appendix 5.
We included studies in which interventions were targeted at those responsible for the child (e.g. parents
or services) and included outcomes for the children studied. Studies in which psychotropic medication was
provided alongside psychosocial interventions were included.
As the review was focused on interventions addressing the consequences of maltreatment, we excluded
studies that were aimed at the prevention, identification and cessation of maltreatment. We also excluded
any study that assessed outcomes of those in standard foster care or standard residential care, for which
no specific therapeutic aspect was being evaluated.
Types of comparisons
Studies comparing psychosocial interventions with no-treatment arms, wait-list control groups, ‘treatment
as usual’ (TAU) and ‘other active treatment controls’ were included.
Types of outcomes
As described above, consultations were undertaken with key stakeholders in order to ensure appropriate
primary and secondary outcomes were considered and at meaningful time points. We were interested
in the following broad core outcome domains.
Primary outcomes of interest for children included the following domains: (1) psychological distress/mental
health (particularly PTSD, depression and anxiety and self-harm); (2) behaviour (particularly internalising
and externalising behaviours); (3) social functioning, including attachment and relationships with family
and others; (4) cognitive/academic attainment; and (5) quality of life.
Secondary outcomes included (1) substance misuse; (2) delinquency; (3) resilience; and (4) acceptability.
We were also interested in recording any outcome related to carer distress, carer efficacy (the degree to
which they feel empowered to care for the child appropriately and safely) and, where appropriate,
placement stability. Outcomes themselves were not used as inclusion/exclusion criteria.
12
Search methods
One overarching search strategy was developed to ensure coverage across all elements of the review.
Research, professional, policy and grey literature was searched using systematic and comprehensive search
strategies of appropriate bibliographic databases and relevant websites.
Search term generation

Search terms relating to the key concepts of the review were initially identified through discussion between the
research team and information scientists working for the Cochrane Developmental, Psychosocial and Learning
Problems Review Group and the Cochrane Depression, Anxiety and Neurosis Group. Background literature and
controlled vocabulary lists of relevant databases (e.g. medical subject heading terms in MEDLINE) were also
scanned. Initial pilot search strategies were developed and discussed by the research team and Steering Group,
and the electronic search strategy was modified and refined several times before implementation. No language
limits or study design filters were applied. Examples of final electronic search strategies for several different
databases [via MEDLINE Ovid; Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), Cochrane Database
of Systematic Reviews (CDSR) and Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE) (via The Cochrane
Library); ProQuest; EBSCOhost; eppi.ioe.ac.uk/webdatabases] are provided in Appendix 3.
Electronic searches
The following databases were first searched from the date of their inception between 28 February and
5 March 2013. Updating searches of the main databases were undertaken between 29 May 2014
and 2 June 2014. A full list of databases searched, with exact dates, is provided in Appendix 6.
i. Health and allied health literature [Ovid MEDLINE, CINAHL PsycINFO, EMBASE, CENTRAL, CDSR, DARE,
Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE), Health Management Information Consortium (HMIC)].
ii. Social sciences and social welfare literature [Social Services Abstracts, Social Care Online, Social Science
Citation Index (SSCI), Campbell Library of Systematic Reviews].
iii. Education literature [Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), Australian Education Index, British
Education Index].
iv. Other evidence-based research repositories [Database of Promoting Health Effectiveness Reviews
(DoPHER), Trials Register of Promoting Health Interventions (TRoPHI).
v. Economic databases [NHS Economic Evaluation Database (NHS EED), Paediatric Economic Database
Evaluation (PEDE), Health Economic Evaluations Database (HEED), EconLit and the IDEAS
economics database.
Updating searches planned prior to publication included trials registers [International Clinical Trials Registry
Platform (ICTRP) and ClinicalTrials.gov; UK Clinical Research Network (UKCRN) Study Portfolio].
Grey literature and other resource searches

Material generated by user-led or voluntary sector enquiry was identified via OpenGrey, searching the
internet (using Google and Google Scholar) and browsing the websites of relevant UK government
departments and charities (Mental Health Foundation, Barnardo’s, Carers UK, ChildLine, Children’s Society,
Depression Alliance, MIND, Anxiety UK, NSPCC, Princess Royal Trust for Carers, SANE, The Site, Turning
Point, Young Minds and the National Child Traumatic Stress Network). These sites were systematically
searched by members of the research team or members of the wider Steering Group using a selection
and combination of search terms as appropriate. The process is described in detail in Appendix 7.
Grey literature searches were up to date as of 25 June 2014. Requests were also sent to members of the
Steering Group for additional studies.
Reference lists
We checked references in studies that met the inclusion criteria, in previous reviews and other studies.
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Targeted author searches

We conducted targeted author searchers following the identification of key researchers in the field and
looked for follow-up studies using Google Scholar. Authors of ongoing and recently completed research
projects were also contacted directly as required to establish whether or not any results were available.
Data collection and analysis
Screening of citations and study selection

The original search was completed on 26 June 2013 and an updated search was undertaken on 4 June
2014. Search results were either imported into EndNote version 4 (Thomson Reuters, CA, USA) or saved as
text files. After removing obvious duplicates and irrelevant records, remaining records were imported into
EPPI-Reviewer 4.7172 (Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre, University of
London, London, UK), through which further duplicates were removed. Duplicates were removed by two
reviewers (NL and JH). Citations were then stored for sifting and management using EPPI-Reviewer.
Owing to the volume of citations identified, it was not possible to double-code the screening of all
citations. To ensure that reviewers were consistent in their decisions, five reviewers (JH, NL, CMcC, MC,
GM) initially coded the same 300 citations. Decisions were discussed, and selection criteria refined and
clarified. Once this process was complete and reviewers were satisfied that selection criteria were being
understood and applied consistently, each reviewer was assigned citations in batches of 1000 citations at
a time. To ensure that reviewers decisions remained consistent, 10% of citations were double-coded and
disagreements were resolved by discussion before moving on to the next batch of citations. Wherever a
reviewer was uncertain about which code should be applied a second opinion was sought from another
member of the research team.
When both reviewers agreed on inclusion, or whenever there was disagreement or uncertainty about
inclusion, the full-text article was obtained. When potentially relevant studies were published as abstracts,
or when there was insufficient information to assess eligibility or extract the relevant data, authors were
contacted directly. To ensure consistency in the application of inclusion criteria for full-text articles,
the same checking procedures were used. Each reviewer was assigned full-text articles in batches of
500 articles. Although 10% of full-text articles were initially cross-checked, second opinions were required
on almost every article. Therefore, two reviewers read full reports and determined eligibility for all studies.
Any unresolved disagreements were discussed with the research team and, where necessary, eligibility criteria
were further operationalised through discussion with input from the Steering Group. When maltreatment
was not confirmed in the population but was considered likely to have occurred (e.g. concern from referring
person that neglect was occurring), authors were contacted for further information. Principal reasons for the
exclusion of studies were recorded.
Data extraction and management

Data extraction forms tailored to review objectives were developed for both the effectiveness and
acceptability studies. These were piloted and refined using the first 10 papers marked for inclusion.
For each included study, two review authors independently extracted and recorded the following data
using a data collection form: study design and methods, sample characteristics, intervention characteristics
(including theoretical underpinning of services, delivery, duration, outcomes and within-intervention
variability), outcome measures and assessment time points. Where necessary, study investigators were
contacted for clarification about study characteristics and data. Any differences that could not be resolved
were noted.
As expected, the studies that met our inclusion criteria covered a heterogeneous group of psychosocial
interventions designed to address the adverse consequences of child maltreatment. For the purposes of this
review, we sought to group these according to common factors in their underlying theories of change.
14
We recognise that there is much debate about the theoretical underpinnings and classification of different
types of therapy, and that some may disagree about the decisions we have made.
We summarised therapies according to the groupings below. Further details and descriptions of the
therapeutic approaches can be found in Appendix 5.
l Cognitive–behavioural therapies:
¢ CBT
¢ behavioural therapies
¢ modelling and skills training
¢ TF-CBT
¢ EMDR.
l Relationship-based interventions (RBIs):
¢ attachment-orientated interventions
¢ Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC)
¢ parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT)
¢ parenting interventions
¢ dyadic developmental psychotherapy (DDP).
l Systemic interventions:
¢ systemic family therapy (FT)

¢ transtheoretical intervention
¢ MST
¢ multigroup FT
¢ family-based programme.
l Psychoeducation
l Group work with children
l Psychotherapy (unspecified)
l Counselling
l Peer mentoring
l Intensive service models:
¢ treatment foster care

¢ therapeutic residential/day care
¢ co-ordinated care.
l Activity-based therapies:
¢ arts therapy
¢ play/activity interventions
¢ animal therapy.
Assessment of risk of bias/study quality

Risk of bias in RCTs was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool.73 We searched ClinicalTrials.gov
and the World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform to identify prospectively
registered trial.
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For non-randomised studies, the Downs and Black Checklist74 for non-randomised studies was used. The
quality of acceptability studies was assessed against the relevant Critical Appraisal Skills Programme tool75
and the principles of good practice for conducting social research with children. The quality/risk of bias of all
eligible studies was assessed, but no study was excluded from the acceptability phase of the review on the
basis of its strength of evidence. The quality of data included within the economic evaluation was assessed
using the critical appraisal criteria proposed by Drummond et al.76 (see Appendix 8). The aim of the checklist
is to assist users of economic evaluations to assess the validity of the results by attempting to determine if
the methodology used in the study is appropriate. The checklist asks 10 questions, as reproduced in
Appendix 7.
Data synthesis: effectiveness studies

We first mapped all of the studies of interventions against type of maltreatment (specific or multiple) and
goals of treatment (outcome domains and measures). Interventions were grouped according to a simple
classification system (e.g. whether or not the intervention had a given component, i.e. psychodynamic,
cognitive). Priority was given to randomised and quasi-randomised trials, followed by non-randomised
studies with comparison groups, although only data from RCTs were included in any meta-analyses, largely
due to concerns about the quality of the data.
Measures of treatment effect

Dichotomous outcomes For dichotomous outcomes (e.g. attachment behaviours), we calculated effect
sizes as odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We converted continuous outcome data
(e.g. post-intervention depression) into standardised mean differences (SMDs) and presented data with
95% CIs.
Continuous data Unadjusted data were extracted where possible, both for consistency of interpretation
across studies and because we anticipated that this data source would be less susceptible to selective
reporting bias (in particular, the strategy prevents the possibility of biased selection of covariates for
inclusion in the model). Ideally we would use ‘change from baseline’ measures in the meta-analyses
because these reflect the correlations between measures at baseline and follow-up within individuals, and
also avoids biases that can be introduced if there is an imbalance in baseline measures across arms (The
Cochrane Handbook). However, ‘change from baseline’ measures were only rarely reported. We instead use
follow-up measures in the meta-analyses; however note that these measures can be biased, especially
if there is an imbalance in baseline measures between arms (which may occur because of flaws in
randomisation process or simply due to small numbers). We compared baseline characteristics between
arms and across studies, and for outcomes where there was an indication of intervention efficacy, we
checked the robustness of these results by performing a sensitivity analysis to using ‘change from baseline
measures’ with assumed values for correlation (see Sensitivity analyses).
Data synthesis
Where appropriate data were available, data synthesis was performed to pool the results. As clinical and
trial heterogeneity were expected (even similar interventions are provided under different circumstances, by
different providers, to different groups), we used a random-effects model.77
Assessment of heterogeneity
We explored the extent to which age (< 10 years old vs. > 10 years old), gender, ethnicity, type of
maltreatment (sexual vs. physical), intervention type and parent involvement (child-only intervention vs.
parent-and-child intervention) might moderate the effects of psychosocial interventions.
Sensitivity analyses
Publication bias and small study effects were investigated using standards methods (e.g. funnel plots) and
also within the synthesis models.78 When the data did not support such methods, the likelihood of
publication bias was summarised narratively.
16
We examined the impact of trial/study factors, including risks of bias domains and cointerventions.
For outcomes where there was an indication of intervention efficacy, we checked the robustness of results
to using a ‘change from baseline’ measure, rather than ‘follow-up’ measure. In the sensitivity analysis, we
derived ‘change from baseline’ measures by assuming values for the correlation between baseline and
follow-up measures: p = 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1. The standard deviation (SD) of the mean change from
baseline, sdchange, can then be estimated from the SD at baseline, sd0, and the SD at follow-up, sd1, using
the formula:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
sd change = sd 20 + sd 21 −2ρsd 0 sd 1 : (1)
Data synthesis: acceptability studies

A synthesis of acceptability data was undertaken, using a narrative approach to synthesis.79 Studies were
grouped into theoretically distinct subgroups. Using these intervention subgroupings, each study was
described, and data synthesis was conducted and reported using the following categories: children’s views
of the intervention, caregiver views, clinician views and attrition/engagement metrics. The structure of this
narrative was informed and framed by the content and methodological expertise available within the
research team and consultation with Young Persons’ Advisory Groups. Thematic analysis was also carried
out to identify common issues and barriers relating to acceptability.
Data synthesis: economic evidence

The economic component of the project aimed to (1) systematically review all full economic evaluations of
interventions that were designed to improve outcomes for maltreated children, using a narrative approach,
where full economic evaluation is defined as the analysis of both the costs and effects of one intervention
compared with another (including cost-effectiveness, cost–utility, cost–benefit or cost–consequences
analysis); (2) produce a decision-analytic model to quantitatively explore the relative cost-effectiveness of
interventions found to show promising levels of effectiveness in the effectiveness review and meta-analyses;
and (3) perform a value of information analysis to quantify the extent to which further primary research to
reduce uncertainty is warranted and where additional research may be most valuable. However, lack of
relevant economic evidence precluded both decision-analytic modelling and value-of-information analyses.
Instead, we conducted cost-effectiveness analyses for the most promising intervention using SMDs from
meta-analyses as the measure of outcome, and, additionally, using the results of a meta-analysis of a
subgroup of studies that reported outcomes in terms of a single clinical measure – the Children’s
Depression Inventory (CDI).80 Although the first analysis allowed us to utilise all the available evidence,
the second analysis provides evidence that is easier to interpret, focusing on the additional cost per unit
improvement in CDI score, rather than per unit improvement in SMD.
Intervention costs were calculated from data included in each paper on the nature of the intervention
under evaluation, including the number and duration of sessions and the format of delivery (group or
individual). Unit costs were estimated using nationally applicable UK unit costs per hour of face-to-face
contact for relevant professionals81 (www.pssru.ac.uk/project-pages/unit-costs/2014/). It was not always
clear from the papers which professionals had delivered the interventions and thus we estimated costs
for three categories of professional: clinical psychologist, psychologist and counsellor. We applied an
average cost of the three categories of professionals, weighted to take into consideration the number of
group-based interventions compared with individual interventions. Data on the use of broader health and
social care services were not available from the literature, so these costs were excluded.
Cost-effectiveness was explored initially through the calculation of incremental cost-effectiveness ratios
(ICERs), defined as the difference in mean costs divided by the difference in mean effects between the two
17
REVIEW METHODS
groups.82 We report the ICERs for SMD and CDI80 post treatment (for which the greatest number of studies
were available) and 12-month follow-up (to capture the longer-term implications).
Uncertainty was explored using probabilistic sensitivity analysis, a form of analysis that involves assigning
probability distributions to parameters (costs and effects) and sampling at random from the distributions to
generate an empirical distribution for each parameter.83 To represent uncertainty in costs, we fitted a
gamma distribution constrained between 0 and positive infinity, to reflect the fact that cost data are
commonly skewed in nature. For SMD and CDI,80 we assigned a normal distribution. Cost-effectiveness
acceptability curves (CEACs) are presented, which are derived from the joint density of incremental costs
and incremental effects and represent the probability of one intervention being more cost-effective than
the comparison as a function of the willingness to pay for a unit improvement in outcome.84 As willingness
to pay for an improvement in SMD and CDI80 are not known, a range of possible values of willingness to
pay are plotted.
Changes from the original protocol
During the course of the review, we had cause to agree several minor departures from the original
published protocol, as described below.
Inclusion of unpublished dissertations We had originally intended to include unpublished dissertations. The
search strategy identified a much larger than anticipated number of citations, including 290 unpublished
dissertations, many of which proved very difficult to access (most were from American universities). Owing
to resources constraints, we took a pragmatic decision to exclude these from the review. To minimise the
loss of relevant studies, two reviewers (JH, NL) independently reviewed the title and abstract of all 290
dissertations a second time, to identify any that were clearly evaluations of relevant interventions. We then
searched for published papers associated with the 36 dissertations so identified, all of which had already
been found in the original search.
Population A clarification is necessary regarding eligible study participants. As per protocol, we included
only papers that aimed to address the sequelae of maltreatment. We had also originally aimed to include
studies in which recruitment was ‘biased towards’ maltreated children. During the course of the review,
we identified studies in which recruitment may have favoured maltreated children (e.g. foster children) but
which did not actually address a sequelae of maltreatment. These studies were therefore excluded.
Outcomes We originally intended to map treatment goals and measures used as part of an examination
of the underpinning ‘logic model’ of interventions and to inform future research priorities. The studies
identified rarely provided sufficient information to be of any value in making such an assessment. Instead,
for descriptive purposes, where available, we recorded the aim of the intervention and the outcome
measures reported for all included papers. This information is presented in Chapter 3 (see Tables 3 and 4).
Searches We had planned to hand-search relevant journals. In view of the considerable number of
potentially relevant studies that were identified through other search strategies, the research group agreed
that additional hand searches were no longer necessary. We had also planned to search Health Searches
Research Projects in Progress, but this database retrieves many hundreds of records of funded projects
without publication details or links to reports. It was decided that the resources required to properly search
this resource could not be justified.
Study screening and selection We used EPPI-Reviewer version 4 (Evidence for Policy and Practice
Information and Co-ordinating Centre, University of London, London, UK) rather than a project website for
the submission and addition of new references so that the team could screen and discuss them. Owing to
the complexity of the topic, we chose not to check inter-rater reliability for judgements on study screening
and selection, instead favouring detailed discussion and consensus about studies of uncertain eligibility.
18
Data synthesis – effectiveness studies We originally planned to contact study authors about any missing
information so that we could consider the extent to which this might alter the conclusions of the
syntheses. The considerable volume of eligible studies and the poor quality of the available data meant
this was not an appropriate use of resources. If the data had allowed, we had planned to extend our
meta-analysis by fitting network meta-analysis models to explore in more detail the effectiveness of
different types and different components of interventions.85,86 The quantity and quality of the data did
not allow for this technique to be used.
Subgroup analyses If the available data had allowed, we had planned to explore the extent to which a
variety of study characteristics moderated the effects of treatment. We did not have sufficient data to
support these analyses and therefore present data descriptively where available, including: impact of
current symptoms; ethnicity; maltreatment history (including whether intra- or extra-familial); time since
maltreatment; care setting (family/out-of-home care including foster care/residential); care history;
characteristics of intervention (setting, provider, duration); and the adjunctive treatments.
We had planned to perform sensitivity analyses based on the inclusion of the QEx-randomised and
non-randomised studies but, owing to concerns about the quality of the data, we pooled data only from
RCTs in any of the meta-analyses.
Economic synthesis We had planned to undertake decision-analytic modelling of the relative cost-effectiveness
of interventions found to show promising levels of effectiveness in the effectiveness review and meta-analyses,
and to use the decision model developed to perform a value-of-information analysis to quantify the extent to
which further primary research to reduce uncertainty is warranted. However, lack of relevant economic
evidence precluded decision modelling and thus the value-of-information analyses, as described above.
Overview of the evidence base
The search and sifting process is summarised in the PRISMA flow chart in Figure 1. A total of 39,541
citations were identified in the search, which were either imported into EndNote or saved as text files.
After removing obvious duplicates and irrelevant records, a total of 39,303 records were imported into
EPPI-Reviewer, and a further 12,799 duplicates were removed, leaving 26,504 citations to be sifted by title
and abstract. Reviewers excluded 21,953 citations based on title and abstract. Reasons for exclusion included:
l duplicate citation (819)

l clearly irrelevant (4634)
l adult participants (661)
l not a maltreated sample (1515)
l form of maltreatment not included in the review, for example peer bullying, trauma due to war (445)
l participants were maltreated children but study not an evaluation study (7083)
l a relevant intervention was described but not evaluated (2348)
l evaluation of an intervention that was not relevant, for example abuse prevention programmes or drug
interventions (999)
l evaluation used a study design excluded from the review, for example case study (2093)
l paper contained relevant background information but not an evaluation of a relevant intervention (299)
l paper was a review paper not primary research (1057).
The remaining 4551 were initially brought forward to be sifted by full text. However, two published
papers87,88 could not be accessed despite searches via a number of university libraries, interlibrary loans and
attempts to contact the authors and 36 dissertations were not accessed. An additional seven papers were
identified through searches of the reference list of included studies. Of those articles reviewed at the full-text
stage, 4196 were excluded (of which 81 were duplicates), leaving 324 citations brought forward for data
extraction. Of these citations, 230 were potentially relevant for effectiveness, 17 cost-effectiveness,
19
REVIEW METHODS
Search results Duplicates removed

(N = 39,303) (N = 12,799)
• Original, n = 36,483 • Original search, n = 11,735
• Update, n = 2820 • Search update, n = 1064
Records sifted by title and abstract Exclude

(N = 26,504) (N = 21,953) (819 duplicates)
• Original search, n = 24,748 • Original search, n = 20,385
• Search update, n = 1756 • Search update, n = 1568
Brought forward Unclear

(N = 882) (N = 3669)
• Original search, n = 859 • Original search, n = 3504
• Search update, n = 23 • Search update, n = 165
Records brought forward for full-text sift

(n = 4551)
Papers added from hand search of

reference lists/author contact
(n = 7)
• Duplicates, n = 81
• Could not access, n = 2
• Dissertations, n = 36
• Excluded, n = 115
Records brought forward for data extraction

(n = 324)
Effectiveness Cost-effectiveness Acceptability

(n = 253) (n = 22) (n = 73)
Included
Excluded (n = 219) Excluded Included Excluded Included
(n = 34) (198 studies) (n = 16) (n = 6 studies) (n = 0) (n = 73 studies)
FIGURE 1 Maltreatment review: flow chart. Original search date 26 June 2013, search update 4 June 2014. Numbers
reflect the number of records, not the included studies for which there may be multiple citations. Sifting decisions
are up to date as of 30 January 2014. Green numbers refer to records and black numbers refer to studies.
54 acceptability, four relevant to both effectiveness and cost-effectiveness, 18 relevant to both effectiveness
and acceptability, and one relevant to all three.
A number of these citations were subsequently excluded after discussions within the review team
(34 effectiveness, 16 cost-effectiveness – see Chapter 3, Table 7). This left 219 effectiveness citations,
six economic citations and 73 acceptability papers.
20
Chapter 3 Description of studies
Effectiveness studies
Included studies
In total, we identified 198 studies (217 citations) assessing the effectiveness of relevant psychosocial
interventions for maltreated children. Of these, 62 studies followed a randomised (n = 61) or
quasi-randomised (n = 1) design. QEx designs were identified in eight studies, with a further 26 COSs and
101 uncontrolled studies. Table 1 provides an overview of evaluations of interventions by study design.
Table 2 provides an overview of the distribution of evaluations across intervention category and
maltreatment types, by study design (controlled, uncontrolled).
TABLE 1 Intervention categories identified by study design
Study design
Intervention category RCT Q-RCT QEx COS UCS Total
CBT CBT for sexual abuse 11 1 30 56
CBT for physical abuse 3
CBT for multiple abuse 7
EMDR 2
RBIs Attachment-oriented interventions 9 1 10 24
PCIT 3
Parenting interventions 2
Systemic interventions Systemic FT 1 14 22
Trans-theoretical intervention 1
Multisystemic FT 3 1
Multigroup FT 1
Family-based programme 1
Psychoeducation Psychoeducation 7 3 7 11 28
Group work with children Group work with children 1 4 3 8
Psychotherapy/counselling Psychotherapy/counselling 3 1 3 4 11
Peer mentoring Peer mentoring 2 0 2

a
Intensive service models Treatment foster care 4 2 15 24
Therapeutic residential/day care 1 2

Co-ordinated care 1
Activity-based therapies Arts therapy 2 14 21
Play/activity interventions 1 1 1
Animal therapy 2
Totalsb 61 1 8 26 101 198

Q-RCT, quasi-randomised trial; UCS, uncontrolled study.
a One RCT of Treatment Foster Care was embedded in a larger COS. It is counted here only as a RCT.
b Numbers reflect the number of studies.
21
DESCRIPTION OF STUDIES
TABLE 2 Summary of included studies by abuse type: total number of studies (controlled studies,
uncontrolled studies)
Types of abuse (controlled, uncontrolled)
Intervention category Physical Emotional Sexual Neglect Multiple Other
CBT 21 (11, 10) 8 (4, 4) 45 (20, 25) 6 (3, 3) 11 (3, 8) 10 (6, 4)

Relationship-based 13 (7, 6) 6 (5, 1) 7 (3, 4) 14 (7, 6) 7 (5, 2) 14 (9, 5)
interventions
Systemic interventions 11 (6, 5) 5 (2, 3) 12 (4, 8) 5 (3, 2) 3 (1, 2) 4 (0, 4)
Psychoeducation 9 (7, 2) 5 (7, 1) 21 (12, 9) 5 (3, 2) 4 (2, 2) 8 (6, 2)
Group work with children 0 (0, 0) 0 (0, 0) 8 (5, 3) 0 (0, 0) 0 (0, 0) 0 (0, 0)
Psychotherapy (unspecified) 4 (3, 1) 1 (1, 0) 10 (6, 4) 3 (3, 0) 2 (2, 0) 0 (0, 0)
Peer mentoring 2 (2, 0) 0 (0, 0) 0 (0, 0) 2 (2, 0) 1 (1, 0) 0 (0, 0)
Intensive service models 16 (7, 9) 5 (4, 1) 14 (5, 9) 11 (6, 5) 8 (6, 2) 7 (1, 6)
Activity-based therapies 8 (3, 6) 1 (0, 1) 16 (5, 11) 4 (1, 3) 2 (0, 2) 6 (2, 4)
Totals 84 (45, 39) 30 (19, 11) 134 (60, 72) 49 (28, 21) 38 (20, 18) 49 (24, 25)
The interventions and comparisons evaluated are summarised below and described in detail in Chapter 4.
All controlled studies are summarised in Table 3 (participant characteristics), Table 4 (intervention
characteristics and comparators) and Table 5 (outcomes domains and outcome measures used). The
uncontrolled studies identified are summarised in Table 6. In the protocol, we specified that these studies
would be included only if no other controlled studies were identified for the intervention evaluated. This was
the case only for ‘systemic interventions’ for ‘other’ types of abuse (e.g. witnessing domestic violence,
Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy) and ‘activity-based interventions’ for ‘emotional’ forms of abuse. We
therefore consider these only in Chapter 6, in the context of highlighting important gaps in the evidence base.
Summary of study characteristics
Sample size
Sample sizes in identified studies varied considerably with samples ranging ranged from just 3 to 834
participants. The majority of studies (107) had < 50 participants, with just 14 having > 200 participants.
Location
The overwhelming majority of studies were conducted in the USA (130 out of 196). The remaining studies
took place in Canada (22), the UK (17) or other European countries (11), Australia (6) or New Zealand (1),
North America (1), South America (4), Iran (2), Israel (1), South Africa (1), Turkey (1) and the Philippines (1).
Age
Participants in identified studies ranged in age from 0 to 25 years old. The median age across all studies was
approximately 10 years old. There appeared to be differences in the age groups targeted by different
interventions. Cognitive–behavioural approaches included participants from 4 to 24 years old with a mean age
of approximately 13 years old. Attachment-orientated interventions tended to target younger children, with
most aged between 1 and 4 years old. Systemic interventions appeared to be targeted towards children
between 2 and 17 years old with a mean age of approximately 8 years old. For psychotherapy/counselling mean
age was often not reported but participants ranged from 3 to 19 years old. Finally, Intensive service models
mainly included young participants from birth to age 16 years, with a mean age of approximately 5 years.
Gender
The victims of abuse in the identified studies were typically female (61% female, 39% male). In studies
that were specifically addressing the consequences of sexual abuse, 80% of participants were female, with
22
TABLE 3 Characteristics of participants in included studies

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Intervention category Design Study/record Country n Mean age (SD), range % Female P E S N M O
89
CBT for sexual abuse RCT Berliner 1996 USA 154 8 years 89 ✗
90
RCT Celano 1996 USA 47 10.5, 8–13 years 100 ✗
RCT Cohen 199691,92 USA 86 4.68, 2.11–7.1 years 58 ✗
RCT Cohen 199893,94 USA 82 11, 7.2–15.3 years 68 ✗

95,96
RCT Cohen 2004 USA 229 10.76, 8–14.9 years 79 ✗
97,98
RCT Deblinger 1996 USA 100 9.89 (2) 7–13 years 83 ✗
RCT Deblinger 200199 USA 63 5.45 (1.47), 2–8 years 61 ✗

RCT Deblinger 2011100 USA 210 7.6 (2.07), 4–11 years 62 ✗
101
RCT Foa 2013 USA 61 Intervention: 15.4, 14.9–15.8 years 100 ✗
Control: 15.3, 14.7–15.9 years
RCT Jaberghaderi 2004102 Iran 14 12–13 years 100 ✗

103
RCT King 2000 Australia 36 11.4, 5.2–17.4 years 69 ✗
104,105
COS Paquette 2011 Canada 35 14.3 (1.5) years 100 ✗
CBT for physical abuse RCT LeSure-Lester 2002106 USA 12 13.16, 12–16 years 0 ✗
a 107,108
RCT Kolko 1996 USA 55 8.6 (2.2) years (no information on control 28 ✗
group)
RCT Runyon 2010109 USA 75 9.88 (2.02), 7–13 years 47 ✗

continued
HEALTH TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT 2016 VOL. 20 NO. 69
23
24
TABLE 3 Characteristics of participants in included studies (continued )
110
CBT for multiple abuse RCT Champion 2012 USA 559 16.46 (1.34) 14–18 years 100 ✗ ✗ ✗

RCT Church 2012111 Peru 16 13.9, 12–17 years 0 ✗
112,113
RCT Jensen 2014 Norway 156 15.1 (2.2), 10–18 years 80 ✗ ✗ ✗
114
RCT Linares 2006 USA 128 6.2 (2.3), 3–10 years No info ✗ ✗ ✗
115
RCT Linares 2012 USA 94 6.7 (1.1) 5–8 years 51 ✗ ✗ ✗
RCT Rushton 2010116 UK 38 67 (18), 36–102 months 55 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

117
RCT Shirk 2014 USA 43 Intervention: 15.25 (1.52) years 84 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
Control: 15.69 (1.55), 13–17 years
COS Kolko 2011118 USA 52 9.1 (3.7), 3–17 years 48 ✗ ✗ ✗

119
COS Rondeau 1983 USA 17 7.6 years (median) 24 ✗
120
EMDR RCT Farkas 2008 Canada 65 Intervention: 14.3 (1.4) years 63 ✗
Control: 14.9 (1.3) years
RCT Scheck 1998121 USA 85 20.93, 16–25 years 100 ✗ ✗ ✗


Attachment-orientated RCT Bernard 2012122 USA 120 Intervention: 19.2 (5.2), 1.7–21.4 months 43 ✗ ✗
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
interventions Control: 19.2 (5.8), 1.7–21.4 months
RCT Cicchetti 2006123 USA 189 13.31 (0.81) months 53 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

RCT Cicchetti 2011124 USA 137 Intervention 1: 13.36 (0.87) months 51 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
Control 1: 13.32 (0.87) months
Intervention 2: 13.36 (0.82) months

RCT Dozier 2006125,126 USA 60 Intervention: 19.01 (9.64) 50 ✗

3.9–39.4 months
Control: 16.3 (7.42) 3.6–33.6 months
RCT Lieberman 2005127–129 USA 75 4.06 (0.82) 3–5 years 52 ✗

130
RCT Moss 2011 Canada 79 Intervention: 3.29 (1.44) years 39 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
RCT Spieker 2012131 USA 210 Intervention: 18.29 (5.32) months 44 ✗

Control: 18.15 (4.79) months
RCT Sprang 2009132 USA 58 42.5 (18.6) months 49 ✗

133
RCT Toth 2002 USA 155 Intervention 1: 48 (7.71) months 45 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
Intervention 2: 47.86 (6.07) months

COS Becker-Weidman USA 69 Intervention: 9.4 (2.6) 6.0–15.2 years 41 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

2006134,135 Control: 11.7 (4.0) 5.3–16.2 years
continued
25
26
136
PCIT RCT Chaffin 2004 USA 110 4–12 years No info ✗ ✗

137
RCT Thomas 2011 Australia 150 5 (1.6) years 30 ✗ ✗ ✗
RCT Thomas 2012138 Australia 151 4.75 (1.3) years 29 ✗ ✗ ✗

Parenting interventions RCT Hughes 2004139 Canada 28 Intervention: 65 (19.09) 42–100 months 38 ✗
Control: 61 (17.63) 36–93 months
RCT Valentino 2013140 USA 44 Intervention: 5.44 (0.23) years 55 ✗

a
Systemic FT RCT Kolko 1996107,108 USA 55 8.6 (2.2) years (no info on control group) 28 ✗
141
Transtheoretical RCT Linares 2015 USA 22 Average age of sibling pairs 7.2 – 9.7 years 55 ✗ ✗
intervention
Multisystemic FT RCT Brunk 1987142 USA 43 8.3 years 45 ✗ ✗
RCT Danielson 2012143 USA 30 14.8 (1.5) 13–17 years 88 ✗
RCT Swenson 2010144 USA 90 Intervention: 13.81 (2.22) years 56 ✗

RCT Biehal 2012145,146 UK 34 12.7 years ✗
COS Schaeffer 2013147 USA 44 Intervention: 12.8 years 44 ✗ ✗ ✗

Control: 10.8 years
Multigroup FT RCT Meezan 1998148,149 USA 81 2–11 years No info ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

150
Family-based QEx Bagley 2000 Canada 93 Intervention: 11.2 years 100 ✗
programme Control: 11.8 years
151
Psychoeducation RCT Graham-Berman 2007 USA 181 8.49 (2.16) 6–12 years 50 ✗ ✗

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
RCT Howell 2013152 USA 113 4.95 (0.86) 4–6 years 47 ✗
RCT Overbeek 2013153 Netherlands 164 Intervention: 9.35 (1.55) years 45 ✗

RCT Sullivan 2002154 USA 80 8.3, 6.5–11 years 55 ✗ ✗ ✗
RCT Trowell 2002155 UK 71 10 (2.2) 6–14 100 ✗

156
RCT Wagar 1995 Canada 42 Intervention: 10.2 (1.74) years 29 ✗
RCT Wolfe 2003157 Canada 191 Intervention: 15.1 (1.1) years 52 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

QEx Noether 2007158 USA 253 7.28 years 90 ✗ ✗ ✗
QEx Simoneau 2008159 Canada 57 9.19 (2.0) 6–13 78.9 ✗

160
QEx Tourigny 2007 Canada 55 Intervention 1: 14.4 years 100 ✗
Control 1: 14.8 years
Intervention 2: 15.2 years
COS Barth 1994161 USA 27 Intervention: 8.2 years 83 ✗

Control: 9.6 years
COS Duffany 2009162 USA 834 6.8 (2.6) 3–12 years 51 ✗
COS Hébert 2010163 Canada 107 Intervention: 8.67 (2.00) years 80 ✗

COS Holland 2004164 Canada 66 13 (median), 5–19 years 70 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
COS Santibáñez 2000165 Spain 30 14.35 (1.65) 11–16 years 37 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

continued
27
28
COS Tourigny 2005166,167 Canada 42 Intervention: 14.8 years 100 ✗

Control: 14.3 years
COS Tourigny 2008168 Canada 53 Intervention: 15.5 years no info ✗

Control: 14.6 years
Group work with Q-RCT Monck 1996169 UK 47 4–13 years 85 ✗

children
COS De Luca 1995170 Canada 70 7–12 years 100 ✗
171
COS Grayston 1995 Canada 12 7–10 years 0 ✗
172
COS McGain 1995 USA 30 10.5 (1.21), 9–12 years 100 ✗
173
COS Verleur 1986 USA 30 13–17 years 100 ✗
Psychotherapy/ RCT Thun 2002174 USA 13 16–18 years 100 ✗

counselling 175
RCT Haight 2010 USA 22 9.6, 7–14.6 years 40 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
176
RCT Reddy 2013 USA 70 14.7 (1.14) years 56 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
RCT Trowell 2002155 UK 71 11.5; 11.4 [I;C] (2.2) 6–14 100 ✗

177
QEx Cadol 1975 USA 140 Intervention 1: 17.2 months 34 ✗ ✗ ✗
Control 1: 15.8 months
Intervention 2: 14.0 months

Control 2: 17.7 months
COS Nolan 2002178 Ireland 38 Intervention 1: 12.6 (2.3) 6–17 years 93 ✗

Intervention 2: 12.7 (2.2) 6–17 years
COS Sullivan 1992179 USA 72 12–16 years 29 ✗
180
COS Downing 1988 USA 22 6–12 years 59 ✗
181
Peer mentoring RCT Fantuzzo 1988 USA 36 4.3, 3.1–5.3 years 22 ✗ ✗

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
RCT Fantuzzo 1996182 USA 46 Intervention: 4.53 (0.21) years 60 ✗ ✗ ✗

Treatment foster care RCT Fisher 2005183–188 USA 177 4.4 (0.79–0.86), 3–6 years 47 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
RCT Smith 2011189 USA 100 11.54 (0.48) years 100 ✗ ✗

190,191
RCT Taussig 2010 USA 156 10.4 (0.9), 9–11 years 49 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
192
COS Fisher 2000 USA 30 Intervention: 5.35 years 30 ✗
COS Graham 2012193 USA 37 73.26 (10.9), 59.89–106.09 months 49 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
Therapeutic residential RCT Moore 1998194 USA 61 Intervention: 0.92 (0.6) years 54 ✗
and day care Control: 1.1 (0.7) years
COS Culp 1987195,196 USA 70 2.4, 0.1–6.2 years 44 ✗ ✗
197
COS Culp 1991 USA 34 4.8, 3.9–5.9 years 44 ✗ ✗
Co-ordinated care RCT Swenson 2000198 USA 66 8, 0–16 years 53 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
Arts therapy QEx Brillantes-Evangelista Philippines 33 13–18 years 64 ✗ ✗

2013199
QEx Pretorius 2010200 South Africa 12 8–11 years 100 ✗

201
Play/activity COS D’Andrea 2013 USA 88 12–21 years 100 ✗ ✗ ✗
RCT McDonald 1989202 USA 38 8–17 years 50 ✗
QEx Udwin 1983203 UK 34 Intervention: 58.3 (9.45) months 41 ✗

Control: 55.82 (12.29) months
continued
29
30

204
Animal therapy COS Dietz 2012 USA 153 Intervention 1: 11.57 (2.85) years 95 ✗
Intervention 2: 10.97 (2.63) years
– Hamama 2011205 Israel 18 Intervention: 15.33 (1.12) years 100 ✗ ✗

E, emotional (abuse); M, multiple (types of maltreatment); N, neglect; O, other (forms of maltreatment); P, physical (abuse); Q-RCT, quasi-randomised controlled trial; S, sexual (abuse).
a Kolko 1996107,108 appears twice – once in section ‘CBT for physical abuse’ and once in section ‘systemic family therapy’.
Code:
Cognitive-behavioural Relationship based Systemic Psychoeducation
Psychotherapy/counselling Peer mentoring Intensive service models Activity based
Group work with children

TABLE 4 Characteristics of interventions and comparators in included studies
Intervention category Study Design Setting Name, aim, theory Comparators
CBT for sexual abuse Berliner 199689 RCT Health service/hospital Name: Enhanced group treatment approach Comparison treatment
included common

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Aim: To reduce fear and anxiety in sexually abused children elements of conventional
sexual abuse treatment,
Theory: Designed to be a structured equivalent of but it did not include SIT
conventional sexual abuse-specific group therapy treatment –
included elements of GE treatment procedures and SIT
Celano 199690 RCT Health service/hospital Name: RAP TAU
Aim: To address children’s maladaptive beliefs, affects, and

behaviour along four dimensions, (self-blame/stigmatisation,
betrayal, traumatic sexualisation, powerlessness)
Theory: Finkelhor’s and Browne’s (1985206) theoretical model

of the four traumagenic dynamics intrinsic to sexual abuse
Cohen 199691,92 RCT Health service/hospital Name: CBT for sexually abused preschoolers Non-directive supportive
therapy
Aim: Treatment of the sequelae of sexual abuse in preschool
children and their parents
Theory: CBT
Cohen 199893,94 RCT Health service/hospital Name: SAS-CBT and behavioural difficulties related to sexual Non-directive supportive
abuse therapy
Theory: Finkelhor (1987)207 – theoretical model of the impact

of sexual abuse on children
Cohen 200495,96 RCT Health service/hospital Name: TF-CBT CCT
Aim: Treatment of the sequelae of sexual abuse
Theory: Cognitive and learning theories about PTSD in

children
continued
31
32
TABLE 4 Characteristics of interventions and comparators in included studies (continued )

97,98
Deblinger 1996 RCT Community Name: CBT for PTSD for sexually abused children Standard community care
Aim: To target sexually abused children’s PTSD symptoms,

as well as other behavioural and emotional problems
Theory: CBT
Deblinger 200199 RCT Not reported Name: Cognitive Behavioural Group Supportive counselling
Aim: (1) Help child communicate about their feelings;

(2) identify ‘OK’ and ‘Not OK’ touches; and (3) learn abuse
response skills
Theory: No specific but CBT theoretical framework is well

known. Supportive therapy: unclear
Deblinger 2011100 RCT Not reported Name: TF-CBT No non-CBT comparison –

study compared TF-CBT
Aim: Assess effects of treatment on severity of the PTSD, with and without TN
internalising, externalising, depressive and anxiety symptoms
of the children, along with their levels of sexualised
behaviours, fear, shame and body safety skills
Theory: CBT
101
Foa 2013 RCT Health service/hospital Name: Prolonged exposure programme modified for Supportive counselling
adolescent girls with sexual abuse-related PTSD
Aim: To reduce PTSD severity, rate of PTSD diagnosis,

self-reported PTSD severity and depression, and improve
general functioning
Theory: Prolonged exposure therapy

102
Jaberghaderi 2004 RCT Health service/ Name: (1) EMDR and (2) CBT No non-CBT comparisons –
hospital – university study compared CBT with
clinic Aim: Overall aim of both – to address the sequelae of sexual EMDR
abuse
Theory: Not specified

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
King 2000103 RCT Not reported Name: Child CBT Intervention Wait-list control
Aim: To help the child overcome his or her post-abuse

distress and PTSD symptoms
Theory: Deblinger’s work20,208 on the CBT of sexually abused

children exhibiting PTSD was particularly influential in the
development and refinement of the treatment protocol
Paquette 2011104,105 COS Community Name: Group therapy programme No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To ‘reduce the after effects associated with sexual
abuse, increase social support seeking and prevent
revictimisation’
Theory: An ‘eclectic viewpoint (cognitive–behavioural,

cognitive and humanistic) was adopted while various
technical approaches were used (e.g. modelling,
social support, cognitive reframing)’
continued
33
34

106
CBT for physical abuse LeSure-Lester 2002 RCT Care setting Name: Cognitive behaviour therapeutic approach Active listening
Aim: To ‘teach the adolescent alternative ways of thinking

about, responding to, and feeling about, stressful situations
typical to the adolescents social encounters’

Theory: Cognitive–behavioural therapeutic approach
107,108
Kolko 1996 RCT Home based/health Name: Individual child–parent CBT Routine community
service/hospital services
Aim: Designed to alter participants’ cognitive, affective and
behavioural–social repertoires
Theory: Social learning principles

109
Runyon 2010 RCT Health service/hospital Name: Combined parent–child cognitive–behavioural group No non-CBT comparison –
therapy for families study compared CPC-CBT
with parent-only CBT
Aim: (1) Decrease the risk of recurrence of physically abusive
episodes; (2) assist parents in correcting unrealistic
expectations and misinterpretations of children’s behaviours;
(3) increase parents’ ability to manage their anger and utilise
non-violent child management skills; (4) increase positive
parent–child interactions; and (5) improve children’s overall
emotional adjustment
Theory: CPC-CBT is based on cognitive–behavioural

principles and includes some of the CBT techniques that
have been included in pre-existing empirically validated
models, such as TF-CBT (Deblinger and Heflin 1996208)
110
CBT for multiple abuse Champion 2012 RCT Health service/hospital Name: PI intervention Enhanced clinical
counselling
Aim: Counselling for abused ethnic minority adolescent

women on infection with STI
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Theory: Theory-based ARRM; (Catania et al. 1990209)

cognitive–behavioural intervention model vs. enhanced
counselling
Church 2012111 RCT Care setting Name: EFT Wait-list control
Aim: Treatment for traumatic stress
Theory: ‘EFT employs brief forms of certain components of

therapies that have demonstrated efficacy, such as cognitive
restructuring and exposure. To these it adds a somatic
component, having therapists or subjects tap with their
fingers on prescribed acupuncture points while cognitive
statements are made’
Jensen 2014112,113 RCT Health service/hospital Name: TF-CBT TAU
Aim: To treat children and youth exposed to traumatising

events
Theory: CBT
114
Linares 2006 RCT Not reported Name: Parenting course (Incredible Years210) Standard UC condition
Aim: The proximal outcomes are positive discipline practices

and collaborative coparenting, whereas the distal goal is the
reduction of child externalising problems over time
Theory: Coparenting strategy, whereby caregivers

acknowledge the inequality in their roles, learn to
communicate and resolve conflict directly and work to
promote the emotional adjustment of children in foster care
continued
35
36

115
Linares 2012 RCT A classroom-like Name: Child training – using 12 out of 18 lessons from Standard UC condition
setting at each Incredible Years Dina Program for Young Children211
study site
Aim: Reducing conduct problems at home and school and
improving conflict management strategies with peers
Theory: Incredible Years Dina Program for Young Children211
Rushton 2010116 RCT Home based Name: Cognitive–behavioural intervention Wait-list control

Aim: To improve the adopters’ understanding of the
meaning of the children’s current behaviour and increase
their ability to manage the behaviour
Theory: ‘The cognitive–behavioural approach. The most

direct influence in writing the manual for this approach has
been the work of Webster-Stratton (Webster-Stratton
2003;212 Webster-Stratton and Hancock 1998213)’
Shirk 2014117 RCT Health service/hospital Name: m-CBT TAU
Aim: Focus on addressing cognitive deficits and distortions to

treat depression in traumatised adolescents
Theory: CBT with focus on mindfulness techniques
Kolko 2011118 COS Community Name: Alternatives for Families No non-CBT comparison –
study compared AF-CBT
Aim: AF-CBT is an EBT for child physical abuse and family with combination of other
aggression/conflict EBTs, including TF-CBT,
PCIT, CPP, cognitive
Theory: Social learning/behavioural theory; family-systems behavioural intervention
theory; cognitive therapy; developmental victimology for trauma in schools
Rondeau 1983119 COS Care setting Name: Art therapy, with or without token reward system Art therapy without token
reward system
Aim: Increase co-operative behaviour and art production
Theory: Operant conditioning social exchange theory

120
EMDR Farkas 2008 RCT Not reported Name: MASTR/EMDR Wait-list controls receiving
routine care

Aim: To reduce trauma symptoms and behavioural problems
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Theory: MASTR and EMDR

121
Scheck 1998 RCT Therapist setting Name: EMDR Active listening
Aim: ‘Using a series of manualised steps, the client

reactivates the troubling memory while the practitioner
intervenes at a variety of choice points to resolve distress
(Shapiro 1995214)’
Theory: ‘EMDR is a specific desensitising treatment designed

around a complex method’
Attachment-orientated Bernard 2012122 RCT Home based Name: ABC DEF

interventions
Aim: ‘Targets nurturing, sensitive care among the parents
identified as being at risk for neglecting their young children,
with the aim of decreasing disorganised attachment’
Theory: Attachment theory

123
Cicchetti 2006 RCT Home based Name: (1) IPP (2) PPI Community standard
group – received services
Aim: To foster secure attachment in infants in maltreating as usual
families
Theory: IPP is derived from the work of Fraiberg et al.

(1975215); PPI is derived from the work of Olds et al.
(Olds et al. 1997,216 1998;217 Olds and Kitzman 1990218)
continued
37
38
Cicchetti 2011124 RCT Home based Name: CPP PPI Community Standard
group – received services

Aim: CPP ‘encourages sensitive interactions between as usual
caregivers and their children by helping parents form positive
representations of themselves and the caregiver–child
relationship;’ PPI ‘teaches parenting skills, relaxation

techniques, and behaviours that promote social support’
Theory: CPP is attachment based; PPI is a behavioural/

education-based intervention
Dozier 2006125,129 RCT Home based Name: ABC DEF
Aim: Designed to help children develop regulatory control

by helping foster carers to reinterpret children’s difficult
behavior, overcome personal issues that interfere with their
ability to provide nurturing care, and provide an environment
that facilitates the development of self-regulation in children
Theory: The intervention draws on strategies known to be

associated with children’s ability to self-regulate, for
example, following the child’s lead, recognizing the
importance of value of touch, and creating the conditions
under which children can express their emotions, and learn
to recognize and understand them
Lieberman 2005127–129 RCT Not reported Name: CPP Case management plus
individual psychotherapy
Aim: To alleviate children’s traumatic stress symptoms and
behaviour problems
Theory: Attachment theory; developmental psychopathology

models
130
Moss 2011 RCT Home based Name: Short-term attachment-based home-visiting Standard agency services
intervention

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Aim: ‘Enhancing maternal sensitivity to child emotional and

behavioural signals in order to promote greater child
security’
Theory: Based on the work of Bakermans-Kranenburg

et al. (1998219), Dozier et al. (2006125) and Moran
et al. (2005220)
Spieker 2012131 RCT Home based Name: PFR EES
Aim: To ‘increase caregiver awareness of children’s

behavioural cues and miscues for nurturance’
Theory: ‘PFR includes many of the effective elements of

brief attachment-based interventions summarised by
Bakermans-Kranenburg et al.219’
Sprang 2009132 RCT Home based Name: ABC Wait-list controls attended
a biweekly support group
Aim: To promote self-regulation among children in foster
care by means of optimizing the parenting skills of foster
parents
Theory: Maltreated children often engage in resistant-

avoidant behaviour, which can result in their carers
withdrawing from them (Stovall-McClough and Dozier
2004221). By helping foster carers provide them with
optimally sensitive parenting, children learn to depend on
their assistance to manage their emotions, thereby develop
their own emotional self-regulation skills
continued
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40

133
Toth 2002 RCT Home based/health Name: PPP, PHV Community Standard
service/hospital group
Aim: The PPP model highlights the importance of
parent–child attachment in fostering positive child

development, improved parent–child interaction and
decreases in child maltreatment. PHV focuses on parenting
skill improvement and child adaptive competencies
Theory: PPP based on attachment theory; PHV integration

of ecological–transactional development model with
psychoeducational and behavioural techniques
Becker-Weidman COS Health service/hospital Name: DDP UC from other providers

2006134,135 at other clinics
Aim: To reduce symptoms of attachment disorder, to
increase capacity to use the caregiver as a secure base for
comfort and security, to resolve grief and loss issues, to
improve ability to form social relationships, to improve
cause–effect thinking, to reduce aggression, to reduce
delinquent behaviour
Theory: An attachment-based treatment approach

‘Developmental Psychotherapy has as its core, or central
therapeutic mechanism and as essential for treatment
success, the maintenance of a contingent collaborative and
affectively attuned relationship between therapist and child,
between caregiver and child, and between therapist and
caregiver’
PCIT Chaffin 2004136 RCT Health service/hospital Name: PCIT Standard community
group
Aim: Disrupting escalating coercive cycles and improving the
quality of parent–child interactions

Theory: Social learning theory based
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
137
Thomas 2011 RCT No information Name: PCIT Wait-list control
Aim: To address risk factors associated child maltreatment
Theory: ‘PCIT was developed to improve parenting skills

and parent–child interactions among families struggling
with their children’s (ages 3–7 years) behaviour problems
(e.g. ODD; Eyberg 1988;222 Hembree-Kigin and Neil 1995223)’
Thomas 2012138 RCT Tertiary referral Name: PCIT Wait-list control

service/research
programme Aim: To compare the effectiveness of standard PCIT with
PCIT that only moves from child-directed interaction to
parent-directed interaction when mastery criteria for
child-directed interaction have been reached
Theory: As Thomas 2011137
Parenting Interventions Hughes 2004139 RCT Community Name: The Webster-Stratton parent programme Wait-list control
Aim: To assist parents in improving their parenting

‘by helping they learn how to (a) play with and assist
children to learn; (b) use praise and give reinforcement;
(c) set age-appropriate limits; and (d) handle misbehaviour’
Theory: Intervention based on Social Learning Theory

(Bandura 1977224)
Valentino 2013140 RCT Home based Name: RET Wait-list control
Aim: To help maltreating parents improve their

communication skills and relationships with their children
Theory: Parent–child reminiscing
continued
41
42

107,108
Systemic FT Kolko 1996 RCT Home based/health Name: FT Routine community
service/hospital services
Aim: To enhance family functioning and relationships
Theory: ‘FT was designed to enhance family functioning and

relationships (Alexanders and Parsons 1982;225 Robin and

Foster 1989226), in accord with the interactional or ecological
model approach to child maltreatment (Belsky 1993227)’
Transtheoretical Linares 2015141 RCT Community Name: PSB TAU

intervention
Aim: To increase positive interaction between siblings,
reduce conflict during play and promote conflict mediation
strategies
Theory: ‘Transtheoretical intervention model, which

integrates principles of family systems, emotional regulation,
social learning and parent mediation’
Multisystemic FT Brunk 1987142 RCT Home based/care Name: MST Standard outpatient plus
setting parent training
Aim: To effect ‘change in parental control strategies,
including parental responsibility and effectiveness and child
compliance’
Theory: Behaviour problems are assumed to be

multidetermined and multidimensional; they therefore
require interventions that can target one or more systems or
combinations of systems
Danielson 2012143 RCT Health service/hospital Name: RRFT TAU
Aim: To reduce risk of substance use and other high-risk

behaviours and trauma-related psychopathology in
adolescents who have experienced CSA
Theory: Ecological Theory, Mowrer’s Two-Factor Theory

(Mowrer 1960228) and Negative Reinforcement Theory
(Baker et al. 2004229)

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Swenson 2010144 RCT Home based/school/ Name: MST-CAN EOT: Included the
other convenient standard services the
locations Aim: To ‘improve youth and parent functioning, reduce centre provided for
abusive parenting behaviour, and decrease reabuse and physically abused youths
placement to a greater degree than an enhanced version of and their parents, as well
the standard outpatient treatment for child physical abuse as enhanced engagement
provided at that agency (i.e. EOT)’ and parent training
interventions
Theory: The core components of standard MST (Henggeler
et al. 2009230) adapted for use with maltreated youth and
their families
Schaeffer 2013147 COS Home based Name: MST-BSF Comprehensive

community treatment
Aim: To address ‘the co-occurring problem of parental
substance abuse and child maltreatment among families
involved in the child welfare system’
Theory: Ecological theory, systems and social learning theory

148,149
Multigroup FT Meezan 1998 RCT Community Name: MFGT Traditional FT (several
theoretical frameworks
Aim: To prevent and treat child abuse and neglect, to reduce including structural FT,
abusive and neglectful carer behaviours, and to reduce the behaviour modification
effects of maltreatment on the child and CBT strategies; also
some case management)
Theory: Components of the intervention were drawn from
family systems theory, structural FT, group therapy, CBT,
reality therapy, parent education and crisis intervention
continued
43
44

150
Family-based program Bagley 2000 QEx Not reported Name: CSATP No treatment comparison
group
Aim: Treatment of children subject to sexual abuse
Theory: Maslow’s self-actualisation Theory, ‘A person’s

strongest drive is to feel contented about himself or herself,
and about others, ‘described as a humanistic model of
intervention’
Psychoeducation Graham-Berman RCT Community Name: Kids’ Club Wait-list control
2007151
Aim: To educate children about family violence and
influence their attitudes and beliefs about families and family
violence; to facilitate their emotional adjustment and
promote their social competence
Theory: ‘Relies on the theoretical assumptions that children

may be distressed or made anxious by exposure to IPV as
well as learn deleterious patterns of behaviour, attitudes,
and beliefs as a result of observing violence (e.g. engage in
aggressive behaviour with others; believe that violence is
acceptable)’
Howell 2013152 RCT Community Name: The Preschool Kids’ Club intervention No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To promote the social competence of preschool
children who have witnessed domestic violence
Theory: as for Graham-Berman 2007151

153
Overbeek 2013 RCT Not reported Name: ‘Ennuik . . . !’ (‘It’s my turn now!’) Control programme ‘Jij
hoort erbij’ (‘You belong’)

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Aim: ‘(a) To process the interparental violence experiences;

(b) to learn how to differentiate and express emotions; and The control programme
(c) to learn how to cope with feelings and problems in a was based on an analysis
different (non-violent) way’ of non-specific factors
used in the specific factors
Theory: Trauma theory (Perry 1993231) intervention programme
Sullivan 2002154 RCT Community Name: Community-based programme for battered women Services as usual
and their children
Aim: Therapy aimed to: alleviate children’s guilt, treat their

depression, help them learn to express anger, provide them
with basic information about normal sexuality, help them
deal with sexual preference and maltreatment issues, teach
them self-protection techniques and equip them with an
affective vocabulary to label emotions and feelings, promote
emotional independence, and help them to establish a
meaningful and stable identity, a personal value system and
a capacity for lasting relationships
Theory: The role of domestic violence support and education

groups in helping children; the effect of mothers’ well-being
on children’s well-being
Trowell 2002155 RCT Home based/health Name: Psychoeducational group therapy Brief focused individual
service/hospital psychotherapy
Aim: Reduction in psychiatric disorders and traumatogenic
response; reduced frequency of sexualised and eroticised
behaviour; and emotional development
Theory: No explicit theory. Described as group psychotherapy

with a psychoeducational component
continued
45
46

156
Wagar 1995 RCT Not reported Name: Group treatment programme No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To ‘help children modify their responses and adopt
new responses to past experiences of witnessing violence, to

develop new problem-solving skills for future encounters, to
address interpersonal responsibilities and attitudes regarding
behaviours, and to examine present modes of conflict
resolution and to foster self-esteem’
Theory: Programme developed by Jaffe et al. 1986232
Wolfe 2003157 RCT Community Name: YRP Standard CPS
Aim: To enable teenagers to make informed choices and

learn non-violent means of communicating with their current
and future partners
Theory: Based on learning and feminist theories (Dobash and

Dobash 1992233)
Noether 2007158 QEx Health service/hospital Name: Skills-based approach to promoting resilience Children in the
comparison group
Aim: To promote resilience received individual, group
and family services
Theory: Psychoeducation enhances the emotional and
behavioural strengths of children
Simoneau 2008159 QEx Community Name: Group psychotherapy Service as usual
Aim: To reduce the sequelae associated with sexual abuse
Specific objectives: Reduce social isolation; improve

self-esteem; reduce behaviour problems; reduce guilt

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Theory: Describes evidence base for group therapy

(as opposed to individual psychotherapy)
Tourigny 2007160 QEx Community Name: Group treatment No non-experimental

comparison – study
Aim: To reduce the negative and traumatic consequences compared open-group
of sexual abuse; to ensure survivors may attain normal format to closed-group
development; to reduce social isolation and to reduce shame format
and culpability; and to help rely on personal resources and
develop skills
Theory: The psychoeducational approach

161
Barth 1994 COS Not reported Name: Psychoeducational group for foster parents No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To provide specialised training for foster parents caring
for sexually abused children
Theory: Providing foster parents with an understanding of

the impact of sexual abuse on children’s behaviour will help
them to be more empathetic and enable them to help their
foster children to express their fears and concerns, instead of
acting them out
Duffany 2009162 COS Community Name: CTP No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To prevent children who have been sexually abused
from being reabused
Theory: Group therapy may reduce feelings of

stigmatization, isolation and shame. Groups provide
‘corrective’ experiences of their perceptions of self, and
enable them to explore their experience of abuse and its
consequences, and develop coping strategies
continued
47
48

163
Hébert 2010 COS Health service/hospital Name: Psychoeducational Group Intervention UC services
Aim: To ‘(a) reduce the negative consequences associated

with CSA; (b) foster positive self-esteem; (c) help children
recognise and express their feelings; (d) help children identify
their personal coping resources to manage the aftermaths

of CSA; (e) reduce sense of social isolation and shame;
(f) foster positive parent–child relationship; and (g) prevent
revictimisation’

Theory: Groups enable children to share experiences with
other abused children, providing an opportunity to reduce
any sense of isolation or stigmatisation. Groups provide a
supportive social network and an opportunity for peer-to-peer
learning, and building a sense of empowerment and
self-esteem. They also provide an important forum for
developing the skills associated with therapeutic objectives,
e.g. social skills, expressing and communicating emotions
about the traumatic event
Holland 2004164 COS Health service/hospital Name: Sexual Abuse Intervention Program No treatment comparison
group
Aim: The client-centred, life space intervention methods
used are individual counselling, family support, and group
work (psychoeducational and social skills training, closed,
16 weeks) within a case management model
Theory: Eclectic practice framework seems based on

elements of generalist, problem-solving, ecological systems,
and some feminist theories
Santibáñez 2000165 COS Care setting Name: Self-management programme No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To improve the educational intervention self-control
and moral development of children living in homes
dependent on the public network of group homes
Theory: Draws various theories and experts, including

Kanfer (1975234), Karoly (1977235) and Bandura (1969236)
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690

166,167
Tourigny 2005 COS Community Name: Psychoeducational group Wait-list control
Aim: Reduce negative consequences of sexual abuse, social

isolation, shame and culpability, and enhance coping skills
development
Theory: Psychoeducational approach – group discussions,

personal testimonies, exercises and lectures
Tourigny 2008168 COS Health service/hospital Name: Brief group therapy No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To support victims of sexual abuse and to reduce
sequelae associated with aggression; to reduce symptoms
associated with sexual abuse (anxiety, depression, low
self-esteem, behavioural problems, aggression, post-
traumatic stress, school difficulties); to improve functioning,
reduce isolation, reduce guilt, to help them use their internal
resources to develop coping strategies; and to improve sense
of control
Theory: Describes group-based efficacy (cost-effectiveness,

peer support); psychoeducational approach includes group
discussions, storytelling, relaxation and visualisation/main
themes covered but open to influence by participants
continued
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50

169
Group Work with Children Monck 1996 Q-RCT Health service/hospital Name: Family network treatment programme with Family network treatment
or without group treatment programme without
group treatment
Aim: To reduce effects of sexual abuse
Theory: Intervention makes use of psychoeducation and

narrative therapeutic activities (e.g. storytelling). Study refers

to group work approach by Giaretto (1980237) and the family
systems approach by Furniss (1983238)
De Luca 1995170 COS Not reported Name: Group therapy programme at the University of No treatment comparison
Manitoba group
Aim: To address issues and themes regarded as central in

the treatment of sexual abuse (e.g. feelings about the
offender, body image and self-esteem enhancement, social
skills, sex education, prevention of abuse)
Theory: Groups may reduce social isolation, as they provide

sexually abused children with an opportunity to can meet
others who have had similar experience. Groups provide
opportunities for children to expand their social support
networks and provide a number of educational
opportunities, e.g. to develop their coping and social
skills, and learn about healthy relationships. They are also
cost-effective
Grayston 1995171 COS Health service/hospital Name: Group therapy programme Wait-list control
Aim: Unclear: treating sexually abused boys, reducing

internalising, externalising and sexual behaviour problems
Theory: Unclear

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
McGain 1995172 COS Community Name: Group treatment Wait-list control
Aim: To provide a safe environment in which children can

discuss their experiences of abuse, and which can enhance
their self-worth. To prevent remolestation. To avoid
long-term psychological damage to children, and provide
appropriate, non-exploitative adult role models. To provide
support for children during court proceedings, and teach
them practical steps to help them to protect themselves.
The intervention also aims to help children talk about the
dynamics of abuse, and to provide them with sustained
peer support. Finally, the intervention aims to secure
approval for treatment of the child’s family. Achieving
these aims is thought to secure a decrease in distress
and symptomatology
Such a programme ought to (11) provide a decrease in

distress and symptomology
Theory: Social Learning Theory

173
Verleur 1986 COS Care setting Name: Group therapy for female incest victims No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To increase self-esteem and knowledge of human
sexuality, birth control and venereal disease
Theory: Poor self-esteem is targeted as this appears to be

a problem with the majority of incest victims
continued
51
52

174
Psychotherapy/counselling Thun 2002 RCT Not reported Name: Group therapy No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To improve the self-image of adolescent survivors of
sexual abuse
Theory: A multidimensional model incorporating skills,

psychotherapeutic and educational components
Haight 2010175 RCT Care setting Name: LSI No non-experimental

comparison – study
Aim: To establish an emotionally supportive relationship with compared IT to IGT
the children, to help children interpret and gain a feeling
of control and continuity in their lives, rethink views of
themselves and others, and begin to alter problematic beliefs
Theory: Theoretical perspective and methods of cultural

developmental science (e.g. Rogoff 2003;239 Shweder et al.
2006240)
Trowell 2002155 RCT Home based/health Name: Focused individual psychotherapy vs. psychoeducational Other treatment control
service/hospital group therapy
Aim: Reduction in psychiatric disorders and traumatogenic

response, reduced frequency of sexualised and eroticised
behaviour and emotional development
Theory: Describes itself as individual psychoanalytic

psychotherapy and the group as psychotherapeutic with a
psychoeducational component
Reddy 2013176 RCT Not reported Name: CBCT No treatment comparison

group
Aim: Developing acceptance and understanding of others
(Salzberg 2002241), stress management and coping
techniques, additional health-relevant benefits
Theory: Mindfulness meditation modified for children

177
Cadol 1975 QEx Health service/hospital Name: Counselling Wait-list control group
Aim: ‘Feeling secure in social situations and community;

managing crisis situations; assertiveness; personal awareness;

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
educational counselling; child-care techniques; language

improvement based on developmental delay of each child;
appropriate expectations of children; recognising and
rewarding positive behaviours’
Theory: No information
178
Nolan 2002 COS Health service/hospital Name: IT vs. combined IGT Wait-list control group
Aim: Treatment of the psychological sequelae of CSA
Theory: ‘Therapy was predominantly integrative and based

on principles drawn from IGT practices within the broad
traditions of psychodynamic psychotherapy, client-centred
therapy and CBT’
Sullivan 1992179 COS Care setting Name: Psychotherapy No treatment comparison

group
Aim: Alleviation of guilt, treatment of depression, learning
to express anger, providing basic information about normal
human sexuality, dealing with sexual preference, dealing
with maltreatment issues, teaching the children
self-protection techniques, development of an affective
vocabulary to label emotions and feelings, attainment of
emotional independence in the children, assistance in
the establishment of a meaningful and stable identity,
development of a personal value system; and development
of a capacity for lasting relationships
Theory: The psychological and behavioural impact on

children of witnessing domestic violence is influenced by the
availability of support and education groups, and their
mother’s psychological well-being
continued
53
54

180
Downing 1988 COS School Name: Psychodynamic group counseling No non-experimental
comparison group – study
Aim: ‘to help families build support within their family unit: compared psychodynamic

help families explain ideas, feelings and the nature of orientation group to
abusive events. Focus of treatment was (a) relief of guilt and reinforcement orientation
(b) building positive self-concepts. Reinforcement orientation
aimed to help parents provide the best possible child-rearing
atmosphere’
Theory: Psychodynamic and reinforcement theories

181
Peer mentoring Fantuzzo 1988 RCT Community Name: (1) Peer social initiation and (2) adult social initiation In control-group dyads
peers or teacher’s aide
Aim: To increase positive social behaviour were instructed to
respond positively to
Theory: Social initiation procedures social initiations but not
to initiate social
interactions
Fantuzzo 1996182 RCT School Name: RPT Comparison children were

each paired with a
Aim: ‘To promote the development of social competencies classmate of average
for preschool children in the context of classroom play interactive play ability
mediated by a resourceful peer’
Theory: RPT
183–188

Treatment foster care Fisher 2005 RCT Home based/ Name: MTFC-P Foster care services
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
care setting as usual

Aim: To facilitate attachment with caregivers, reduce
insecure behaviour, decrease resistant and avoidant
behaviours, and decrease permanent placement failure rate
Theory: Attachment theory, social learning theory,

systems theory
Biehal 2012145,146 RCT Home based/ Name: MTFC-A RFC

care setting
Aim: To reduce problem behaviour, promote pro-social
behaviour and enhance placement stability
Theory: Social learning theory, systems theory
Smith 2011189 RCT Home based/ Name: Preventive intervention for girls in foster care Foster care services
care setting as usual
Aim: To prevent ‘internalising and externalising problems
during the transition to middle school to help prevent more
serious, longer-term outcomes, such as delinquency,
substance use, and high-risk sexual behaviour in later
middle school’
Theory: Aims could be achieved by helping participants set

personal goals, establish and maintain positive relationships
with peers and adults, develop effective decision-making and
problem-solving strategies, develop support systems for
reaching goals and modelling, practising and reinforcing
adaptive behaviours
continued
55
56

190,191
Taussig 2010 RCT Not reported Name: FHF preventive intervention No treatment comparison
group
Aim: Skills groups were designed to bring children in foster
care together in order to reduce stigma and provide
opportunities for them to learn skills in a supportive
environment

Mentoring was designed to provide children in foster care
with an additional supportive adult who could serve as a role
model and advocate
Theory: No information
192
Fisher 2000 COS Home based/school Name: EIFC, RFC, Community Comparison of Foster care services
Non-maltreated Children as usual
Aim: To meet the developmental needs of foster children.

‘It uses the foster care setting as the milieu for therapeutic
intervention and actively engages foster parents as
therapeutic agents’
Theory: Aims can be achieved by (1) consistent, non-abusive

discipline; (2) high levels of positive reinforcement; and
(3) close monitoring and supervision of the child’
Graham 2012193 COS Home based/ Name: MTFC-P Foster care services
community as usual
Aim: To facilitate attachment with caregivers, reduce
insecure behaviour, decrease resistant and avoidant
behaviours, and decrease permanent placement failure rate
Theory: Attachment theory

194
Therapeutic residential and Moore 1998 RCT Community Name: Childhaven CPS services as usual

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
day care
Aim: Therapeutic early intervention for maltreated children
Theory: Study cited the theories of Gogerty and Durkan

1981;242 Miller and Whittaker 1988;243 DePanfilis 1996;244
and Durkin 1986245
Culp 1987195,196 COS School Name: Therapeutic day-treatment programme No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To develop strong teacher–child relationships, facilitate
self-esteem, develop caring peer relationships, and help
children to recognise and deal with their own feelings
Theory: Cognitive–developmental model

197
Culp 1991 COS Community Name: Therapeutic day-treatment programme Wait-list control
Aim: To improve ‘children’s psychological health, their ability

to interact with peers and adults, and their developmental
level’
Theory: No information provided
Coordinated care Swenson 2000198 RCT Home based/ Name: Charleston Collaborative Project TAU following state
care setting guidelines
Aim: Reduce risk factors to promote child safety, child
functioning and caregiver functioning; provide cost savings;
improve service system efficiency
Theory: Family-based intervention based on the manual by

Ralston and Swenson 1998246
continued
57
58

Arts therapy Brillantes-Evangelista QEx Health service/hospital Name: (1) Visual arts group or (2) poetry group No treatment comparison
2013199 group
Aim: To alleviate depression and PTSD
Theory: Narrative/constructivist approach, Gestalt approach,

response and arousal, psychoanalytic approach, Jung’s active
imagination and archetypes, mindfulness and spiritual
encounter
Pretorius 2010200 QEx Not reported Name: Structured group art therapy programme No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To reduce depression, anxiety, sexual trauma and low
self-esteem
Theory: ‘Based on the existential–humanistic perspective,

and incorporated principles from Gestalt therapy (Naranjo
2000;247 Perls 1990248), the client-centred approach (Rogers
1967;249 Du Toit et al. 1998250) and the abuse-focused
approach (Briere 1992251)’
201
Play/activity Interventions D’Andrea 2013 COS Care Setting Name: DtG sports-based intervention TAU

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Aim: Treating maltreated children
Theory: Intervention designed using trauma-informed

treatment principles
McDonald 1989202 RCT Care setting Name: Challenge/initiative programme Played other games with
the same researcher (such
Aim: To enhance self-concept, using ‘new’ cooperative as kickball, volleyball, etc.)
and adventure games, in an existing recreation setting with no debriefing
(as opposed to the typical wilderness/outdoor settings)
Theory: Low-income families tend to have least access to

open space. Previously challenge/initiative programmes have
been shown to be effective but usually in a ‘wilderness/
adventure’ programme. This is testing a lower-cost
alternative
Udwin 1983203 QEx Not reported Name: Imaginative play training Control group exposed to
10 play sessions, but with
Aim: To improve imaginative play, levels of concentration, no active training in
positive affect and social interaction, and aggression make-believe
Theory: Not stipulated. Previous research suggests that

imaginative play training can under controlled conditions,
enhance both the scope and frequency of imaginative
play amongst lower class children (e.g. Feitelson and
Ross 1973;252 Freyberg 1973253). Gains have also been
demonstrated in relation to children’s affect, cognition and
social competence
continued
59
60

204
Animal therapy Dietz 2012 COS Not reported Name: AAT in group treatment for CSA No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To address trauma symptoms including anxiety,
depression, anger, PTSD, dissociation, and sexual concerns
Theory: AAT is a goal-directed intervention in which an

animal that meets specific criteria is an integral part of the
treatment process. ‘AAT is directed and/or delivered by a
health/human service professional with specialised expertise,

and within the scope of practice of his or her profession’
(Delta Society, 2012254)
Hamama 2011205 COS High school Name: Canine-assisted therapy No treatment comparison
group
Aim: To improve psychological stress (depression and PTSD
symptoms) among traumatised teenage girls (sexual or
physical abuse)
Theory: The presence of an animal can lower anxiety and

facilitate trust building between therapist and client. Talking
to the animal while the therapist listens is easier than talking
to the therapist, and can help clients focus on an issue while
they interact with the animal. Engagement with the animal
can help clients engage with their feelings and share these.
Animals offer an opportunity for unconditional acceptance
and interaction
AAT, animal-assisted therapy; AF-CBT, alternatives for families-cognitive-behavioural therapy; AIDS, aquired immune deficiency syndrome; ARRM, AIDS risk reduction model;
CBCT, cognitively-based compassion training; CCT, child-centred therapy; CPC-CBT, Combined Parent–Child Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy; CPP, child–parent psychotherapy; CPS, Child
Protective Services; CSATP, child sexual abuse treatment program; CTP, Children’s Treatment Program; DEF, Developmental Education for Families; DtG, ‘Do the Good’; EBT, evidence-based
treatment; EES, early education support; EFT, emotional freedom techniques; EIFC, Early Intervention Foster Care Program; EOT, Enhanced Outpatient Treatment; FHF, Fostering Healthy
Futures; GE, gradual exposure; IGT, individual and group therapy; IPP, infant–parent psychotherapy; IT, individual therapy; LSI, Life Story Intervention; m-CBT, modified-CBT intervention;
MASTR, motivation–adaptive skills–trauma resolution; MFGT, multifamily group therapy; MST-BSF, Multisystemic Therapy-Building Stronger Families; MST-CAN, Multisystemic Therapy for
Child Abuse and Neglect; MTFC-A, Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care for Adolescents; MTFC-P, Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care Program for Preschoolers; ODD, oppositional
defiant disorder; PFR, Promoting First Relationships; PHV, psychoeducational home visitation; PI, Project Image; PPI, psychoeducational parenting intervention; PPP, Pre-School–Parent
Psychotherapy; PSB, Promoting Sibling Bonds; Q-RCT, quasi-randomised controlled trial; RAP, Recovering from Abuse Program; RET, reminiscing and emotion training; RFC, regular foster
care; RPT, resilient peer treatment; RRFT, Risk Reduction through Family Therapy; SAS-CBT, sexual abuse-specific Cognitive–Behavioural Therapy; SIT, stress inoculation therapy; STI, sexually
transmitted infection; TN, trauma narrative; UC, usual care; YRP, Youth Relationships Project.
TABLE 5 Outcomes domains and measures used in included studies
Intervention category Abuse type Design Study/record Outcome domain Outcome measures

CBT for sexual abuse Sexual RCT Berliner 199689 Primary:
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
1. Psychological distress 1. Fear Survey Schedule for Children-Revised (FSSC-R; Ollendick 1983255)
2. Behaviour 2. Sexual Abuse Fear Evaluation Scale (SAFE; Wolfe and Wolfe, Children’s
Hospital of Western Ontario, 1986, unpublished questionnaire)
3. Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS; Reynolds 1985256)
4. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1983257)
5. Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs 1992258)
6. Child Sexual Behavior Inventory (CSBI; Friedrich 1992259)
Sexual RCT Celano 199690 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Children’s Impact of Traumatic Events Scale-Revised (CITES-R; Wolfe

2. Behaviour and Gentile, Department of Psychology, London Health Sciences
3. Social functioning Centre, London, 1991, unpublished)
3. Children’s Global Assessment Scale (CGAS; Shaffer 1993261)
Other:
1. Parent/carer 1. Parental Reaction to Incest Disclosure Scale (PRIDS; Everson 1989262)

outcomes 2. Parental Attribution Scale (PASa)
Sexual RCT Cohen91,92 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Preschool symptom self-report (PRESS; Martini 1990263)

2. Behaviour 2. Child Sexual Behavior Inventory (CSBI; Friedrich 1992259)
4. Weekly Behaviour Record (WBR; Cohen 1983264)
Sexual RCT Cohen 199893,94 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAI-C; Spielberger 1973265)
2. Behaviour 2. Child Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs 198580)
continued
61
62
TABLE 5 Outcomes domains and measures used in included studies (continued )
95,96,267
Sexual RCT Cohen 2004 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Kiddie Schedule for Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders (K-SADS;
2. Behaviour Kaufman 1997268)

3. Social functioning 2. Child Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs 198580)
4. Cognitive/academic 3. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAI-C; Spielberger 1973265)
5. Child Sexual Abuse Inventory (CSI; Friedrich 1992259)
6. Children’s Attributions and Perceptions Scale (CAPS;
Mannarino 1994270)
7. Shame Questionnaire (Feiring 2002271)
Secondary:
1. Parent/carer 1. Beck Depression Inventory-Second Edition (BDI-II; Beck 1996272)

outcomes 2. Parent Emotional Reaction Questionnaire (PERQ; Mannarino 1996273)
3. Parent Practices Questionnaire (PPQ; Strayhorn 1988274)
4. Parental Support Questionnaire (PSQ; Mannarino 1996273)
Sexual RCT Deblinger 199697,98 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Kiddie Schedule for Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders,

2. Behaviour epidemiologic version (KSADS-E; Orvaschel 1982275)
3. Social functioning 2. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAI-C; Spielberger 1973265)
3. Child Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs 198580)
Other:
1. Parent/carer 1. Parenting Practices Questionnaire (PPQ; Strayhorn 1988274)

outcomes
99
Sexual RCT Deblinger 2001 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. PTSD Scale for Children Based on Kiddie Schedule for Affective

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
2. Behaviour Disorders (Orvaschel 1982275)

3. Social functioning 2. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991)
4. What If Situations Test (WIST; Sarno 1997276)
Secondary:
1. Acceptability 1. Therapist Satisfaction Questionnaire (TSQa)
Other:
1. Parent/carer 1. Miller Behavior Style Scale (Miller 1990277)

outcomes 2. SCL-90-R Post Traumatic Symptom Scale (Derogatis 1983278)
3. Impact of Events Scale (IES; Horowitz 1979279)
4. Parent Emotional Reaction Questionnaire (PERQ; Cohen 1996280)
5. Parenting Practices Questionnaire (PPQ; Strayhorn 1988274)
6. Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ; Zich 1987281)
Sexual RCT Deblinger 2011100 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders (K-SADS; Kaufman 1999275)
2. Behaviour 2. Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs 1992258)
3. Social functioning 3. The Fear Thermometer (Hersen 1988282)
4. Cognitive 4. Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC; March 1997283)
7. What If Situations Test (WIST; Sarno 1997276)
8. Shame Questionnaire (Feiring 1999284)
Other:
1. Parent/carer 1. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck 1996285)

outcomes 2. Parent Emotional Reaction Questionnaire (PERQ; Cohen 1996280)
3. Parenting Practices Questionnaire (PPQ; Strayhorn 1988274)
continued
63
64
101
Sexual RCT Foa 2013 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Child PTSD Symptom Scale – Interview (CPSS-I; Foa 2001,286
2. Social functioning Gillihan 2013287)
2. Kiddie Schedule for Schizophrenia and Affective Disroders (K-SADS-D,
PTSD module; Kaufman268)

4. Children’s Global Assessment Scale (CGAS; Shaffer 1983261)
Secondary:

1. Acceptability 1. Expectancy of Therapeutic Outcomes for Adolescents (EDT-Aa)
Sexual RCT Jaberghaderi Primary:

2004102
1. Psychological distress 1. Child Report of Post-traumatic Symptoms (CROPS; Greenwald 1999288)
2. Behaviour 2. Parent Report of Post-traumatic Symptoms (PROPS; Greenwald 1999288)
3. Rutter Teacher Scale (Rutter 1967289)
Sexual RCT King 2000103 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Anxiety Disorder Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: (ADIS; Silverman 1996290)
2. Behaviour 2. Fear Thermometer for Sexually Abused Children (Kleinknecht 1988291)
3. Cognitive/academic 3. Coping Questionnaire for Sexually Abused Children (developed by
the authors292)
4. Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale-Revised (RCMAS-R;
Reynolds 1978293)
7. PTSD Subscale (Wolfe 1989295)
8. Global Assessment Functioning Scale (GAF; American Psychiatric
Association 1987296)
Sexual COS Paquette 2011104,105 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Children’s Attributions and Perception Scale (CAPS;

2. Behaviour Mannarino 1994270)
3. Social functioning 2. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL Youth Self-Report and Profile;
Achenbach 2001297)
3. Ways of Coping Questionnaire (Knussen 1992298)
CBT for physical abuse Physical RCT LeSure-Lester Primary:

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
2002106
1. Behaviour 1. Rating system developed by the facility measuring:
i. aggression towards peers

ii. aggression towards staff
iii. compliance to house rules
Physical RCT Kolko 1996107,108 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Child Conflicts index (CCI; Frantel 199052)

2. Behaviour 2. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991269)
3. Social functioning 3. Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs 1981299)
4. Cognitive/academic 4. Friendship Questionnaire (FQ; Bierman 1987300)
5. Children’s Attributions and Perceptions Scale (CAPS; Mannarino 1994270)
6. Kiddie Global Assessment Scale (KGASa)
7. Hostility (Children’s Hostility Inventory, CHI; Kazdin 1987301)
Secondary:
Physical RCT Runyon 2010109 Primary:

1. Psychological distress 1. Kiddie Schedule for Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders (K-SADS-PL,
2. Behaviour PTSD; Kaufman 1997268)
3. Cognitive/academic 2. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991260)
3. Parent and Child Report Measures
Other:
1. Parent/carer 1. Alabama Parenting Questionnaire-Self Report (APQ; Frick, University of

outcomes Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 1991, unpublished)
2. Parent–Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC; Straus 1998302)
continued
65
66
110
CBT for multiple abuse Physical, emotional, RCT Champion 2012 Other:
sexual
1. Other 1. Sexually transmitted infection (dichotomous)
Other RCT Church 2012111 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Impact of Events Scale (IES; Horowitz 1979,279 Spanish translation
Báguena 1998303)
Physical, sexual, RCT Jensen 2014112,113 Primary:

multiple
1. Psychological Distress 1. Child PTSD Symptom Scale (CPSS; Foa 2001286)
2. Behaviour 2. Clinician Administered PTSD Scale for Children and Adolescents
3. Social Functioning (CAPS-CA; Nader 1996,304 2004305)
3. Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (MRQ; Angold 1995306)
4. The Screen for Child Anxiety-Related Disorders (SCARED;
Birmaher 1999307)
5. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman 2001308)
Physical, neglect, other RCT Linares 2006114 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991,294 1992309)

2. Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI; Eyberg 1980310)
3. Sutter–Eyberg Behaviour Inventory-Revised (SESBI-R; Eyberg 1999311)
Other:
1. Parenting 1. Parenting Practices Interview (PPI; Webster-Stratton 1998312)

2. Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment (HOME;
Caldwell 1984313)
Physical, sexual, neglect RCT Linares 2012115 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Physical aggression [Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991294)]

2. Social functioning 2. 7-item measure derived from the SESBI-R (Eyberg311)
3. Cognitive/academic 3. Self-control (Wills 2007314)
Secondary:
1. Acceptability 1. Self completion questionnaire

116
Physical, emotional, RCT Rushton 2010 Primary:
sexual, neglect,
multiple, other 1. Psychological distress 1. Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman 2001308)
2. Behaviour 2. Expression of feelings questionnaire (Quinton 1998315)
3. Social functioning 3. Post placement problems (a nine-item adopter-completed

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
questionnaire designed for this study)

4. Visual analogue scales [adopters asked to mark on a line whether their
child’s behaviour in each dimension had improved, stayed the same
(centre point) or deteriorated]
Secondary:
1. Acceptability 1. Satisfaction with parenting intervention feedback (Davis 1998316)

Other:
1. Placement stability 1. Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSCS; Johnston 1989,317

2. Carer outcome Ohan 2000318)
2. Parenting Daily Hassles Scale (Crnic 1991319)
Physical, emotional, RCT Shirk 2014117 Primary:

sexual, multiple, other
1. Psychological distress 1. Kiddie Schedule for Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders-Present and
2. Behaviour Lifetime version (KSADS-PL; Kaufman 1997268)
3. Social functioning 2. Beck Depression Inventory-Second Edition (BDI-II; Beck 1996320)
Secondary:
1. Acceptability 1. Client Satisfaction Questionnaire Treatment (Larsen 1979321)

2. Treatment Evaluation Inventory (Kazdin 1981,322 1980323)
Physical, sexual, other COS Kolko 2011118 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991269)

2. Behaviour 2. Child Sexual Behavior Inventory (CSBI; Friedrich 2001324)
3. Social functioning 3. Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC; Briere 1996325)
4. Expectations Test (ET; Gully 2000326)
5. Social Behavior Inventory (SBI; Gully 2001327)
6. Parent and therapist perceptions of adjustment
continued
67
68
119
Other COS Rondeau 1983 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Token rewards

2. Social functioning 2. Significant work art products

3. Working on group posters
4. Personal ratings of the group
5. Aggressive behaviours
6. Children joining in sharing circle
7. Caregiver interaction ratings
EMDR Sexual RCT Farkas 2008120 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC; Briere 1996;325
2. Behaviour Briere 1989328)
2. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991269,294)
3. Lifetime Incidence of Traumatic Events (LITE; Greenwald 2004,329
1999,288 2002330)
Physical, emotional, RCT Scheck 1998121 Primary:

sexual
1. Psychological distress 1. PTSD-I (Watson 1991331)
2. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck 1993332)
3. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STATE; Spielberger 1983333)
4. Penn Inventory for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PENN;
Hammarberg 1992334)
5. Impact of Events Scale (IES, avoidance and intrusions from trauma;
Horowitz 1979279)
6. Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS; Roid 1991335)
122
Attachment-orientated Neglect, other RCT Bernard 2012 Primary:
interventions

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
1. Psychological distress 1. Attachment status (Strange Situation Procedure; Ainsworth 1978336)
Physical, emotional, RCT Cicchetti 2006123 Other:

neglect, multiple
1. Carer efficacy 1. Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ; Bernstein 1994337)
2. Carer distress 2. Perceptions of Adult Attachment Scale (PAAS; Lichtenstein 1991338)
3. Maternal Behavior Q-Set (MBQ; Pederson 1995339)
4. Adult–Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI; Bavolek, 1984340)
5. Social Support Behaviors Scale (SBS; Vaux 1987341)
6. Parenting Stress Inventory (PSI; Abidin 1990342)
Physical, emotional, RCT Cicchetti 2011124 Primary:

neglect, multiple
1. Psychological distress 1. Cortisol – from saliva samples
Other RCT Dozier 2006125,126 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Cortisol, from saliva samples

2. Parents Daily Report (PDR, adapted from Chamberlain 1987291)
Other RCT Lieberman Primary:

2005127–129
1. Psychological distress 1. Semistructured Interview for Diagnostic Classification DC: 0–3 for
2. Behaviour Clinicians, Traumatic Stress Disorder (DC-0-3 TSD; Zero to Three/
National Center for Clinical Infant Programs 1994343)
2. Child Behavior Checklist (CBLC; Achenbach 1991,294,344 1983257)
Secondary:
1. Carer distress 1. Life Stressor Checklist-Revised (Wolfe 1996345)

2. Symptoms Checklist-90 Revised (SCL-90-R; Derogatis 1994278)
3. Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS; Blake 1990,346 Spitzer 1987,347
Weathers 1994348)
continued
69
70
Physical, sexual, RCT Moss 2011130 Primary:

neglect, multiple
1. Psychological distress 1. Ainsworth Strange Situation Procedure (Ainsworth 1978336)
2. Behaviour 2. Preschool Separation–Reunion Procedure (Cassidy and Marvin, Working
3. Cognitive/academic Group on Attachment, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 1992,
unpublished)
3. Child behaviour (CBCL; Achenbach 2000349)
Other:
1. Carer distress 1. Maternal Behaviour Q-Set (MBQS: Pederson 1995339)

Other RCT Spieker 2012131 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Toddler Attachment Sort-45 (TAS45; Kirkland 2004350)
2. Behaviour 2. Indicator of Parent–Child Interaction (IPCI; Baggett 2009351)
3. Social functioning 3. Brief Infant Toddler Social Emotional Assessment (BITSEA;
4. Cognitive/academic Briggs-Gowan 2002352)
5. Emotional Regulation Bayley-III (Bayley 2006354)
6. Selected items from the Bayley-III Screening Test (Bayley 2005355) and
the Bayley Behavior Rating Scales (Bayley 1993356)
Other:
1. Carer competence 1. Nursing Child Assessment Teaching Scale (NCATS; Barnard 1994357,358)
2. Carer distress 2. Indicator of Parent-Child Interaction (IPCI; Baggett 2009351)
3. Commitment to child – This Is My Baby (TIMB; Bates 1998,
Dozier 2006359)
4. Understanding – Raising a Baby (RAB; Kelly JF, Korfmacher J, University
of Washington, WA, 2008, unpublished)
5. Parenting Stress Index (PSI; Abidin 1995360)
Other RCT Sprang 2009132 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991,269 Achenbach 2000349)
2. Behaviour
Other:
1. Parent/carer 1. Child Abuse potential Inventory (CAPI; Milner 1990361)

outcomes 2. Parenting Stress Index (PSI; Abidin 1995360)
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Physical, emotional, RCT Toth 2002133 Primary:

sexual, neglect,
multiple 1. Psychological distress 1. Narrative story items selected from MacArthur Story Stem Battery
2. Cognitive/academic (MSSB; Bretherton I, Oppenheim D, Buchsbaum H, Emde RN and the
MacArthur Narrative Group, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1990,
unpublished) and the Attachment Story Completion Task (ASCT;
Bretherton 1990362)
2. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised (WPPSI-R;
Wechsler 1989363)
Physical, emotional, COS Becker-Weidman Primary:

sexual, neglect, 2006134,135
multiple, other 1. Psychological distress 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991294)
2. Behaviour 2. Randolph Attachment Disorder Questionnaire (RADQ; Randolph 2000364)
PCIT Physical, neglect RCT Chaffin 2004136 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Physical abuse rereport outcomes

2. Behaviour 2. Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC; Reynolds 1992365)
3. Social functioning
Other:
1. Parent/carer 1. Child Abuse Potential Inventory (CAPI; Milner 1986366)

outcomes 2. Dyadic Parent–Child Interaction Coding System (DPICS-II; Eyberg SM
Bessmer D, Newcomb K, Edwards D, Robinson E. Dyadic Parent-Child
Interaction Coding System-II manual, University of Florida, Gainesville,
FL, 1994, unpublished manuscript)
continued
71
72
137
Physical, neglect RCT Thomas 2011 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Child Behavior Checklist [CBCL; Achenbach260 (externalising behaviour;

2. Quality of life internalising behaviour)]

2. Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory [ECBI; Eyberg 1989311 (intensity of
behaviour problems)]
3. Repeat maltreatment

Secondary:
1. Carer distress 1. Parenting Stress Index (PSI; Abidin 1990367)

2. Carer competence 2. Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II; Beck 1996272)
3. Child Abuse Potential Inventory (CAPI; Milner 1995366)
4. Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System III (DPICS; Eyberg SM,
Duke M, McDiarmid M, Boggs S, Robinson E, Washington E. University
of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 2004. Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding
System 3rd edition. Unpublished manuscript)
Physical, neglect RCT Thomas 2012138 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Child Behavior Checklist [CBCL; Achenbach260 (externalising behaviour;

2. Quality of life internalising behaviour)]
2. Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory [ECBI; Eyberg 1989311 (intensity of
behaviour problems)]
Secondary:

2. Carer competence 2. Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II; Beck 1996272)
4. Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System III (DPICS; Eyberg SM,
Duke M, McDiarmid M, Boggs S, Robinson E, Washington E. 2004.
Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System 3rd edition.
Unpublished Manuscript, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA)
5. A subscale of the Emotional Availability Scales,368 modified to assess
parental sensitivity from videotaped interactions
139
Parenting interventions Other RCT Hughes 2004 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Child Autonomy Observational scale (CAO, developed for the study:
16 items, three subscales)

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Other:
1. Parent/carer 1. Parenting Skills Observation Scale (PSOS, developed for the study)
outcomes 2. Maternal Depression (CES-D; Radloff 1977369)
3. Social Support (three-item scale developed for the study)
4. Satisfaction (Mothers’ Opinion Questionnaire – three items developed
for the study)
Other RCT Valentino 2013140 Primary:

1. Psychological distress 1. Child reminiscing (coding of conversations)
Systemic FT Physical RCT Kolko 1996107,108 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Child Conflicts index (CCI; Frantel 199052)

4. Cognitive 4. Friendship Questionnaire (FQ; Bierman 1987300)
Mannarino 1994270)
6. Kiddie Global Assessment Scale (KGASa)
7. Hostility (Children’s Hostility Inventory, CHI; Kazdin 1987301)
Secondary:
141
Transtheoretical Physical, neglect RCT Linares 2015 Primary:
intervention
1. Behaviour 1. Sibling Interaction Quality (SIQ; Kramer, University of Illinois,
2. Social functioning Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 2010, unpublished)
Other:
1. Carer efficacy 1. Parent Conflict Mediation, The Conflict Checklist (CCh; Smith 2007370)
2. Sibling Aggression Scale (Linares, NYU Child Study Center, New York
University, New York, NY, 2008, unpublished)
continued
73
74
Multisystemic FT Physical, neglect RCT Brunk 1987142 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90; Derogatis 1983371)

2. Behaviour 2. Behavior Problem Checklist [BPC; Parent Report (Quay and Peterson,
3. Social functioning University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, 1975, unpublished)]
3. Family Environment Scale (FES; Moos 1981372)
4. Family Inventory of Life Events and Changes (McCubbin 1985373)
5. Treatment Outcome Questionnaire (TOQ; developed by authors)

Sexual RCT Danielson 2012143 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. UCLA PTSD Index for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
2. Behaviour Disorders (DSM-IV; Steinberg 2004374)
3. Social functioning 2. Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs M. The Interview
Schedule For Children (ISC): Interrater and Parent–Child Agreement.
1983. Unpublished manuscript, Pittsburgh, PA)
3. Family Environment Scale (FES, cohesion and conflict subscales;
Moos 1986375)
4. Time Line Follow Back Interview (TLFB; Sobell 1996376) plus urine tests
5. Risky Sexual Behaviour (number of sexual partners in previous
3 months plus any diagnosis of a sexually transmitted infection)
Physical RCT Swenson 2010144 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBLC; Achenbach 1991266)

2. Behaviour 2. Child Behavior Checklist–Post-Traumatic Disorder Scale (CBCL-PTSD;
3. Social functioning Ruggiero 2000377)
4. Quality of life 3. Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC; Briere 1989378)
4. Social Skills Rating System (SSRS; Gresham 1990379)
5. Reabuse (CPS records)
Other:
1. Carer efficiency 1. Global Severity Index (GSI) of the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI;
Derogatis 1975380)
2. Parental Support – Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (ISEL;
Cohen 1985381)
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Multiple RCT Biehal 2012145,146 Primary:
1. Psychological 1. Health of the Nation Outcome Scales for Children and Adolescents
distress/mental (HoNOSCA; Gowers 1999382)
health 2. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1983257)
2. Social functioning 3. Administrative data plus two education related domains of the Health of
3. Academic the Nation Outcome Scales for Children and Adolescents (HoNOSCA)
achievement 4. Children’s Global Assessment Scale (CGAS; Shaffer 1983261)
Secondary:
1. Offending 1. Information from social workers and carers

Other:
1. Placement stability 1. Administrative data
Physical, emotional, COS Schaeffer 2013147 Primary:

sexual
1. Psychological distress 1. Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC; Briere 1996383)
2. Quality of life 2. Reabuse and out of home placement
Other:
1. Carer distress 1. Addiction Severity Index – fifth Edition (ASI; McLellan 1982384)
2. Carer competence 2. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II; Beck 1996332)
3. Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS; Straus 1998302)
continued
75
76
148,149
Multigroup FT Physical, emotional, RCT Meezan 1998 Primary:
sexual, neglect,
multiple 1. Psychological distress 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1986258)
2. Behaviour 2. Children’s Action Tendency Scale (CAS; Deluty 1979385)

3. Social functioning 3. Index of Peer Relations (IPR; Hudson 1990386)
4. Cognitive
Other:
1. Parent/carer 1. Parenting Social Support Index (SSI; Telleen 1985387)

outcomes 2. Problem-Solving Inventory (PrSI; Heppner 1982388)
2. Placement stability 3. Adult–Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI; Bavolek 1999340)
4. Knowledge of child development (30-item, developed by authors)
5. Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale II (FACES-II;
Olson 1985389)
7. Family Assessment Form (FAF-modified; McCroskey 1997390)
Family-based Sexual QEx Bagley 2000150 Primary:

programme
1. Psychological distress 1. CES-D (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale;
2. Behaviour Radloff 1977369)
2. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Bagley 1999391)
3. Parent, social worker, and self report of problem/delinquent behaviours
Secondary:
1. Delinquency
Psychoeducation Physical, other RCT Graham-Berman Primary:
2007151
1. Behaviour 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991294,344)
Other:

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
1. Care efficacy 1. Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS; Straus 1979392)

2. Severity of Violence against Women Scales (SCAWS; Marshall 1992393)
3. Attitudes About Family Violence (AAFV) scale (Graham-Bermann 1994394)
Other RCT Howell 2013152 Primary:

1. Psychological distress 1. Social Competence Scale (SCS; Conduct Problems Prevention Research
2. Behaviour Group 2002395)
3. Social functioning
Other:
1. Carer efficiency 1. Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (APQ; Frick, 1999396)

2. Carer distress 2. Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES–D;
Radloff 1977369)
3. Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (PDS; Foa 1995397)
4. Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS-2; Straus 1996398)
Other RCT Overbeek 2013153 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children (TSCYC; Briere 1997399)
2. Behaviour or Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC; Briere 1996325)
3. Quality of life according to age. Parent report for (TSCYC) self-completion by children
aged 7.5 years (TSCC)
2. Child Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs 198580)
3. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991344,400) (Internalising
and externalizing problems, Teacher Report Form (TRF); Youth Report
when over 7.5 years old. Dutch translations; Verhulst 1996400)
4. Parent–Child Conflict Tactics Scales (CTSPC; Strauss 1998302)
Other:
1. Carer efficiency 1. Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS2; Strauss 1996398)

2. Carer distress
continued
77
78
154
Physical, emotional, RCT Sullivan 2002 Primary:
other
1. Psychological distress 1. Self-Perception Profile for Children (8- to 12-year-old version)
(Harter 1985401)
Other:

1. Parent/carer 1. Mother’s perceived quality of life (nine-item scale adapted from
outcomes Andrews 1976402)
2. Adults Social Support Questionnaire (Mothers) (Bogat 1983403)
3. Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D, mother’s
depression; Radloff 1977369)
4. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory (Rosenberg 1965404)
Sexual RCT Trowell 2002155 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Kiddie Schedule for Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders (K-SADS,
2. Social functioning short; Chambers 1885405)
2. PTSD Scale (K-SADS extension; Orvaschel 1989406)
3. Kiddie Global Assessment Scale (K-GAS; Shaffer 1983261)
Other RCT Wagar 1995156 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Child Witness to Violence Questionnaire (CWVQ)

157
Physical, emotional, RCT Wolfe 2003 Primary:
sexual, neglect
1. Psychological distress 1. Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory (CADRI;
2. Social functioning Wolfe 2001407)
2. Trauma Symptom Checklist-40 (TSC-40; Elliot 1992408)
3. Adolescent Interpersonal Competence Questionnaire (AICQ;
Buhrmester 1990409)
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Physical, sexual, other QEx Noether 2007158 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (BERS; Epstein 1998410) – overall
2. Behaviour strength quotient – primary outcome; subscales – secondary outcomes
3. Social functioning to assess healthy/positive interpersonal relationships and positive
self-identity)
2. Other subscales of BERS to measure family involvement, relationship
tools, and capacity for closeness
Secondary:
1. Carer distress 1. Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI; Derogatis 1975380)

2. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptom Scale (PSS) of the Posttraumatic
Stress Diagnostic Scale (Foa 1996397)
3. Addiction Severity Index (ASI; McLellan 1992384)
Sexual QEx Simoneau 2008159 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Children’s Knowledge of Abuse Questionnaire (CKAQ; Tutty 1995411)

2. Behaviour and Personal Safety Questionnaire (PSQ; Wurtele 1989412)
3. Cognitive/academic 2. Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC; Harter 1982413)
3. Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS; Reynolds 1985293)
5. Children’s Impact of Traumatic Events Scale (CITES; Wolfe 1991414)
6. Child Sexual Behavior Inventory (CSBI; Friedrich 1992,259 Wright415)
7. Child Post Traumatic Stress Reaction Index (CPTSRI, French version;
Hébert 2002416)
8. Child Dissociative Checklist (CDC; Putnam 1988417)
continued
79
80
160
Sexual QEx Tourigny 2007 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Trauma Symptoms Checklist for Children (TSCC; Briere 1996325)
2. Behaviour 2. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL, Youth Self-Report and Profile;
3. Social functioning Achenbach 1991418)
4. Cognitive 3. Ways of Coping Questionnaire (French version, Bouchard 1995;419
Folkman 1988;420 Knussen 1992298)

4. Empowerment Scale (23-item) (Rogers 1997421)
Mannarino 1994270)
6. Self-Injurious Behaviours Questionnaire (SIBQ; Sadowsky, Mayo Clinic,
Rochester, MN, 1995, unpublished)
7. Child’s Attitude to Mother (CAM) and Father (CAF) Questionnaires
(Giuli 1977422)
Secondary:
1. Resilience
161
Sexual COS Barth 1994 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL– Foster Parent Report; Achenbacha)

Secondary:
1. Acceptability 1. Brief Client Satisfaction Inventory – developed by authors
Sexual COS Duffany 2009162 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Youth Outcomes Questionnaire (YOQ; Brown 2001424)
Secondary:
1. Delinquency 1. Recidivism

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Sexual COS Hébert 2010163 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC; Harter 1982401)

2. Behaviour 2. Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS; Reynolds 1985256)
4. Cognitive 4. Children’s Impact of Traumatic Events Scale (CITES; Wolfe 1991,
unpublished)
5. Self-Report Coping Scale (SRCS; Causey 1992425)
6. Child Dissociative Checklist (CDC; Putnam 1993426)
Physical, emotional, COS Holland 2004164 Primary:

sexual, neglect,
multiple 1. Psychological distress 1. Conflict with other children in care
2. Behaviour 2. Sexually aggressive
3. Social functioning 3. Mental health condition
4. Attempted or threatened suicide
5. Behaviour disorder
Secondary:
1. Delinquency 1. Delinquent. Note: all based on workers’ perceptions
Physical, emotional, COS Santibáñez 2000165 Primary:

sexual, neglect,
multiple 1. Psychological distress 1. Disruptive behaviour (Diaz-Aguado 1995427)
2. Behaviour 2. Shapiro Control Inventory (SCI; Shapiro 1982428)
3. Social functioning 3. Cognitive Mediators of Aggression Questionnaire (Diaz-Aguado 1995427)
4. Cognitive 4. Level of moral reasoning [qualitative interview plus hypothetical
dilemma (Heinz proposed by Kohlberg 1982429)]
continued
81
82
166,167
Sexual COS Tourigny 2005 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Trauma Symptoms Checklist for Children (TSCC; Biere 1996383)
2. Behaviour

2. Child Behavior Checklist – Youth Self-Report and Profile (CBCL;
4. Cognitive 3. Ways of Coping Questionnaire (Bouchard 1995;419 Knussen 1992298)
4. Empowerment Scale (23-item; Rogers 1997425)
Mannarino 1994270)
6. Self-Injurious Behaviours Questionnaire (SIBQ; Sadowsky, unpublished)
(Giuli 1977422)
Sexual COS Tourigny 2008168 Primary:

1. Psychological distress 1. Trauma Symptoms Checklist for Children (TSCC; Briere 1996383)
2. Behaviour 2. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL – Youth Self-Report and Profile;
4. Cognitive 3. Ways of Coping Questionnaire (Bouchard 1995;419 Knussen 1992298)
4. Empowerment Scale (23-item; Rogers 1997421)
Mannarino 1994270)
6. Self-Injurious Behaviours Questionnaire (SIBQ; Sadowsky, unpublished)
(Giuli 1977422)
169
Group work with Sexual Q-RCT Monck 1996 Primary:
children
1. Psychological distress 1. Child Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs 1977430)
2. Behaviour 2. Self-Perception Profiles for Children and Adolescents (SPPC/A, adapted;
3. Cognitive Harter 1988;431 Harter 1987432)
3. Fear Schedule for Children-Revised (FSC-R; Ollendick 1993433)

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Other:
1. Parent/carer 1. General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28; Goldberg 2000434)

outcomes 2. Adult Self-Esteem Profile (ASEP; adapted from Messer 1986435)
Sexual COS De Luca 1995170 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI; Coopersmith 1981436)

2. Behaviour 2. Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale/What I Think and Feel
3. Cognitive Questionnaire (RCMAS; Reynolds 1978293)
Secondary:
1. Acceptability 1. Child Feedback Questionnaire (developed by University of Manitoba to

assess acceptability of treatment)
2. Parent Feedback Questionnaire (developed by University of Manitoba
to assess acceptability of treatment)
Sexual COS Grayston 1995171 Primary:

3. Parent report of problematic behaviours (type and frequency, based on
Minden 1982437)
Sexual COS McGain 1995172 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Behavior Problem Checklist-Revised (BPC-R; Quay 1987438)

2. Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI; Eyberg 1980439)
Sexual COS Verleur 1986173 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI; Coopersmith 1981436)

2. Cognitive 2. Anatomy/Physiology Sexual Awareness Scale – designed by Verleur
continued
83
84
Psychotherapy/ Sexual RCT Thun 2002174 Primary:
counselling
1. Psychological distress 1. Offer Self-Image Questionnaire-Revised (OSIQ-R; Offer 1992440)
Physical, sexual, RCT Haight 2010175 Primary:

neglect, multiple
1. Psychological distress 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 2001297)
2. Behaviour 2. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Third Edition (PPVT-III; Dunn 1997441)
3. Cognitive 3. Community clinicians’ perspectives (interview)

Secondary:
1. Acceptibility 1. Children’s perspectives (interview)
2. Caregivers’ perspectives (interview)
Physical, emotional, RCT Reddy 2013176 Primary:

sexual, neglect
1. Psychological distress 1. Cortisol and C-reactive protein levels
3. Social functioning 3. Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology–Self-Report (QIDS-SR;
4. Cognitive Rush 2003442)
4. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Trait Subscale (STAI-T;
Spielberger 1983333)
5. Functional Assessment of Self-Mutilation (FASM; Lloyd 1997443)
6. Self–Other Four Immeasurables Scale (SOFI; Kraus 2009444)
7. Children’s Hope Scale (CHS; Snyder 1991445)
8. Difficulties with Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS; Gratz 2004446)
9. Inventory of Callous and Unemotional Traits-Parent Report (ICU-P;
Essau 2006447)
10. Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ; Fink 1995448)
Sexual RCT Trowell 2002155 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Kiddie Schedule for Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders (K-SADS,
2. Social functioning short; Chambers 1885405)
2. PTSD Scale (K-SADS extension; Orvaschel 1989406)
3. Kiddie Global Assessment Scale (K-GAS; Shaffer 1983261)
177
Physical, neglect, QEx Cadol 1975 Primary:
multiple
1. Psychological distress 1. Bayley Scales of Infant Development (children aged 24–30 months;
2. Behaviour Bayley 1993449)
3. Social functioning 2. McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (children aged over 30 months;
4. Cognitive MacCarthy 1972450)

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
5. Quality of life 3. Height, weight and head circumference

4. Bayley Infant Behavior Record (IBR; Matheny 1980451)
5. Child Behaviour Characteristics Questionnaire [CBCQ, Mother’s
perceptions of child’s behaviour; Borgatta 1970 (not referenced in
Cadol 1975177)]
6. Reabuse
Other:
1. Placement stability 1. Miscellaneous outcome measures (Foster care, number of times family
moved, where child resident at time of service closure)
Sexual COS Nolan 2002178 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991344,418)

2. Behaviour 2. Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs 1992258)
3. Cognitive 3. Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC; Briere 1996452)
Sexual COS Sullivan 1992179 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL – Parent Report completed by

house-parent; Achenbach 1983257)
Sexual COS Downing 1988180 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Behavioural observations of parents and teachers

181
Peer mentoring Physical, neglect RCT Fantuzzo 1988 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Positive Social Behaviour (observational coding; Strain 1974,453 1976454)

2. Social functioning 2. Preschool Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ; Behar 1974455)
3. Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development (Brigance 1978456)
Physical, neglect, RCT Fantuzzo 1996182 Primary:

multiple
1. Behaviour 1. Interactive peer play observational coding system
2. Social functioning 2. Preschool Social Skills Rating System (SSRS; Gresham 1990379)
3. Peer Play Interactive Checklist (PPIC; Fantuzzo 1995457)
continued
85
86
Treatment foster care Physical, emotional, RCT Fisher 2005183–188 Primary:
sexual, neglect,
multiple 1. Psychological distress 1. Salivatory cortisol
2. Parent Attachment Diary (PAD)
Other:
1. Placement stability 1. Permanent placement type
2. Placement disruptions

3. Number of foster care placements
4. Time in foster care prior to a permanent placement
Physical, sexual RCT Smith 2011189 Primary:
1. Behaviour 1. Parent Daily Report Checklist (PDR; Chamberlain 1987458)
Physical, emotional, RCT Taussig 2010190,191 Primary:

sexual, neglect
2. Behaviour 2. Child Behavior Checklist (CBLC, Internalising Scales Teacher Report
3. Social functioning Form, TRF; Achenbach 1991269)
4. Cognitive/academic 3. Mental Health Index created from principal components factor analysis
(PCFA) of mean scores from 1 and 2 above
4. Life Satisfaction Survey (Andrews 1976402)
5. Coping Scales Inventory (CSI, Positive and Negative Coping scales;
Dise-Lewis 1988459)
6. Self-Perception Profile for Children [Social Acceptance and Global
Self-Worth scales (SPPC); Harter 1982413] Social Support Factor Score
(derived from PCFA of scales scores from ‘The People in My Life –
Short Form’; Gifford-Smith 2000460)
Other:
1. Placement stability 1. Number of placement changes
Economic:
1. Service use 1. Children’s use of mental health services and psychotropic medication
192
Multiple COS Fisher 2000 Primary:
1. Behavioural 1. Child Caregiver Interviewer Impressions Form (parenting strategies;

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Chamberlain 1997461)
2. Parent Daily Report (PDR; Chamberlain 1987458)
3. Early Childhood Inventory (behaviour problems) (ECI; Gadow 1994462)
4. L-HPA axis activity (salivary cortisol)
Physical, emotional, COS Graham 2012193 Other:

sexual, neglect,
multiple 1. Diurnal cortisol slope
Therapeutic residential Multiple RCT Moore 1998194 Primary:

and day care
1. Psychological distress 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991294,344,418)
2. Behaviour 2. Winters Personal Experiences Screening Questionnaire (PESQ;
3. Social functioning Winters 1992463)
4. Cognitive/academic 3. Self-perception profile for children (SPPC; Harter 1985401)
Secondary:
1. Care efficacy 1. Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME;

2. Addictions Bradley 1988464)
3. Delinquency 2. Juvenile court and school files
3. Indexes of drug/alcohol use
Physical, neglect COS Culp 1987195,196 Primary:
1. Social functioning 1. Early Intervention Development Profile (Bricker 1982,465

2. Cognitive Schafer 1981466)
Physical, neglect COS Culp 1991197 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance Scale (PCSAS;

2. Behaviour Harter 1984467)
3. Social functioning 2. Early Intervention Developmental Profile (Bricker 1982,465
4. Cognitive Schafer 1981466)
continued
87
88
198
Coordinated Care Physical, emotional, RCT Swenson 2000 Primary:
sexual, neglect,
multiple, other 1. Psychological distress 1. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach 1991418)
2. Behaviour 2. Denver II for infants and toddlers (Frankenburg 1992468)
3. Quality of life 3. Abuse reincidence

Secondary:
1. Substance misuse 1. Addiction Severity Index (ASI McLellan 1985,469 1980470)
Other:
Economic:
1. Services and costs 1. Service utilisation and cortisol

2. Service system performance (interviews with careworkers)
Arts therapy Physical, sexual QEx Brillantes- Primary:

Evangelista 2013199
1. Psychological distress 1. Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS; Zung 1965a)
2. Child Report of Posttraumatic Symptoms (CROPS; Greenwald 1999a)
3. Children’s thoughts and feelings about treatment (interview)
4. References as cited in Corcoran 2000472
Sexual QEx Pretorius 2010200 Primary:
2. Human figure drawing (HFD: measure of self-esteem, depression,
anxiety and sexual trauma; Koppitz 1968474)
201
Play/activity Physical, sexual, neglect COS D’Andrea 2013 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Milieu Behavioural Data (chart review)

2. Behaviour 2. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL, completed by child’s therapist;

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Achenbach 1991260)
3. Observational data also collected on the use of player skill
(e.g. conflicts, loss of temper, conflict resolution)
Other RCT McDonald 1989202 Primary:

1. Psychological distress 1. Piers–Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale (PHSCS; Piers 1969475)
Other QEx Udwin 1983203 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Play behaviours during free play, using rating scale (Singer 1973476)
2. Behaviour 2. Guilford’s Unusual Uses Test (GUUT; Guilford 1950477)
3. Cognitive 3. Children’s Apperception Test (CAT; Bellak 1954478)
Animal therapy Sexual COS Dietz 2012204 Primary:

1. Psychological distress 1. Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC, Briere 1996383)
Physical, sexual COS Hamama 2011205 Primary:
1. Psychological distress 1. Subjective well-being ‘All things being considered, how satisfied are
2. Social functioning you with your life these days?’ (five-point Likert scale)
2. Coping with stressful life events (ask participants to rate their
perception of coping with daily life on a 5-point Likert scale)
3. Short Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (S-CESD;
Radloff 1977369)
4. PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C; Ruggiero 2003479)
Secondary:
1. Resilience
CPS, Child Protective Services (USA); L-HPA, limbic–hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal; Q-RCT, quasi-randomised controlled trial; QEx, quasi-experimental; UCLA, University of California,
Los Angeles.
a Reference not available.
Kolko 1996 appears twice: once in ‘CBT for Physical Abuse’, and once in ‘Systemic Family Therapy’. Trowell 2001 appears twice: once in ‘psychoeducation’ and once in
‘Psychotherapy/counselling’.
89
90
TABLE 6 Uncontrolled studies: participant characteristics
Intervention Study/record Country n Mean (SD), range % female P E S N M O

480
CBT Arnold 2003 USA 45 12–17 years 100 ✗
Barker 2005481 UK 67 9.2, 4–18 years 60 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

482
Chasson 2008 USA 99 10.88 (3.48), 5–19 years 68 ✗
483
Clarke 1994 UK 3 22.33, 19–24 years 100 ✗
484
Cohen 2007 USA 12 10–17 years 100 ✗
Deblinger 1990485 USA 19 7.79, 3–16 years 100 ✗

486
Feather 2006 New Zealand 4 10.75 (2.06), 9–13 years 50 ✗
487
Feather 2009 Canada 8 11.63 (1.3), 9–13 years 50 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
488
Habib 2013 USA 24 14–21 years 75 ✗
Habigzang 2008489 Brazil 10 9–13 years 100 ✗ ✗

490
Habigzang 2009 Brazil 40 9–16 years 100 ✗
491
Habigzang 2013 Brazil 49 11.43 (1.81), 9–16 years 100 ✗
492
Hubel 2014 USA 97 10 (1.63), 6.97–12.83 years 77 ✗
Jarero 2013493 Mexico 34 9–14 years 47 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

494
Kirsch 2011 Germany 15 10.5 (1.8) years 40 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
495
Kjellgren 2013 Sweden 25 9.2 (1.8), 6–14 years 40 ✗
496
Kruczek 1999 USA 41 14.21, 13–17 years 100 ✗
Lange 2010497 The Netherlands 24 20 (3.5), 14–25 years No information ✗

498
Lanktree 1995 USA 105 11.6, 8–15 years 85 ✗
499
Matulis 2014 Germany 12 18.08 (1.67), 15–21 years 83 ✗ ✗ ✗
500
Misurell 2011 USA 123 7.93 (1.5), years 63 ✗
Misurell 2014501 USA 45 10 (median) (3.44) years 74 ✗

502
Rosenberg 2011 USA 9 16, 14–18 years 75 ✗ ✗ ✗
continued
✗
✗
✗
✗
M
✗
N
✗
✗
✗
✗
✗
S
✗
E
✗
✗
✗
P
No information
No information
% female
39
22
58
33
67
44
37
40
36
35
25
33
33
78
20.19 (10.91), 2–52 months
8.1 (2.65), 4–14 years
4.21 (1.08), 2–6 years
6.6 (2.8), 2–13 years

10.87, 0.6–17 years
4.6 (1.5), 2–8 years

Mean (SD), range
4.63 (2.37) years

14, 11–16 years
4.7 (0.87) years
4.58, 2–8 years

4.9 (1.1) years
3–10 years
5–15 years
4.46 years
6–9 years
120
307
129
33
85
19
79
16
15
57
56
57
12
23
n
Scotland/UK
Country
Australia
Australia
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
UK
509
Timmons-Mitchell 1986
510
Puckering 2011516
513,514
Ducharme 2000
Salloum 2014504
Golding 2004511
Stauffer 1996507
515
505
Jackson 2009512
Runyon 2009503
Sullivan 2004508
Timmer 2005517
518
519
Winton 1990520
Study/record
506
Osofsky 2007
Silovsky 2007
Timmer 2006
Timmer 2010
Lanier 2011
Smith 2008
Intervention
RBIs
91
92
TABLE 6 Uncontrolled studies: participant characteristics (continued )

521
Systemic interventions Arabgol 2014 Iran 73 4 (3.12) years 41 ✗ ✗

522
Bentovim 1987 UK 274 77 ✗
523
Berg 1999 UK 13 24 (23), 1–78 months 46 ✗
Coren 2013524 UK 42 12.75 (3.28), 4–18 years 69 ✗

525
Crusto 2008 USA 82 3.3, 0–6 years 56 ✗ ✗
526
Danielson 2010 USA 10 15 (1.7), 13–17 years 100 ✗
527
De Paul 2003 Spain 289 0–18 years ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
Donohue 1999528 USA 47 9 (5), 0–17 years 57 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

529
Forbes 2003 UK 31 9 (2.92), 4–14 years 74 ✗
25
Huang-Storms 2006 USA 20 10.43 (2.66), 6–15.5 years 45 ✗
530
McClure 2005 USA 6 14.67 (1.21), 13–16 years No information ✗ ✗
Staff 1995531 USA 244 9 (median), 2–16 years > 50 ✗
532
Tourigny 1998 Canada 41 11.6 years 73 ✗
533
Woodworth 1991 USA 22 13.3 years > 50 ✗
170
Psychoeducation De Luca 1995 Canada 6 10–11 years 100 ✗

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
534
Grosz 2000 USA 246 2–14 years 58 ✗
535
Hack 1994 Canada 6 8–11 years 0 ✗
Harbeck 1992536 USA 20 10.05, 4–16 years 80 ✗
Hiebert-Murphy 1992537 Canada 6 100 ✗

538
Hyde 1995 UK 47 4–16 years 85 ✗
539
Lee 2012 USA 27 8.41, 6–11 years 59 ✗
Macmillan 2003540 Canada 47 9.02 (1.91) years 49 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
Merrick 1994541 USA 47 12.57, 4–17 years 79 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

542
Mukaddes 2000 Turkey 15 31.4, 21–45 months 44 ✗
543
Nelki 1989 UK 6 4–8 years 100 ✗
Group work with children Lindon 1994544 UK 6 13–17 years 100 ✗
Reeker 1998545 USA 19 6.32 (0.95), 4–8 years 47 ✗

546
Sinclair 1995 USA 43 12–18 years 100 ✗
547
Psychotherapy Friedrich 1992 USA 42 4–16 years 0 ✗
Rust 1991548 USA 25 12.5, 9–18 years 100 ✗
Counselling Jarvis 2006549 USA 62 9.9, 4–18 years 44 ✗ ✗

550
Wagner 1993 USA 36 12.19 years 100 ✗
continued
93
94
TABLE 6 Uncontrolled studies: participant characteristics (continued )

551
Intensive service models Brown 2013 USA 70 0 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
552
Cross 2004 USA 384 6+ years 47 ✗ ✗

Culp 1987195,196 USA 109 2.4 (0.1–6.2) years 44 ✗ ✗
553
Gallagher 2013 UK 16 18.8, 16–24 years 63 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
554
Grey 2000 USA 27 6–11 years 59 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
555
Heede 2009 Denmark 24 6–16 years ✗
Hussey 2005556 USA 119 9.7 (4.03), 5–18 years 60 ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗

557
Jones 2010 USA 58 12.3 (1.9), 9–18 years 22 ✗ ✗ ✗
558
Oates 1995 USA 24 3 years 54 ✗ ✗
559
Parish 1985 USA 53 30–60 months 45 ✗
Pugh 1987560 USA 246 6.94 years 35 ✗

561
Ray 1995 USA 15 10.5, 7–15 years 27 ✗
562
Schram 1991 USA 24 17.8 (median), years 100 ✗ ✗ ✗
563
Stubenbort 2010 USA 53 47 months 51 ✗
Vernberg 2004564 USA 50 9.64 (2.05) years 16 ✗
✗
M
✗
N
✗
✗
✗
S
✗
E
✗
P
E, emotional (abuse); M, multiple (types of maltreatment); N, neglect; O, other (forms of maltreatment); P, physical (abuse); S, sexual (abuse).
% female
100
100
100
44
51
54
80
30
87
17
53
72
41
73
15.6 (2), 13–18 years
8.5 (3.5), 3–17 years
11.1, 7.3–16.6 years

Mean (SD), range
12.65, 8–17 years
10.8, 4–16 years

8.2, 3–14 years
5–10.7 years
12–18 years
9–17 years
8–17 years
8–17 years
7.84 years
4–7 years
5.6 years
58
13
30
20
15
13
13
12
19
18
63
26
n
5
Country
Australia
Sweden
Canada
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
Hall-Marley 1993567
Clausen 2012570
569
565
577
Nilsson 2010571
Study/record
568
Purvis 2006574
Purvis 2007575
576
572
573
Mackay 1987
Coulter 2000
Scott 2003578
Ernst 2007566
Schultz 2007
Kemp 2013
Reyes 2005
Pifalo 2002
Pifalo 2006
Activity-based therapies
Intervention
95
many interventions targeting only female survivors of child sexual abuse (CSA). A total of 31 of these
studies (see Table 3) included only female participants compared it with just three studies including only
male participants. By contrast, in studies specifically addressing physical abuse, participants were more
likely to be male (60% male, 40% female).
Abuse type
The majority of studies included children who had suffered from multiple types of abuse. A total of
135 studies (see Table 3) included participants who had experienced sexual abuse. Participants who had
experienced physical abuse were included in 85 of the included studies. Participants who had experienced
neglect were included in 50 studies. Participants who had experienced emotional abuse were included in
31 studies. A total of 37 studies specified that their participants had experienced ‘multiple’ forms of abuse.
Finally, 49 studies included participants who had experienced ‘other’ forms of abuse (e.g. witnessing
domestic violence, Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy, etc.).
Outcomes
We were interested in five primary outcome domains [(1) psychological distress/mental health, particularly
PTSD, depression and anxiety, self-harm; (2) behaviour, particularly internalising and externalising
behaviours; (3) social functioning, including attachment and relationships with family and others;
(4) cognitive/academic attainment; and (5) quality of life]. We also wanted to record the reporting of other
outcomes, including substance misuse, delinquency, resilience and treatment acceptability, outcomes
related to parent/carer distress, parent/carer efficacy (the degree to which they feel empowered to care for
the child appropriately and safely) and, where appropriate, placement stability.
A wide variety of types and forms of measures have been used to evaluate outcomes in this field. A good
many that are used routinely are well accepted and appear with citations demonstrating some aspect of
validity and reliability. Some have been developed around the evaluation of formal diagnostic criteria
[e.g. the Kiddie Schedule for Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders (KSADS);268] problem behaviour
[e.g. the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)260] or in relation to specific therapeutic approaches [e.g. Beck
Depression Inventory (BDI)272]. Others have been developed by study investigators for the evaluation of
specific outcomes which, although potentially strong in terms of face validity, are generally without
supporting evidence. Outcome measures routinely used in this field most often take the form of rating
scales and questionnaires, and can be administered by an assessor or completed self-report.
We identified a considerable number of measures intended to evaluate the different outcome domains,
either partially or fully (see Table 5). The measurement of psychological distress alone was undertaken
using over 60 different measures or adaptations of measures across these studies. A list of the outcome
domains, and judgements about the main measures used to assess them, is provided in Appendix 9.
A sizeable proportion of these studies reported multiple measures ostensibly assessing the same outcome
domains, or a mix of overlapping global and specific measures. The choice of outcome measure was often
appropriately influenced by the nature of the intervention and/or the target group, although in view of the
consequences and longer-term sequelae of maltreatment, the range of outcome domains considered by
many studies was frequently quite limited.
Cognitive–behavioural therapy interventions

Of the 12 studies89–105 examining the effects of CBT for sexual abuse, all measured psychological distress,
11 recorded behaviour outcomes,89–100,102–105 seven measured some form of social functioning90,95–101,104,105
and three measured acceptability.99,101 Five studies90,95–100 also looked at parent/carer outcomes.
Of the three studies106–109 using CBT to specifically target physical abuse, all three measured some form of
behavioural outcomes, two studies107–109 measured psychological distress, two studies107–109 measured
cognitive function/academic attainment and one study107,108 measured social functioning. One study109 also
looked at parent/carer outcomes.
96
Five111,112,116–118 of the nine studies that looked at CBT for multiple abuse measured psychological distress,
six studies114–119 measured behaviours, four studies115,117–119 measured social functioning, four studies115–119
looked at cognitive function/academic attainment,114,115,117,118 three studies115–117 looked at acceptability and
four studies115,117–119 looked at parent/carer outcomes.
Of the two studies120,121 that used EMDR, both looked at psychological distress, and one study120 also
measured behaviour outcomes.
Relationship-based interventions
Of the 15 studies122–140 that looked at attachment-orientated and parenting interventions, nine studies
evaluated psychological distress, 10 studies measured behavioural outcomes, three studies looked
at social functioning and six studies measured cognitive function. Six of these studies looked at
parent/carer outcomes.
Systematic interventions
Eight107,108,142–150 of the nine studies107,108,141–150 looking at systemic and family-focused interventions
measured outcomes related to psychological distress and behaviour. Six studies looked at social
functioning;107,108,141–144,148,149 two included measures related to cognitive functioning.107,108,148,149 One UK
study145,146 examined the impact of intervention on education and two UK studies reported delinquency
as an outcome.145,146,150 Carer efficacy and/or distress were measured in three studies141,144,148,149 and
placement stability in two studies.145,146,148,149
Psychoeducation
Of the 17151–153,155–168 psychoeducation intervention studies, 15 studies150,152,153,155,157–160,163–168 measured
a psychological distress outcome, 12 studies looked at behaviour outcomes,151–153,158–161,163–168
10 studies152,155,157–160,163–168 looked at social functioning and eight studies153,159–161,163,165–168 looked at some
measure of cognitive functioning/academic attainment. One study157 measured substance misuse, two
studies162,164 looked at delinquency, three studies160,166–168 measured resilience and one study161 looked at
acceptability. Two studies150,152 also looked at parent/carer outcomes.
Group work
Of the five studies169–173 looking at group work with children, three studies169,170,173 looked at psychological
distress outcomes, four studies169–172 measured behaviour and four studies169–171,173 measured cognitive
functioning. One study170 also looked at acceptability and one study169–171 recorded parent/carer outcomes.
Psychotherapy/counselling
Of the seven studies174–180 evaluating psychotherapy/counselling, five studies174–178 measured psychological
distress outcomes, all but one174 measured behaviour outcomes, five studies175–178 looked at cognitive outcomes,
and one study177 looked at placement stability. One study175 reported on the intervention’s acceptability.
Peer mentoring
The two peer-mentoring studies181,182 both reported behaviour and social functioning outcomes.
Intensive service models

Nine studies183–198 examined the effects of these models of care. Five studies183–188,190,191,194,198 measured
psychological distress, five studies189,192,194,197,198 looked at behavioural outcomes, four studies190,191,194,195,197
explored social functioning, three studies190,191,197 measured cognitive performance, two studies194,198 examined
addiction behaviour, one study190,191 examined resilience and two studies190,191 looked at placement stability.
Activity-based interventions
All seven activity-based interventions199–205 measured psychological distress. Two studies201,203 also reported
behaviour outcomes and one study205 reported measures of social functioning and resilience.
97
Excluded studies
A total of 34 records280,579–611 were excluded from this review (Table 7). Of these records, five586,592,598–600 were
excluded because the focus of the study was on preventing abuse, not treating the sequelae of abuse. Five
records581,584,596,608,609 were excluded because they focused on the family preservation services, rather than
treating the child. Three records580,591,611 were excluded because the focused was on parenting stress and
parenting outcomes, rather than child-focused outcomes. Seven records579,582,589,593,597,606,607 were excluded
because participants were not recruited or selected on the basis of their maltreatment; instead they were
recruited on the basis of problems including depression, PTSD, substance abuse and delinquency. Three
records585,587,603 were excluded because they focused on general services, such as general foster care and child
protection service, and did not focus on a therapeutic intervention for maltreatment. Five studies280,601,604,605,610
were excluded because they did not include a relevant evaluation of the intervention of interest. The
remaining six studies583,588,590,594,595,602 were excluded because there was either no specific focus on child
outcomes (n = 3583,590,602) or no specific focus on maltreatment (n = 3588,594,595).
TABLE 7 Excluded studies: effectiveness
Study ID Reason for exclusion Design Intervention category
Amaya-Jackson 2003579 Intervention focus is not maltreatment but PTSD UCS CBT
580
Barton 1994 Focus is family stress reduction through intensive CS Systemic interventions
support; the intervention does not focus on the child
Barton 1994581 Family preservation services – not focused on treating QEx Systemic interventions
the child
Brook 2007582 Focus on substance abuse intervention CS Systemic interventions

Cohen 1998280 Focus of the study on mediating factors, now RCT CBT
effectiveness
Cohen 2000583 No outcome data presented RCT CBT
Coleman 2000584 Family preservation services – not focused on treating UCS Systemic interventions
the child
Collado 2007585 Foster care, not an evaluation of a specific intervention UCS Intensive service models
Currier 1996586 Focus was on preventing abuse, not treating the UCS Systemic interventions
sequelae of abuse
DeSena 2005587 Intervention to improve the working of child CS Intensive service models
protection/welfare – not a therapeutic intervention for
maltreatment
Edinburgh 2009588 Focus was on sexual exploitation UCS Systemic interventions

589
Friman 1997 No focus on maltreatment UCS Intensive service models
590
Graham-Berman 2013 No child outcomes reported for the children’s group RCT Group work with children
Hakman 2009591 Focus on the parents, to prevent abuse recidivism and RCT Systemic interventions
not treat the child
Harder 2005592 Intervention targeted at parents with the aim of CS Systemic interventions
preventing further abuse
Harold 2013593 Focus on delinquency, not maltreatment RCT Intensive service models
594
Howes 1998 Therapeutic preschool programme, but no UCS Intensive service models
maltreatment
Iwaniec 1997611 Focus was on parent intervention and parent outcomes CS Systemic interventions
595
Iwaniec 2003 Not clearly maltreated and intervention is not clear UCS Intensive service models
Kirk 2004596 Focus was on family preservation CS Intensive service models

Lewis 2010597 Focus was on participants with depression, not abuse RCT CBT
98
TABLE 7 Excluded studies: effectiveness (continued )
Study ID Reason for exclusion Design Intervention category
Lorber 1984598 Abuse prevention only UCS Systemic interventions
MacMillan 2005599 Abuse prevention only RCT Systemic interventions

600
Mersky 2011 Abuse prevention only QEx Systemic interventions
Overbeek 2014 601

Not evaluating the intervention – assessing risk factors RCT Systemic interventions
as moderators of recovery across both interventions
(i.e. two interventions combined as one)
Pereira 2013602 No child outcomes UCS RBI
Rivara 1985603 Not child focused UCS Psychotherapy

604
Sagatun 1988 No evaluation UCS Intensive service models
605
Sullivan 1990 No data presented and no specific information about CS Psychotherapy
the intervention aside from general descriptions of the
techniques used in the facility
Swart 2014606 Participants were not recruited/selected on the basis of RCT CBT
their maltreatment
Swart 2014607 Participants were not recruited/selected on the basis of RCT CBT
their maltreatment
Szykula 1985608 Focus on family preservation CS Intensive service models

609
Vitulano 1990 Family preservation; the only results presented are CS Intensive service models
about placement and removal from home
Waxman 2009610 Child advocate programme, not a therapeutic CS Intensive service models
intervention
UCS, uncontrolled study.
Economic studies
Included studies
In total we identified six studies198,612–616 assessing the cost-effectiveness of relevant psychosocial interventions
for maltreated children: five studies198,613–616 were carried out using data from a trial and one study612 used a
decision-analytic model. Of the five trial-based studies,198,613–616 data were from four RCTs198,613–615 and one
cohort study.616 All six studies198,612–616 were published in English and were carried out in the USA198,615,616
(n = 3), the UK613,614 (n = 2) and Australia612 (n = 1). The basic characteristics of the six included studies198,612–616
are presented in Table 8, and more detailed descriptions are presented in Chapter 4.
Summary of study characteristics
Participants
Age In the RCT-based evaluations, one study615 included preschool children in foster care aged between
3 and 5 years, one study615 included children who had been adopted between the ages of 3 and
8 years,613 and two studies198,614 included a broader age range: the first study198 involved maltreated
children between 1 and 16 years and the second study614 used a sexual abuse sample of children aged
between 6 and 14 years. In the cohort study,616 no age range was reported, just the mean of the groups,
which was 8.9 years in one group and 5.4 years in the other. The decision model612 focused on a
hypothetical cohort of 10-year old children.
Gender Four198,613,615,616 of the five trial-based studies included both girls and boys, with an average of
49% being girls (range 43–54%). The exception focused on an intervention that was specifically for girls
who had been victims of sexual abuse.614
99
100
TABLE 8 Characteristics of included economic studies
Method of
Intervention Type of economic Measure of Time
category Design Study record Country Intervention Comparator abuse evaluation outcome Costs included horizon
CBT Decision Gospodarevskaya Australia TF-CBT and Non-directive Sexual Cost–utility QALYs Cost of 1 year and
model 2012612 TF-CBT plus counselling and abuse intervention only 30 years
SSRI no treatment

RCT Sharac 2011613 UK Parenting Services as usual Not Cost-effectiveness Strengths and Health, social 6 months
programmes specified difficulties care and
and parent education
satisfaction
Psychoeducation RCT McCrone 2005614 UK Individual Group-based Sexual Cost–consequences Various Cost of 2 years
psychotherapy psychoeducational abuse symptom and intervention only
therapy functioning
Intensive service RCT Lynch 2014615 USA MTFC RFC Not Cost-effectiveness Placement Health, social 2 years
models specified permanency care and
education
Cohort Wood 1988616 USA Families First Services as usual Abuse or Cost–consequences Family Cost of 1 year
child abuse neglect functioning and intervention and
prevention out-of-home out-of-home
service placements placements
Co-ordinated care RCT Swenson 2000198 USA Charleston Services as usual Abuse or Cost–consequences Caregiver Programme costs, 3 months
Collaborative neglect and child youth service and
Project for psychosocial out-of-home
maltreated functioning placements
children
RFC, regular foster care; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor.
Abuse type Two studies612,614 evaluated interventions for sexual abuse, two studies198,616 described the
maltreatment type as abuse and neglect, and the remaining two were unspecified,613,615 focusing on
adopted or foster care populations.
Interventions
The interventions evaluated in these economic evaluations were heterogeneous, including treatment-
focused CBT compared with non-directive counselling and a no-treatment arm for sexual abuse, parenting
programmes compared with services as usual for adoptive parents, individual psychotherapy compared
with group-based psychoeducation therapy for sexual abuse, multidimensional treatment foster care
(MTFC) compared with regular foster care (RFC) for preschool children with emotional and behavioural
problems, a child abuse prevention service compared with services as usual, and a collaborative care
intervention for maltreated children compared with services as usual.
Economic study type and quality

The method of economic evaluation was a cost-effectiveness analysis in two studies613,615 (effects measured
on disease-specific scales), a cost–utility analysis in a third study612 [effects measured using a generic
quality-of-life scale capable of generating quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs)] and the remaining
three studies198,614,616 are most accurately described as cost–consequences analyses (costs and outcomes
presented separately and not formally combined).
The performance of each study on the economic evaluation critical appraisal checklist76 is summarised
in Table 9. Sample sizes were small in all of the trial-based studies,198,613–616 ranging from a total of
37 participants (two groups of 19 and 18) to a maximum of 117 participants (two groups of 57 and 60).
Perspectives were commonly narrow, with two studies612,614 including only the cost of the interventions
TABLE 9 Performance of economic studies on the Economic Evaluation Critical Appraisal Checklist
Critical appraisal checklist Gospodarevskaya Sharac McCrone Lynch Wood Swenson

criteria 2012612 2011613 2005280 2014615 1988616 2000198
1. Was a well-defined question Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

posed?
2. Comprehensive description of Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

competing alternatives?
3. Was the effectiveness Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

established?
4. Were all costs and outcomes No Yes No Yes No Yes
identified?
5. Were costs and outcomes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
measured accurately?
6. Were costs and outcomes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes

valued credibly?
7. Were costs and outcomes Yes N/A No No N/A N/A

adjusted for differential
timing?
8. Was an incremental analysis Yes Yes No Yes No No

performed?
9. Was allowance made for Yes No No No No No

uncertainty?
10. Were all issues of concern to Yes No Yes No No No

users included?
N/A, not applicable.
101
under evaluation and two studies198,616 additionally including the cost of out-of-home placements.
The remaining two studies613,615 took a broader perspective, covering health, social care and education.
Incremental analyses were reported in three612,613,615 of the six studies and uncertainty was explored in only
one study.612 Discounting of costs and effects was not applied in two614,615 of the three studies with a
follow-up duration of > 1 year. Quality varied greatly, with the decision model,612 published in 2012,
meeting a relatively high number of the critical appraisal criteria and the cohort study,616 published in
1988, meeting relatively few.
Excluded economic studies

A total of 16 papers116,504,587,588,617–628 were excluded from the review of economic evidence and these are
reported in Table 10. Six papers619–621,623,626,628 were excluded because they did not involve an intervention
and four papers587,618,624,625 because the intervention in question did not meet criteria for inclusion, focusing
on prevention rather than treatment. Two records622,627 did not have a specific focus on maltreatment,
three records116,504,588 did not meet criteria for a full economic evaluation and one record617 was a
conference abstract.
Acceptability studies
Description of included acceptability studies

Of the 73 included acceptability studies, the majority were set in the USA (42 studies107,108,161,175,176,482,492,504,
505,510,515,526,533,621,629–657
). The remainder were in Canada (four studies170,658–661), the UK (14 studies145,169,481,511,
538,662–670
) and elsewhere in Europe: the Netherlands (three studies497,671,672), Norway (three studies673–675) and
Sweden (one study676), with one multisite review of services145,146,640,665–670 across Italy, the Netherlands
and the UK. A small number of studies were based outside North America and Europe: Australia
(two studies506,677), Brazil (one study678), India (one study679) and the Philippines (one study680).
TABLE 10 Excluded economic studies
Report ID Reason for exclusion Design Intervention category

618
Blazey 2011 Not an included intervention UCS Intensive service models
Clark 2011619 No intervention UCS N/A
620
Cohen 1998 No intervention UCS N/A
621
Conrad 2006 No intervention UCS N/A
622
DePanfilis 2008 No maltreatment RCT Systemic interventions
DeSena 2005587 Not an included intervention CS Intensive service models

588
Edinburgh 2009 Not a full economic evaluation UCS Systemic interventions
623
Florence 2013 No intervention N/A N/A
624
Foster 2008 Not an included intervention UCS Multiservice
Lynch 2011617 Conference abstract N/A Intensive service models

625
Maher 2012 Not an included intervention UCS Systemic interventions
626
New 2000 No intervention UCS N/A
627
Reynolds 2002 No maltreatment CS Systemic interventions
Rovi 2014628 No intervention UCS N/A

116
Rushton 2010 Not a full economic evaluation RCT CBT
504
Salloum 2014 Not a full economic evaluation UCS CBT
N/A, not applicable; UCS, uncontrolled study.
102
Most studies were uncontrolled, with only one RCT.107,108,145 Sample sizes varied greatly from single case studies
(two studies621,629) to a large national sample of n = 1085.634 The majority of sample sizes were < 50 cases
(40 studies169,175,497,504,506,510,511,526,533,538,621,629,636–639,641–643,645,646,648,651,652,658,661–663,665,666,668–670,675,677,678,680), between
50 and 100 cases (15 studies107,170,176,481,482,492,505,644,647,650,660,664,671,673,674) and 18 studies145,515,630–634,640,649,653–658,667,672,679
had sample sizes of > 100 cases.
Sexual abuse was the most commonly cited type of abuse across the acceptability studies
(33 studies161,169–171,189,492,497,505,506,526,533,538,621,633,636–638,640–643,645,647,648,653,657,660,662,664,668,673,677–680) and some
intervention categories reported data for only this population group [systemic interventions,526,533,621,673,678
psychoeducational interventions,161,538,647,664 peer mentoring660 (note: there was only one study in this
category)]. Three studies510,639,652 also reported on a physical abuse sample that had also witnessed
domestic violence. Considering the large number of studies reporting a sexual abuse sample and targeted
intervention, a large proportion of studies had a 100% or majority female population, and fewer than half
of the studies had a majority male population, with only two studies170,171 that had 100% male population.
The age range of included studies was 1–22 years.
103
Chapter 4 Results
I n this chapter we present evidence for the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of treatment
modalities as described in the previous chapters, drawing solely on the evidence of controlled
trials or, in the case of economic evidence, decision models. The evidence is organised around
intervention groups.
The breadth of this evidence synthesis meant that it was not possible, a priori, to establish a limited
number of primary and secondary outcomes. In Chapter 3, we presented descriptively the broad outcome
domains that studies reported having measured, whether or not data were presented. In this chapter, and
based on what we know about the proximal adverse effects of maltreatment on children’s emotional and
psychological well-being, we examine the evidence for the impact of interventions on mental health
outcomes, such as post-traumatic effects, depression and anxiety. We then assess the evidence for the
effectiveness of interventions on those outcomes that the study authors stated were their intended
outcomes; however, we recognise that, in doing so, we may be underestimating biases that are associated
with selective outcome reporting, as well as publication bias more generally. Finally, we report any
evidence of cost-effectiveness located in the systematic review.
Cognitive–behavioural therapy
We identified 26 controlled studies90–103,106–112,114–117,121,176,268 of cognitive–behavioural interventions

(CBT), of which 23 were randomised trials. There were sufficient randomised trials to attempt to
explore the differential effect on different maltreatment histories, broadly defined, and so this section
is organised into the following three groupings, and does not include the three COSs of
CBT interventions.
1. CBT interventions for children who have been sexually abused89–103

2. CBT for children who have been physically abused106–109
3. CBT for children with maltreatment histories, including those with experience of multiple forms of
maltreatment and those that recruit children irrespective of type of maltreatment history.110–112,114–117,121,176
Description of studies
Of the 11 studies89–103 of CBT interventions for children who have been sexually abused, two89,90 were
studies of group-based treatments and nine91–103 were studies of treatments provided to children
individually, sometimes in parallel with treatment for the non-offending parent or carer.
Six89–99 of the 11 studies were conducted by a team of clinical researchers who had developed a particular
approach to treating children traumatised by sexual abuse, known sometimes as TF-CBT. Although among
the most rigorous and well-conducted studies, studies of this particular intervention (and others) are
compromised by the lack of independent evaluation.
Location of studies
All studies were conducted in the USA, with the exception of the study by Jaberghaderi et al.,102 which
was conducted in Iran, and King et al.,103 which was undertaken in Australia.
Study size
Five studies90,99,101–103 had small samples sizes ranging from 18 to 63 participants. A multisite trial by
Cohen 2004,95,96 had a sample of 229 participants. The remainder ranged from 82 to 210 participants.91–94,97,98,100
As a result, the meta-analyses we conducted were not sufficiently powered to detect small, but potentially
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RESULTS
important, effects. Baseline differences in these studies also proved problematic in drawing any conclusions
based on end-point data, as it did for almost all included studies.
Participants
Gender
Three studies90,101,102 focused solely on girls who had been sexually abused. The remaining studies included
both boys and girls, with the percentage of boys ranging from 11%89 to 42%.91,92
Age
One study91,92 was concerned with preschoolers (boys and girls aged 3–6 years). Five studies90,95–98 set inclusion
criteria for similar age groups: 7–13 years,90,97,98 8– 14 years,95,96 12–13 years102 and 13–18 years.101 Inclusion
criteria for the other five studies89,93,94,99,103 ranged from children aged 2–8 years99 to children aged 4–13 years,89
5–17 years103 and 7–15 years.93,94
Maltreatment
The range of abuse experienced by participants was broad, and differently reported, but the following
picture of participants emerged. Most were abused by men known to them. The majority of perpetrators
were family members. In three studies,89,90,93,94 approximately half of the children and young people had
experienced oral, vaginal or anal penetration. In the study91,92 dealing with the youngest participants,
the percentage that had experienced vaginal or anal intercourse was 26%.91,92 In the study of children aged
2–8 years,99 the number reported to have experienced penile penetration was 16%. Participants in all
studies ranged from those who had experienced one incident of abuse to those who had experienced
multiple incidents, sometimes over many years. Many participants also reported the use of force, or threat
of force. Not all studies reported detailed abuse data, for example Deblinger 200199 or Jaberghaderi 2004.102
See Table 3 for a profile of participants in each study.
Inclusion criteria
All studies had inclusion criteria that specified contact sexual abuse. All but two trials101,102 made the
independent substantiation of sexual abuse an inclusion criterion. Most set cut-off points on the time of
last episode of abuse as an inclusion criterion, ranging from 3 months101 through 6 months91–94 to 2 or
3 years.103 Although Deblinger et al.99 did not set a time limit, the authors report that the mean age of the
children was 5.45 years (SD 1.47 years) and the mean age of first experience of sexual abuse was
4.5 years (SD 1.47 years), based on mothers’ estimates. The report by Berliner and Saunders89 did not
specify inclusion or exclusion criteria, but all participants were said to have provided statements,
substantiated by independent assessment, that they had been sexually abused. The Jaberghaderi et al.
study102 required that girls had experienced sexual abuse at ≥ 6 months prior to the study.
The presence and severity of symptoms as inclusion criteria were highly variable. Six studies91,92,95–98,101–103
reported the presence of particular symptomatology thresholds as an inclusion criterion. Cohen et al.91,92
required a minimal level of symptomatology defined as a Weekly Behavior Report total behaviour score of
> 7 or any sexually inappropriate behaviour reported on the Child Sexual Behavior Inventory (CSBI).259
Cohen et al.95,96 stipulated that participants had to meet five criteria for sexual abuse-related Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition (DSM-IV)-defined PTSD, including at least one in
each of the three clusters (re-experiencing, avoidance or numbing and hyperarousal). Deblinger et al.97,98
required the presence of three PTSD symptoms, including at least one symptom of avoidance or
re-experiencing the phenomenon. Investigators decided to take both children who met full Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Third Edition, Revised criteria for PTSD and those with partial PTSD
symptoms because of the possibility of delayed onset of episodic course. King et al.103 required that the
children met diagnostic criteria for PTSD or provided evidence of high risk of developing the disorder.
Foa et al.101 required a primary diagnosis (DSM-IV, Text Revision) of chronic or subthreshold PSTD.
Jaberghaderi et al.102 recruited girls whose scores on the Child Report of Post-traumatic Symptoms (CROPS)229
indicated a clinically significant level of post-traumatic symptoms.
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Interventions and comparison

Two studies99,268 provided a group-based intervention, and the remainder provided individual therapy (IT).
Group treatments
Interventions
In Berliner and Saunders 199689 both groups received a therapy described as a ‘structured equivalent of
sexual abuse-specific group therapy’. In the experimental arm, a focus was added on explaining fear
(in the session on feelings), stress inoculation therapy (SIT) was substituted for one of the two ‘family and
friends’ sessions, two sessions were devoted to GE and SIT principles were applied to sessions on
disclosure impact and self-esteem. Children were taught about the automatic nature of fear as a response
to danger and how to manage this through progressive relaxation and coping strategies (quieting reflex
and thought-stopping). Children were encouraged to practice these skills between group sessions
(pp. 299–30).
Deblinger et al. 200199 provided group-based CBT to children and their mothers in separate groups.
The parents’ groups covered a range of topics that varied somewhat according to the specific needs
of each group but commonly followed the following order and number of sessions: education/coping
(three sessions), communication, modelling, GE (two sessions) and behaviour management (six sessions).
The children’s group took the form of an interactional behavioural therapy, facilitated by an interactive
workbook,507 and which incorporated a range of cognitive–behavioural methods, including GE, modelling,
education, coping and body safety training. In addition, members of the CBT group met for an additional
15 minutes each week for a joint parent and child activity session.
Comparisons
The comparison groups in Berliner and Saunders 199689 received conventional sexual abuse-specific group
therapy with or without SIT and the specific CBT focus on fear and anxiety. The sessions covered: getting
acquainted and establishing ground rules; feelings; family and friends (two sessions); disclosure impact,
self-esteem and sexual abuse; body awareness and sexuality (two sessions) and prevention and termination.
Deblinger et al. 200199 compared the effectiveness of group CBT for parents and children with supportive
group therapy (for parents) paired with a more didactic, information-based approach for children.
Individual treatments
Those studies headed by Cohen and Deblinger95,96 are essentially evaluations of a manualised programme
first developed by the authors in the early nineties.283
Cohen 199591,92 evaluated a manualised, short-term treatment model designed for sexually abused children
and their parents, named Cognitive–Behavioural Therapy-Sexually Abused Preschool Children. Children
receive safety education and assertiveness training, are helped to identify appropriate compared with
inappropriate touching, and to deal with attributions regarding the abuse, ambivalent feelings towards the
perpetrator, regressive and inappropriate behaviours, and fear and anxiety. Specific issues for parents include
ambivalence in their belief in the child’s account, ambivalent feelings towards the perpetrator, attributions
regarding the abuse, concerns that the child is ‘damaged’, how to provide appropriate emotional support
for the child and manage inappropriate child behaviours, fear and anxiety. Interventions include the use of
cognitive reframing, thought-stopping, positive imagery, contingency reinforcement programmes, parent
management training and problem-solving. Psychoeducation and support are embedded in the programme.
Cohen 199893,94 evaluated a programme entitled Sexual Abuse-Specific Cognitive–Behavioural Therapy

(SAS-CBT). The programme is not described in detail, but it was designed specifically to address
depression, anxiety and behavioural difficulties. SAS-CBT addressed feelings of helplessness (including not
being believed), distorted attributions (self-blame) about the abuse and other negative events, feeling
damaged/different, and consequent low self-esteem. It incorporated anxiety reduction techniques, such as
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RESULTS
thought replacement, positive imagery/relaxation, enhancement of safety and management of intrusive

thoughts. It helped children to address behavioural problems by teaching them about the connections
between thoughts, feelings and behaviour, management techniques and problem-solving skills. The focus
in the parents’ groups was on reducing their emotional distress (again, including addressing distorted
attributions, anxiety and anger), enhancing their ability to support their child and behaviour management.
Deblinger 199697,98 explored variations of a programme described as similar to that of Cohen and
Mannarino.91,92 Participants were assigned to one of three experimental conditions: child only, parent only
or combined child and parent. Children in all of the experimental arms received an intervention that
included GE, modelling, education, coping and body safety skills. GE was described as the cornerstone of
the intervention aimed at helping the children to disconnect the associations frequently made between
highly negative emotions and abuse-related thoughts, discussion and other reminders. Parents in the
experimental arms were taught how to respond therapeutically to their children’s behaviours and needs,
that is, how to reduce their fears and avoidance behaviours (through the use of modelling, GE and
processing exercises); how to analyse their own interactions with their children behaviourally, thus
identifying those situations when they might inadvertently have reinforced problem behaviours and the
maintenance of PTSD symptoms; and child management skills.
Cohen 200495,96 delivered the same manualised TF-CBT intervention used in earlier studies by this team,
but in a more representative sample of children across two sites. This manualised intervention also forms
the basis of the study conducted by Deblinger et al.100 in 2011. In this paper100 the authors describe the
TF-CBT intervention evaluated in this study as including components ‘that spell out the acronym PRACTICE:
l Psychoeducation and parenting

l Relaxation
l Affective modulation
l Cognitive coping
l Trauma narrative (TN)
l In vivo exposure
l Conjoint parent–child sessions, and
l Enhancing safety and future development’ (p. 69; © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc. Reproduced with permission).
In this study,100 the authors were concerned to investigate the importance of the TN to effective treatment
of children with PTSD. This four-arm trial compared two versions of TF-CBT (as described for Deblinger
200199), one with, and one without, the inclusion of the TN component and at the same time manipulated
the length of treatment and degree of time given to the TN. The authors report that in all conditions both
children and parents received psychoeducation about CSA and skill-building (e.g. relaxation, affective
modulation, cognitive coping and body safety training), as well as parenting skills training. However, only
those children assigned to the two TN groups ‘were actively encouraged to develop a detailed narrative
about the sexual abuse and related experiences, which they processed and reviewed with the therapist as
well as their non-offending parent’ (p. 69).100 Children in the eight-session TN condition spent three to four
sessions on the TN component; this was at least doubled in the 16-session condition.
King et al.103 evaluated the effectiveness of two CBT interventions, both of which the authors say were
particularly influenced by the work of Deblinger et al.208,485 The first was a child-only intervention. This
began with a session that specified the problem areas, presented the rationale for the programme and set
goals. The following three sessions focused on teaching coping skills to enable children to deal with
disturbing memories of abuse and their feelings of anxiety and guilt (relaxation training, behaviour
rehearsal and cognitive therapy). Sessions 5 through to 18 focused on graded exposure, and sessions
19–20 on relapse prevention and education, including personal safety skills. The second intervention was
family CBT, in which the child received the programme outlined above, and non-offending mothers also
received a CBT intervention. The parent intervention began with the rationale of the programme and
issues relating to CSA, followed by nine sessions ‘on the development of parent–child communication skills
108
in order to facilitate listening and problem sharing and to overcome avoidance of abuse-related discussion
within the family’ (p. 1350).103 The remaining 10 sessions focused on child behaviour management,
including antecedent stimulus control and contingency management. Parents were encouraged to monitor
their own emotional responses in order to provide an appropriate coping model for the child.
Celano et al.90 evaluated the impact of the Recovering from Abuse Program, an eight-session group that
focused on children’s maladaptive beliefs, affects and behaviour along four dimensions: self-blame/
stigmatisation; betrayal; traumatic sexualisation and powerlessness.
Jaberghaderi 2004102 compared individual CBT with EMDR, and Foa 2013101 compared exposure therapy
with supportive counselling.
Foa 2013101 evaluated the effectiveness of prolonged exposure therapy, delivered in eight modules,
comprising (1) explaining the treatment rationale; (2) establishing an index of trauma and teaching
participants breathing control; (3) presenting common reactions to trauma; (4) explaining the rationale for
in vivo exposure, establishing an in vivo hierarchy and arranging homework for the participant; (5) two to
five sessions of imaginal exposure lasting between 15 and 45 minutes, combined with reprocessing of the
experiences; (6) four to seven further sessions of imaginal exposure centred on the most extreme periods
of trauma; (7) generalisation of newly acquired skills and relapse prevention; and (8) a final project, ‘such
as making booklets about the trauma and the gains made in treatment’ (Foa 2013101 p. 2652).
Comparisons
Four studies91–94,101 compared CBT for children and parents with non-directive supportive therapies:
Cohen 200495,96 compared TF-CBT with child-centred therapy (CCT), described as ‘child/parent[-]centred
treatment model focused on establishing a trusting therapeutic relationship that is self-affirming,
empowering, and validating for the parent and child . . . Therapists provided active listening, reflection,
accurate empathy, encouragement to talk about feelings, and belief in the child’s and parent’s ability to
develop positive coping strategies for abuse-related difficulties . . . Although sessions were generally client
directed, written psychoeducational information about CSA was provided, and children, specifically, were
prompted to share their feelings about sexual abuse during two therapy sessions if they did not do so
spontaneously’95 (p. 398; reproduced with permission).
Deblinger 199697,98 and King et al.103 included a community control and wait-list group, respectively.
Celano et al.90 compared the efficacy of CBT provided to children and their mothers with supportive,
unstructured psychotherapy, also to children and their mothers.
Jaberghaderi 2004102 compared individual CBT with EMDR.
Deblinger 2011100 explored the differential effectiveness of eight sessions compared with 16 sessions of
TF-CBT, with or without a TN component, that is, a four-arm trial.
Number and duration of sessions
Group treatments
The group-based therapies were provided over 10 and 11 sessions, respectively.89,99 For the experimental
group, Berliner 199689 augmented the conventional sexual abuse specific group therapy provided to the
control group with sessions specifically explaining the nature of fear, the principles of SIT and their
application to disclosure impact and self-esteem. In the Deblinger 200199 study, parents and children met
for a joint group session of 15 minutes each week.
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RESULTS
Individual treatments
The individual therapies were provided for between 8 and 20 sessions. Participants in the Celano et al.90
study had eight sessions of 1 hour each. In all but two or three sessions, the therapist spent half of the
time with the mother and half with the child. The remaining sessions were conducted conjointly.
Three studies91–93,95,96 provided around 1.5 hours per week, divided between parents and child over 8 and
12 weeks, respectively.
Deblinger 199697,98 provided therapy in 12 × 45-minute sessions to participants in the parent-only and
child-only arms. In the parent-and-child arm, therapy also entailed 12 sessions, but this time of up to
90 minutes. In King 2006,103 all participants each received 20 × 50-minute sessions. This means that,
in the parent-and-child arm, 40 × 50-minute sessions were provided.
Adolescent girls in Foa 2013101 received up to 14 sessions of between 60 and 90 minutes, and in the
Jaberghaderi et al.102 study they received up to 12 sessions of 45 minutes in the experimental group and
30 in the EMDR comparison group.
Participants in Deblinger 2011100 were allocated to one of four TF-CBT treatment conditions: eight sessions
with a TN component; eight sessions without a TN component; 16 sessions with a TN component;
16 sessions without a TN component. Sessions were each 90 minutes, usually divided into two 45-minute
individual sessions for the child and caregiver, respectively. Some sessions included 30 minutes of conjoint
parent–child time.
Outcomes and measures used in studies of cognitive–behavioural therapy

Outcomes assessed using the same measure

When the impact of intervention on parenting practices was assessed, the measure used was the Parenting
Practices Questionnaire (PPQ).274
In each study that examined child depression, child sexual behaviour and child behaviour, the same
measures were used, namely the CDI,80 the CSBI259 and the CBCL,260 respectively, although different
authors may cite different sources for the same measure.
Outcomes assessed using different measures
Post-traumatic stress disorder

Six studies90,93–99,103 assessed the impact of CBT on symptoms of post-traumatic stress using six
different measures.
In addition, Celano 199690 and King 2000103 used both the PTSD subscale of the CBCL,260 completed by
the child’s parent, and one other measure of PTSD.
Celano 199690 used a child report measure [Children’s Impact of Traumatic Events Scale-Revised (CITES-R);
Wolfe and Gentile, Department of Psychology, London Health Sciences Centre, London, 1991,
unpublished] and King et al.103 used a measure administered by a research assistant (the child version of
the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV290).
Two studies97–99 used the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age
Children-Epidemiologic Version administered to parents;275 two studies95,96,100 used the Kiddie Schedule for
Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders, Present and Lifetime Version (KSADS-PL).268
110
Cohen 199693,94 used the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC325). Jaberghaderi 2004102 used
two measures of post-traumatic symptomatology, the Parent Report of Post-traumatic Symptoms (PROPS)
and CROPS.288
Foa 2013101 assessed PTSD with the Child PTSD Symptom Scale-Interview286,287 and (as a secondary
outcome measure) a self-report version of the same measure.
Anxiety
Of the studies using the Stait-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAI-C), we used data on STAI-C State
subscale (as opposed to STAI-C Trait subscale), as this measures present state anxiety.93–97 Other measures
used to assess the impact of interventions on anxiety, included the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety
Scale (RCMAS)681 and the STAI-C.682
Fear
Three measures of fear were used in four of the included studies. Berliner and Saunders89 used the
Fear Survey Schedule for Children-Revised255 and the Sexual Abuse Fear Evaluation Scales (SAFE).306
King et al.103 used the Fear Thermometer for Sexually Abused Children.291
Study authors typically reported data for study completers rather than for those recruited to the study,
for example Cohen and Mannarino.91,92
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of cognitive–behavioural therapy

Quality aspects were generally not well reported. Of the CBT studies, this is probably the strongest group in
terms of risk of bias, although the amount of missing information makes this judgement somewhat speculative.
The difficulties of blinding participants and personnel in studies of psychosocial interventions means that this
risk-of-bias domain has largely been assessed as high risk of bias, and, unless there are reasons to believe that
the lack of blinding has not resulted in a high risk of bias, we do not comment on this in the following text.
The reliance in many studies on self-report measures, in the absence of other ‘masked’ data collection,
also contributes to judgements of high risk of bias in relation to detection bias. On the other hand, we
recognise that self-report measures may be a more valid approach to the assessment of some outcomes.
Full details of our assessments of these studies (and all others in this chapter) can be found in Appendix 10.
Figure 24 provides an overview of the risk of bias in the body of evidence as a whole for CBT interventions
for children who have experienced sexual abuse.
Sequence generation
Sequence allocation was deemed sufficiently robust to be judged low risk of bias in four studies.89,91–94,99
The Jabergadheri et al.102 study was judged as being of ‘unclear’ risk of bias because the authors write
‘Participants were randomly assigned to treatment condition, with some adjustments to promote
equivalence between groups’ but then go on to describe a blocked randomisation approach (p. 361).
The remaining studies were also judged ‘unclear’, as the authors simply report that participants were
randomly assigned.90,95–98,100–103
Allocation concealment
Only two studies89,101 described steps taken to conceal allocation or stated clearly that allocation had been
concealed. The Berliner and Saunders89 study reported that ‘Assigned therapists and other staff were blind
to the random assignment schedule’ (p. 299) and the Foa et al.101 study reported that ‘On completing
the preparatory phase but prior to the patient beginning treatment, a research assistant consulted the
randomisation table and notified the therapist of the patient’s treatment condition’ (p. 2651).
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No information was provided in the remaining studies. The Jabergadheri et al.102 study was assessed as
‘unclear’ on this basis.
Blinding of outcome assessors

Four trials90,93,94,101,102 were judged as ‘low risk of bias’ for outcome assessment. Foa et al.101 state that
‘assessment was conducted by two psychologists, blind to assignment’ (p. 2651), and Cohen 199893,94 say
that ‘The evaluator conducting the initial and follow-up assessments was blind to treatment condition or
assignment’ (p. 139); Jaberghaderi et al.102 says that assessment was conducted ‘by two psychologists,
blind to assignment’ (p. 362). Celano et al.90 reported that ‘standardised measures were administered by a
clinician not involved in the child’s treatment. Additionally, a psychiatrist or psychologist blind to treatment
condition rated the child’s overall psychosocial functioning based on child and caretaker interviews’.
The remaining studies91,92,95,96,99,100,103 were deemed as ‘high risk of bias’, as they relied wholly on
self-report or parent-report measures.
Incomplete outcome data

Four studies93–96,100,101 were assessed as ‘low risk of bias’ for incomplete outcome data. All four analysed
data on an intention-to-treat (ITT) basis, although Cohen 200495,96 used SAS multiple imputation for
missing data [release 8.2 (2001); SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA].
Berliner and Saunders89 experienced high levels of attrition and reported on around only 50% of those
children who completed at least eight sessions and provided data at one of the follow-up assessment
points. The statistical checks undertaken by the authors do not attenuate the likelihood of bias. The levels
and approach to attrition was also an issue for Cohen 1996,91,92 King et al.103 and Jabergadheri et al.102
The impact of missing data was less clear in the studies by Celano et al.,90 Deblinger et al.97,98 and
Deblinger et al.,99 and these were judged to be ‘unclear’.
Selective outcome reporting

Both Foa et al.101 and Cohen 200495 registered their trials. Foa et al.101 reported findings for the primary
outcome listed; there were no secondary outcomes identified on the trial registration (ClinicalTrials.gov
identifier NCT02148484). In addition to all outcome measures listed in the trial registration, Cohen et al.95
also report post hoc on changes in child behaviour, but overall we judged this trial to be ‘low risk of bias’
on this domain (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT00000383).
In the absence of study protocols it is extremely difficult to assess the risk of selective outcome reporting.
In general, most other studies appeared to indicate that they were reporting on all predetermined
outcomes. In that respect, almost all were assessed as ‘low risk of bias’. However, Cohen 199893,94 did not
report the results for one measure in their report of initial outcomes, but did report outcomes for all time
points at 1-year follow-up. Deblinger 2011100 report only the results of analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
for complete sets of data. These two studies93,94,100 were therefore judged to be of ‘high risk of bias’.
Other sources of bias

No other potential sources of bias were identified in these studies. In Jaberghaderi et al.102 the therapists
delivering the CBT and EMDR were both authors on the paper, but, as each was delivering the therapy in
both arms of the trial, we judged this to be of ‘low risk of bias’.
Results: cognitive–behavioural therapy for sexually abused children

We were able to combine data from different studies for eight outcomes, at up to three time points:
immediately post intervention, 3–6 months later and at least 1 year later. When studies had more than one
treatment group, these were combined for the purposes of meta-analysis.
The results presented here involve only participants included by the study authors in their analyses,
many of which excluded participants due to dropout, uncollected data or for reasons they do not report.
Each result reported is the post-test score in the intervention group compared with the control group.
112

Six studies90,93–99,103 examined the impact of CBT on post-traumatic stress using a variety of scales
(see Table 5). These studies90,93–99,103 yielded an average reduction of 0.44 SDs based on various child
PTSD scales (95% CI 4.43 to 1.53; I2 = 46%; p-value for heterogeneity 0.10; τ2 = 0.05) immediately after
treatment, and three of these93–98 suggested a reduction of 0.38 SDs (95% CI 0.65 to 0.11; I2 = 4%;
p-value for heterogeneity 0.35; τ2 = 0.00) after at least 1 year (Figure 2).
In our sensitivity analysis we found that over the range of correlations assumed (ρ= 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1),
results for PTSD are robust to whether follow-up measures or change score measures are used. This was
the case for both post-test outcomes and 1-year outcomes.
Depression
Five studies90,93–98,103 looked at the impact of CBT on depression in children using the CDI. When combined
in a meta-analysis, these five studies yielded an average reduction of 2.83 points on the CDI immediately
after intervention (95% CI –4.53 to 1.13; I2 = 22%; p-value for heterogeneity 0.27; τ2 = 0.84) (Figure 3).
Four of these studies89,93–98 sustained an average decrease of 1.42 points (95% CI –2.91 to 0.06; I2 = 0%;
p = 0.06; τ2 = 0.0) after at least 1 year (see Figure 3). A decrease of 2.9 on the CDI represents something
in excess of a modest change in a scale that previous studies683,684 indicate has a SD of approximately 7.
This represents a small to moderate effect size, broadly equivalent to that seen on the anxiety scales in
meta-analyses in this review.
In our sensitivity analysis, we found that for both post-test measures and 1-year follow-up measures, the
results were closer to ‘no effect’ when using change scores rather than follow-up scores. CIs became wider
as the assumed correlation reduced, but even when the correlation is assumed to be 1, the estimated
mean difference (MD) is –1.98 for post-test scores with a 95% CI of –4.59 to 0.63, and –0.51 for 1-year
follow-up scores with a 95% CI of –3.0 to 2.0.
Anxiety
Five studies89,93–98,103 examined the impact of CBT on anxiety. These yielded an average decrease of
0.23 SDs on various child anxiety scales (95% CI 0.03 to 0.42; I2 = 0%; p-value for heterogeneity 0.84;
τ2 = 0.0) immediately after treatment, and four of these89,93–98 reported a sustained decrease of 0.28
SDs (95% CI –0.52 to –0.04; I2 = 0%; p-value for heterogeneity = 0.62; τ2 = 0.0) after at least 1 year
(Figure 4).
In our sensitivity analysis, we found that for post-test measures, the results were closer to ‘no effect’ when
using change scores rather than follow-up scores. CIs increased as the assumed correlation reduced, but,
even when the correlation is assumed to be 1, the estimated SMD is –0.19 with a 95% CI of –0.51 to
0.12. For 1-year follow-up measures, results were robust with similar results using change scores as with
follow-up scores, showing no evidence of effect.
Sexualised behaviour
Five studies89,91–96,99 provided conflicting evidence on the effectiveness of CBT in the domain of child
behaviour problems, assessed using the CSBI (I2 = 67%, p-value for heterogeneity 0.02; τ2 = 6.81). Two
studies89,99 observed increases of 4.7 and 1.7 points and three studies91–96 observed decreases, one91,92 of
which was statistically significant. In a meta-analysis, there was no evidence of an effect on average (mean
decrease of –0.65 points, 95% CI –3.53 to 2.24 points).
Four studies89,91–96 provided longer-term data. The first of these observed a much smaller increase than the
same study in the short term. Overall, the average effect found at the 3- to 6-month assessment point was
similar to that immediately after treatment but was not statistically significant (–0.46 points, 95% CI –5.68
to 4.76 points; Figure 5). Note that Cohen 200495,96 did not report data for this outcome because it was
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Experimental Control SMD SMD

Study or subgroup Mean SD Total Mean SD Total Weight IV, random, 95% CI IV, random, 95% CI
Short term (immediately after treatment)
Celano 199690 39.9 9.6 15 41.8 8.4 17 4.6% –0.21 (–0.90 to 0.49)
Cohen 199893,94 8.78 4.88 41 9.92 5.28 41 8.9% –0.22 (–0.66 to 0.21)
Cohen 200495,96 1.53 1.39 89 2.32 1.81 91 13.2% –0.49 (–0.78 to –0.19)
Deblinger 199697,98 3.85 3.22 46 6.59 2.89 22 6.9% –0.87 (–1.40 to –0.34)
Deblinger 200199 6.57 7.92 21 6.09 6.73 23 5.9% 0.06 (–0.53 to 0.66)
King 2000103 7.04 4.79 24 11.36 2.11 12 4.2% –1.03 (–1.76 to –0.29)
Subtotal (95% CI) 236 206 43.6% –0.44 (–0.73 to –0.16)

Heterogeneity: τ2 = 0.05; χ2 = 9.22, df = 5 (p = 0.10); I2 = 46%
Test for overall effect: z = 3.06 (p = 0.002)
Intermediate term (3–6 months after treatment)
Cohen 199893,94 7.66 3.94 27 9.6 5.79 19 5.8% –0.40 (–0.99 to 0.19)
Cohen 200495,96 1.19 1.33 78 1.91 1.66 69 12.1% –0.48 (–0.81 to –0.15)
Deblinger 199697,98 3.16 2.9 40 5.61 4.16 14 5.4% –0.74 (–1.37 to –0.11)
Deblinger 200199 7.76 8.61 21 5.22 5.78 23 5.8% 0.34 (–0.25 to 0.94)
King 2000103 7.96 4.45 24 10.92 2.91 12 4.4% –0.72 (–1.44 to –0.01)
Subtotal (95% CI) 190 137 33.5% –0.39 (–0.74 to –0.04)
Long term (at least 1 year)
Cohen 199893,94 7.17 4.17 23 9.58 5.81 16 5.1% –0.48 (–1.13 to 0.17)
Cohen 200495,96 1 1.14 80 1.33 1.44 73 12.4% –0.25 (–0.57 to 0.06)
Deblinger 199697,98 2.78 3.19 40 5.43 4.15 14 5.4% –0.76 (–1.38 to –0.13)
Subtotal (95% CI) 143 103 22.9% –0.38 (–0.65 to –0.11)
–2 –1 0 1 2
Favours (experimental) Favours (control)
FIGURE 2 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for PTSD. df, degrees of freedom; IV, instrumental variable.
Experimental Control MD MD

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Berliner 199689 7.7 7.3 29 7 5.9 23 5.8% 0.70 (–2.89 to 4.29)

Cohen 199893,94 7.61 7.04 41 11.45 7.97 41 7.0% –3.84 (–7.10 to –0.58)
Cohen 200495,96 5.7 5.47 92 8.79 9.37 91 15.0% –3.09 (–5.32 to –0.86)
Deblinger 199697,98 6.5457 5.4454 46 11.14 7.36 22 6.2% –4.59 (–8.05 to –1.14)
King 2000103 12.75 10.12 24 15.5 8.27 12 1.9% –2.75 (–8.94 to 3.44)
Subtotal (95% CI) 232 189 35.9% –2.83 (–4.53 to –1.13)

Cohen 199893,94 9.2 7.88 27 11.03 8.22 19 3.3% –1.83 (–6.57 to 2.91)
Cohen 200495,96 4.08 4.36 80 5.77 7.11 71 20.4% –1.69 (–3.60 to 0.22)
Deblinger 199697,98 5.0473 4.7972 40 7 6.9 15 5.2% –1.95 (–5.75 to 1.84)
King 2000103 11.92 10.01 24 13.83 10.08 12 1.5% –1.91 (–8.88 to 5.06)
Subtotal (95% CI) 171 117 30.4% –1.76 (–3.33 to –0.20)

Berliner 199689 6 5.9 29 7.8 6.3 23 6.6% –1.80 (–5.15 to 1.55)
Cohen 199893,94 8.85 7.37 23 10.17 7.51 16 3.3% –1.32 (–6.08 to 3.44)
Cohen 200495,96 4.15 5.28 82 5.25 7.29 73 18.1% –1.10 (–3.13 to 0.93)
Deblinger 199697,98 4.6742 4.7464 40 6.73 6.52 15 5.7% –2.06 (–5.67 to 1.56)
Subtotal (95% CI) 174 127 33.7% –1.42 (–2.91 to 0.06)
–10 –5 0 5 10
FIGURE 3 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for depression. df, degrees of freedom; IV, instrumental variable.
115
116
RESULTS

Study or subgroup Mean SD Total Mean SD Total Weight IV, fixed, 95% CI IV, fixed, 95% CI
Berliner 199689 12.9 7 37 12.8 6.9 28 6.6% 0.01 (–0.48 to 0.51)
Cohen 199893,94 30.78 8.16 41 32.48 8.96 41 8.5% –0.20 (–0.63 to 0.24)
Cohen 200495,96 26.22 5.1 92 27.76 6.94 91 18.9% –0.25 (–0.54 to 0.04)
Deblinger 199697,98 27.59 5.29 46 29.5 4.53 22 6.1% –0.37 (–0.89 to 0.14)
King 2000103 48.8 17.67 24 55.08 15.04 12 3.3% –0.36 (–1.06 to 0.33)
Subtotal (95% CI) 240 194 43.3% –0.23 (–0.42 to –0.03)
Heterogeneity: χ2 = 1.44, df = 4 (p = 0.84); I2 = 0%


Cohen 199893,94 29.68 7.51 27 32.73 9.02 19 4.6% –0.37 (–0.96 to 0.22)
Cohen 200495,96 24.89 4.62 80 26.14 5.8 71 15.5% –0.24 (–0.56 to 0.08)
Deblinger 199697,98 26.35 4.23 44 29.59 6.54 19 5.3% –0.64 (–1.19 to –0.09)
King 2000103 45.67 15.14 24 55.08 14.41 12 3.2% –0.62 (–1.33 to 0.09)
Subtotal (95% CI) 175 121 28.5% –0.38 (–0.61 to –0.14)

Berliner 199689 9.5 7.9 37 12.4 7.3 28 6.5% –0.37 (–0.87 to 0.12)
Cohen 199893,94 30.73 6.32 23 32.38 8.87 16 3.9% –0.22 (–0.86 to 0.42)
Cohen 200495,96 25.44 4.81 82 26.55 6.65 73 16.0% –0.19(–0.51 to 0.12)
Deblinger 199697,98 27.06 3.49 9 29.5 2.01 10 1.8% –0.83 (–1.78 to 0.12)
Subtotal (95% CI) 151 127 28.2% –0.28 (–0.52 to –0.04)
–2 –1 0 1 2
FIGURE 4 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for anxiety. df, degrees of freedom; IV, instrumental variable.
not statistically significant. Although we have not been able to retrieve these data, their inclusion is highly
unlikely to change the overall conclusion for this outcome.
Externalising behaviour (e.g. aggression, ‘acting out’)

Seven studies89–98,103 provided data on the CBCL, using the externalising behaviour scale. A meta-analysis
of standardised differences in means (owing different scoring systems being used for the scale) did not
provide evidence of a beneficial effect on average (decrease of 0.12 SDs, 95% CI –0.40 to 0.17). However,
the results were inconsistent (I2 = 58%; p-value for heterogeneity 0.03; τ2 = 0.08), with one study89
observing a statistically significant increase and one study observing a statistically significant decrease.97,98
Only five studies90–98 provided longer-term data from which no clear picture merged of either benefit or
harm (Figure 6).
Behaviour management skills of parents

Data from three studies95–99 provide information on the effects of involving parents in CBT interventions
with their children on their ability to manage their children’s behaviour. All three studies used the PPQ
to assess change. Only two95,96,99 of these studies reported follow-up data for 1 year post treatment.
A meta-analysis of outcome data from these two studies indicates a decrease in mean scores of –0.89
1 year after treatment (95% CI –4.89 to 3.11). The long-term effects were not statistically significant but
raise doubt about the maintenance of change shown in the post-treatment results, which favoured
CBT (Figure 7).
Two studies90,95,96 used, respectively, the Parental Reaction to Incest Disclosure Scale and the Parental
Support Questionnaire to measure parental belief of their children and support for them. A meta-analysis
of standardised differences in means gave a statistically significant increase of 0.3 SDs in favour of CBT
(95% CI 0.03 to 0.57) (Figure 8).
Only one study90 examined parental attributions. In this study,90 the author reported small, statistically
non-significant improvements on four aspects of parental attributions, using the Parental Attribution Scale.
Parents who had been involved in the CBT arm of this study90 were less likely to blame themselves or their
child for what had happened, were slightly more optimistic about their child’s future than those in the
TAU group and more likely to hold the perpetrator responsible. However, the CIs were very wide, crossing
the line of no effect.
The Parent Emotional Reaction Questionnaire (PERQ) is designed to assess stressful parental emotional
reactions to the sexual abuse of their children. Parents are asked to endorse the frequency of specific reactions
including fear, sadness, guilt, anger, embarrassment, shame and emotional preoccupation. No psychometric
data are currently available for this measure. In the two studies95,96,99 that used the PERQ we found a decrease
of seven points in parents’ negative reactions (95% CI 3.8 to 10.1). Cohen 200495,96 measured outcomes
longer term, and observed a smaller but still statistically significant, decrease of 4.6 points at 1 year.
Additional results: studies of cognitive–behavioural therapy for sexually

abused children
The above meta-analyses incorporate most of the data available from the randomised trials of CBT for
children who have been sexually abused. Some studies reported on outcomes that are not covered above,
or presented data in ways that could not be incorporated. These are briefly summarised here.
King et al.103 assessed the effectiveness of CBT for improving children’s self-efficacy as measured by the
(self-report) Coping Questionnaire for Sexually Abused Children (developed by the author) but reported no
significant differences between the group receiving CBT and a wait-list control group.
Deblinger 200199 reported a significant difference in favour of CBT for the total score on the CBCL
[repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), time/time × group)]. They commented
117
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RESULTS
Berliner 199689 14.3 13.4 47 9.6 11.3 32 7.4% 4.70 (–0.78 to 10.18)
Cohen 199891,92 11.47 8.18 39 17.85 13.38 28 7.3% –6.38 (–11.96 to –0.80)
Cohen 199893,94 8.59 9.52 41 10.37 8.77 41 10.3% –1.78 (–5.74 to 2.18)
Cohen 200495,96 6.26 6.02 88 8.2 10.45 91 13.8% –1.94 (–4.43 to 0.55)
Deblinger 200199 5.48 4 21 3.74 4.93 23 13.4% 1.74 (–0.90 to 4.38)
Subtotal (95% CI) 236 215 52.2% –0.65 (–3.53 to 2.24)

Cohen 199691,92 10.43 7.77 28 16.78 13.23 15 5.1% –6.35 (–13.64 to 0.94)
Cohen 199893,94 8.32 8.52 27 9.2 7.72 19 8.7% –0.88 (–5.61 to 3.85)
Deblinger 200199 7.52 6.62 21 3.91 5.39 23 11.1% 3.61 (0.02 to 7.20)
Subtotal (95% CI) 76 57 25.0% –0.46 (–5.68 to 4.76)

Berliner 199689 8.4 8.5 47 7.5 7.4 32 11.2% 0.90 (–2.63 to 4.43)
Cohen 199691,92 8.75 6.16 28 16.79 18.17 15 3.4% –8.04 (–17.51 to 1.43)
Cohen 199893,94 6.93 7.87 23 9.28 7.92 16 8.2% –2.35 (–7.39 to 2.69)
Subtotal (95% CI) 98 63 22.9% –1.61 (–5.72 to 2.49)
–20 –10 0 10 20
FIGURE 5 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for sexualised behaviour. df, degrees of freedom; IV, instrumental variable.
Berliner 199689 15.8 11.3 46 10.7 8.6 31 7.5% 0.49 (0.03 to 0.95)

Celano 199690 51.2 9 14 58.6 11.6 16 3.6% –0.69 (–1.43 to 0.05)
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Cohen 199691,92 54.58 10.04 39 59.04 12.75 28 6.9% –0.39 (–0.88 to 0.10)
Cohen 199893,94 55.93 13.83 41 56.1 16.91 41 8.1% –0.01 (–0.44 to 0.42)
Cohen 200495,96 11.1 8.52 88 13.82 10.22 91 12.5% –0.29 (–0.58 to 0.01)
Deblinger 199697,98 13.8 10.77 45 18.29 14.68 21 6.3% –0.37 (–0.89 to 0.16)
King 2000103 63.82 14.79 24 58.73 9.21 12 4.0% 0.38 (–0.32 to 1.07)
Subtotal (95% CI) 297 240 48.9% –0.12 (–0.40 to 0.17)

Cohen 199691,92 54.39 11.39 28 57.61 12.71 15 4.7% –0.27 (–0.90 to 0.36)
Cohen 199893,94 56.12 14.63 27 54.95 16.01 19 5.3% 0.08 (–0.51 to 0.66)
Deblinger 199697,98 12.38 9.81 38 13.04 10.04 12 4.5% –0.07 (–0.72 to 0.58)
King 2000103 62.89 12.31 24 65.44 11.54 12 4.0% –0.21 (–0.90 to 0.49)
Subtotal (95% CI) 117 58 18.5% –0.11 (–0.42 to 0.21)

Berliner 199689 13.5 7.4 46 11.6 9.2 31 7.6% 0.23 (–0.23 to 0.69)
Cohen 199691,92 53.57 11.08 28 59.84 12.47 15 4.6% –0.53 (–1.17 or 0.11)
Cohen 199893,94 55.93 15.96 23 55.4 16.39 16 4.6% 0.03 (–0.61 to 0.67)
Cohen 200495,96 11.51 10.68 78 10.34 9.22 68 11.4% 0.12 (–0.21 to 0.44)
Deblinger 199697,98 12.4 9.92 38 11.83 11.48 12 4.5% 0.05 (–0.59 to 0.70)
Subtotal (95% CI) 213 142 32.7% 0.05 (–0.16 to 0.27)
–2 –1 0 1 2
FIGURE 6 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for child externalising behaviour. df, degrees of freedom; IV, instrumental variable.
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RESULTS
Cohen 200495,96 144.38 15.55 82 139.19 13.61 86 23.8% 5.19 (0.76 to 9.62)
Deblinger 199697,98 138.3 12.82 45 136.81 13.07 21 10.3% 1.49 (–5.24 to 8.22)
Deblinger 200199 149.48 15.81 21 146.74 12.93 23 6.3% 2.74 (–5.84 to 11.32)

Subtotal (95% CI) 148 130 40.4% 3.86 (0.47 to 7.26)
Cohen 200495,96 140.96 16.81 71 139.82 15.46 61 15.4% 1.14 (–4.37 to 6.65)
Deblinger 199697,98 137.19 12.16 41 132.86 12.17 14 8.6% 4.33 (–3.05 to 11.71)
Deblinger 200199 151.05 15.16 21 148.39 13.35 23 6.5% 2.66 (–5.81 to 11.13)
Subtotal (95% CI) 133 98 30.4% 2.36 (–1.55 to –6.28)
Cohen 200495,96 142.59 15.99 73 143.08 13.86 65 18.8% –0.49 (–5.47 to 4.49)
Deblinger 199697,98 132.32 13.97 41 133.93 9.86 14 10.4% –1.61 (–8.32 to 5.10)
Subtotal (95% CI) 114 79 29.2% –0.89 (–4.89 to 3.11)
–20 –10 0 10 20
FIGURE 7 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for behaviour management skills of parents. df, degrees of freedom; IV, instrumental variable.
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690

Celano 199690 23.3 1.9 15 22.8 2.8 17 13.8% 0.20 (–0.50 to 0.90)
Cohen 200495,96 90.28 6.5 88 87.95 8.09 91 29.9% 0.32 (0.02 to 0.61)
Subtotal (95% CI) 103 108 43.7% 0.30 (0.03 to 0.57)
Cohen 200495,96 29.82 13.03 76 33.75 11.04 67 28.0% –0.32 (–0.65 to 0.01)
Subtotal (95% CI) 76 67 28.0% –0.32 (–0.65 to –0.01)
Heterogeneity: not applicable
Cohen 200495,96 85.7 14.13 79 87.01 11.53 67 28.3% –10 (–0.43 to 0.23)
Subtotal (95% CI) 79 67 28.3% –0.10 (–0.43 to 0.23)
–1 –0.5 0 0.5 1
FIGURE 8 Cognitive–behavioural therapy vs. no CBT for parental support to child. df, degrees of freedom; IV, instrumental variable.
121
RESULTS
that children in neither group were encouraged to talk in detail about their abusive experiences, owing to
their young age, which might account for the smaller reductions in PTSD among the CBT group compared
with the control group.
Jaberghaderi et al.102 compared the effectiveness of CBT with EMDR, using two outcome measures. The
first was a broad-spectrum, self-report questionnaire-based measure of post-traumatic symptoms (rather
than PTSD), CROPS and PROPS.288 The second was a teacher report scale of potential mental disturbance:
the Rutter Teacher Scale.289 For post-traumatic symptoms the authors reported large effect sizes (pre- to
post-treatment) for both CBT and EMDR and a moderate effect size for the behavioural measure (the
Rutter Scale). No significant differences were found between the two treatments. This was a small study102
(n = 14) with no follow-up and was one of the few studies conducted outside the USA.
Foa et al.101 assessed the impact of prolonged exposure therapy using piecewise linear mixed models
(LMMs) for continuous data and generalised LMMs for dichotomous data. The authors reported that those
treated with prolonged exposure derived greater benefit than those who received supportive counselling,
even when delivered by counsellors who typically delivered that form of therapy. Those who received
prolonged exposure demonstrated greater improvements on the PTSD symptom severity scale (primary
outcome) and on all secondary outcomes, namely self-reported PTSD severity, depression and global
functioning. Treatment differences were maintained at 1-year follow-up.
Effectiveness of cognitive–behavioural therapy for children who have been

sexually abused
Summary
We identified 11 studies of CBT interventions for children and young people who have been sexually
abused. Six studies90–96,99,101 compared CBT with supportive, non-directive therapy and two studies97,98,103
compared CBT with no-treatment controls (community and wait-list). One study102 compared CBT with
another treatment (EMDR) and two studies89,90 compared variations of CBT treatments, that is CBT with
and without a focus on SIT and a focus on fear and anxiety,89 or different exposures of CBT with or
without a TN component.100
For children who have been sexually abused, various adaptations of CBT, some offered individually, some
in groups and some including work with parents proved of some benefit in reductions in PTSD, depression
and anxiety, which were sustained at 1 year post treatment. One102 small study reported equal benefit for
CBT and EMDR in reducing PTSD symptoms. There was no evidence of benefit of CBT in reducing
sexualised and externalising behaviours. Regarding changes in parents, there was evidence of some
improvement in parents’ management of children’s behaviour and support for children, and some change
in parents’ attributions regarding the abuse. No harms were reported in any study, but no study set out
specifically to examine harms.
This evidence is in line with the conclusions of earlier reviews (e.g. Macdonald et al.,685 Harvey and
Taylor686 and de Medeiros Passarela et al.687), suggesting that these approaches may be beneficial
compared with non-directive, supportive therapies, but the evidence base remains limited.
Completeness and applicability

None of these studies was conducted in the UK, with most undertaken within the USA. However,
the profile of participants is clinically comparable to the population of children who might benefit from
child and mental health services in the UK, and the therapies evaluated are recognised, and available,
in the UK.
Quality of the evidence

Studies of CBT for children who have been sexually abused could be improved, and would benefit from
careful and explicit reporting against Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) guidelines.
122
Of some concern is that the field is somewhat dominated by a small team of US researchers who evaluate
a version of CBT that they themselves developed.
Economic evidence
One612 economic evaluation, carried out in Australia, explored the cost-effectiveness of CBT for children
who have been sexually abused. The study612 used a decision-analytic design to establish the cost–utility
of three different treatment strategies for PTSD secondary to childhood sexual abuse, compared with a
no-treatment comparator: individual TF-CBT, combined individual TF-CBT plus pharmacotherapy [selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)], and non-directive counselling. Costs and outcomes were modelled for
a hypothetical cohort of 10-year-old children diagnosed with PTSD or PTSD plus depression, subsequent to
sexual abuse.
The decision model included a decision tree that modelled the costs and benefits of each treatment during
the post-treatment and 12-month follow-up period observed in clinical trials, and a subsequent Markov
model that estimated the long-term costs and consequences of the alternative treatments over a 30-year
period. The economic evaluation was conducted from the perspective of the Australian mental health
care system, and costs and benefits were expressed in 2010–11 Australian dollars (A$) and discounted at a
rate of 5% per year.
The model was populated with data obtained from a number of clinical trials and the 2007 Australian
Mental Health Survey.402 Resources included in the model were the cost of therapists’ time and the costs of
SSRI medication for the combined treatment group. The impact of intervention on the use of other health
and social care services (‘knock-on’ effects) was not included. Resources were valued using national
published sources for unit costs. Outcomes were reported in terms of QALYs calculated from the Analysis
of Quality of Life (AQoL-4D), a generic preference-based instrument included in the 2007 Australian
Mental Health Survey. Data from the survey were selected for children and adolescents with a history of
childhood sexual abuse, who also met the criteria for PTSD, depression or PTSD and depression.
The results suggest that all treatments would be considered good value for money compared with no
treatment from the perspective of the Australian mental health system (all ICERs < A$7000 per QALY
gained, compared with a stated threshold of A$50,000 per QALY gained). Non-directive counselling was
dominated by TF-CBT (more expensive and less effective) and TF-CBT plus SSRI appears more cost-effective
than TF-CBT alone. However, results were sensitive to variation in the clinical effectiveness parameters, and
the analysis was limited, particularly by the narrow cost perspective.
Cognitive–behavioural therapy: children who have been

physically abused
Three studies106–109 examined the effectiveness of CBT specifically with children who had experienced
physical abuse.
Location
All three106–109 studies took place in the USA.
Sample sizes
Samples sizes at recruitment were 75,109 55107,108 and 12.106
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RESULTS
Participants
Age
The mean ages of children in the studies by Kolko107,108 and Runyon et al.109 were 8.6 years and
9.88 years, respectively. Adolescents in the LeSure-Lester106 study were aged 12–16 years.
Gender and ethnicity

The 12 participants in LeSure-Lester106 study were African American males, 28 of 36 completers in the
Kolko107,108 study were boys, and, of those who completed at least three sessions of therapy in
the Runyon et al.109 study, 28 of 44 were girls.
Recruitment
In the Runyon et al. study109 all but five of the families in the final sample were referred by child protection
service agencies. Those in the Kolko107,108 study were referred by Child Protective Services (CPS)
caseworkers. In the LeSure-Lester study,106 participants were recruited from a group home where they had
been placed by CPS.
Maltreatment
Participants in all three106–109 studies had experienced physical abuse or (four cases in the Kolko107,108) study
severe or frequent forms of physical discipline with a risk of injury.
Interventions and comparison

Kolko107,108 evaluated the impact of two interventions: a manualised FT treatment for physically abused
children and a manualised CBT intervention for individual children and their parent(s). In the CBT arm,
children and parents received therapy from separate therapists, who implemented parallel protocols based
on social learning principles that were designed to address cognitive, affective and behavioural problems.
Treatment for the children addressed their perceptions of family stress and their environments; training to
develop coping and self-control skills; and interpersonal effectiveness. The intervention for parents focused
on their views on violence and physical punishment, their attribution style and expectations, self-control
and contingency management. There was throughout an emphasis on teaching intrapersonal and
interpersonal skills. The FT was based on Belsky’s227 interactional or ecological model approach to child
maltreatment. It sought to ‘enhance the cooperation and motivation of family members by promoting
understanding of coercive behaviour and by teaching the family positive communication skills and how to
solve problems together’ (p. 326).227
The control group received routine community services from providers not associated with the project, as
mandated by family service workers. Services were based on an extensive risk assessment and included
‘home visits to provide support and information, family skills specialists who taught homemaking and
related skills, and parenting information and support groups’108 plus regular telephone contact from the
caseworker (p. 326).
Runyon et al.109 assessed the added value of providing treatment to children [combined parent–child
cognitive–behavioural therapy (CPC-CBT)], as well as parents (parent-only CBT). Children in the CPC-CBT
arm received an intervention covering psychoeducation; affect regulation; coping skills; cognitive coping;
assertiveness skills and anger management; general safety skills; application of skills; development of a
personal safety plan; role perspective-taking skills; problem-solving skills; preparing a letter of praise;
developing a TN; and agreeing and sharing a joint TN (with parents). In addition to the usual parents’
programme (see Comparisons), parents in the experimental arm received input on parent training with the
child; refinement and rehearsal of personal safety plans with the child; attention to abuse clarification and
the development of the joint TN plus coaching in parent–child interactions; behaviour rehearsal of coping
skills; parenting skills and safety plan; sharing of TN; and abuse clarification.
124
The parent-only CBT control arm received an intervention that comprised disclosure of the referral incident,
engagement and assessing parents’ goals, motivational interviewing and commitment to no violence
(two sessions), followed by psychoeducation and an introduction to anger management skills (two
sessions), continuation of coping skills (three sessions), review and applications of skills, including ABCs
of parent–child interactions, development of personal safety plans (three sessions); review of ABCs of
parent–child interactions and integration/generalisation of skills (four sessions) and parent training (parent
only, two sessions).
LeSure-Lester106 provided CBT to groups of two to three participants. The intervention was designed to
teach participants the feelings associated with anger and aggression, relaxation and self-talk, and
alternative ways of coping. It comprised a three-stage education and training module, beginning with
education relaxation techniques. This was followed by education and GE and then education and anger
control. The therapist used vignettes (as the basis for discussions) that reflected the participants’ natural
environments, that is, the residential setting. Participants in the control arm received ‘traditional indirect
therapy’ consisting of open-ended discussions and communications of the participants’ self-reports of
activities and current events in their daily lives. The therapists were said to have exercised warmth,
empathy and genuineness – no specific coping skills were taught.

Each intervention in the Kolko107,108 study entailed at least 12 1-hour weekly clinic sessions over a
16-week period, for a total of about 18 hours of service. Those in the routine community services (control)
arm received variable amounts of help, ranging from services delivered on a once or twice per week basis
for an indefinite period of time, to treatment plans comprising up to 20 hours of home-based service per
week for up to 3 months.
In the Runyon et al.109 study, parents in the ‘combined intervention’ attended 16 2-hour group sessions
over a 16- to 20-week period. Groups were initially conducted concurrently for the first hour and
45 minutes, with the last 15 minutes involving joint parent–child sessions based on families’ needs. The
balance between concurrent and joint time shifted over the course of the intervention so that in sessions
12–16 the joint sessions lasted 60–75 minutes. Parents in the ‘Parent only’ condition received a similar CBT
parenting intervention, but spent more time discussing the implementation of behaviour management
strategies. Parents in the ‘Combined’ arm spent less time on parent skills training and more time preparing
their ‘clarification letter’ (a letter that demonstrated that they took full responsibility for their abuse
behaviour) and preparing for, and interacting with, their children in joint sessions. This was one of only a
few interventions that included the non-offending parent.
In the LeSure-Lester106 study, participants in both arms received 26 weeks of traditional indirect therapy,
and were then randomised to continue with that therapy or to receive 26 weeks of CBT. Both therapies
were delivered for 1 hour, twice per month.

for physically abused children

Only Runyon et al.109 assessed the impact of intervention on PTSD, using the KSADS-PL268
(see Post-traumatic stress disorder). This was the primary outcome in this study.109
Depression
Kolko107,108 used the CDI80 to assess the intervention’s impact on depression.
Behaviour
Runyon et al.109 and Kolko107,108 both used the CBCL260 to assess change in child behaviour, along with the
Child Conflict Index (CCI).688
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RESULTS
LeSure-Lester106 used a rating system of behavioural appropriateness developed within the residential
setting, and comprising aggression towards peers, towards staff and compliance with house rules
(all scored low or high).

for physically abused children
Sequence generation
Kolko107,108 used a computer-generated procedure based on Efron’s biased coin toss and was assessed
as low risk of bias. Runyon et al.109 used a computer program to randomly determine the treatment
type for each group, and on that basis was deemed low risk of bias. No information was provided by
LeSure-Lester106 and so this study was judged unclear.
The LeSure-Lester study106 was judged as ‘high risk’, as the author was both the provider of the
intervention and the researcher. The project co-ordinator in the Runyon et al.109 study was blind at
pre-treatment so we concluded that allocation was concealed at this point (low risk of bias). Kolko107,108
provided no information and so was judged unclear risk of bias.
Blinding of participants and personnel

High risk: participants and personnel were not blinded in any of the three trials.106–109

Runyon et al.109 stated that the project co-ordinator (who conducted all assessments) ‘remained blind, to
the extent possible, to condition assignment’ but it is not clear to what extent this was achieved. The
determination of unclear risk of bias was made. Risk of bias was high in the study by LeSure-Lester106 as
outcome data were provided by staff in the residential care home. Kolko108 reported that ‘[P]roject staff
administering the assessment protocol were unaware of the treatment conditions to which participants
were assigned’ and was judged low risk of bias, although the same data were self-reported.

Attrition in the Kolko107,108 study was around 6% (one case) in the FT arm, 20% (five cases) in the CBT arm
and 17% (two cases) in the routine community services groups. Although these cases did not appear to be
different in characteristics, the differential attrition between the two active treatment arms resulted in a
judgement of high risk of bias (the reasons for dropout might be related to the intervention). No attrition
occurred in the LeSure-Lester106 study, so this was judged as ‘low risk’. The Runyon et al.109 study was
judged as ‘high risk of bias’: 25% children who completed 3 weeks’ therapy did not provide data post
test, and their pre-test scores were carried forward. Attrition increased at follow-up and the authors
present no means or SDs at this assessment point.

The LeSure-Lester106 study was assessed as low risk for selective outcome reporting. This study106 is small,
modest in design and implementation, and data are given on those outcomes that the intervention was
seeking to address (using ‘home-made’ measures). Kolko107,108 and Runyon et al.109 appear to have
reported on all outcomes covered in the methods section, but, in the absence of a published protocol for
either study106 both were assessed as unclear for this domain.

LeSure-Lester’s106 study was compromised by the conflation of roles held by the author, that is, researcher
and therapist.
Results: cognitive–behavioural therapy for physically abused children

Meta-analysis was not possible across these studies,106–109 which are summarised narratively.
126

The Runyon et al.109 study reported significant pre- to post-improvement on the total number of PTSD
symptoms among all children, with the adjusted mean post-test scores for those in the combined CBT
parent and CBT child group being significantly lower than those for the parent-only CBT group.
Child depression
In the Kolko107,108 study, children’s reports on the CDI80 indicated a significant reduction in severity of
depressive symptoms over time [χ2 = 16.01(3); p < 0.001], but reports were said to be ‘generally low and
similar across time, indicating no significant group differences’108 (p. 333).
Child behaviour
As measured by the Youth Self-Report (YSR) of the CBCL, children in all three groups in the Kolko107,108
study (CBT, FT and routine services) reported a significant reduction over time in both internalising
symptoms [χ2 = 33.54(3); p < 0.0001] and externalising symptoms [χ2 = 12.26 (3); p < 0.002], with both
CBT and FT showing most change on these measures. No effect was found for social competence.
Parent report on the CBCL indicated lower ratings of serious internalising behaviours over time (p < 0.07),
particularly for the two treatment arms. Parents reported a significant reduction in externalising behaviour
over time [χ2 = 9.53(3); p < 0.02]. Based on an inspection of the means over time, CBT appeared to show
the greatest initial change and FT the greatest change at follow-up (1 year) compared with routine
community services, which showed minimal change during that period.
A significant interaction was reported on the CCI [χ2 = 13.12(3); p < 0.04], reflecting the greatest decrease
in scores for CBT. This measure (scored by telephone interview with the parent) estimates the presence or
absence of common individual behavioural or emotional problems commonly displayed in boys or girls
within the previous 24 hours.
Runyon et al.109 reported significant pre- to post-improvement in internalising and externalising scores
(CBCL) for the CBT parent-only condition.
LeSure-Lester106 reported greater rates of behaviour change from pre-test to post-test for the six
adolescents who received CBT. Using the rating system used by staff within the home, these
six adolescents demonstrated greater rates of behaviour compliance (t = –5.64; p < 0.001) and less
aggression towards staff (t = –4.56; p < 0.001) and other residents (t = –5.64; p < 0.001).
Child global functioning

The Kolko107,108 study reported a significant increase in KSADS scores over time for all children in the study,
with no group differences. This study107,108 found no difference between the CBT, FT and control groups in
reduction over time on fears related to abuse.
Family functioning
Kolko107,108 reported the results of subscales for the Family Environment Scale (FES) and the Family
Assessment Device (FAD). Overall, children and parents in the CBT and FT arms reported more
improvement over time than those in routine services.
The effectiveness of cognitive–behavioural therapy for children who have

been physically abused
Summary
We identified only three studies106–109 of CBT interventions for children and young people who have been
physically abused. Each focused on children of somewhat different ages, from middle childhood to
adolescence. One study107,108 compared a CBT intervention for children and their parents with systemic FT; one
study109 compared a CBT intervention for parents with one that included a parallel intervention for children,
127
RESULTS
and the third study106 compared a small group version of a CBT provided to African American adolescents living
in a group home as a direct result of their maltreatment, compared with non-directive group discussions.
Although very different, the three CBT interventions106–109 shared some common characteristics, namely a
focus on children’s thoughts, feelings and behaviour. There was a marked psychoeducational component
in both the Runyon et al.109 and the LeSure-Lester106 study, aimed at helping children to recognise and
understand the consequences of abuse, and develop appropriate coping and problem-solving skills,
including the development of skills to minimise risk of abuse107,108 or personal safety plans.109
The three106–109 studies are all extremely small and the overall quality is, at best, moderate in relation to risk
of bias. Together with the fact that we can summarise the evidence only narratively, considerable caution
is required in interpreting the data. All three106–109 studies report improvement in children’s internalising
and externalising behaviour problems (common sequelae of physical abuse), but one109 of the studies
found an improvement in externalising behaviour in the parent treatment group only.
The one109 study examining PTSD reported a reduction in symptoms in all children, with the most
significant reduction occurring for those where both parents and children received CBT. Depression,
examined in one109 study, reduced over time in both the experimental and comparison groups.
Both CBT and FT generally outperformed routine community services, resulting in greater reductions in
children’s externalising behaviour and on child-reported parent-to-child violence and parent-reported
child-to-parent violence.

All three106–109 studies were conducted in the USA. Two107–109 studies were concerned with families who
had come to the attention of services because of maltreatment, but where the child remained in the
home. They aimed to minimise the risk of further physical abuse and to address the adverse consequences
of past abuse and current maladaptive parenting. In Kolko107,108 maltreatment was judged as ‘mild/
moderate’ in 87% cases, although almost half the families had children that had been hit with an object,
and 50% had children who had been smacked with an open hand. In the Runyon et al.109 study, 53%
families had a substantiated allegation of physical abuse or had acknowledged the use of excessive
physical punishment (e.g. 65% had hit their children with an object). Many of the children in these three
studies would be subject to a child protection plan in the UK, and in the Runyon et al.109 study (although
not in the Kolko107,108 study) the inclusion criteria required children to have either four PTSD symptoms or
an elevated score (T score of ≥ 65) on at least one externalising behaviour subscale on the CBCL.260 In this
study, siblings were included in the treatment as long as they too could meet these criteria and were a
focus of child protection workers’ concerns. These studies106–109 therefore have relevance to the UK
context, although they are limited in their scope and the evidence base is sparse.
LeSure-Lester106 evaluated an intervention that was designed specifically to address the aggressive behaviours
of boys who had been removed from the family home as a result of maltreatment. Although the focus on
addressing maltreatment-related aggression is highly relevant to the UK context, the study106 says little about
the intervention, and the outcome measures focus on resident–staff interaction (with an emphasis on
compliance) and peer–peer violence within the home. Although the intervention is reported to have made
a significant impact, the size of the study,106 plus the absence of measures or time periods to indicate the
generalisability or likely maintenance of reported behaviour change, mean that its applicability is limited.

Studies of CBT for children who have been physically abused are few in number, poorly reported, and
overall of limited quality, although poor reporting may account for many of the identified risks of bias.
Economic evidence
No economic evaluations of CBT were located for children who have been physically abused.
128
Cognitive–behavioural therapy: children who have experienced

different types of maltreatment
Nine randomised trials of CBT or enhanced CBT interventions were identified110–112,114–117,120,121 that were
designed to address the consequence of maltreatment, irrespective of maltreatment type. The studies
were themselves heterogeneous, and fall into four broad categories:
1. interventions to enhance the parenting skills of foster parents and adopters, in order to help them
address the particular challenges of parenting children with maltreatment histories112,114–116
2. interventions addressing PTSD and associated symptoms in maltreated young people111,117
3. risk reduction interventions to reduce human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and sexually transmitted
infections (STIs) among abused and neglected young people110
4. studies of EMDR.120,121
Location
All but four111,112,116,120 studies were conducted in the USA. The Rushton et al.116 study was conducted
in the UK, the Farkas et al.120 study in Quebec, Canada, the Church et al.111 study in Peru and the
Jensen et al.112,113 study in Norway.
Sample size
Five110,111,117,120,121 studies recruited and randomised individual participants who had been maltreated.
The Church et al.111 study recruited just 16 participants, whereas the studies by Farkas et al.120 and
Scheck et al.121 recruited, respectively, 40 and 60 participants to their studies of EMDR and the Shirk et al.117
study randomised 43 adolescents. Champion and Collins110 randomised 559 adolescent women.
The Jensen et al.112,113 study randomised 156 parents. (Only 135 parents participated in the study.)
The remaining three studies recruited participant pairs. Rushton et al.116 recruited 38 adoptive families.
One study by Linares et al.115 enrolled 94 children, with the intervention targeted at foster parent/biological
parent pairs, whereas the other Linares et al.114 study recruited 63 biological/foster parent pairs.
Participants
Age
Three114–116 studies focused on children aged < 10 years. Children in the Rushton et al.116 study were
between 3 years and 7 years 11 months at recruitment; the Linares et al.115 study recruited foster parents
caring for children aged 5–8 years, and children in the Linares et al.114 study were aged 3–10 years.
Five110,111,117,120,121 studies recruited adolescents. The studies by Champion and Collins110 and Church et al.111
recruited adolescent women aged 14–18 years and 12–17 years, respectively. Shirk et al.117 recruited
adolescents aged 13–17 years. The two120,121 EMDR studies recruited adolescents aged 13–17 years120 and
16–25 years.121
Jensen et al.112,113 recruited the caretakers of children and young people aged 10–18 years.
Gender
Six112,114–117,120 of these studies recruited both male and female children or their carers. Some had a
preponderance of one gender, for example the samples in the studies by Shirk et al.117 and Farkas et al.120
were largely female (85% and 74%, respectively). Participants in the Church et al.111 study were all male,
whereas in the studies by Champion and Collins110 and Scheck et al.121 the participants were all female.
129
RESULTS
Referrals
The Rushton et al.116 study recruited adoptive parents referred from English local authorities that had high
rates of adoption. Adoptors were eligible if at least one of their adopted children scored above a certain
threshold on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), completed by either the adoptor or the
child’s social worker, or both. The Champion and Collins110 study recruited participants from women
seeking health care at a district health clinic.
Participants in the Linares et al.115 study were drawn from community-based mental health services, but it is
not clear how they were recruited. Linares et al.114 recruited foster parents from one child welfare agency.
Church et al.111 recruited young men who were resident in a residential treatment refuge (Peru).
Adolescents in the Shirk et al.117 study had been referred to an outpatient department in a large, urban
mental health centre, and those in Jensen et al.112,113 were children referred to one of eight community
clinics via normal referral routes [general practitioner (GP), Child Protection Services] who had experienced
a traumatic event and who scored ≥ 15 on the Child PTSD Sympton Scale (CPSS).286
One121 of the EMDR studies recruited volunteers from adverts in a range of agencies,121 whereas the
other120 took referrals only from youth protective services.
Maltreatment type
In Linares 2006,114 children had experienced physical abuse or neglect, but (by chance) only neglected
children were allocated to the control condition, compared with 71% in the intervention group.
In the Linares 2012,115 children had officially substantiated histories of child maltreatment: 77% were
neglected and 23% were abused either physically (18%) or sexually (5%). Some children experienced
more than one form of maltreatment.
Children in the Church et al.111 study had a history of physical, psychological or sexual abuse or neglect/
parental abandonment. The majority of participants in the Champion and Collins110 study (76%) had
histories of sexual, physical and emotional abuse. This study110 recruited women with abuse histories or
histories of STIs (because of the over-representation of maltreatment in the histories of adolescents) and was
designed to ‘provide a study sample of adolescents with both a history of STI and abuse’110 (p. 142).
Participants in both EMDR studies120,121 had histories of maltreatment. Most of those in the Farkas et al.120
study had been referred to Youth Protective Services for a variety of forms of parental neglect or abuse,
although some were referred for reasons of serious behaviour problems. Most participants had been
referred for, or had experienced more than one form of, maltreatment; it was not possible to identify
the proportion of participants who had not been maltreated. A total of 90% of participants in the
Scheck et al.121 study reported being victims of physical or emotional abuse as a child, and over half of the
traumas reported related to traumatic sexual experiences, such as rape or child molestation.
Adolescents in Jensen et al.112,113 had been exposed to a range of traumas, including physical and sexual
abuse, and witnessing violence.
Interventions and comparisons

The interventions in the studies by Rushton et al.116 and Linares et al.114,115 were modified versions of
Webster-Stratton’s Incredible Years Program (IY).212
Linares et al.114 used the manualised, group-based Parents and Children Basic Series Program
(IY, Webster-Stratton et al.210) plus a coparenting intervention delivered on individually to biological and
foster parent pair and target child, and which focused on learning about each other, practising open
communication and negotiating interparental conflict. Therapists used family systems strategies, such as
joining, didactic lesson, re-enactment and restructuring.
130
Linares 2012115 used a subset of the 18 IY manualised lessons contained in the Dina Program for Young
Children. Modules were Understanding and Detecting Feelings; Detective Wally Teaches Problem-Solving
Steps; and Tiny Turtle Teaches Anger Management, plus a lesson developed for the project and designed
to promote a sense of belonging to this foster home – My Homes, My Families.
In both114,115 of these studies, foster carers in the control group received ‘usual services’.
Rushton et al.116 used the IY programme as a basis for a cognitive–behavioural programme tailored to the
needs of adoptive parents, placing an emphasis on the need to conduct daily play sessions with the child
and to help adopters when their child rejects their praise or their rewards. First and last sessions were
focused, respectively, on getting to know the parents and introducing the programme, and reviewing
progress and ending. Other sessions focused on using positive attention to change behaviour; the value of
play for establishing positive relationships; using verbal praise; rewards; learning clear commands and
boundaries; using ‘ignoring’ to reduce inappropriate behaviour; defining for the child the consequences of
undesirable behaviour; ‘time out’ and problem-solving. Adoptive parents in the control group received an
educational approach designed by an adoption adviser ‘to improve adopters’ understanding of the
meaning of the children’s current behaviour and help them see how past and present might be
connected’116 (p. 532), thereby helping adopters to respond more appropriately to challenges.
Church et al.111 provided a brief, single-session exposure therapy entitled emotional freedom techniques
(EFT), comprising certain components of CBT and exposure therapy combined with a somatic component,
having therapists or participants tap their fingers on prescribed acupuncture points. Those in the control
group received no treatment.
Champion and Collins110 provided a theory-based [AIDS Risk Reduction Model (ARRM)209] CBT intervention
designed to reduce risk-taking behaviour – Project Image (PI). PI is described as ‘grounded in knowledge of
the target population’s behaviour and culture . . . Emphasis is placed upon understanding and dealing with
male-female power relationships in African-and Mexican American culture’110 (p. 144). The intervention
began with a physical examination (for STIs, etc.) followed by an enhanced counselling session (addressing
adherence to medication, other treatments, sexual activity, etc.). Intervention participants were then
offered two workshop sessions, 1 week apart, followed by group work and further individual counselling.
The workshops and group work described have a strong psychoeducational component and a tailored
skills component. Control group participants received the physical examination, abuse and enhanced
clinical counselling at baseline, plus a follow-up physical examination at the end of the intervention.
Shirk et al.117 evaluated a modified CBT intervention (m-CBT) that combined CBT elements
(mood monitoring, cognitive restructuring, relaxation training, activity scheduling and interpersonal
problem-solving), with mindfulness-based strategies, such as taking a non-judgemental stance of
observing, describing and tolerating trauma-related emotions and cognitions (Linehan et al.689). The
effectiveness of m-CBT was assessed in relation to usual care (UC), in which therapists agreed to use, with
control group participants, the treatment strategies and procedures that they regularly used and believed
to be effective in their clinical practice).
The EMDR intervention in the Scheck et al.121 study consisted of two treatment sessions of 1 hour, 1 week
apart. EMDR followed the standard protocol devised by Shapiro.690 In this study,121 EMDR was compared
with an active listening intervention.
In Farkas et al.120 study, EMDR was combined with motivation–adaptive skills–trauma resolution (MASTR),
aimed at addressing conduct problems (Greenwald691), motivational interviewing and a range of
cognitive–behavioural training and coping skills development. MASTR is a trauma-focused treatment
package that was developed for use with adolescents with conduct problems, which ‘addresses treatment
obstacles by establishing sense of safety within therapy, encouraging clients to be the agents of their
change, improving motivation and guiding them towards progressive successes to their goals’120 (p. 128).
131
RESULTS
Participants received 12 weekly sessions of 1.5 hours of MASTR/EMDR therapy. They also continued
with other forms of individual (14%), family (14%) and group therapy (29%). In this study of EMDR,
Farkas et al.120 used a ‘routine care’ control group in which participants were exposed to a variety of
alternative therapies.
Jensen et al.112 described the TF-CBT programme that they use as a ‘trauma specific treatment consisting
of psychoeducation, learning relaxation skills, affective modulation skills, cognitive coping skills, working
through the TN, cognitive processing, in vivo mastery of trauma reminders, and enhancing safety and
future developments, coupled with the parental component’112 (p. 6). The parental component looked to
improve parenting skills and was also used to demonstrate for the parent each treatment component that
was provided to the child. Those in the control group received ‘the treatment they (TAU Therapists)
considered most suitable in each individual case’112 (p. 6). Almost half of the TAU therapists described their
theoretical orientation as psychodynamic, 30% as cognitive behavioural, and around 25% as family/
systemic (percentages rounded up). In 35 of the 52 completed TAU cases, parents were involved in some
way in more than three sessions of the child’s therapy.
Comparisons
Number and duration of treatments

The IY or IY-based interventions used in the studies by Rushton et al.116 and Linares et al.114,115 were
delivered in 12 weekly sessions of 2 hours.
Church et al.111 provided one, 2-hour, single session of brief EFT.
The intervention described by Champion et al.110 comprised one ‘extensive’ individual session for
physical examination and a semistructured, one-on-one interview/enhanced counselling at the outset
(1.5–2 hours), followed by two workshop sessions of between 3 and 4 hours, a follow-up visit (for
screening, pregnancy testing and STI treatment, if necessary) and three to five sessions of support group
work followed by two or more individual sessions.
The intervention evaluated by Shirk et al.117 was designed to provide 12 weekly sessions to be delivered
over a 16-week period but adolescents could continue with treatment beyond the 16-week study
assessment. The same was true for the TAU group.
The TF-CBT intervention in Jensen et al.112,113 comprised 12–15 individual sessions.
In Scheck et al.,121 EMDR was delivered in two sessions, 1 week apart, and in the Farkas et al.120 study it
was provided in 12 weekly sessions (duration unspecified).
Where relevant, the number and duration of comparison treatments was similar to those of the
experimental intervention.

for children who have experienced different types of maltreatment

Jensen et al.112,113 used two measures of PTSD. The first was the CPSS,286 a self-report questionnaire
developed for children aged 10–18 years, which examines post-traumatic stress symptomatology
described in the DSM-IV (criterion B, re-experience; criterion C, avoidance; and criterion D, hyperarousal).692
The second was the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for Children and Adolescents, a structured
clinical interview that assesses the frequency and intensity of the 17 DSM-IV-defined PTSD symptoms.304,305
132
Scheck et al.121 and Church et al.111 assessed the impact of intervention using the Impact of Events Scale (IES279).
Both used the total score; Church et al.111 also report outcomes for the memories and avoidance subscales.
Farkas et al.120 used two measures of PTSD. First, the relevant module of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule
for Children (DISC693) and, second, the TSCC,325,328 to assess trauma-related difficulties.
Scheck et al.121 also used the Penn Inventory for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PENN334), a self-report scale
that measures symptom severity.
Depression
Jensen et al.112,113 used the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire694 to assess depressive symptoms, as this
measures the full range of DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for depressive disorders, and includes items ‘reflecting
common affective, cognitive, somatic features of childhood depression’ (p. 361).
Shirk et al.117 and Scheck et al.121 used, respectively, the Beck Depression Inventory-Second Edition
(BDI-II320) and the BDI332 to assess the impact of EMDR on depression.
Anxiety
Scheck et al.121 used the state subscale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI333) to measure the impact
of EMDR on anxiety.
Jensen et al.112,113 used the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders (SCARED)307 to measure anxiety
symptoms. SCARED is a self-report questionnaire with 41 items covering five specific anxiety disorders:
panic disorder or significant somatic symptoms, generalised anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder,
social anxiety disorder and school avoidance.
Behaviour
Rushton et al.116 and Jensen et al.112,113 used the SDQ.308 Jensen et al.112,113 also used visual analogue scales
to assess how far an individual child progressed on emotional distress, misbehaviour and attachment.
Rushton et al.116 relied on adopter report, whereas Jensen et al.112,113 used YSR.
In Linares 2012,115 foster parents completed a six-item measure compiled from the CBCL 5-18 aggression
subscale,294 and classroom teachers completed a seven-item measure compiled from the 38-item
Sutter–Eyberg Student Behaviour Inventory-Revised (SESBI-R311).
The intervention evaluated in Linares 2006114 was designed to reduce externalising behaviour, and its
effectiveness was assessed using three measures, and drawing on foster parent-report and biological
parent-report; the CBCL;294,309 the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory-Revised310 and the SESBI-R.311
Farkas et al.120 used the parent version of the CBCL,269,294 alongside modules of the DISC to measure
conduct disorder (CD) and oppositional defiant disorder.
Risky behaviour
In line with the aim of the intervention, Champion and Collins110 assessed new incidents of STI as a
dichotomous variable (yes, no) at off-site, problem or scheduled follow-up visit at 6 and 21 months.
Self-control
Linares 2012115 used a 51-item measure of self-control, developed for this study and administered to foster
parent and teacher using parallel versions.
Self-esteem
Scheck et al.121 examined the impact of EMDR on adolescents’ self-concept, using the Tennessee
Self-Concept Scale.335
133
RESULTS
Parent–child relationships
Rushton et al.116 used the Expressions of Feeling Questionnaire315 to capture the nature and progress
of the child’s relationship with the new carers.

for children who have experienced different types of maltreatment
Sequence generation
We judged three112,116,121 studies to be at low risk of bias. In the Rushton et al.,116 study adoptive parents
were randomised independently by the clinical trials unit using permuted block randomisation. Jensen
et al.112,113 state that a computer-generated randomised block procedure was used, and Scheck et al.121
used envelopes filled with papers labelled either EMDR or active listening (AL). These were then shuffled
before being numbered 1 through 100. Envelopes were opened (consecutively) during interviews with
participants, which took place after the collection of baseline data, thereby identifying to which therapy
the participant was allocated.
Linares 2012115 state that children were consecutively identified, assessed and randomly assigned within
agencies, but no further information was provided on sequence generation or allocation concealment.
The studies by Champion and Collins,110 Church et al.,111 Linares 2006,114 Farkas et al.120 and Shirk et al.117
provide no information on sequence generation and were judged to be of unclear risk of bias.
None of the RCTs included provided adequate information on allocation concealment, although Rushton
et al.116 used a clinical trials unit to randomise participants, so all were judged as being of unclear risk of
bias. The remaining eight110–112,114,115,117,120,121 studies provide no information on allocation concealment and
were therefore judged unclear risk of bias.

We judged all studies110–112,115–117,120,121 as being of high risk of bias because no participant or personnel
were blinded.

Rushton et al.116 make clear that blinding at follow-up interviews was not possible because involvement in
the treatment was the focus of questions. It was therefore assessed as high risk.
Five110–112,114,115 studies were assessed as low risk. In both studies by Linares et al.,114,115 the authors state
that intervention and assessment teams were assembled to keep interviewers blind to group assignment.
Church et al.111 state that data were scored off-site and blind to the statistician. Champion and Collins110
state that group status was revealed only at the end of follow-up interviews.
Jensen et al.112,113 state that the assessments were computer assisted and conducted by an independent
clinician who was blinded to the treatment conditions.
Shirk et al.117 state that post-treatment assessments were made by an independent evaluator, but the
depression measure used (BDI) relies on self-completion, and so the study was assessed as being of unclear
risk of bias.
In both of the EMDR studies120,121 the authors state that assessors were blind, but the measures used were
largely self- and parent-report, so we judged this as being of high risk of bias.
134

There were no missing data in the studies by Church et al.,111 Rushton et al.116 or Linares 2012,115 which
were therefore judged to be of low risk of bias. Linares 2006114 suffered attrition but reasons for attrition
were largely the same (moved, discharged), although more parents in the intervention group refused to
provide data post treatment and at follow-up than in the usual services group (eight vs. one). The authors
also analysed the data on ITT principles and, overall, we judged the study114 to be of low risk of bias.
Attrition in the Jensen et al.112,113 study was similar across the two arms, and there were no significant
differences between the retention group and the attrition group, other than that the attrition group was
significantly older than the retention group and the attrition group reported being exposed to significantly
higher numbers of different traumatic events. The authors explore reasons for attrition and they are
methodical in their analyses, undertaking both ITT analyses and per-protocol analyses, and completed
case analyses (defined as those participants who completed at least six sessions). Overall we judged the
Jensen et al.112,113 study to be of low risk of bias.
In the Champion et al.110 study, data are presented for only for 318 out of 409 women at 6-month
follow-up (78% unadjusted) and 333 women at 12-month follow-up (81% unadjusted). Given the
intervention and the participants, this level of attrition is impressively low, but it was deemed sufficiently
large to warrant a judgement of high risk of bias.
Farkas et al.120 was also judged high risk of bias, primarily on the grounds of significant attrition. Of
65 adolescents randomised in this study, 15 dropped out by post treatment and a further eight by the
3 months’ follow-up. More young people dropped out of the experimental group than control group
during treatment (10/33 vs. 5/32); of these, 2 of the 10 dropped out for reasons related to the treatment
(refused to discuss their traumas) and two because they ceased to be in the custody of YPS and their
families stopped their participation. All but one of the remaining participants dropped out because they
‘changed their minds’.
In the Scheck et al.121 study there was considerable attrition post treatment that was not accounted for in
the results. We judged this to be high.
Data for 7 out of 43 randomised participants were missing at follow-up in the Shirk et al.117 study [four in
m-CBT and three in UC]. Investigation led the authors to conclude that no systematic bias had occurred
in attrition, and they conducted their analyses on ITT principles. We therefore assessed this study as low
risk of bias.

Three110,112,116 studies were registered with ClinicalTrials.gov: Champion and Collins110 (NCT01387646);
Rushton et al.116 (NCT04448012) and Jensen et al.112,113 (NCT00635752).
Champion and Collins110 report findings for the primary outcome (STIs at 12 months) but, in the paper
identified for this review, have not yet reported on secondary outcomes (substance use, experience of
abuse and frequency of unintended pregnancies). Overall, we judged this as ‘unclear’ risk of bias. The
studies by Rushton et al.116 and Jensen et al.112,113 report on all primary and secondary outcomes and were
therefore judged as ‘low’ risk of bias.
In general, the remaining studies appeared to indicate that they were reporting on all predetermined
outcomes. However, in the absence of study protocols it is difficult to assess the risk of selective outcome
reporting. Therefore, all studies were assessed as ‘unclear’ risk of bias.

None were identified.
135
RESULTS
Results: cognitive–behavioural therapy for children who have experienced

different types of maltreatment
No meta-analyses were possible for data from these studies,110–112,114–117,120,121 the results of which are
therefore reported in narrative form.

Jensen et al.112,113 report a mean effect (ITT analyses) of treatment condition on child PTSD (measured by
the CPSS) at time 3 (T3), some 7.5 months after treatment began: children in the TF-CBT group scored
significantly lower at T3 [mean (M) = 11.34, SD 10.52] than participants in the comparison group [M = 16.87,
SD 11.49; d = 0.51, t(154) = 3.30; p = 0.001; with Holm adjustment p = 0.006]. The authors also report a
significant time by group interaction effect (F(2) = 5.01; p = 0.007; with Holm adjustment p = 0.037). Both
groups showed reductions in PTSD from pre- to post-therapy assessments, and a main effect of treatment
condition on functional impairment such that trauma influenced daily functions significantly less (indicated by
higher scores) in the TF-CBT group (M = 10.33, SD 1.99) than in the TAU group (M = 9.22, SD 2.09) at the
end of therapy [d = –0.55, t(154) = –3.32; p = 0.001; with Holm adjustment p = 0.006]. They also report a
main effect of treatment on time in both groups. Analyses of completed cases yielded similar results.
Statistically significant between-group differences were found by Church et al.111 in favour of the
intervention (EFT). One month after pre-test, participants who had received the intervention demonstrated
a statistically significant decrease on both the total score for the IES279 and the two subscales (memories
and avoidance). All participants had scored in the clinical range at baseline, and control participants
remained in the ‘moderate clinical’ range post test, in contrast to those in the intervention group, none of
whom was in the clinical range post test.
Analyses of PENN post-test scores in the Scheck et al.121 study indicated a significant difference in favour of
the EMDR group [F(1,55) = 6.03; p = 0.02]. A similar result was found for the IES [F(1,57) = 9.93; p = 0.002].
Post treatment, Farkas et al.120 reported significant improvements in the experimental group (MASTR/EMDR)
compared with control group participants for PTSD symptoms as measured by DISC [F(1,40) = 6.05;
p = 0.05]. Significant improvements were also reported for the TSCC325 (trauma-related difficulties) on each
of six subscales: stress, anger, depression, dissociation, anxiety and sexual concerns.120
Depression
Jensen et al.112,113 found a main effect of treatment condition on children’s depressive symptoms, with
participants in the TF-CBT group (M = 14.40, SD 13.67) scoring significantly lower than those in the TAU
condition (M = 22.67, SD 16.24) at T3 [d = 0.54, t(154) = 2.79; p = 0.006; with Holm adjustment p = 0.018].
Scheck et al.121 reported a significant effect for EMDR on depression [F(1,58) = 5.39; p = 0.024].
Shirk et al.117 reported significant reductions over time in BDI depression scores but no between-group differences.
Anxiety
Jensen et al.112,113 found no main effect of treatment condition on children’s anxiety symptoms. Participants
in the TF-CBT group [d = 0.30, t(150) = 1.47; p = 0.114; with Holm correction p = 0.114]. Analyses of the
SCARED subscales found a main effect only for generalised anxiety disorder. Completer analyses produced
similar results.
Scheck et al.121 reported a significant effect for EMDR on STATE anxiety [F(1,57) = 4.89; p = 0.031].
Behaviour
Rushton et al.116 found no significant differences in child problems between the two groups at 6 months’
follow-up, although a significant difference (p < 0.007) was found for ‘satisfaction with parenting’ in
favour of the intervention group (effect size d = 0.7).
136
Jensen et al.112,113 found a main effect of treatment condition on the SDQ (interpreted as general mental
health problems). Participants in the TF-CBT group had significantly lower scores (M = 11.95, SD 6.51) than
those in the TAU group (M = 14.54, SD 6.12) at the end of therapy [d = 0.45, t(152) = 2.46; p = 0.015;
with Holm adjustment p = 0.030]. Completer analyses produced similar results.
In Linares 2012,115 the authors report that physical aggression decreased over time for both groups (IY, UC)
but there were no between-group differences. After adjusting for gender, ethnicity, initial diagnosis of
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and study site, children in the UC group showed more improvement
than those in the IY training group on foster parent reports of physical aggression. Rates of improvement
were highest among children in the UC condition. Teachers reported no differences.
In Linares 2006,114 intervention children were reported as having lower CBC externalising T scores
[F(1,97) = 2.71; p = 0.10] and Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI) total T score [F(1,94) = 2.30; p = 0.13]
at follow-up but these were not statistically significant.
Farkas et al.120 reported significant differences on the CBCL260 in favour of MASTR/EMDR for externalising
behaviour [F(1,40) = 9.77; p = 0.05], but not for internalising behaviour.
Risky behaviour
Champion 2012110 reported a significant impact of the intervention, with those who had received the
theory-based (ARRM209) CBT intervention experiencing fewer infections at intervals of 0–6 months (0% vs.
6.6%; p = 0.001), 6–12 months (3.6% vs. 7.8%; p = 0.005, 95% CI 0.001 to 0.386) and 0–12 months
(4.8% vs. 13.2%; p = 0.002, 95% CI 0.002 to 0.531).
Self-control
Linares 2012115 report a main effect in relation to foster care reports of higher levels, and steeper rates of
improvement in relation to self-control, in favour of the control group (UC).
Self-esteem
Scheck et al.121 reported a significant effect of EMDR for the TSCC335 [F(1,57) = 4.573; p = 0.04].
Parent–child relationships
Emotional Freedom Questionnaire (EFQ) scores among control children in the Rushton et al. study116
remained unchanged, whereas they were more positive at all time points for the intervention group;
however, these were not significant when controlling for baseline scores.
Although not directly relevant, Linares et al.114 reported a significant difference between the intervention
and UC group on coparenting flexibility [F(1,104) = 4.14; p < 0.05], coparenting problem-solving
[F(1,102) = 6.38, p < 0.01] and coparenting total [F(1,97) = 5.13; p < 0.05]. This was a key aim of the
study114 and was likely to have a positive impact on the experience of children in foster care.
Effectiveness of cognitive–behavioural therapy for children who have

experienced different types of maltreatment
Summary
Four112,114–116 of the nine studies that we identified focused on helping caregivers (including birth parents,
adoptive or foster parents) to address the consequences of maltreatment, by enhancing their knowledge
and skills and providing support. Unsurprisingly, most of these studies provided services to carers of
children aged < 10 years, but one112 study recruited those caring for older children. The studies compared
modifications of the IY parenting programme with either TAU114 or, in the only UK study,116 with an
educational approach.
137
RESULTS
The other five110,111,117,120,121 studies provided services directly to maltreated young people aged > 12 years.
They included two120,121 studies that compared EMDR with alternative treatments (as usual), and
three110,111,117 studies comparing modified forms of CBT or CBT ‘plus’ with either no treatment, UC or a
modified form of UC.
Overall, within the range of different studies included in this section, there was some reduction in
symptoms PTSD and depression with treatment. Results regarding improvement in children’s behaviour
vary between the studies. One115 study targeted physical aggression and self-control in foster children, and
found no differences between children whose foster parents had participated in the IY programme and
those who had received UC. Indeed, when appropriate adjustments were made, those in the control group
did rather better than those in the experimental group. No differences were found between the behaviour
of children whose adoptive parents received a CBT parenting programme based on IY, although these
parents were significantly more satisfied with parenting and were less likely to use negative parenting
approaches than those in the control group.116
Conflicts between foster parents and biological parents contribute to placement instability, and work
against reunification. One114 study examined an intervention designed to improve relationships between
parents, foster parents and children, and enhance the consistency of parenting across the two homes.
The results of this study were very positive, and have relevance to the UK context.
One110 study, focusing specifically on risky behaviour by girls, showed reduction in rates of STIs.
It is difficult to draw conclusions about EMDR, as in one120 study this was a very different intervention to
the standard protocol, and it was compared with another treatment arm that was quite intensive.120

Only one study was conducted in the UK,116 and one study was conducted in Norway.112 Both studies112,116
focused on children in a family context, and aimed to improve outcomes for children who had experienced
very serious maltreatment. In the UK study, participants were recruited from social welfare agencies that
were responsible for supporting adoptive parents. In Norway, the settings were trauma clinics, that is,
routine community settings.
Webster-Stratton’s IY programme has been endorsed as an evidence-based parenting programme in the

UK, and the applications evaluated in three114–116 of these studies have relevance to the needs of children
in foster and adoptive care in the UK. The application of this programme to some of the challenges of
fostering maltreated children is highly relevant, but the findings are mixed and the evidence base is limited.

Most studies are small and there are few of them. Their heterogeneity (in terms of interventions,
participants and outcome measures) prevented us from combining data in meta-analyses, and therefore
the results from this part of the review should be treated with caution.
Overall, the quality of the evidence relating to studies of CBT for children who have experienced a range
of forms of maltreatment is moderate, largely because of the impact of lack of information, which,
if available, might demonstrate enhanced quality – or the reverse.
Economic evidence
One economic evaluation,613 carried out in the UK, explored the cost-effectiveness of two parenting
programmes, including a cognitive–behavioural approach, for adoptive parents. The study613 used data
from the Rushton et al.116 RCT, described above, and compared the two parenting programmes
(a cognitive–behavioural approach and an educational approach), which were combined due to small
sample sizes (n = 19) to services as usual (n = 18). The intervention was delivered to adoptive parents of
138
children who were adopted at between the ages of 3 and 8 years, who were screened for serious
behavioural problems early in the placement.
Cost-effectiveness was explored in terms of the primary outcome measure of the study, the SDQ, and,
additionally, in terms of parent satisfaction, shown to be more effective in the parenting programmes than
service as usual. Resource use included health, social care and specialist educational services, as well as the
use of the parenting programmes, which were costed using nationally applicable unit costs. Costs were
expressed in 2006–7 pounds sterling (£). No discounting was applied to costs and effects because of the
short time horizon of the study, with follow-ups carried out post treatment (approximately 12 weeks after
study entry) and 6 months post treatment (approximately 9 months after study entry).
At the 6-month post-treatment follow-up, costs were significantly higher for the parenting programmes
and there was no significant difference between the two groups on the SDQ. However, parental
satisfaction was significantly higher for the combined parenting programme group. Thus, in terms of the
primary clinical outcome, service as usual was found to dominate the parenting programmes (less
expensive and no difference in outcomes), whereas for parental satisfaction, the authors report an ICER of
£337 per unit improvement in satisfaction. The authors conclude that the parenting programmes may be
cost-effective in enhancing parental satisfaction. However, the study613 was severely limited in a number of
important ways, which would caution against such a conclusion. In particular, sample sizes were extremely
small and thus the results are unlikely to be adequately powered. In addition, the significant results were
based on the only secondary outcome measure to show a significant difference in favour of the
intervention, suggestive of a post hoc analysis, and no exploration of uncertainty was undertaken.
Economic analysis: cognitive–behavioural therapy
Given the effectiveness evidence presented showing promising benefits of CBT for sexually abused children,
it was thought appropriate for consideration to be given to the development of a decision-analytic model to
more fully explore the cost-effectiveness of CBT in this population. As described above, however, only one
relevant economic evaluation of CBT for sexually abused children was located, a decision model based on
Australian data with cost data limited to the cost of CBT only, showing cost-effectiveness advantages for
CBT. One further economic evaluation of CBT, focusing on children who have experienced different types
of maltreatment, was located, but this trial-based study was limited by small sample sizes and showed no
economic advantage for CBT in terms of the primary clinical outcome. In the absence of any other better
quality UK-based data, a decision model was ruled out.
Instead, we conducted cost-effectiveness analyses of CBT for sexually abused children using PTSD, anxiety
and depression outcomes combined with intervention costs, calculated as described in Chapter 2. For PTSD
and anxiety, we used SMDs. For depression we used CDI scores,80 reported in five studies. Given the
sensitivity of the effectiveness results for some outcomes to the use of change scores, suggesting baseline
imbalance, outcome data were calculated using random-effects meta-analyses for mean change from
baseline and assuming a correlation between baseline and follow-up of 0.5. Correlation was varied
between 0 and 1 in sensitivity analysis but this did not alter the results, so only the results for a correlation
of 0.5 are reported. All results are reported for outcomes post treatment (the time point with the greatest
amount of data) and at 12-month follow-up (the time point at which the advantage for CBT is the
smallest, thus a more conservative approach). Analyses were repeated for all maltreatment types, but this
did not alter the results so they are not reported here.
Results
Table 11 reports the cost and outcome parameters and the deterministic and probabilistic ICERs for SMD
and CDI outcomes. ICERs are the additional cost per unit change in SMD, for PTSD and anxiety, and the
additional cost per unit change in CDI score, for depression. In all analyses, the CBT group are associated
with higher costs and better effects than the control group. In addition, effectiveness advantages for CBT
139
RESULTS
TABLE 11 Cost and outcome parameters and cost-effectiveness results
ICER (£)
Cost and outcome parameters Meana (SD) Deterministic Probabilistic
Weighted average cost of CBT (£) 1433 (320)

SMD for anxiety outcomes Post treatment –0.188 (0.180) 7623 3816
12-month follow-up –0.180 (0.560) 7961 4327
SMD for PTSD outcomes Post treatment –0.508 (0.263) 2821 752
12-month follow-up –0.310 (0.560) 4623 3981
CDI change score differences Post treatment a
–1.844 (1.285) 777 795
12-month follow-upa –0.208 (1.342) 6890 6329
a To aid interpretation of the cost-effectiveness results, all analyses use absolute values, as negative values favour CBT in
each case.
compared with the control group are always greater post treatment than at 12-month follow-up, resulting
in larger ICERs at 12-month follow-up (larger expenditure needed to generate a unit improvement
in outcome).
For the SMD outcomes, Figures 9 and 10 show the cost-effectiveness plane for both PTSD and anxiety
outcomes, post treatment and at 12-month follow-up, respectively. The cost-effectiveness plane is used to
illustrate differences in costs and effects between different strategies, in this case CBT and the control. It
consists of four quadrants, for which the x-axis represents the additional level of effectiveness generated
by one intervention compared with another and the y-axis represents the additional cost of one
30
25
20
Incremental costs (£00)
15
PTSD
Anxiety
1000.00
0
–60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60
–5
Incremental effects (SMD)
FIGURE 9 Cost-effectiveness plane for PTSD and anxiety outcomes post treatment.
140
30
25
20
15
PTSD
Anxiety
10
0
–30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30
–5
Incremental effects (SMD)
FIGURE 10 Cost-effectiveness plane for PTSD and anxiety outcomes at 12-month follow-up.
intervention compared with another. The scatter points on the cost-effectiveness plane represent multiple
cost and effectiveness pairs generated by the probabilistic sensitivity analysis, but for ease of interpretation,
can be viewed as pairs of individuals, one receiving CBT and the other in the control group. Points that fall
in the north-west quadrant represent the situation in which CBT is more expensive and less effective and
thus dominated by the control group. For those in the south-east quadrant, CBT is more effective and less
expensive and thus dominates the control. For those in the north-east quadrant, CBT is more effective but
also more expensive, and, for the south-west, CBT is less effective but also less expensive; both of these
quadrants involve a trade-off between costs and effects.
As only the cost of CBT was considered in the current analysis, all points fall above the x-axis (costs higher
for the CBT group than the control group). In terms of effects, although the SMD results from the
meta-analyses suggest advantages for CBT rather than the comparison, this advantage is no longer evident
in the probabilistic analysis (involving assigning probability distributions to costs and effects, as outlined in
Chapter 2). Instead, differences in effect are relatively equally distributed to both the right of the y-axis
(effects better for CBT) and the left (effects better for control).
Associated uncertainty is displayed in the CEACs in Figures 11 and 12, which illustrates the probability that
CBT is more cost-effective than the control, for different levels of willingness to pay for additional benefits.
The CEACs suggest that the probability of CBT being more cost-effective than the control post treatment
does not rise much above 50% for PTSD outcomes and remains below 50% for anxiety outcomes post
treatment (see Figure 11). The results are similar at 12-month follow-up (see Figure 12).
Figures 13 and 14 show the cost-effectiveness plane for CDI outcomes post treatment and 12-month
follow-up, respectively. Again, as only the cost of CBT was considered in the analysis, all points fall above
the x-axis (incremental costs higher for the CBT group than the control group). In terms of effects, the
results are similar at 12-month follow-up to those for SMD outcomes, showing no clear advantage
for CBT compared with the control. The post-treatment results, however, suggest some effectiveness
advantage for CBT, with a larger proportion of points falling to the right of the y-axis (effects better for
CBT) than the left (effects better for control).
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RESULTS
1.0
0.9
0.8
Probability CBT more cost-effective
0.7
0.6
PTSD
0.5 Anxiety
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Willingness to pay for a unit improvement in effect (SMD) (£000)
FIGURE 11 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves for PTSD and anxiety outcomes post treatment.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5 PTSD
Anxiety
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Willingness to pay for a unit improvement in effects (SMD) (£000)
FIGURE 12 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves for PTSD and anxiety outcomes at 12-month follow-up.
142
30
25
Incremental cost (£00)
20
15
10
0
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–5
Incremental effects (CDI)
FIGURE 13 Cost-effectiveness plane for CDI outcomes post treatment.
30
25
20
15
10
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–5
Incremental effects (CDI)
FIGURE 14 Cost-effectiveness plane for CDI outcomes at 12-month follow-up.
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RESULTS
Uncertainty is illustrated by the CEACs reported in Figures 15 and 16 for post-treatment and follow-up
outcomes, respectively. The post-treatment results suggest that the probability of CBT being more
cost-effective than the control reaches approximately 90% for willingness-to-pay values of around
≥ £5000. Using the 12-month follow-up data, however, the results are similar to those for SMD outcomes
and do not rise much above 50%.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Willingness to pay for unit improvement in effects (CDI) (£000)
FIGURE 15 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curve for CDI outcomes post treatment.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Willingness to pay for a unit improvement in effects (CDI) (£000)
FIGURE 16 Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves for CDI outcomes at 12-month follow-up.
144
Studies covered in this section focus on interventions that seek to improve relationships between children
and their parents (RBIs). They include those designed to promote secure child attachment and the positive
outcomes associated with that, and parenting interventions designed to improve the quality of parenting
of maltreating parents, thereby bringing about positive benefits to children who have already
experienced maltreatment.
In total, we identified 15 controlled studies122–140 that assessed the effectiveness of RBIs. The studies are
grouped as follows:
l attachment-orientated interventions122–135
l PCIT136–138
l parenting interventions.139,140
Because of the imbalance of numbers, we are not dealing with each subset of interventions entirely
separately, but, where appropriate, we group them for descriptive and reporting purposes. We do not
comment on gender in this section, as, by definition, all RBIs address the relationship between parents
and their children, irrespective of gender. Details of child gender, where reported, are available in
Chapter 3.
Study designs
The Becker-Weidman134,135 study was a COS. The remaining studies122–133,136–140 were randomised trials.
Location
All studies were conducted in the USA123–129,131–136,140 except for Moss et al.130 (Quebec, Canada),
Hughes and Gottlieb139 (Eastern Canada) and Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck137,138 (Australia).
Sample sizes
Controlled studies ranged from small to a moderately large sample size; the smallest sample size was
60 (with only 46 ultimately included in the analyses)125,126 and the largest were 151137,138 and 210.131
See Chapter 3 for further information.
Participants
Attachment-orientated interventions
Age Five of the attachment-orientated studies focused on infants up to 24 months of age. Infants in the
Bernard et al.122 study were aged between 1.7 and 21.4 months at enrolment (mean 10.1 months), and
those in Dozier et al.125,126 were aged 3.6–39.4 months [note: two papers report the results of this study:
one125 deals with the ‘first 60 children who completed the experimental or control intervention’ (p. 773)
and reports on cortisol levels and behaviour problems; the second study126 reports on ‘the first 46 children
who completed the experimental or control intervention’ (p. 5) and reports on attachment behaviours].
In both Cicchetti trials,123,124 infants had a mean age of just over 13 months. Spieker et al.131 recruited
mother–infant dyads, for which the infants were aged 10–24 months.
Four studies recruited older children.127–130,132,133 Preschoolers in the Toth et al.133 study had a mean age of
48.2 months (SD 6.88); in the Sprang132 study the mean age was 42.5 months (SD 18.6 months); children in
Lieberman 2005127–129 were aged 3–5 years, and in the Moss et al.130 study they were between 12 and 71 months.
In the Becker-Weidman134,135 study, children’s ages ranged from 5 to 16 years.
145
RESULTS
Referral In the Dozier et al.125,126 study, foster parents were referred at the time of initial infant placement
(presumably by child welfare staff). Consent from both birth parents and foster parents was required. In the
Bernard et al.122 study parents were referred by agencies working with Child Protection Services. In the
Sprang132 study parents were referred for a relational intervention following a university-based assessment.
In Cicchetti 2006,123 a recruitment liaison officer was retained in the Department of Human Services to
identify all infants who were known to have been maltreated or who were living in maltreating families
with their biological mothers. The same method was used in Cicchetti 2011,124 Spieker et al.131 and
Toth et al.133 Spieker et al.131 used a liaison officer to identify infants of ‘an appropriate age who had
experienced a court-ordered placement that resulted in a change of primary caregiver with the prior
seven weeks’ (p. 5). Toth et al.133 used a liaison officer to identify families with a preschool-aged child with
a documented history of maltreatment.
Participants in the Lieberman et al.127–129 study were referred to the study by paediatric providers, family
resource programmes, child-care providers and child protection workers when there were clinical concerns
about the child’s behaviour. Those in the Moss et al.130 study were referred by welfare or community services.
Becker-Weidman134,135 used data from cases closed in 2001 or 2002 in which children had received a
diagnosis of reactive attachment disorder and there was a significant history of physical abuse, emotional
abuse or neglect, sexual abuse or institutional care. One group comprised 34 children who had received
DDP and another group of 30 children who received UC.
Parent–child interaction therapy interventions
Age Children in the PCIT studies were aged 4–12 years in the study by Chaffin et al. 136 In the studies
conducted by Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck, all but three of the children in the 2011137 study were age
between 2.5 and 7 years, and in the 2012138 study the authors report a mean age of 4.57 (SD 1.3) years.
Referral In the PCIT trials, referrals came from welfare workers in the Chaffin et al.136 study and from a
variety of sources, including self-referral in the Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck137,138 studies. Eligibility in
the Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck137,138 studies depended on being assessed as at high risk for child
maltreatment, using a semistructured interview designed to identify proximal risk factors such as high levels
of parental distress, aggressive patterns of communication and use of inappropriate discipline strategies.
Parent-focused interventions
Age Children in the parenting-focused interventions were aged 3–8 years139 and 3–6 years.140
Referral Eligible families were identified by child protection agency staff as in need of parent training in
the Hughes and Gottlieb139 study. Cases were not necessarily on the Child Abuse Registry. In the study by
Valentino et al.,140 families were recruited from the Department of Child Services, which provided families
with information from flyers and from individual case workers.
Maltreatment
In each of the attachment-focused studies, the intervention was directed at a mother–infant dyad.
Five123,125,126,131,132 studies focused on children in out-of-home placements as a result of maltreatment.
The remaining five122,124,127–130,133 studies focused on children living with their biological parents.
Dozier et al.125,126 included young children newly placed in foster care. Apart from children placed at birth,
these children would have experienced neglect or abuse prior to placement. In Sprang132 the children were in
foster care, having experienced ‘severe maltreatment’ (p. 82) with an attachment disorder that threatened
146
to disrupt the placement. Children in the study by Cicchetti 2006123 were also in foster care as a result of
maltreatment, with disorganised attachment. Spieker et al.131 recruited toddlers who had experienced a recent,
court-ordered placement and their caregivers. Children in foster care were participants in the COS.134,135
In Cicchetti 2011,124 infants who were known to have been maltreated or who were living in maltreating
families with their biological mothers were identified for recruitment. All forms of maltreatment were
included. In the recruited sample, almost 72% of infants had directly experienced abuse and/or neglect
during the first year of life: 83% of infants had been neglected and 69% had been emotionally
maltreated. None of the infants had been sexually abused. Over half of the infants had experienced more
than one type of maltreatment.
In Bernard et al.122 the infants in were in families where there was a risk of out-of-home placement for a
variety of reasons, including domestic violence, parental substance use, homelessness and child neglect.
In Moss et al.130 the majority of primary caregivers (72%) had been reported for child neglect: 7% of
primary caregivers were reported for physical abuse and 3% of primary caregivers for sexual abuse;
16% of children had been both physically abused and neglected, and 2% of children were both neglected
and sexually abused.
Toth et al.133 recruited families with a preschool aged child with a documented history of maltreatment.
Almost 60% of the children had experienced more than one form of maltreatment; 21% had experienced
neglect; and 14% had experienced emotional maltreatment. Two children had been sexually abused.
Lieberman et al.127–129 recruited child–mother dyads where the child had been exposed to marital violence
(confirmed by mother’s report on the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale398), when the father figure perpetrating
the violence was no longer in the home and there were concerns about the child’s behaviour or
mother’s parenting.
Parent–child interaction therapy

In the Chaffin et al.136 study, children were referred for concerns about physical abuse. In both studies by
Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck,137,138 families were referred for physical and emotional maltreatment or neglect.
Children with a history of sexual abuse were excluded, as PCIT is contraindicated for this form of maltreatment.
Parents could self-refer and were accepted if the pre-assessment interview revelaed previous experience of a
parenting intervention, a high risk of child maltreatment and high levels of child behaviour problems.
Mothers in both the Hughes and Gottlieb139 study and the Valentino et al.140 study were known to Child
Protection Services for maltreatment.
The included studies122,125,126,130,132 covered four interventions.
Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up Dozier et al.,125,126 Sprang132 and Bernard et al.122 assessed the
effectiveness of ABC (see Appendix 5). In the Dozier et al.125,126 study, parent trainers were professional
social workers or psychologists with at least 5 years’ experience; in the Sprang132 study, they were social
workers, psychiatrists or psychiatric nurse practitioners. Bernard et al.122 used parent trainers who had
experience of children and strong interpersonal skills.
Dozier et al.125,126 and Bernard et al.122 compared ABC with an educational intervention borrowed
partly from the home visitation component of the early intervention programme developed by
Ramey et al.,695,696 which was designed to enhance cognitive and, especially, linguistic development.
147
RESULTS
Components that involved parental sensitivity to child cues were excluded specifically to keep the
interventions distinct.
In Sprang,132 ABC was compared with a wait-list control in which participants accessed the bi-weekly
support group for parents that was also accessed (separately) by the intervention group.
Moss et al.130 assessed the effectiveness of an unnamed short-term attachment intervention designed to
promote maternal sensitivity and child attachment. Mothers in both arms of the trial received services as usual
(comprising a monthly visit by a child welfare caseworker), but only mothers in the experimental group received
the attachment intervention. Bernard et al.122 describe the intervention provided by Moss et al.130 as one based
on their own ABC intervention combined with interventions developed by Backermans-Kranenburg et al.219 and
Moran et al.220 The intervention was provided in home, using video feedback, by experienced clinicians with at
least a bachelor’s degree in psychology, who received training from attachment experts.
Child–Parent Psychotherapy, Pre-school–Parent Psychotherapy and Infant–Parent Psychotherapy

In three studies, Cicchetti et al.123,124,133 evaluated the effectiveness of each age-related version of this
therapy with another manualised home-based intervention. Lieberman et al.127–129 also assessed CPP.
Toth et al.,133 Cicchetti 2006123 and Cicchetti 2011123 compared CPP with a psychoeducational parenting
intervention (PPI), and referred to as psychoeducational home visiting in Toth et al.133 and a management-
as-usual group, in which families received services typically available to maltreating families in the
community. PPI/psychoeducational home visitation (PHV) was based on the home visiting programme
developed by Olds et al.,216–218 augmented by ‘a variety of cognitive and behavioural techniques in order to
address parenting skill deficits and social-ecological factors, such as limited personal resources, poor social
support, and stresses in the home associated with maltreatment’ (p. 794). The interventions were provided
by trained, master’s level therapists, on a weekly basis over the course of 1 year.
Lieberman et al.127–129 compared CPP with individual psychotherapy plus case management.
Promoting First Relationships Spieker et al.131 evaluated PFR, a manualised, infant mental health training
programme, aimed at early years’ professionals. This formed the basis of an intervention programme
tailored to the needs of children in care who had experienced disrupted placements. PFR was compared
with early education support, a home visiting intervention aimed at connecting families to community
resources and suggested activities to promote development.
Dyadic developmental psychotherapy (see Appendix 5) Becker-Weidman134,135 compared DDP with

TAU – essentially assessment and, for just over half, another form of treatment.

In Chaffin et al.,136 a variety of therapists (including basic trainees, experienced trainees and experts)
delivered PCIT (see Appendix 5) alone or in enhanced form (i.e. with the addition of services targeting
family-specific problems, such as domestic violence, substance abuse or parental depression). Participants
in the control group took part in a standard community-based parenting group.
Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck 2011137 compared time-variable PCIT (TV/PCIT) with an attention only
wait-list control in which parents were contacted weekly for brief conversations regarding family or other
concerns for 12 weeks. In TV/PCIT parents are coached during the Child Directed Interaction phase (CDirI;
see Appendix 5) until mastery criteria were achieved for two consecutive sessions, before moving onto
parent-directed interaction (PDI) phase.
Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck 2012138 compared standard PCIT (S/PCIT), in which participants received
only 12 coaching sessions, regardless of proficiency, with an attention wait-list control. In this study the
authors also used their data to compare the effectiveness of S/PCIT with TV/PCIT by drawing on the data
available from their earlier trial.
148
The intervention in Valentino et al.140 (reminiscing and emotion training, RET) focused on encouraging
parents to engage in elaborative and emotionally supportive reminiscing about positive and negative
everyday past events as a means of increasing parental sensitivity and addressing multiple developmental
sequelae of maltreatment. Sessions were led by bachelor-level family coaches, and included the use of
video feedback and daily homework. In Hughes and Gottlieb,139 the intervention was the Webster-Stratton
IY parenting programme, a standardised, video-based, modelling intervention based on social learning
theory and tailored to the developmental needs of families with young children. The group facilitator
was the first author of the study. Both Hughes and Gottlieb139 and Valentino et al.140 compared the
experimental intervention to a wait-list control.
Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up In the studies by Dozier et al.,125,126 Bernard et al.122 and
Sprang,132 both interventions (experimental and control) were provided in 10 weekly, hour-long sessions,
based on a structured training manual.
Child–Parent Psychotherapy, Pre-school–Parent Psychotherapy and Infant–Parent

Psychotherapy Parents receiving both IPP and CPP (see above) in the Cicchetti 2006123 study received
weekly home visits over a 12-month period, with an average of 21 sessions conducted in the IPP group
and 25 sessions conducted in the IPP group. In the Cicchetti 2011124 study, participants in the CPP and IPP
arms also received weekly home visits over a 12-month period, with the average number of visits being
approximately 46 for the CPP group and 49 for the IPP group.
The CPP intervention in Lieberman et al.127–129 was delivered weekly for 50 weeks, with each session lasting
approximately 60 minutes. Most dyads attended a mean of 32 CPP sessions; those receiving individual
psychotherapy had, minimally, monthly phone calls from a case manager (who they could also contact if
needed) plus information and referral to mental health clinics of their choice. Face-to-face meetings were
scheduled when clinically indicated. Most mothers received individual treatment (77%) and 55% of
children also received individual treatment.
Recipients of PPP were seen for weekly 60-minute dyadic sessions over a 12-month period. Those receiving
PHV received a similar ‘dose’.
In the Moss et al.130 study, the manualised intervention consisted of eight home visits, of approximately
90 minutes, once a week.
Promoting First Relationships PFR was delivered in 10 weekly sessions of 60–75 minutes in the home.131
Those receiving early educational services received 3-monthly 90-minute, in-home sessions delivered by an
early education specialist.
Dyadic developmental psychotherapy Becker-Weidman134,135 do not specify frequency or duration of

sessions provided to either DDP or the TAU control group.

As indicated above, in the 2011 Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck study137 parents receiving TV/PCIT received
as many sessions of CDInt as was necessary to achieve the prescribed mastery criteria, before proceeding
to PDI. On average, PCIT participants who completed treatment engaged in a total of 11.8 sessions and
five PDI coaching sessions. In Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck 2012,138 parents in receipt of S/PCIT received
12 sessions of coaching only, irrespective of whether or not they had reached the mastery threshold for
progression from CDInt to PDI.
149
RESULTS
In the Hughes and Gottlieb139 study, intervention families received 16 1-hour group sessions on a weekly basis.
In the Valentino et al.140 study, training comprised four, weekly, in-home training sessions of 1 hour each.
Outcomes and measures used in studies of relationship-based interventions
Attachment
Three122,123,130 studies assessed the impact of the intervention on attachment using the Ainsworth Strange
Situation Procedure.336
Dozier et al.125,126 asked foster parents to record infants’ behaviour when distressed and in the presence
of their primary caregiver using the Parent Attachment Diary (PAD697). Spieker et al.131 used the Toddler
Attachment Sort-45,350 a modified version of the Attachment Q-sort698 to assess children’s attachment
security, and Becker-Weidman134,135 used the Randolph Attachment Disorder Questionnaire.364
Internal working models

Toth et al.133 specifically explored the effectiveness of two developmentally informed preventative
interventions on children’s internal representations of self, and of self in relation to other, using a narrative
story stem task from the MacArthur Story Stem Battery (Bretherton I, Oppenheim D, Buchsbaum H,
Emde RN & the MacArthur Narrative Group, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1990, unpublished).
Child behaviour
Six130–132,134,135,137,138 studies examined the impact of attachment-based interventions on child behaviour,
using the CBCL.260
In addition to the CBCL,260 Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck 2011137 and 2012138 assessed the impact of PCIT
on child behaviour using the ECBI (parent report),310 and Spieker et al.131 did so using the Brief Infant Toddler
Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA352) and selected items from the Bayley III Screening Test.355
Chaffin et al.136 used the Behavior Assessment System for Children.365
Hughes and Gottlieb139 used the Child Autonomy Observational Scale to assess child autonomy. Again, this
tool was developed for the study, based on the theoretical underpinnings of Deci and Ryan.699,700
Dozier et al.125,126 assessed the impact of the intervention on children’s behaviour using the Parent Daily
Report (adapted from Chamberlain and Reid458).
Child stress
Dozier et al.125,126 and Cicchetti et al.124 used analyses of cortisol to assess levels of stress in infant participants.
Parent behaviour
The Dyadic Parent–Child Interaction Coding System (DPICS)701,702 was used by all three PCIT studies,136–138
although Chaffin et al.136 used the DPICS-II702 and Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck137,138 used the DPICS-III.701
Sprang132 and Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck137,138 examined the effect of the intervention on parents’
abuse potential using the Child Abuse Potential Inventory (CAPI366).
Parental stress
Spiekar et al.,131 Sprang132 and Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck137,138 assessed the impact of the intervention
on parenting stress, using the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form.342
Maternal sensitivity
The primary caregiver outcome in the Spieker et al.131 study was maternal sensitivity, assessed using a
modified score of the Nursing Assessment Teaching Scale,358 the secondary outcomes being a measure of
150
parenting support for the child, using the Indicator of Parent–Child Interaction351 and commitment to the
child, assessed by answer to interview questions from This Is My Baby.359 Moss et al.130 measured maternal
sensitivity using the Maternal Sensitivity: Maternal Behaviour Q-Set.339
Parenting behaviour
In the Hughes and Gottlieb139 study, a scale was developed that reflected the theoretical underpinnings of
the study, namely the Parenting Skills Observation Scale (developed by the authors for this study).
Other
Valentino et al.140 assessed changes in elaborative and emotion-rich reminiscing using video-taped and
audio-taped conversations and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test703 to assess parents and children
is receptive language.
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of relationship-based interventions
Sequence generation
All studies, except for Spieker et al.131 and Hughes and Gottlieb,139 were judged to be ‘unclear’ risk of bias
for sequence generation because no information was provided on how the randomisation sequence was
generated. Spieker et al.131 and Hughes and Gottlieb139 were assessed as ‘low’ risk. Spieker131 stated that
they used a computer-generated sequence, blocked by caregiver type. Hughes and Gottlieb139 referred
to a random numbers chart.
Allocation
All studies122–140 were judged unclear risk of bias on allocation concealment because of a lack
of information.
Blinding of personnel and participants

All but two123,125,126 studies were assessed as unclear risk of bias for blinding of participants, predominantly
due to lack of information. Dozier et al.125,126 stated that ‘foster parents and birth parents were blind to
condition’ and was therefore judged low risk of bias. Cicchetti 2006123 did not blind participants but this
was deemed unlikely to influence outcomes of this study because all participants in this study were infants
aged, on average, 13–31 months.

All studies, except for Sprang,132 were judged as ‘low risk of bias’ for blinding of outcome assessors because
assessors were blinded to the hypotheses, the assignment of participants and/or to the collected data.
Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck 2011137 did not state that their outcome assessors were blinded, but this trial
used the same procedures and outcomes measures as the 2012138 trial to which it was linked, and in the
2012 study the outcome assessors are said to be ‘blind to treatment condition’. Sprang132 was assessed as
high risk as the authors relied solely on self-completed measures collected by the treatment staff at post test.

With the exception of Toth et al.,133 all studies were deemed to be at low risk of bias. Some studies122,136–138
had no missing data, some studies127–129,131,132 used a supplementary ITT analysis and the remaining
studies123–126,130,133–135,139,140 conducted analyses of those who dropped out and those who completed
treatment, and concluded that they did not differ. The Toth et al.133 study was assessed as ‘unclear’ risk of
bias as missing data were not reported and analyses included only participants who completed treatment.

Cicchetti 2006123 was judged as ‘unclear’ risk of bias because, despite prospective registration and a
(broad-brush) description of measures relevant to the domains outlined in that protocol, the paper reports
only on attachment classifications. Cicchetti 2011124 was judged as ‘unclear’ risk of selective outcome
reporting bias because no means or SDs were presented and only latent growth curve data.
151
RESULTS
Spieker et al.131 and Lieberman et al.127–129 also registered their trials (ClinicalTrials.gov identifiers NCT00339365 and
NCT00187772, respectively). Spieker et al.131 reports on those outcomes listed in the trial registration and was
judged as ‘low’ risk of bias on this domain. Lieberman et al.127–129 reports on all primary outcomes and one of two
secondary outcomes. Overall we judged this study to be ‘low risk’ of bias on this domain. The secondary outcome
not reported on by Lieberman et al.127–129 is child’s cognitive functioning.
All but one125,126 of the remaining studies were deemed unclear risk of bias, as although they appeared to
report on all of those outcomes expected, without access to the original study protocols, we cannot be
certain. Dozier et al.125,126 was assessed as ‘high risk of bias’ in light of the fact that two papers reporting
the results of this study use different samples and report different outcomes without complete
cross-referencing to a statement of all per-protocol outcomes.

No other potential sources of bias were identified in most of the studies. However, Sprang132 had an
unclear risk-of-bias assessment because the authors reported that expectancy effects and trust in
instructors may have played a role in the findings. Furthermore, Bernard et al.122 and Dozier et al.125,126 had
an additional high risk of bias because the Ainsworth Strange Situation Procedure was used as a measure
for participants aged > 24 months, which extends beyond the age range for which it has been validated.
Summary details of the risk-of-bias assessments of these trials can be found in Appendix 10.
Risk of bias: controlled observational studies of relationship-based

interventions
The quality of the COS of Becker-Weidman134,135 was variable. No attempt (or no information on any
attempt) was made to blind participants or outcome assessors in this study. This study134,135 provided
a clear description of its objectives, the main outcomes to be measured, the characteristics of patients
included, the intervention of interest and the potential confounders. Although the main findings were
adequately described, the relevant adverse events were not adequately addressed. Characteristics of
participants lost to follow-up were adequately described and accounted for. It was not possible to
determine whether or not the participants and treatment received were representative of the population of
interest. Becker-Weidman134,135 used appropriate statistical tests and accounted for confounding variables
in their analysis.
Results: relationship-based interventions

Given the heterogeneity of the interventions, we report the results as they relate to the three groupings set
out above, starting with meta-analyses where available.
Attachment-focused interventions
Secure attachment
Bernard et al.,122 Cicchetti 2006123 and Moss et al.130 assessed the impact of attachment-based interventions
on the security of a child’s attachment as measured by Ainsworth Strange Situation Procedure. The pooled
estimate using a random-effects model was 0.14 (SMD) (95% CI 0.03 to 0.70) (Figure 17).
The I2-statistic indicates that 82% of the variation in the point estimates is due to heterogeneity
(p-value for heterogeneity = 0.004; τ2 = 1.52).
Disorganised attachment
Bernard et al.,122 Cicchetti 2006123 and Moss et al.130 assessed the impact of attachment-based
interventions on a reduction of a child’s disorganised attachment style, as measured by Ainsworth Strange
Situation Procedure. The pooled estimate using a random-effects model was 0.23 (SMD) (95% CI 0.13 to
0.42; p = 0.00001) (Figure 18). The I2-statistic indicates 17% of the variation in the point estimates is due
to heterogeneity (p-value for heterogeneity = 0.030; τ2 = 0.05).
152
Experimental Control OR (non-event) OR (non-event)
Study or subgroup Events Total Events Total Weight M–H, random, 95% CI M–H, random, 95% CI
Post test

Bernard 2012122 31 60 20 60 39.4% 0.47 (0.22 to 0.98)
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Cicchetti 2006123 17 28 1 54 24.3% 0.01 (0.00 to 0.10)

Moss 2011130 23 35 9 32 36.3% 0.20 (0.07 to 0.58)
Total (95% CI) 123 146 100.0% 0.14 (0.03 to 0.70)

Total events 71 30
0.001 0.1 1 10 1000

FIGURE 17 Secure attachment. df, degrees of freedom; M–H, Mantel–Haenszel.
Experimental Control OR OR
Post test
Bernard 2012122 19 60 34 60 46.6% 0.35 (0.17 to 0.75)
Cicchetti 2006123 9 28 42 54 28.1% 0.14 (0.05 to 0.38)
Moss 2011130 7 35 18 32 25.3% 0.19 (0.07 to 0.57)
Total (95% CI) 123 146 100.0% 0.23 (0.13 to 0.42)

Total events 35 94
Test for overall effect: z = 4.89 (p < 0.00001)
0.05 0.2 1 5 20
FIGURE 18 Disorganised attachment. df, degrees of freedom; M–H, Mantel–Haenszel.
153
RESULTS
Avoidant attachment
Both Cicchetti 2006123 and Moss et al.130 assessed the impact of attachment-based interventions on a
child’s avoidant attachment style, as measured by Ainsworth Strange Situation Procedure. The pooled
estimate using a random-effects model was 0.90 (SMD) (95% CI 0.13 to 6.37; p = 0.09) (Figure 19).
The I2-statistic indicates 64% of the variation in the point estimates is due to heterogeneity (p-value for
heterogeneity= 0.09; τ2 = 1.29).
Other attachment measures

Using an ANCOVA, Spieker et al.131 found no significant differences between intervention and control
groups for security of attachment at either post-test or 6-month follow-up (post-test F = 0.68, d = 0.16;
p = 0.410; follow-up F = 0.12, d = –0.13; p = 0.746).
Dozier et al.125,126 used an ANCOVA (intervention group by time) and found that children in the treatment
group had less attachment avoidance than those in the control group over time [F(1,44) = 5.02; p < 0.05].
There was no difference for attachment security (p > 0.10).
Stress
Cicchetti et al.124 used latent growth curve analysis to examine trajectories of cortisol regulation over time, in an
analysis combining data from the experimental and ‘other treatment control’ groups (i.e. CPP and PPI). The
authors found divergences emerging between the three groups (maltreated intervention, maltreated community
control and poor, but non-maltreated, comparison), starting half way through the intervention. Contrary to
expectation, no differences were found between those maltreated infants in the intervention groups and those
in the control group at baseline. Whereas infants in the maltreated group showed a steady decline in morning
cortisol levels (which is elevated in normal samples) over the 2-year study period this did not occur for infants in
the maltreated intervention group, for whom cortisol levels were normalised (i.e. no different from infants in the
non-maltreated comparison group) and remained so at 1-year post-intervention follow-up. A similar change in
cortisol secretion was also found by the Dozier et al.125,126 study, for which an ANCOVA (intervention group by
time) found that children in the intervention group showed significantly lower overall cortisol levels than the
control group over time [F(1,46) = 4.55; p = 0.04].
Additional results
In the Spieker et al.131 study, child competency improved post test but this was no longer significant at
follow-up (post-test: F = 4.77, d = 0.42, p = 0.03; follow-up: F = 0.63, d = –0.16, p = 0.429). Child sleep
problems were different between groups at follow-up but with a small effect size (d = –0.13; p = 0.09).
Toth et al.133 used a general linear model and found that, looking at the interaction of study conditions by
time, and three out of six narrative variables showed improvement. The improvement was for maladaptive
maternal representations [F(3,118) = 3.13; p < 0.05], negative self-representation [F(3,118) = 4.93,
p < 0.01] and mother–child relationship expectations [F(3,118) = 2.72; p < 0.05].
Becker-Weidman134,135 found that at 4-year follow-up the treatment group had a statistically significantly
improvement compared with the control group for security of attachment (t = –12.23; p < 0.001), withdrawal
(t = –4.352; p < 0.001), social problems (t = –2.654; p < 0.05), thought problems (t = –3.505; p < 0.01),
attention problems (t = –4.239; p < 0.001), rule-breaking behaviour (t = –6.733, p < 0.001) and aggressive
behaviour (t = –7.104; p < 0.001), but not for anxiety/depression (t = –1.091; p = 0.28).

Child behaviour (externalising)
Both Chaffin et al.136 and Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck 2011137 and 2012138 assessed the impact of PCIT on child
externalising behaviours (as measured by various scales). Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck 2012138 used a control
group that overlapped with their 2011 study,137 and the extent of the overlap was unclear, so we decided only to
include the data from their 2011 report of TV/PCIT in the meta-analysis to avoid the problem of double counting.
The pooled estimate, using a random-effects model, was 0.03 (SMD) (95% CI –0.38 to 0.43) (Figure 20).
The I2-statistic indicates that 44% of the variation in point estimates between the two studies is due to
154
Experimental Control OR OR
Post test

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Cicchetti 2006123 2 28 10 54 51.3% 0.34 (0.07 to 1.67)

Moss 2011130 5 35 2 32 48.7% 2.50 (0.45 to 13.91)
Total (95% CI) 63 86 100.0% 0.90 (0.13 to 6.37)

Total events 7 12
0.001 0.1 0 10 1000
FIGURE 19 Avoidant attachment. df, degrees of freedom; M–H, Mantel–Haenszel.

Chaffin 2004136 57.148 3.0948 75 56.4 4 35 52.9% 0.22 (–0.18 to 0.62)
Thomas 2011137 63.3 11.3 42 65.4 10.3 36 47.1% –0.19 (–0.64 to 0.25)
Total (95% CI) 117 71 100.0% 0.03 (–0.38 to 0.43)

–2 –1 0 1 2
FIGURE 20 Child externalising behaviour. df, degrees of freedom; IV, instrumental variable.
155
RESULTS
heterogeneity, making it difficult to draw conclusions about the effect of PCIT on externalising behaviours/
symptoms in maltreated children from these two studies. It is perhaps worth noting that Thomas and
Zimmer-Gembeck 2012138 also report significant improvements in the behavior of children whose parents
participated in S/PCIT and, in both studies,137,138 gains were said to be greater for those who completed PCIT.
It is also worth noting that Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck 2012138 report a greater improvement in
externalising behaviours/symptoms (p < 0.001) after treatment with S/PCIT than with wait-list controls. This
study also found a greater improvement in externalising behaviours/symptoms (p = 0.002) after treatment
with S/PCIT than with TV/PCIT.
Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck 2011137 and 2012138 also measured the intensity of behaviour problems
using the ECBI.
Thomas 2011137 found a greater reduction in child behaviour problems (p < 0.001) and intensity
(p < 0.001) after treatment with TV/PCIT than with wait-list controls.
Thomas 2012138 found a greater reduction in child behaviour problems (p < 0.000) and intensity
(p = 0.019) after treatment with S/PCIT than with wait-list controls.
Thomas 2012138 also found a greater reduction in child behaviour problems (p = 0.001) after treatment
with S/PCIT than with TV/PCIT. However, there was no difference between S/PCIT and TV/PCIT for child
behavior intensity (p = 0.096).
Parenting interventions
In the study by Valentino et al.,140 children in the intervention group had richer memory recall (p < 0.01,
d = 0.71) and made more emotion references (p < 0.001, d = 1.35) than control children during
conversation with parents but not with experimenters.
Contrary to expectation, there was no effect of the Webster-Stratton IY parent programme on child
autonomy in the Hughes and Gottlieb study.139
Effectiveness of relationship-based interventions for maltreated children
Summary
We identified three groups of RBIs.
The first group of 10122–135 studies addressed the problems of insecure or disorganised attachments among
maltreated children. Of these, four122,125,126,132 studies evaluated the effectiveness of the short intervention ABC
or based on ABC, and four123,124,127–129,133 studies evaluated an attachment theory informed intervention known
as IPP. All were short-term, manualised programmes, and they focused on promoting sensitive and responsive
care to children adversely affected by maltreatment, with the focus on the carer–child relationship and
patterns of interaction. In only one134,135 study were children and young people seen by a therapist. In this
study,134,135 the therapy, DDP, is described as a FT treatment based on attachment theory, in which the
relationship between therapist and child, caregiver and child, and therapist and caregiver provide the context
for treatment. The last131 study evaluated the impact of training early years professionals.
The body of evidence relating to attachment informed interventions is promising, particularly in relation to
ABC and IPP interventions. Meta-analyses of data from three122,123,130 studies (two ABC, one IPP) indicate
significant increases in attachment security and decreases in disorganised attachment. These results are
consistent with those reported in studies, the data for which we were unable to combine in these
meta-analyses, with some indication that children in the control group evidenced deterioration, that is,
more developed disorganised attachment. This suggests that timely interventions may be able to prevent
cumulative consequences of maltreatment.
156
Findings in relation to children’s behaviour were mixed, and generally did not reach the level of statistical
significance. One130 study that recruited children with a wide age range (1–5 years) explored the
moderating impact of age and found that reductions in child externalising and internalising problems was
associated with increasing age in the intervention group, whereas a marginal increase in behaviour
problems was found with age for the control group. Such analyses can only be hypothesis generating and,
given the size of the study,130 probably highly speculative. However, the authors note that the maladaptive
trajectories for maltreated children increasingly diverge from their non-maltreated peers over time, with
the transition to school often being particularly difficult for maltreated children who maintain increasingly
socially dysfunctional patterns of aggression and social withdrawal. Therefore, an intervention that has the
potential to reduce behaviour problems in preschool children may well be particularly helpful. A similar
pattern was noted by Dozier et al.125,126
Children’s stress levels, as measured by cortisol secretion patterns, also improved with
attachment-based interventions.
We identified three randomised trials of PCIT. All were concerned with addressing behaviour problems
resulting from physical abuse by helping parents change the way they interacted with their children.
A meta-analysis of data from measures of child externalising behaviour indicated no effect of PCIT.
Chaffin et al.136 say in the discussion that this may be because, in this study, PCIT was evaluated as a parent
treatment; the study included children older than those customarily included in PCIT for child behaviour
problems. Given the relational context of maltreatment, and the emphasis placed by these authors on the
importance of the escalating coercive interactions, this account reads as a ‘post hoc’ explanation of an
unexpected finding. There is some uncertain evidence regarding the potential reduction in child
externalising behaviour problems following PCIT. Thomas and Zimmer-Gembeck137 report a decrease in the
severity of behaviour problems of children receiving PCIT, as perceived by parents, but these children
evidence no diminution in externalising behaviour as assessed by the CBCL260 (parent report).
As intended, the RET intervention improved children’s memory recall and emotion referencing, with
their parents.

None of these studies was conducted in the UK, but all are concerned with relationship problems that are
familiar to mental health professionals and social workers. It is difficult to overstate the importance of
secure attachment as a public health issue, and the attachment difficulties that so often result from
maltreatment present a cumulative threat to children who experience abuse and neglect. The attachment
interventions evaluated are relatively brief, manualised interventions that include techniques and strategies
currently in use by many health professionals in the UK, for example video interactive guidance. Given the
findings reported, well-conducted trials of these interventions in the UK would be appropriate prior to
recommending their widespread adoption.
There is currently no strong evidence to support the use of either PCIT or Webster-Stratton’s IY Program as
an intervention to address the emotional or behavioural problems of maltreated children, and their impact
on improving parenting is clinically questionable.

Only three122,125,126,132 of these studies were judged to be of high risk of bias in any of the seven domains
assessed, but most were so poorly reported that judgements of unclear risk of bias outnumbered those of
low risk. Overall, these studies do better in terms of detection bias (the blinding of outcome assessors) and
attrition bias (incomplete outcome data). Six122–128,132 of these studies were conducted by two American
teams, and essentially replicate one another, with variations in the profile of participants. Each team is
evaluating an intervention that they have helped to develop. Additional, independent evaluations of both
interventions (ABC and IPP) would be helpful, together with better reporting.
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RESULTS
Economic evidence
No economic evaluations of RBIs for children who have been maltreated were located.
Systemic interventions
This category includes interventions that aim to benefit the child by bringing about change within the
family and other systems in which the child’s life is embedded. Altogether, we identified eight controlled
studies (19 citations) that assessed the effectiveness of systemic interventions. We organised these into the
following five subcategories:
1. systemic FT107,108
2. multisystemic FT142–144,147
3. multigroup FT148,149
4. a transtheoretical intervention that integrated family systems, social learning theory and a conflict
mediation perspective141
5. a family-based programme for the treatment of CSA.150
In what follows, we provide descriptive data on the entire group of eight studies,107,108,141–144,147–149
separating them out only when we describe the types of intervention and the results.
Study design
Of the eight107,108,141–144,147–150 controlled studies, six107,108,141–144,148,149 were randomised trials. One was the
QEx Bagley and LaChance study150 and one was a COS.147
Location
One150 study was conducted in in Canada. The remainder of the studies107,108,141–144,148,149 were carried out in
the USA.
Sample sizes
Sample sizes were generally small. Linares 2015141 randomised 22 sibling pairs. Meezan and O’Keefe148,149
and Swenson et al.144 had samples of 81 and 90, respectively, and the remaining RCTs had sample sizes of
30143, 43142 and 55107,108, respectively. Bagley and LaChance150 had a sample size of just 65 (after attrition
and exclusions) and Schaeffer et al.147 had a sample size of 25 youth–mother dyads.
Participants
Systemic family therapy
Age and gender In the one107,108 study of systemic FT, the mean age of the children was 8.6 years, and
boys accounted for 70% of the children in participating families.
Multisystemic therapy
Age Brunk et al.142 give the mean ages of children in each arm of the study (9.8 years MST, 6.8 years
control) but no overall mean age or age range. Schaeffer et al.147 recruited families with children aged
6–17 years. Swenson et al.144 and Danielson et al.143 reported that the mean age of children was around
14 years.
158
Gender In the Danielson et al.143 study, 88% of the teenage victims of sexual abuse were female, and in
the Schaeffer et al.147 study 44% were female. Families in the studies by Brunk et al.142 and Swenson
et al.144 comprised, respectively, 55% and 44% boys.
Multigroup family therapy
Age and gender Meezan and O’Keefe148,149 recruited families with children of both genders aged
2–11 years.
Transtheoretical
Sibling pairs in the Linares 2015141 study were between 7.2 and 9.7 years of age, and the authors report
no significant between-group differences in sibling configuration, with 26% being both males, 37% both
females and 37% mixed gender.
Family-based intervention for child sexual abuse
Age and gender Bagley and LaChance150 targeted only female victims of sexual abuse, with mean ages
of 11.2 years and 11.8 years in the experimental and control groups, respectively.
Referrals: all systemic interventions

Linares et al.141 recruited eligible children and foster carers from three participating fostering agencies.
Families in the other seven107,108,142–144,147–150 systemic intervention studies were recruited from CPS or similar
governmental agencies. In the study by Danielson et al.,143 families were also referred or recruited from
clinics/treatment providers.
Maltreatment type

Kolko107,108 recruited families in which children had been physically abused.
Participants in the Danielson et al.143 study were sexually assaulted adolescents. Brunk et al.142 and
Swenson et al.144 recruited families with problems of physical abuse and neglect (excluding children who
had been sexually abused). Schaeffer et al.147 recruited families in which children had been exposed to
abuse or neglect (within the previous 180 days) and in which parental substance misuse was confirmed or
suspected by CPS.

Meezan and O’Keefe148,149 recruited families where there was abuse or neglect, and where sexual abuse
was not the primary allegation, as this was deemed to constitute a substantially different dynamic.
Two-thirds were referred for physical abuse, 29% experienced severe neglect and in 24% of cases
emotional abuse was also alleged. Ten per cent of participants in this study also suffered sexual abuse.
Transtheoretical
Ninety per cent of the children in the Linares et al.141 study were in foster care because of neglect
(the other 10% were missing this information on their files).
Family based
Bagley and LaChance150 recruited families in which female children had been subject to intrafamilial sexual abuse.
Sources of maltreatment
Where specified, the source of maltreatment was within the family, including biological parents, step-parents,
or a parent’s cohabiting partner. In Danielson et al.143 the source of maltreatment was not reported.
159
RESULTS

Kolko107,108 compared a manualised FT treatment for physically abused children to individual child and
parent CBT and a control group comprising usual services. The FT was based on Belsky’s227 interactional or
ecological model approach to child maltreatment.
Please see description of MST in Appendix 5.
In the Brunk et al.142 study, MST was compared with parent training groups. Families in the control group in
the study by Danielson et al.143 received TAU in a specialist clinic utilising evidence-based interventions.
Participants who received Multisystematic Therapy for Child Abuse and Neglect (MST-CAN) in Swenson
et al.144 were compared with a group who received Enhanced Outpatient Treatment (EOT). EOT comprised
the services usually provided by the treatment centre for physically abused young people and their parents
(including individual and FT, and referral for other services, including medication); enhanced engagement
(including telephone reminders, rescheduling of missed appointments, costs of transport to the Centre); and
the parenting programme ‘Systematic Training for Effective Parenting of Teens (STEP-TEEN)’ – a structured,
group-based programme of seven lessons that combines didactic instruction, role-play, videotapes and group
discussion to equip parents with the skills needed to understand and communicate with teenagers, to
problem-solve, helping parents to accept responsibility for the abuse and encourage co-operation.

Meezan and O’Keefe148,149 compared multifamily group therapy (MFGT) with traditional FT. MFGT included
elements of family systems theory, structural FT, group therapy, behaviour modification, CBT, reality therapy,
parent education, and crisis intervention. The traditional FT was described as drawing on several theoretical
frameworks, including structural FT, behaviour modification and cognitive–behavioural strategies.
Transtheoretical systemic
This is the description used by Linares et al.141 to describe a family-focused programme with three
components: sibling pair; foster parent; and joint sibling/foster parent. The programme is delivered by two
master’s level clinicians (one working with the sibling pair, whereas the other delivers the parent sessions
to the foster carers); joint sessions taking place at the beginning and end of every session. The content
of sibling and parent sessions was largely skills based, with behaviour rehearsal and reinforcement.
Homework and between-sessions practice were integral components. In this study141 the control group
received ‘usual services’ (unspecified).

The Child Sexual Abuse Treatment Program (CSATP704) drew on Maslow’s self-actualisation theory and
included IT, dyadic therapy (victim–mother, victim–sibling), group therapy (victims), and FT (victim, mother,
father and available siblings). The control group consisted of those eligible for treatment but ultimately not
referred by CPS, as it was thought the child was less severely affected by the abuse.

Both the FT and CBT interventions in the Kolko107,108 study were provided for at least 12 sessions,
of 1 hour, over 16 weeks.
In the Brunk et al.142 study, MST was delivered in eight, weekly, 1.5-hour sessions. In the Danielson et al.143
study, Risk Reduction through Family Therapy (RRFT) was delivered in 1- to 1.5-hour-long sessions over an
average of 34 weeks.
160
Treatment duration in the studies by Schaeffer et al.147 and Swenson et al.144 was based on family need. In the
Swenson et al.144 study, the number and duration of sessions ranged from daily sessions to one or two per week,
with an additional ‘on-call’ 24-hour service for dealing with crises. On average, families availed of 88 hours over
7.6 months (range 2–12 months). In the Schaeffer et al.147 study, participants remained in treatment for an
average of 285 days (range 144–365 days) with 92% being judged as having completed treatment.

Families receiving MGFT met with a four-person clinical team (in groups of three to four families) for a
total of around 80 hours over a 34-week period. On average, most families received 20 family-to-family
sessions lasting around 2.5 hours each, although this varied considerable across families. No information
was available on the amount of traditional FT provided to control participants.
Transtheoretical systemic
The foster family-focused programme in the Linares 2015141 study was delivered in eight, 90-minute,
weekly sessions by two master’s level clinicians (one working with the sibling pair, the other delivering the
parent sessions to the foster carers), with joint sessions taking place at the beginning and end of every
session. No information was available on the quantum of ‘usual service’ provided to the comparison group.

The CSATP150 included an average of 78 hours of IT, 37 hours of dyadic therapy (victim–mother,
victim–sibling), 32 hours of group therapy (victims) and 14 hours of FT. No information is available on the
usual services provided to the control group.
Outcomes and outcome measures: systemic interventions

Outcomes varied by intervention type and included outcomes related to child functioning and adjustment;
externalising behaviours; risky sexual behaviour; substance use; internalising behaviours; and mental
health, including anxiety, depression and PTSD.

Swenson et al.144 and Schaeffer et al.147 both used the TSCC.378,383 Danielson et al.705 used the University of
California Los Angeles PTSD Index for DSM-IV (Adolescent version) (UCLA-A) and Caregiver version.374
Depression
Danielson et al.143 and Kolko107,108 both assessed the impact of intervention on depression using the CDI.299
Bagley and LaChance150 used the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D369).
Behaviour problems
Kolko 1996,107,108 Swenson et al.144 and Meezan and O’Keefe148,149 assessed changes in problematic
behaviour using various reporting forms and versions of the CBCL YSR.198,269,706,707 Danielson et al.143 used
the Behavior Assessment System for Children-Second Edition365 and Bagley and LaChance150 relied on
parent, social worker and self-report of problem/delinquent behaviours. Brunk et al.142 used the Behavior
Problem Checklist (BPC; Quay and Peterson, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, 1975, unpublished).
Kolko107,108 also assessed child conflict with the CCI688 and hostility using the Children’s Hostility Inventory.301
Self-esteem
Bagley and LaChance150 used the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES no reference provided by the authors).
Child functioning
Kolko 1996107,108 assessed overall child functioning with the Kiddie Global Assessment Scale (KGAS) (no
reference provided by the author) and assessed peer relationships using The Friendship Questionnaire.300
Meezan and O’Keefe148,149 used the Children’s Action Tendency Scale CAS385 and the Index of Peer Relations386.
161
RESULTS
Substance use
Danielson et al.143 used the Time Line Follow Back Interview376 and urine drug screens to assess the impact
of intervention on substance use and risky behaviour.
Other outcomes measured by studies of systemic interventions
Maltreatment
Repeat abuse or high-risk parental behaviours were measured by Kolko,107,108 Swenson et al.,144 and
Schaeffer et al.147 Child abuse potential was assessed with the CAPI366 by Kolko107,108 (CAPI366) and Meezan
and O’Keefe148,149 (CAPI361,708). Schaeffer et al.147 also reported out-of home placements.
Parental functioning
A number of studies assessed the impact of interventions on parental functioning.
Swenson et al.144 report on the impact of MST on parental psychiatric distress using the Brief Symptom
Inventory (BSI; Derogatis 1975380).
Schaeffer et al.147 used a number of measures to assess the impact of the intervention on ‘key risk factors
and indices of child maltreatment and maternal substance use147 (p. 599). These included the Addiction
Severity Index-Fifth Edition,384 the Beck Depression Inventory-Second Edition (BDI-II272) and the Conflict
Tactics Scale (CTS302). Linares 2015141 used a modified version of the Child Conflixt Index370 to assess the
conflict resolution skills in their study with foster parents.
Meezan and O’Keefe148,149 incorporated measures of social support (Social Support Index387) parental
problem solving (Problem-Solving Inventory388), attitudes towards child rearing (Adult-Adolescent Parenting
Inventory709), and knowledge of child development (using a 30-item measure designed for the study).
Brunk et al.142 used the BSI371 to assess parental functioning.
Family functioning an adjustment

Kolko,107,108 Brunk et al.142 and Danielson et al.143 each used the FES (respectively citing372,375,710).
Kolko107,108 also used two additional measures: the FAD711 and the Conflict Behavior Questionnaire.226
Meezan and O’Keefe148,149 used the Family Assessment Form (FAF).390
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of systemic interventions

Figures 31–32 and Appendix 10 provide a summary of the risk of bias of studies of systemic interventions.
Sequence generation
Risk of bias in sequence generation was judged low in three trials: Kolko107,108 used a computer-generated
procedure based on Efron’s biased coin toss; Swenson et al.144 used a computer-generated table of random
numbers; and Danielson et al.143 randomised participants using computerised blocked randomisation.
The remaining RCTs141,142,148,149 were judged to be ‘unclear’, as the only information available was that
participants were ‘randomised’.
None of the RCTs included provided adequate information on allocation concealment and so all were
judged as being of unclear risk of bias.

With the exception of Swenson et al.,144 who stated clearly that participants were not blinded, no study
referred to the blinding of participants or personnel. Given the nature of the intervention, it is unlikely that
blinding was possible in any of the studies, so we judged these to be high risk of bias.
162

Blinding of outcome assessors was carried out in the studies by Brunk et al.142 and Linares et al.,141 so these
studies were classed as being of low risk of bias. The use of self- and parent-report measures in the studies
by Danielson et al.,143 Meezan 1998148,149 and Swenson et al.144 resulted in a judgement of ‘high risk of
bias’, and also in Kolko 1996107,108 in which self-report measures undertaken at the beginning of the FT
sessions with the family all present as a potential source of bias.

We judged the risk of bias as a result of missing data to be low in three trials.141,143,144 These trials minimised
potential bias by maintaining a high retention rate and clear reporting144 or using ITT analysis.141,143 Attrition in
Kolko107,108 was around 6% (one case) in the FT arm, 20% (five cases) in the CBT arm and 17% (two cases)
in the routine community services groups. The differential attrition between the two arms resulted in a
judgement of high risk of bias (reasons for dropout might be related to the intervention). Brunk et al.142 and
Meezan and O’Keefe148,149 were also judged to be of high risk of bias. Meezan and O’Keefe148,149 took no
account of attrition and analyses were based on available case data, resulting in a judgement of high risk of
bias. Dropouts in Brunk et al.142 were evenly distributed across the two arms of the trial, but reasons for drop
out are not given, and the authors do not report main effects. We therefore deemed this trial high risk of bias.

Three142,144,148,149 studies were assessed as being of high risk of bias: Swenson et al.144 did not report means
and SDs for pre and post measures at each time point, and effect sizes were missing for some measures,
leading to high risk of bias; Brunk et al.142 do not report data on main effects or provide post-treatment
means, with insufficient data for effect size calculations, and, although stating that they measured child
behaviour problems using the BPC (Quay and Peterson, 1975, unpublished), they present no results for this
measure. Meezan and O’Keefe148,149 did not report data for ‘non-significant’ results, leading to high risk
of bias.
Linares 2015141 was assessed as unclear, as, although there is no evidence that other outcomes were
planned and then not reported, there is no published protocol for this study.
The study by Danielson et al.143 was judged to be of ‘low risk of bias’: the authors report on the primary
outcome measure specified in the trial registration (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00998153) and two of the
three secondary measures of PTSD and family environment, but not on risk behaviours as measure by
the Youth Risk Behavior Survey.

No other source of bias were identified.
Risk of bias: quasi-experimental and controlled observational studies of

systemic interventions
The quality of the QEx study150 and the COS147 was variable; overall, the quality of the Schaeffer et al.147
study was good and that of the Bagley and LaChance study150 was adequate. No attempt (or no
information on any attempt) was made to blind participants or outcome assessors in either study.
Both studies147,150 provided a clear description of the objectives of the study, the main outcomes to be
measured, the characteristics of included participants and the intervention. Distribution of potential
confounders was adequately described in the Schaeffer et al.147 study and not described in the Bagley and
LaChance150 study. Both clearly described the main findings and relevant adverse events. Characteristics of
patients lost to follow-up were adequately described and accounted for in the analysis in both studies.147,150
The participants and treatment received in the Schaeffer et al. study147 was representative of the
population of interest. Bagley and LaChance150 appeared to include those children who were more severely
affected by the abuse in the treatment group.
163
RESULTS
In terms of the analysis, Schaeffer et al.147 and Bagley and LaChance150 used appropriate statistical tests
and accounted for confounding variables in their analyses.
Results: systemic interventions

Meta-analysis was not possible across these studies, which are summarised narratively. Given the heterogeneity
across studies, we report the results in the three groupings used above: FT, MST and ‘other systemic’.
Family therapy: results

The following results are these reported by Kolko.107,108
Child depression
Children’s reports on the CDI indicated a significant reduction in severity of depressive symptoms over time
[χ2 = 16.01(3); p < 0.001], but there were no significant between-group differences.
Child behaviour
As measured by the YSR of the CBCL, children in all three groups (CBT, FT and routine services) reported a
significant reduction over time in both internalising [(χ2 = 33.54(3); p < 0.0001) and externalising symptoms
[χ2 = 12.26(3); p < 0.002], with both CBT and FT showing most change on these measures. No effect was
found for social competence.
Parent report on the CBCL indicated lower ratings of serious internalising behaviours over time (p < 0.07)
particularly for the two treatment arms. Parents reported a significant reduction in externalising behaviour
over time [χ2 = 9.53(3); p < 0.02]. Based on an inspection of the means over time, CBT appeared to show
the greatest initial change and FT the greatest change at follow-up (1 year) compared with routine
community services, which showed minimal change during that period.
A significant interaction was reported on the CCI [χ2 = 13.12(3); p < 0.04] reflecting the greatest decrease
in scores for CBT. This measure (scored by telephone interview with the parent) estimates the presence or
absence of common individual behavioural or emotional problems displayed in boys or girls within the
previous 24 hours.
The authors did not report statistical tests for children’s hostility but the presented means and SD indicate
that participants receiving FT reported a small decrease in hostility scores over time.
Child global functioning

Kolko107,108 reported a significant increase in K-GAS (Global Assessment Scale for Children: Kiddie-GAS)
scores over time for all children in the study, with no group differences. There was no difference between
the CBT, FT and control groups in reduction over time on fears related to abuse.
Family functioning
The results of subscales for the FES and the FAD indicate more improvement over time among children
and parents in the CBT and FT arms than those in routine services.
Multisystemic therapy: results

No meta-analysis was possible for MST because of the limited number of studies reporting appropriate
data. For these interventions, we report the results for those outcomes that were directly related to
children and young people, and not those related to parents, which includes measures of parental
substance abuse,147 parenting stress,142 parental mental health,142,144,147 parenting behaviour,144,147 social
support144 and re-abuse.144

Danielson et al.143 report that a mixed-effect regression model indicated that MST youth demonstrated a
decrease in parent-reported PTSD from baseline to 6-month follow-up. This was significant (p < 0.001) and
164
the decrease was greater than that reported by those in the ‘TAU’ control group (for the difference;
p = 0.004). The between-group difference for adolescent-reported PTSD was non-significant, although
both groups reported improvement. In this small study,143 there was considerable baseline inequality and
results of this pilot study need to be treated very cautiously.
Swenson et al.144 found a significantly greater improvement in PTSD symptoms in the MST-CAN group,
with the number of youth scoring in the clinical range reducing by half (17.8% at baseline to 8.9%
16 months later) compared with enhanced outpatient treatment groups (19% at baseline and 21.4% at
16 months).
Schaeffer et al.147 did not find any change in PTSD or dissociation following treatment with Multisystemic
Therapy-Building Stronger Families, but report data for only the treatment group.
Depression
Danielson et al.143 report that a mixed-effect regression model indicated that intervention youth
demonstrated a decrease in CDI scores from baseline to 6-month follow-up. This was significant
(p < 0.001) and the decrease was greater than that reported by those in the ‘TAU’ control group (for the
difference; p = 0.008). Baseline inequality augurs caution in interpreting these results. No change was
reported by Schaeffer et al.147 for youth depression.
Anxiety
Schaeffer et al.147 reported that youths whose families received the intervention experienced a significant
decrease in symptoms of anxiety (medium effect size), as measured by the TSCC. Unfortunately, this
study147 presents data only on pre–post intervention and does not compare this reduction with outcomes
for the control group.
Child behaviour
Danielson et al.,143 based on their mixed-effects regression model, report improvements from baseline to
6 months’ follow-up for internalising behaviour in both intervention and TAU groups, but the experimental
group did significantly better (p = 0.008). No between-group differences were found for externalising
behaviour (improvement occurred in both groups over time).
Swenson et al.144 found statistically significant improvement in parent-reported internalising behaviour

in the intervention (MST-CAN) group with no improvement evident in those receiving enhanced outpatient
treatment. No differences were found between enhanced outpatient treatment and MST in externalising
behaviours (measured by CBCL).
Brunk et al.142 reported measuring child behaviour problems using the BPC (Quay and Peterson, 1975,
unpublished), but no results are provided for this measure.
Substance use and risky behaviour

Danielson et al.143 specifically targeted the risk of substance use and mental health problems of sexually
assaulted adolescents. The authors conducted a Poisson mixed-effects regression model, which indicated
greater reductions in substance use (number of days’ use from baseline to 6 months) among experimental
youth than in those in the TAU control. No between-group differences were found for risky sexual
behaviour (assessed by numbers of sexual partners and/diagnoses of STIs in previous 3 months).
Family functioning
Danielson et al.143 reported improvements in adolescent and parent reports of family cohesion (FES
Cohesion scale) and reductions in family conflict (FES Conflict scale).
165
RESULTS
Family-based systemic interventions (including transtheoretical): results
Depression and self-esteem

Bagley and LaChance150 used measures of depression (the CES-D369) and self-esteem (RSES404) because the
authors regarded them as ‘valid and reliable measures of psychological vulnerability’ (p. 208). Statistically
significant gains are reported for adolescents in the intervention compared with those who did not receive
the family-based programme.
Behaviour
Bagley and LaChance150 reported a reduction in problem behaviours among the sexually abused adolescent
girls in this study, assessed from parent and social worker reports of at least one incident of delinquency,
marked aggression in school, school dropout, suicidal behaviours, running away from home or problem
sexual behaviour. Adolescents exhibiting at least one of these behaviours in the treatment group reduced
from 48% to 7%. By contrast, a small increase from 33% to 40% was reported for those in the control
group. The difference between groups was statistically significant (p < 0.05).
Meezan and O’Keefe148,149 reported improvements for child externalising behaviour, both for those in the
intervention group (MFGT) and those in the comparison group (who received FT). The measure used was
the CBCL and the difference was not statistically significant.
Physical aggression from older towards younger siblings in the Linares 2015141 study was reduced in the
intervention group (p < 0.05) but no between-group differences were found for verbal aggression from
older to younger siblings, or verbal and physical aggression from younger to older siblings.
Family functioning
Meezan and O’Keefe148,149 assessed the impact of intervention on family functioning using a modified
version of the FAF (interview). The authors report significant improvements in the experimental group in
relation to the amount of support available to them, their parent–child interactions, and the amount of
stimulation available to their children. In contrast, the control group showed significant change only in
relation to the support available to them. The reports give the reader the impression that the authors are
interpreting the data in the most favourable ways possible.
Effectiveness of systemic interventions for maltreated children
Summary
We identified eight107,108,141–144,147–150 studies that evaluated a heterogeneous group of interventions
informed by systems theory and offered to different participants. Four studies evaluated various forms of
MST, comparing this with CBT,142 TAU,143 enhanced outpatient treatment,144 and Comprehensive
Community Treatment.147
Of the remaining four studies, one compared systemic FT with CBT;107,108 one worked systemically with
families in which a young person had been the subject of incestuous abuse;150 a third used MFGT;148,149 and
the final study141 described itself as a transtheoretical intervention that focuses on three family subsystems:
sibling pairs in foster care, the foster parent, and foster parent/sibling pairs.
All of these interventions included cognitive–behavioural strategies and psychoeducation, but their
underlying theories of change were primarily systemic.
The four142–144,147 MST studies are heterogeneous and the results are variable. Only one144 study of the
three143,144,147 MST studies assessing the impact of the intervention on PTSD reported a significant benefit in
favour of MST. This rather larger study144 (n = 90) halved the percentage of youth scoring in the clinical
range for self-reported PTSD symptoms from 18% at baseline to 9% at 16 months post baseline, in
contrast with the group receiving enhanced outpatient services, for which the percentage increased from
166
19% to 21%. Retention in both the treatment and the study144 was high, and the intervention appears to
have been successful at not only addressing the mental health symptoms of participating youth, but
also addressing those aspects of parenting associated with maltreatment from both youth and parent
perspectives, in particular reducing parental neglect and assault. The other two studies143,147 found no
significant between-group differences in depression or PTSD. Schaeffer et al.147 observe that these
young people reported subclinical levels of concern at baseline. Danielson et al.143 (who studied sexually
abused children) hypothesise that the absence of effect is, in part, because of the small size of the study
and considerable baseline inequality. In this study143 the primary outcome was substance use risk and
mental health problems, and the authors report a significant reduction in substance use and associated risk
factors among MST youth compared with TAU.
As indicated earlier, both CBT and FT outperformed routine community services. This early comparative
study107,108 was one of the first to submit FT to rigorous evaluation and the authors note that FT has been
less frequently used in the context of child maltreatment than CBT; they recommend further development,
including the incorporation of a structured approach to address the parent–child relationship. At the same
time, they highlight the need for CBT to give attention to how best to discuss children’s attributions of
their victimisation.
There is no strong evidence of benefit to children from multigroup FT with abusive and neglectful
families.148,149 Linares et al.141 report promising, but mixed results of an intervention designed to reduce
sibling aggression in foster care, and this small study141 requires replication before any conclusions can be
drawn. However, there is some indication that foster parents can learn strategies to minimise sibling
aggression and its adverse effects on psychological child well-being.712

All of these generally very small studies were conducted in North America. MST enjoys a strong evidence base
in relation to vulnerable groups such as young offenders, and the extension to abusive and neglectful families
suggests that MST-CAN has potential as an effective intervention for families whose behaviour places their
children at risk of significant harm. Results of the other MST studies are less persuasive than those of Swenson
et al.144 but of particular interest is the QEx study by Schaeffer et al.147 This study147 examined the impact of an
MST intervention for maltreating families in which parental substance abuse was a major issue. Although this
study147 showed a reduction only in child anxiety, given the numbers of children with child protection plans
for whom parental substance misuse is a key factor, this intervention is potentially highly relevant, and the
authors report an ongoing, large-scale longitudinal randomised trial that will allow the investigation of the
programme’s effectiveness with different subgroups, that is, different substance misuse and maltreatment
characteristics. MST is a costly intervention, but may be cost advantageous.

Six107,108,141–144,148-149 of the included controlled studies were randomised trials, but the majority of risk-of-bias
judgements made were ‘unclear’ as a result of poor reporting. The QEx study147 was judged good overall
(but it was a small study), and the COS147 was judged adequate. Overall, the quality and extent of the
evidence for systemic interventions to address the effects of child maltreatment are parsimonious.
Economic evidence
No economic evaluations of systemic interventions were located for children who have been maltreated.
Psychoeducation
Psychoeducation forms an important component in a range of different interventions, but those coded as
psychoeducational interventions use it as their main focus. They draw heavily on social learning and
cognitive theory to conceptualise and address maladaptive patterns of behaviour and beliefs that have
developed as the result of exposure to abuse or neglect.
167
RESULTS
We identified 17151–168 studies that assessed the effectiveness of psychoeducational interventions.
Study design
Seven151–157 of the psychoeducational intervention studies were randomised trials. Trowell et al.155
was designed as an other-treatment control study, comparing a psychoeducational group with IT.
Three158–160 studies used a QEx design and the remaining seven161–168 studies were COSs.
Location
All151,152,154,156,157 but four155,158,159,165 of the psychoeducational intervention studies were conducted in
North America.
One155 RCT was conducted in the UK. The remaining six151,152,154,156,157 randomised trials took place in the
USA151–154 and Canada.156,157
Two159,160 of the three QEx studies were carried out in Canada and the third158 was conducted in
the Netherlands.
The remaining COSs took place in the USA161,162 Canada163,164,166–168 and Spain.165
Sample sizes
All of the randomised trials made use of small to moderate sample sizes, ranging from a total of
42 participants (with only 38 participants completing post-treatment interviews)156 to 181 participants
(with 174 participants completing the follow-up interview).151
Of the QEx studies, Noether et al.158 had a large sample size of 253 participants (with 210 participants
completing the 12-month follow-up interview); Simoneau et al.159 and Tourigny 2007160 recruited
49 and 55 participants, respectively.
Sample size in four of the COSs was small, ranging from 27 participants161 to 42.166,167 Holland et al.164
and Hébert et al.163 had samples of 66 and 90, respectively, although data were presented for only
88 participants in the Hébert and Tourigny163 study, and Duffany and Panos162 recruited a sample of 617.
Participants
Age
Across all studies, the mean age of child participants ranged from 4.95 years152 to 14.8 years.166,167
Barth et al.161 recruited the foster parents of children aged 9 years on average.
Gender
Four studies focused exclusively on females.155,160,166–168 Of those with mixed samples, nine151,154,157,159,161–164 had
a sample that was at least 50% female. Five152,153,156,158,165 studies had a sample that was at least 50% male.
Recruitment
Participants from all 17151–168 studies were recruited from a wide range of mainly government agencies,
including child protection agencies,157,160,166–168 Family Services,153,164 Family Sexual Abuse Action Centre,163
Children’s Justice Centre,162 social services agencies,151,154,156 local residential homes,165 the authors’ own
clinics and local agencies155 and community and shelter outreach centres.152 Noether et al. recruited
participants from mothers who participated in a national, ‘longitudinal study of women with histories of
violence and co-occurring substance use and mental health disorders’158 (p. 827). We have no information
on the recruitment sources for Barth et al.161
168
Maltreatment
Five151–154,156 of the seven RCTs focused on children who had witnessed or been exposed to IPV.
Graham-Bermann et al.151 reported that 30% of the children in this study had also experienced
physical harm.
In Noether et al.158 (quasi-experiment), the sample was drawn from a longitudinal study of women with a
history of violence, and co-occurring substance use and mental health disorders.
One155 randomised trial and two quasi-experiments159,160 focused on sexual abuse, as did five161–164,166,167
of the COSs.
One157 randomised trial and two COSs165,168 focused on children who had experienced physical abuse,
emotional abuse, sexual abuse and neglect.

All 17151–168 studies used a group-based format of psychoeducation. Although the interventions were
predominantly child focused, one intervention provided training for foster carers.161 Control group
participants in all but two of the psychoeducational studies received either no intervention or management
as usual. Overbeek et al.153 made use of a control programme ‘Jij hoort erbij’ (‘You belong’), based on
an analysis of non-specific factors used in the specific factors intervention programme. Trowell et al.155
compared group psychoeducation with brief, focused, individual psychoanalytic psychotherapy.
Psychoeducation for children exposed to intimate partner violence

Graham-Bermann et al.151 described two psychoeducational interventions: one focused solely on children, and
one combining a programme for children with a programme for their mothers. The programme is known as
Kids Club.713 The child intervention sought to improve children’s knowledge about family violence, influence
their attitudes and beliefs about families and family violence; and improve their emotional adjustment and
social skills. The intervention for parents aimed at improving their repertoire of parenting and disciplinary skills,
enhancing their social and emotional adjustment, thereby reducing the children’s behavioural and adjustment
difficulties. Howell et al.152 evaluated a preschool version of the combined parent-and-child intervention
described by Graham-Bermann et al.151 In this version the children’s intervention was designed to promote
social competence and the mothers’ programme to improve their social and emotional adjustment. In both
studies, children were from families through which they had been exposed to IPV.
Overbeek et al.153 developed a child’s psychoeducational intervention based on Graham-Bermann’s Kids’

Club713 but with some topics amended (e.g. more time spent on identifying, differentiating and dealing
with emotions) and added (e.g. secrets, contact with the violent parent, and the future). Traumatic
experiences are directly addressed in order to prevent avoidance of the topic and provide children with a
sense of mastery. The intervention covered affective modulation, emotion regulation skills, coping and
processing, social skills and enhancing future safety and development. Overbeek et al.153 developed parallel
parent sessions independently from Kids’ Club,713 for which the focus was on psychoeducation, improving
parenting and disciplinary skills, and helping parents accurately interpret children’s feelings and behaviour,
providing them with emotional support.
In the Sullivan et al.154 study, children attended a psychoeducation group (The Learning Club) in which they
learned about safety, feelings and respect for themselves and others. In addition, the mothers and children
also had the services of an advocate who helped them to access community resources.
Wagar and Rodway156 describe the programme as aiming at helping children to modify their responses to
past experiences of witnessing violence, to develop problem-solving skills for future encounters, to address
interpersonal responsibilities and attitudes regarding behaviours and foster self-esteem.
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RESULTS
Psychoeducation for children who experienced sexual abuse

Trowell et al.155 describe psychoeducational group therapy for girls in which sessions were topic based,
with information and suggestions given and explained in the group. The relationship between girls and the
cotherapist leading the groups was also a focus, being linked with past and current relationships, losses
and disruptions. In this intervention, carers also received group-based support.
Hébert and Tourigny163 evaluated a closed group led by two trained practitioners. The psychoeducational
approach used combined a variety of therapeutic activities (e.g. group discussions, personal testimonies
and stories, exercises and lectures). Some of the exercises targeted emotional regulation skills and cognitive
coping strategies. Sessions included sex education and abuse prevention skills, and practice in social
interactions with peers. Parents were invited to accompany the child for the first four sessions, which were
used to promote positive child–caregiver interactions, improve communication and reinforce secure
relationship. The intervention in Tourigny 2005166,167 and Tourigny 2007160 was also a closed group that
used broadly the same approach, but without parental involvement. Each session used a similar format
and was centred on a specific theme, such as disclosure of the abuse, the cycle of the abuse,
consequences of abuse, relationship to the perpetrator, and so on.
Barth et al.161 provided psychoeducational groups for foster parents (both kin and non-kin), designed to
provide an understanding of the types of behaviours presented by children who had been sexually abused
and how these might best be managed.
The Children’s Treatment Program, evaluated by Duffany and Panos,162 comprised 12 lessons on important
topics to the participating children and families, including My Body, Assertiveness, Touches, Who Can You
Tell, Fears and Nightmares, and Inner Strength. The groups were open to avoid families having to wait,
and siblings were also allowed to attend.
The study by Holland et al.164 evaluated a multimethod intervention for Aboriginal children in the Stól:lō
Nation in British Columbia, Canada, who had been sexually abused. The intervention included group work
that comprised psychoeducation and social skills training in a closed group format. No other information is
provided other information.
The intervention in the study by Simoneau et al.159 was group work, with boys and girls organised by age
(6–8 years, 9–13 years). They were accompanied by parents for the first five sessions. Children who missed
more than two sessions, were offered entry into the next group. Focus of the groups was to (1) reduce
sense of social isolation; (2) improve self-perception; (3) reduce behavioural difficulties; (4) improve the
closeness with the caregiver; and (5) reduce or cease feelings of guilt linked to the abuse.
The intervention in the study by Santibáñez165 is also a multimethod programme that incorporates
individual and group work-element focused, plus ‘unstructured daily life interventions’. Staff meet weekly
to determine which interventions are to be used for the young people both in individual and group
sessions, and daily life activities are prepared to encourage wider learning. Specifically, there are weekly
activities with the young people tackling self-control and moral development. The self-control sessions are
individual and each young person chooses an area to change (e.g. to reduce hitting, increase studying,
participate more). Each young person is taught self-control step by step: contingency contract, learning
how to self-control, choosing the problem to tackle, defining the behaviour to control or accept,
behavioural self-observation, multimodal self-observation, self-evaluation and conclusions about the extent
of the problem, questioning oneself about how to proceed, proposing realistic goals for change, learning
at least one technique of self-control and how to apply it to another problem. For moral development,
weekly group work sessions are held, at which there is discussion about questions that are of importance
to each of the young people; friendship, characteristics of good friends, helping others, rules of the home,
personal responsibility and losing control.
170
Number and duration of interventions

Duration of sessions ranged from 1 to 2 hours each, with sessions lasting 9–20 weeks (most are between
10 and 12 weeks), with the exception of Santibáñez,165 in which the programme lasted 4 months, and
appears to have comprised weekly group and individual sessions plus everyday activities in the residential
homes to promote generalisation of learning.
Outcomes: studies of psychoeducation

Four measures of children’s post-traumatic stress symptoms were used across the seven153,155,160,163,166–168
studies assessing this outcome. Four153,160,166–168 studies used the Trauma Symptom Checklist (TSC).
Overbeek et al.153 also used the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children (TSCYC), Hébert and
Tourigny163 used the Children’s Impact of Traumatic Events Scale-II (Wolfe, unpublished assessment
instrument – available from VV Wolfe, Child and Adolescent Centre, London Health Sciences Centre,
London, ON, Canada) and Trowell et al.155 used the 1989 version of Orvaschel’s PTSD scale406 – an
extension of the KSADS instrument.268 The Trauma Symptom Checklist-40 (TSC-40408) was used by
Wolfe et al.157 to assess symptoms of emotional distress.
Depression
Hébert and Tourigny163 assessed the impact of psychoeducation on childhood depression using the CDI.80
Trowell et al.155 used a shortened version of the KSADS.268
Self-harm
Self-harm was assessed in all three Tourigny studies160,166–168 using the Self-Injurious Behavior Questionnaire
(Sadvosky, unpublished). Holland et al.164 also examined this outcome using administrative data.
Anxiety
Hébert and Tourigny et al.163 assessed anxiety as an outcome, using the RCMAS.256 This study also assessed
symptoms of dissociation using the Child Dissociative Checklist.426
Behaviour problems
The effect of psychoeducation on children’s problem behaviour was examined by seven studies using
various versions of the CBCL. The studies by Graham-Bermann et al.,151 Overbeek et al.,153 Hébert and
Tourigny163 and Barth et al.161 used the Parent Report Form, and both studies by Tourigny et al.160,166–168
used the YSR Form.
Two studies assessed delinquency: Tourigny 2005166,167 used the Criminal and Delinquent Behaviours
Questionnaire714 and Holland et al.164 used administrative data.
Antisocial and criminal behaviour was assessed using the Antisocial and Criminal Behavior Questionnaire715
in the study conducted by Santibáñez,165 who also investigated cognitive mediators of aggression using a
20-item Likert-type scale.427
Noether et al.158 used mother/carer ratings of the Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (BERS410) as the
measure of the primary outcome measure.
The primary outcome in Duffany and Panos162 was recidivism (being re-abused or becoming abusers),
assessed using the Youth Outcome Questionnaire.424
Self-control
Self-control was assessed in Santibáñez165 using the Shapiro Control Inventory428 in its Spanish version.
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RESULTS
Social competence
In the Howell et al.152 study the primary outcome was enhancing social competence in children who had
witnessed IPV which they measured using the Social Competence Scale (Conduct Problems Prevention
Research Group395).
Self-concept and self-adequacy

Sullivan et al.154 measured changes in the well-being of children who had been exposed to domestic
violence using Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC; 8- to 12-year-old version431). Hébert and
Tourigny163 used the same measure as part of his larger battery of outcome measures for a group of
sexually abused children.
All three Tourigny et al.160,166–168 studies assessed the impact of intervention on coping strategies using a
French version of the Ways of Coping Questionnaire.419 They also deployed four of the five dimensions
that make up the Empowerment Scale,421 namely optimism, self-efficacy, helplessness and justified anger
plus the French version of the Children’s Attributions and Perceptions Scale.270
Sexual behaviour
Barth et al.161 and Holland et al.164 examined the impact of intervention on children’s sexual behaviours
using the CSBI.423 Holland et al.164 also used administrative data.
Relationships
Healthy relationship skills were assessed in the study by Wolfe et al.157 using the Adolescent Interpersonal
Competence Questionnaire.409
Two studies151,156 focused on children’s attitudes and beliefs about the acceptability of family violence.
Graham-Bermann et al.151 assessed change in this outcome using the Attitudes About Family Violence
scale,394 whereas Wagar and Rodway156 used a Child Witness to Violence Questionnaire (no reference
provided) to assess children’s knowledge of wife abuse, who children feel are responsible, and their
responses and attitudes to anger, their problem-solving abilities related to safety skills.
Global functioning
Trowell et al.155 measured social, psychological and school functioning using the KGAS (1986 version405),
based on the Children’s Global Assessment Scale (CGAS).261
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of psychoeducation
Sequence generation and allocation concealment

It was not possible to judge whether sequence generation was adequately conducted, as five153–157
of the seven trials provided no other information other than participants were ‘randomly assigned’.
These studies were therefore assessed as ‘unclear’ risk of bias for both sequence generation and
allocation concealment.
Graham-Bermann et al.151 and Howell et al.152 both describe a modified, sequential random assignment
procedure. In the study by Graham-Bermann et al.,151 the first seven children were assigned to the
‘child-only intervention’, the next seven children to the ‘child plus mother intervention’ and the next seven
children to the wait-list control. In the Howell et al.152 study, the first five families were allocated to the
experimental arm and the next five to the control arm, but the paper said nothing about allocation
concealment. Both studies were assessed as ‘low risk of bias’ for sequence generation and unclear for
allocation concealment.

Trowell et al.155 stated that it was not possible to blind participants. None of the other studies makes any
reference to procedures to blind the participants or personnel, and neither is likely to have been
172
undertaken, given the nature of the intervention. All studies were therefore assessed as ‘high risk
of bias’ for this bias domain.

Outcome assessors were blinded in Overbeek et al.153 Graham Bermann et al.151 state that baseline
interviews were conducted by researchers blind to group assignment and separate from those who
provided the intervention; however, with the exception of child attitudes, the study151 relied solely on
mother self-report and we judged this study151 overall to be of high risk of bias on this domain.
Wagar and Rodway156 state that group leaders conducted the pre-group interviews and administered the
measurement tools, as well as facilitating the groups, and so this study was judged to be of high risk of
bias for outcome assessment. Trowell et al.155 state that blinding of assessors was probably compromised
because the children and their mothers often mentioned the specific therapy during assessment.
The absence of information on blinding of outcome assessors, together with the use of use of self-report
and parent-reported measures in the studies by Howell et al.,152 Sullivan et al.154 and Wolfe et al.,157 suggest
that outcome assessors were not masked in these studies, leading to a judgement of high risk of bias.

Three153–155 of the seven trials sought to minimise potential attrition bias by analysing participants
based on ‘assigned treatment’ rather than ‘treatment completed’ and so were judged low risk of bias.
Graham-Bermann et al.151 identify differential attrition as a cause of concern and this study was accordingly
judged high risk of bias, as were the studies by Wagar and Rodway156 (which lost around 10% of children,
all four from the experimental arm) and Wolfe et al.157 (which reported differential attrition of 21%
experimental and 11% control and undertook completer-only analyses). Howell et al.152 was also deemed
high risk of bias because 21 of the 113 children recruited to the study were missing from the final analyses
(seven dropouts in the experimental group and 14 in the control group).

Although the studies all differed somewhat in their choice of outcomes, there appears to be no evidence
that other outcomes were planned and then omitted from the results. In the absence of study protocols
it is extremely difficult to assess the risk of selective outcome reporting. In that respect, almost all were
assessed as unclear risk of bias. However, two156,157 of the included studies failed to report specific means
and SDs for their post-intervention results and were therefore judged to be of high risk of bias.

Some other potential sources of bias were noted in two151,154 of the studies, including a suggestion that
the sample was nationally unrepresentative151 and potential bias associated with paying participants for
their continued involvement in the study.154
Full details of risk-of-bias assessments for each study can be found in Figures 33 and 34 in Appendix 10.
Quality assessment of quasi-experimental and controlled observational

studies of psychoeducation
The quality of the three158–160 QEx studies and seven161–168 COSs was variable.
All studies158–168 provided a clear description of the study objectives, and, except for Holland et al.,164
all gave a clear description of the outcome and adequate descriptions of their participants.
Five159,162,164,166–168 of the included studies did not give an adequate description of the theoretical basis of
their intervention. All of the studies158–168 at least partially addressed potential confounders in their research,
and all provided a clear description of their findings; however, only two studies165,168 addressed potential
173
RESULTS
adverse effects. Only two166–168 of the 10158–168 studies described the characteristics of patients lost to
follow-up. Four158,160,162,163 of the 10 studies reported probability values for the main outcomes.
It was not possible to determine, for any of the studies, whether or not those who participated, and the
staff involved in the study, were representative of the entire population from which they were recruited.
Blinding of participants or outcome assessors was not attempted in five161,162,164–167 of the studies, and,
although it was unclear whether or not it was attempted in the remaining four158–160,163,168 studies, it seems
unlikely that it would have been feasible because of the psychosocial nature of the intervention. Three of
the studies164,166–168 did not recruit patients for intervention groups and controls from the same population.
Results: psychoeducation
Post-traumatic stress
Both Wolfe et al.157 and Overbeek et al.153 assessed the impact of the psychoeducational intervention on
children’s post-traumatic stress, albeit with two measures (as measured by the TSC-40408 and the TSCYC,399
respectively). We were unable to combine these data in a meta-analysis. Based on ITT and completer
analyses, Overbeek et al.153 found no differences between children in the experimental and control group;
children in both groups improved.
Working with teenagers with histories of child maltreatment, Wolfe et al.157 reported improvements in
symptoms of trauma.
Children’s PTSD was also assessed by Trowell et al.155 However, unlike the studies by Overbeek et al.153 and
Wolfe et al.,157 this study155 compared two active treatments. In Trowell et al.,155 univariate analyses failed
to identify a difference between those receiving group or IT on the PTSD dimension of ‘persistent
symptoms of increased arousal’ used in the study.405 Following Cohen,716 the authors used an effect size of
0.5 as a threshold of moderate effect, and undertook no further analyses relating to PTSD symptoms.
Controlling for the impairment score on the KGAS405 in a multivariate analysis, the authors report a
significant effect of IT for ‘the re-experiencing of trauma’ dimension of PTSD (baseline to 1- and 2-year
follow-up, and baseline to exit), and – for the ‘persistence/avoidance of stimuli’ dimension – at baseline
to first-year follow-up. When KGAS is replaced by the baseline score on the same dimensions, the
significance of the effects is attenuated.
Children’s PTSD symptoms were also assessed in three COSs163,166–168 and one QEx study.160 Owing to the
high risk of bias in all four of these studies,160,163,166–168 results were not incorporated into the meta-analyses
and are instead presented narratively. Their results indicate that adolescents who were part of the
psychoeducational intervention group improved significantly compared with controls on post-traumatic
stress scores at both post test160,163,166,167 and 6-month follow-up.166,167 A fourth study168 found no
statistically significant differences, although clinical measures suggested improvement for the treatment
group compared with the control group.
Depression
In the trial conducted by Trowell et al.,155 the between-group differences on the KGAS failed to reach the
threshold effect size adopted by the authors of 0.5 (following Cohen716). In the one CS163 that assessed
childhood depression, participants in the intervention group demonstrated only marginally fewer symptoms
of depression following the intervention.
Behavioural problems
Graham-Bermann et al.151 and Overbeek et al.153 assessed the impact of the psychoeducational intervention
on child externalising and child internalising behaviours (as measured by the CBCL).
174
Externalising behaviours The pooled estimate using a random-effects model was –0.19 (SMD) (95% CI
–0.45 to 0.06) (Figure 21). The I2-statistic indicates 0% of the variation in the point estimates is due
to heterogeneity.
Internalising behaviours The pooled estimate using a random-effects model was –0.00 (SMD) (95% CI
–0.25 to 0.25; p = 0.84) (Figure 22). The I2-statistic indicates 0% of the variation in the point estimates is
due to heterogeneity.
Children’s behavioural problems were also assessed in three161,163,166–168 COSs and two158,160 QEx studies.
Four158,163,164,166,167 of the included studies found that post-test scores on behavioural measures were
significantly lower for children who had received a psychoeducational intervention.
One study160 found that although intervention group participants (all girls) showed a significant decrease
in internalising behaviours and social problems, change scores on externalising behaviours problems were
not significant. One study168 found no statistically significant differences for internalising or externalising
behaviours. Another study162 found that approximately one-third (15/47) of the children showed no
change, or an insignificant worsening of behavioural and/or emotional symptoms following the
intervention, and the last study161 reported that behaviour in both intervention and control groups
worsened in equal measure from the pre-test to the follow-up.
Other outcomes
Self-injurious behaviours
Self-injurious behaviours were assessed in three164,166–168 COSs and one160 QEx study. Three160,166–168 of the
studies demonstrated that children who were part of the intervention group improved significantly
compared with control group participants. The fourth study164 indicated that there was no significant
difference between groups for attempted/threatened suicide.
Anxiety and symptoms of dissociation

The same COS163 reported that participants in the intervention group demonstrated significantly less
anxiety following the intervention and marginally fewer symptoms of dissociation.
Children’s sexual behaviours

Two161,164 COSs assessed children’s sexual behaviours. Holland et al.164 found no significant effects. Barth
et al.161 reported a statistically significant treatment group effect (improvements) for two out of 36 items
on the Coping Scales Inventory (CSI): ‘looks at people when nude’ and ‘shy about undressing’.
Delinquency
Three165–167 COSs assessed delinquency and antisocial behaviour. Tourigny 2005166,167 reported that children
in the intervention group had a greater reduction in delinquent behaviours than children in the control group
at the 6-month follow-up interview. Holland et al.164 and Santibáñez165 found no significant differences.
Self-control
The one165 study that assessed children’s self-control following the intervention found no significant
difference between the intervention group and control group – despite finding some significant
improvements – compared with control group participants – in levels of moral reasons and some of the
factors believed to mediate aggression.
Coping strategies
Coping strategies were assessed in two166–168 COSs and one160 QEx study. All three160,166–168 studies
demonstrated that children who were part of the intervention group improved significantly compared with
control group participants in abuse-related attributions.
175
176
RESULTS

Post test
Graham-Bermann 2007151 12.79 8.5 61 14.96 12.96 58 48.7% –0.20 (–0.56 to 0.16)
Overbeek 2013153 50.02 11.13 90 52.21 11.87 48 51.3% –0.19 (–0.54 to 0.16)
Total (95% CI) 151 106 100.0% –0.19 (–0.45 to 0.06)

–0.5 –0.25 0 0.25 0.5

FIGURE 21 Externalising behaviours. df, degrees of freedom; IV, instrumental variable.

Post test
Graham-Bermann 2007151 11.29 10.94 61 11.03 9.56 58 48.7% 0.03 (–0.33 to 0.38)
Overbeek 2013153 52.13 10.81 90 52.4 9.75 48 51.3% –0.03 (–0.38 to 0.32)
Total (95% CI) 151 106 100.0% –0.00 (–0.25 to 0.25)

–0.5 –0.25 0 0.25 0.5
FIGURE 22 Internalising behaviours. df, degrees of freedom; IV, instrumental variable.

Self-competence
Children’s self-competence was assessed in one COS163 and one randomised CS.154 The RCT154 found that
children who received the psychoeducational intervention demonstrated increased self-competence in their
4-month follow-up interview, whereas the self-competence of children in the control group remained
relatively unchanged overall. Hébert and Tourigny163 found no significant difference in adjusted post-test
scores for self-competence.
Sense of empowerment
Children’s sense of empowerment was assessed in two COSs166–168 and one QEx study.160 In all three
studies,160,166–168 children who were part of the intervention group improved significantly compared with
control group participants in abuse-related attributions.
Social competence
One RCT152 assessed participant’s prosocial skills, finding a significant improvement among children who
received the intervention.
Relationships
In Wolfe et al.157 (RCT) intervention youths did not show the expected growth in healthy relationships skills
over time.
Children’s attitudes and beliefs about the acceptability of family violence were measured in two randomised
trials,151,156 using different measures (see Outcomes: studies of psychoeducation). Graham-Bermann et al.151
found that children who were part of the child and mother intervention made most improvement over time
in attitudes about violence compared with those in the child-only and control groups. An ANCOVA of the
pre-/post-treatment data by Wagar and Rodway.156 indicated significant differences in children’s ‘attitudes and
responses to anger’ and ‘sense of responsibility for the parents & for the violence’. There were no significant
differences between groups for ‘knowledge of safety & support skills’.
Effectiveness of psychoeducational interventions for maltreated children
Summary
We identified a large number of studies of psychoeducational interventions including seven151–157
randomised trials, three158–160 QEx studies and seven161–168 COSs. All included or comprised a group-based
format, and although the groups used a variety of formats (activities, discussion, etc.) they generally
included an educative component (focused on the nature of maltreatment suffered by the children), affect
modulation, emotion regulation skills, coping and processing, social skills and addressing future safety.
Although the findings of this heterogeneous body of evidence vary somewhat, there is evidence of
effectiveness in relation to symptoms of PTSD.
The evidence for improving children’s behaviour is more mixed. On the basis of ‘vote counting’ most report
a positive impact on externalising, internalising, delinquency and antisocial behaviour and self-injurious
behaviour. A minority report ‘no difference’ and Barth et al.161 report a worsening in children’s behaviour.
Participants in the Barth et al.161 study were foster parents caring for sexually abused children, who rarely
implemented the homework tasks required of them during this short intervention but who appreciated
the intervention.
Where examined, similar results in favour of psychoeducation were reported for positive changes, such as
improvements in coping, enhanced self-competence, social competence and sense of empowerment.
Generally, the involvement of parents (often in parallel groups) was found to be helpful.
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RESULTS

All but four of the studies were conducted in North America. Two153,158 studies were conducted in the
Netherlands, one165 study in Spain and one155 study in the UK.
Nine155,159–164,166–168 of the seventeen studies focused on sexually abused children, including the one UK
study,155 which compared the effects of two manualised therapies: an individual psychotherapy and a
group therapy that included psychoeducation. Six151–154,156,158 studies addressed the consequence of
witnessing IPV, and two157,165 studies recruited children who had experienced other forms of maltreatment,
including multiple abuse. The studies are broadly relevant to the UK, in terms of participants, settings
and transferability of the interventions, but are sometimes limited by the cultural specificity of some
interventions (e.g. Holland et al.164). There is clearly a bias towards evaluating interventions aimed at
children who have been sexually abused or exposed to domestic violence, and less evidence about the
usefulness of psychoeducational interventions to other groups of maltreated children.

The seven151–157 trials of psychoeducation are generally of very poor quality, particularly in relation to
detection bias and attrition bias (where only the study by Overbeek et al.153 was judged low risk of bias),
and the quality of the quasi-experiments and COSs is variable. All in all, although the trends generally
favour psychoeducation, there is a need for well-designed studies of psychoeducational interventions that
are carefully designed in respect of their theories of change, carefully implemented, rigorously evaluated
against agreed outcomes and outcome measures, and fully reported.
Economic evidence
One614 economic study, carried out in the UK, evaluated a group-based psychoeducation intervention for
girls who had been sexually abused. The study614 used data from the Trowell et al.155 RCT, described
above, and compared the psychoeducation intervention (n = 36) to individual psychotherapy (n = 35) for
girls aged between 6 and 14 years.
Although described by the authors as a cost-effectiveness study,614 the economic evaluation should more
accurately be classified as cost–consequences analyses, presenting costs and a range of disease-specific
outcome measures separately. The study614 was carried out after the end of the Trowell et al.155 clinical
trial, which precluded the prospective collection of resource-use data. As a result, the study614 was limited
to a narrow economic perspective, including only the two interventions that were costed using nationally
applicable unit costs and expressed in 1998–9 pounds sterling (£). No discounting was applied, despite
a 2-year time horizon. Outcomes measured included psychiatric symptoms, global functioning, measures of
PTSD and the experiences of carers.
Outcomes between the two groups were similar for the range of measures of effectiveness and costs were
significantly higher for IT than the psychoeducation group therapy. The authors conclude that, with similar
outcomes and higher costs, IT is less cost-effective than group therapy. However, they note that the
logistics of setting up groups may mean children having to wait until there are sufficient numbers of a
similar age before a group can start, resulting in a trade-off between potential savings to be gained from
a group format and potential delays to treatment start for traumatised children. In addition, the study614
was limited in a number of important ways, including the narrow perspective, the lack of a TAU option or
other control group, and the failure to formally combine costs and effects or explore uncertainty.
Five169–173 studies assessed the effectiveness of therapies that used the group format as an important
therapeutic mechanism of change, but which are not described as psychoeducational.
178
Study design
One169 of the five studies was a randomised trial. The remaining were COSs.170–173
Location of studies
Only one169 study took place in the UK. Of the COSs, two studies170,171 took place in Canada and two172,173
in the USA.
Sample sizes
All studies had small samples sizes. The COSs170,171 had sample sizes at baseline, ranging from a total of
12 participants171 to 70 participants.170 Monck et al.169 included 47 participants.
Participants
Age
Verleur et al.173 focused on teenagers with an age range of 13–17 years. The other studies focused on
younger age groups, with ages ranging from 4 to 13 years.169–172
Gender
Three studies170,172,173 focused exclusively on females, and one study171 focused solely on males. The other
study169 stipulated that the sample was 85% female.
Recruitment
In four169–172 studies, participants were recruited from professional child protection agencies. Verleur
et al.173 recruited participants from a group treatment centre.
Maltreatment
All five169–173 studies recruited children and young people who had been sexually abused. De Luca et al.170
and McGain and McKinzey172 recruited only girls; Grayston and De Luca171 recruited only boys and Monck
et al.169 recruited both boys and girls, although the sample included mainly girls (85%).

In the De Luca et al.170 study, participants in the intervention (sexually abused girls) were compared with
girls with no known history of sexual abuse. Control group participants in the remaining studies received
either TAU, or were placed on a wait-list control.
In four170–173 studies, the intervention was described as ‘group therapy’. Verleur et al.173 assessed the impact
of group-based sexual education combined with group psychotherapy (no further information) led by
same-sex (female) therapists. McGain and McKinzey172 set out the goals of the group-based programme,
but do not detail the nature of the therapy/group process, other than to observe that it was ‘similar to
hundreds of treatment programs provided to children who have been sexually abused’172 (p. 1168) and to
differentiate it from other treatment programmes, such as those that are more behaviourally orientated,
brief therapy programmes and crisis intervention programmes. The group intervention for boys in the study
by Grayston and De Luca171 was run by therapists of both genders, supervised by a registered clinical
psychologist. Sessions were said to follow ‘a consistent four-part format’ (described by De Luca and her
associates717). Behaviour management techniques were used throughout to reduce disruptive behaviour
and increase acceptable conduct. At the midpoint, the therapists also implemented a fixed-interval
reinforcement schedule to further manage behaviour (described by Hack et al.535).
Monck et al.169 assessed the effectiveness of a family network treatment programme with or without
group treatment.
179
RESULTS

Sessions in Grayston et al.171 and De Luca et al.170 were 90 minutes in duration, and were provided for
12 weeks171 and between 9 and 12 weeks.170
The group work programme evaluated by McGain and McKinzey172 continued weekly for 6 months, with
the possibility for children to continue on to another cycle. Some children are reported to have spent
between 9 months to 1 year in treatment.
The number of sessions ranged considerably, from 9–12 weekly sessions170,171 to 6–9 months of
weekly sessions.172,173
No information was available on the structure of group work in Monck et al.169
Outcomes: group work with children

These studies169–173 had few outcomes in common, and, those that did, used different measures.
Depression
Children’s depression was assessed in one169 study, using the CDI.80
Anxiety
Anxiety was assessed in De Luca et al.,170 using the RCMAS/What I Think and Feel Questionnaire.293
Behaviour
Problem behaviours were assessed by three170–172 studies. De Luca et al.170 and Grayston and De Luca171
both used the CBCL,257 McGain and McKinzey172 used the Revised Behavior Problem Checklist438 and
the ECBI.439
Sexual behaviour
Child sexual behaviour was assessed in Grayston and De Luca171 with the CSBI259 and in Verleur et al.173
with the Anatomy/Physiology Sexual awareness scale.
Self-esteem
Children’s self-esteem was assessed by three of the included studies169,170,173 using the Coopersmith
Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI).436
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of group work for children

A graphic summary of the risk of bias of the one group work trial is provided in Figures 35 and 36,
Appendix 10.

Monck et al.169 stated that ‘allocation was made without the direct involvement of the researchers or the
clinical team, and was achieved by blind choice of marked cards drawn from an envelope’169 (p. 12).
Judgements of low risk of bias were made for both sequence generation and allocation concealment.
Blinding of participants, personnel and outcome assessors

This study169 did not make any reference to procedures to blind the participants or outcomes assessors.
However, because of the nature of the intervention, it is unlikely to have been feasible to blind
participants. The use of self-report and parent-reported measures also indicates that it was not possible
to blind outcome assessors, suggesting this study169 had a high risk of bias.
180

This study169 analysed only the available data of 47 participants. However, there was insufficient
information provided in the study169 regarding how many participants were originally assigned to each
group. Therefore, this study169 was judged to be of unclear risk of bias.

There appears to be no evidence that other outcomes were planned and then omitted from the results,
but, in the absence of prospective registration, we judged this aspect to be of ‘unclear’ risk of bias.
Other sorces of bias

No other identical sources of bias were identified in these studies.

studies of group work for children
The quality of the COSs was low. All five169–173 studies provided a clear description of the objectives and
outcomes in their studies, with the exception of De Luca et al.,170 who did not clearly describe their
outcomes. Only two171,172 studies provided clear descriptions of the characteristics of the patients included in
the study,171,172 and only Grayston and De Luca171 provided a clear description of the intervention. Neither
Grayston and De Luca171 nor De Luca et al.170 clearly described their main findings. No study adequately
addressed potential adverse effects, nor did they report probability values for the main outcomes. Only one
study172 provided information on recruitment of participants, the characteristics of patients lost to follow-up,
and the representativeness of the staff (satisfactory). Determinations of the representativeness of others
studies were not possible as a result of inadequate information. Blinding of participants and outcome
assessors was not attempted in any of the studies.
Results: group work for children

No meta-analyses were possible for these interventions. There was only one randomised trial169 and a very
heterogeneous group of COSs.
Depression
Monck et al.169 found no significant difference in depression between children participating in the family
network treatment programme with group treatment and those participating in the family network
treatment programme alone.
Anxiety
In the only study to assess anxiety, De Luca et al.170 found that, although anxiety scores for both
intervention group (sexually abused) and the comparison group (no sexual abuse) decreased following the
intervention, there was no significant difference between the two groups. The authors note that anxiety
scores for both groups were low at baseline.
Self-esteem
The results of analyses in De Luca et al.170 indicated a statistically significant impact of group treatment for
self-esteem for those girls who completed therapy. Monck et al.169 found no difference in measures of
self-esteem following the intervention tested in the RCT.
Two170,172 of the three169,170,172 studies that examined the impact of group therapy on problem behaviour
reported post-treatment improvement. Only in De Luca et al.170 were participants followed up for 1 year.
In this study,170 parents reported sustained improvements in internalising and externalising behaviour
problems at 9–12 months’ follow-up, although this reached statistical significance only for internalising
behaviours. However, data were not collected on the behaviour of those in the comparison group.
181
RESULTS
Grayson and De Luca171 also found larger changes in pre–post treatment scores for problem behaviours
among children in the intervention group, but the between-group differences were not
statistically significant.
Sexual behaviour
Only Grayston and De Luca171 examined the impact of group therapy on sexual behaviour, finding that,
although sexualised behaviour tended to decline following treatment, the changes – as measured by the
Child Sexual Abuse Inventory – were not statistically different between treatment and control children.
Verleur et al.173 reported that children in the experimental group improve significantly compared with
the control group with regards to the measure of sexual awareness used in the study.
Self-esteem
One173 study assessed participants’ self-esteem following the intervention and found that, although
the self-esteem for both intervention and control groups increased, there was a larger increase in the
treatment group than the control group.
Effectiveness of group work interventions for maltreated children
Summary
We identified just five169–173 studies of group work (all with sexually abused children), of which only one169
study was a randomised trial. The trial169 found no evidence of the effectiveness of adding a group
work component to a family network treatment in terms of reducing depression or improving children’s
self-esteem. For the other studies, the limited information provided about the interventions, combined with
heterogeneity in outcomes assessed and measures used, make it impossible to draw conclusions about the
effectiveness of therapeutic group work for sexually abused children.

The trial169 was conducted in the UK. The remaining four170–173 studies were conducted in North America.
All focused on children who have been sexually abused. As indicated above, the studies provide little
information that would allow these interventions to be replicated or to explore possible reasons for
differences in reported effects.

The trial conducted by Monck et al.169 ‘scored’ well in terms of risk of bias, and was one of the few
studies that reported an adequate sequence generation and concealment of allocation. The COSs were
judged to be overall of poor quality.
Economic evidence
No economic evaluations of group work with children who have been maltreated were located.
In this section, we review those studies that either stated that they were studies of psychotherapy or counselling
per se, or that described an eclectic RBI. We deal with these together simply because it was not possible clearly
to differentiate between the included studies in relation to the content of the therapies assessed.
Four155,174,178,179 studies assessed the effectiveness of psychotherapy without clearly describing their
theoretical underpinnings. One178 study explored the value added of group psychotherapy when added to
individual psychotherapy. One155 study is also described in the section on psychoeducation. The other two
studies of interventions described as psychotherapy are those of Sullivan179 and Thun et al.174
182
We identified four175–177,180 studies that assessed the effectiveness of counselling interventions. Two
assessed, respectively, the effectiveness of specific techniques for children in foster care, life story work175
and a mindfulness-based intervention.176 The other two studies are those of Cadol et al.177 and
Downing et al.180
Study design
Four studies were randomised trials.155,174–176 Cadol et al.177 was a QEx study.
The Downing et al.,180 Sullivan179 and Nolan et al.178 studies were COSs.
Location
Nolan et al.178 was conducted in Ireland, and Trowell et al.155 in the UK. The other six studies174–177,179,180
were conducted in North America.
Sample sizes
Of the four trials, two were very small. Haight et al.175 was a feasibility study, with a small sample of just
23 randomised participants (15 completers). Thun et al.174 recruited 13 participants, but only 11 participants
completed the intervention and follow-up assessments. Reddy et al.176 and Trowell et al.155 randomised
71 and 75 participants, respectively.
Cadol et al.177 recruited 140 participants and Sullivan179 recruited 72 participants. The remaining COSs
were very small. Downing et al.180 had a sample size of 22 participants and Nolan et al.178 had a sample of
38 participants.
Participants
Age
Nolan et al.178 recruited children aged between 6 and 17 years old, and Trowell et al.155 recruited children
aged 6–14 years. Thun et al.174 focused on teenage girls aged 16–18 years. Participants were aged 7–14 years
in the study by Haight et al.,175 and 13–17 years in the Reddy et al.176 study. Downing et al.180 focused on
children aged 6–12 years, and Cadol et al.177 focused on a slightly older population, with a mean age of
17.2 years. In the study by Sullivan179 participants were deaf children, aged 12–16 years, living in a residential
school, who had been sexually abused by either dormitory staff or older pupils. This was the only CS179 that
focused on disabled children.
Gender
The majority of children in the Nolan et al.178 study were female (92%). There were more males than
females in Cadol et al.177 (69 males, 37 females). In the studies by Downing et al.,180 Haight et al.175 and
Reddy et al.176 the samples were more evenly split, with girls being in the majority in Downing et al.180
and Reddy et al.176 and boys being in the majority in the Haight et al.175 study (nine, and six completers).
All participants in the Trowell et al.155 study were girls.
Referral
Participants in the study by Nolan et al.178 were referred from eight urban and rural services for sexually
abused children and adolescents. Those in the study by Trowell et al.155 were recruited from the authors’
own clinics and from professionals’ agencies in the community.
Haight et al.175 recruited children from Department of Children and Family Services caseworkers. Case
managers approached eligible young people in foster care to invite them to participate in the study
conducted by Reddy et al.176 Participants in Cadol et al.177 and Downing et al.180 studies were recruited
from hospitals and private practitioners. Teenagers in the Thun et al.174 study were referred by the staff
183
RESULTS
of the military-based programme to which they had signed up to assist them in getting their Graduate
Equivalency Degree (having previously dropped out of school).
Maltreatment
Children in the Haight et al.175 study were in foster care and came from families in which they had
experienced multiple forms of abuse, and whose parents misused methamphetamine. In Cadol et al.,177
the children had experienced both physical abuse and neglect. Downing et al.180 recruited children who
had experienced sexual abuse. Reddy et al.176 provides no detailed information on maltreatment histories.
Participants in the studies by Trowell et al.,155 Thun et al.,174 Sullivan179 and Nolan et al.178 had all been
subjected to sexual abuse.

Nolan et al.178 compared the effectiveness of IT with combined individual and group therapy (IGT).
The purpose of these two interventions was to treat the ‘psychological sequelae of child sexual abuse’.
Both interventions drew on the principles of a broad range of individual and group therapies
(psychodynamic, client centred, CBT, etc.) and implementation varied between therapies and across clients.
All therapists sought to provide their clients with a supportive therapeutic relationship that would enable
them to process the psychological consequences of sexual abuse, and help them to develop the insights
and skills needed to prevent further abuse. Those receiving group therapy also had the opportunity to
realise that they were not alone in experiencing CSA, to enjoy peer support, and to benefit from
peer-to-peer feedback on their experiences and their behaviour. On average, the duration of intervention
ranged from 18 to 20 hours. This was the only intervention received by participants in the comparison
group (those in the intervention group also received group psychotherapy).
Sullivan179 compared group psychotherapy developed at the Boys Town National Research Hospital with
individual psychotherapy for survivors of abuse. After listing treatment goals, the reader is referred to an
earlier paper for further information.718 Children in the Sullivan179 study met weekly with their therapist for
2 hours (because of the communication problems and need for signing) for 36 weeks. Control group
participants received no treatment.
Thun et al.174 state that the group curriculum ‘followed a modified multidimensional model proposed by
Lindon and Nourse (1994544) that incorporated a skills component, a psychotherapeutic component and an
educative component’174 (p. 8) and, arguably, this study174 might, with additional information, have been
included in the psychoeducational or group treatment grouping. In describing the intervention, Thun
et al.174 emphasise the benefits of groups as a means of alleviating feelings of isolation and alienation, and
fostering trust. Those in the comparison group had the option to avail of individual counselling, but none did.
The intervention used by Haight et al.175 was ‘Life Story Intervention’ (LSI), described by the study authors
as a narrative and relationship-based mental health intervention. LSI was delivered in and around the
children’s homes, on a one-to-one basis, by a range of professionals, including teachers, child welfare
professionals and counsellors. The intervention was delivered over the course of a series of weekly 1-hour
sessions for approximately 7 months. Control group participants were placed on a wait-list and received
the intervention at the conclusion of the study.
Reddy et al.176 assessed the impact of Cognitively-Based Compassion Training (CBCT), described by the
authors as a type of contemplative practice that is built on mindfulness practice and teaches active
contemplation of loving kindness, empathy and compassion towards loved ones, strangers and enemies.719
It uses a variety of cognitive restructuring and asset-generating practices, with the long-term goal of
developing the equanimity of mind that fosters acceptance and understanding of others. Participants
were assigned to classes that met twice a week, for 1 hour, for 6 weeks. The control group was a
wait-list control.
184
The interventions used in studies by Cadol et al.177 and Downing et al.180 were described as one-to-one
counselling. No information was provided on the duration or number of counselling sessions, other than
Downing et al.180 stating that sessions took place ‘near-weekly for approximately 1 year’. In Cadol et al.177
children in all arms received developmental testing, regular medical care and co-ordination of services,
but only those in the experimental arm received the counselling. Participants in the control group in the
Downing et al.180 study received reinforcement treatment (helping parents to focus on positive behaviour).
Trowell et al.155 compared brief, focused, individual psychoanalytic psychotherapy with group
psychotherapy (comprising both psychotherapeutic and psychoeducational components).
Outcomes: psychotherapy/counselling

Trowell et al.155 used the 1982 version of Orvaschel’s PTSD scale – an extension of the KSADS instruments.406
Reddy et al.176 used the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ448).
Trauma symptoms in Nolan et al.178 were assessed using the TSCC.260 Specific subscales used included
anxiety, depression, anger, post-traumatic stress, dissociation, overt dissociation, fantasy dissociation,
sexual concerns, sexual preoccupation and sexual distress.
Depression, anxiety, emotional disorder and conduct disorder

Trowell et al.155 used a shortened version of the KSADS.268 Reddy et al.176 used the Quick Inventory of
Depressive Symptomatology–Self-Report442 to assess depression. Reddy et al.176 also assessed non-suicidal
self- injurious behaviour using the Functional Assessment of Self-Mutilation (FASM443).
Nolan et al.178 assessed depression using the CDI.258 Specific subscales used included negative mood,
interpersonal difficulties, ineffectiveness, anhedonia and negative self-esteem.
Child behaviour
Nolan et al.178 and Sullivan179 both assessed problem behaviours using the CBCL.294,418;720 Specific subscales
used in Nolan et al.178 included total problems, externalising, internalising, withdrawn, somatic complaints,
anxious/depressed, social problems, thought problems, attention problems, delinquent behaviour and
aggressive behaviour.
Cadol et al.177 assessed cognitive, physical, social, and emotional functioning of their participants using a
range of measures, including the Bayley’s Scales of Infant Development,449 Bayley Infant Behavior Record451
and Child Behavioral Characteristics Questionnaire.
Downing et al.180 used parents’ and teachers’ behavioural observations to record sleep disturbance, sexual
play with other children, enuresis, general misbehaviour and sexual self-stimulation.
Anxiety
Reddy et al.176 assessed anxiety with the STAI.333
Emotional self-regulation
Reddy et al.176 used the Difficulties with Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS446) to assess participants’
awareness and understanding of emotional experience, acceptance of emotions, ability to modulate
emotional arousal and effective action in the presence of intense emotions.
Self-efficacy
Reddy et al.176 used the Children’s Hope Scale445 to assess agency and pathways (belief in one’s ability to
develop successful call planning).
185
RESULTS
Self-esteem
Thun et al.174 assessed participants’ self-image using four subscales (see Results: psychotherapy/counselling)
of the Offer Self-Image Questionnaire-Revised (OSIQ-R440), a personality test designed to measure
self-image of adolescents aged 13–18 years.
Global functioning
Trowell et al.155 measured social, psychological and school functioning using the KGAS (1986 version)
based on the CGAS.405
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of psychotherapy/counselling

Figures 37 and 38, Appendix 10, present an overview of the risk of bias of RCTs of psychotherapy
and counselling.

Thun et al.174 stated that participants were ‘randomly assigned’ but gave no other information and Trowell
et al.155 simply said participants were randomised. Both studies were therefore assessed as ‘unclear’ for
each domain.
Both Reddy et al.176 and Haight et al.175 were assessed as ‘unclear’ risk of bias for each of these domains.
Although Reddy et al.176 state that the study used block randomisation to equalise numbers in each group,
no information was provided that shed light on the sequence generation or allocation concealment.

Owing to the nature of the intervention, neither staff nor participants were likely to have been ‘blinded’ in
the study by Thun et al.,174 and the study was therefore assessed as high risk of bias. In Trowell et al.,155
the authors state it was not possible to blind participants. Haight et al.175 stated that caregivers were not
blind whether or not the child was receiving the intervention, and it would not have been possible to blind
the children. Both studies were155,174 were therefore assessed as high risk of bias. The same judgement was
made for Reddy et al.176

Assessors in Thun et al.174 were a faculty member and selected graduate students from a Marriage and
Family Therapy programme at the University of Southern Mississippi but it is not clear whether or not they
were blind to experimental conditions. This item was therefore assessed as unclear.
Reddy et al.176 provide no information on the blinding of outcome assessors. Haight et al.175 state that
assessments were conducted by master’s level professionals who were not serving as the child’s
community clinician, but it is not clear that they were unaware of the allocation status of the children.
Both were therefore assessed as ‘unclear’.
Trowell et al.155 state that blinding of assessors was probably compromised because the children and their
mother often mentioned the specific therapy during assesment, so was judged high risk of bias.

Thun et al.174 analysed only the available data, as two of the six participants randomised to the treatment
arm dropped out. Haight et al.175 suffered significant attrition and analysed only the available data. Both
studies174,175 were therefore judged as high risk of bias for incomplete outcome reporting.
No information is provided by Reddy et al.176 other than that caregivers in the wait-list control did not
complete, post-treatment, the Inventory of Callous and Unemotional Traits-Parent Report (ICU-P447) – one out
of six measures of children’s psychosocial functioning. This was therefore assessed as unclear risk of bias.
Trowell et al.155 was judged low risk of bias on these grounds.
186

There appears to be no evidence that other outcomes were planned and then omitted from the results
from any of these four174–176 trials. However, in the absence of a published protocol or trial registration, we
have judged all four to be of ‘unclear’ risk of bias.

No other potential sources of bias were identified in these studies.
Risk of bias: controlled observational studies of psychotherapy/counselling

Nolan et al.178 provided a clear description of the objectives, participants, intervention and outcomes in the
study, and addressed potential confounders in their research. The study178 provided a good description of
the characteristics of patients who were lost to follow-up. Statistical tests used were appropriate; however,
actual probability values for the main outcomes were not reported.
Cadol et al.177 and Downing et al.180 provided a clear description of the objectives and participants in their
studies, but only Downing et al.180 provided a clear description of the outcomes. Only Cadol et al.177 at
least partially addressed potential confounders in their research. Although both of these studies177,180
provided a clear description of their findings, only Cadol et al.177 addressed the potential adverse effect of
repeat abuse. Neither study described the characteristics of patients lost to follow-up; only Cadol et al.177
reported probability values for the main outcomes. It was not possible to determine whether or not the
participants were asked to participate, or whether those that did, and the staff members involved in
the study, were representative of the entire population from which they were recruited. Blinding of
participants and of outcome assessors did not appear to be attempted by either study.
Sullivan179 failed to provide a clear description of the objectives, outcomes and participants in the study.
The study179 did describe the characteristics of patients lost to follow-up, and reported actual probability
values for the main outcome, and at least partially addressed potential confounders, but did not address
potential adverse effects. It was not possible to determine whether or not participants had been asked to
participate, or, whether they, or the staff involved in the study, were representative of the population from
which they were recruited.
Results: psychotherapy/counselling
It was not possible to conduct a meta-analysis for any of the outcomes. We provide a short summary of
the findings of each study, given their heterogeneity, their small samples, risk of bias and limited coverage
of outcomes of interest.

In Trowell et al.,155 univariate analyses failed to identify a difference between those receiving group and
those receiving IT on the PTSD dimension of ‘persistent symptoms of increased arousal’ used in the study405
(data not provided, but the authors, following Cohen et al.,716 used an effect size of 0.5 as a threshold of
moderate effect). No further analyses relating to this indicator of PTSD were undertaken.
Controlling for the impairment score on the KGAS405 in a multivariate analysis, the authors report a
significant effect of IT for ‘the re-experiencing of trauma’ dimension of PTSD (baseline to 1- and 2-year
follow up, and baseline to exit), and – for the ‘persistence/avoidance of stimuli’ dimension – at baseline
to first-year follow-up. When KGAS is replaced by the baseline score on the same dimensions, the
significance of the effects is attenuated.
For trauma symptoms, assessed by Nolan et al.178 using the TSCC,325 the only scores to improve were
depression (p < 0.05) and anger (p < 0.01), and these improved for participants in both treatments, with
no significant difference between the groups. No changes were detected for anxiety, post-traumatic
symptoms, dissociation, overt dissociation, dissociation–fantasy, sexual concerns, sexual preoccupation and
sexual distress.
187
RESULTS
Depression
In Nolan et al.,178 total depression score (p < 0.01), interpersonal problems (p < 0.05) and anhedonia
(p < 0.01) all improved for both interventions, but there was no significant difference between groups.
‘Ineffectiveness’ was improved only in the combined IGT group (p < 0.01). Between-group difference in
Trowell et al.155 failed to reach the threshold size of 0.5 adopted by the authors (KGAS).
Results in the study by Haight et al.175 indicate a significant group (experimental or control) by time (pre- or
post-test) interaction on child externalising behaviour (p < 0.05), but no main effects. Results indicated that
although experimental group externalising scores decreased, control group externalising increased over
time. There were no other significant group or time effects for internalising behaviour scores or total
problem scores.
Sullivan179 concluded that participants in the intervention group of this COS had significantly fewer
behaviour problems than children not receiving individual psychotherapy. For boys, the treatment main
effect was statistically significant for 10 of the 12 dependent variables assessed (total CBL; external
and internal composite scales; nine CBL subscale scores). For girls, the main effect was significant for 5 of
the 11 relevant variables (total CBL; external and internal composite scales; eight subscale scores).
The numbers were very small, particularly for girls, and the authors point to a non-significant main effect
for girls for the remaining variables.
Nolan et al.178 reported that total CBCL scores were reduced for both of the interventions (p < 0.01).
In addition, internalising (p < 0.01) and externalising scores (p < 0.05) were also significantly improved by
both interventions. CBCL subscales: withdrawn, somatic complaints, anxious/depressed, social problems,
attention problems and aggressive behaviour all improved with both interventions (p < 0.01). There was no
significant difference between groups. Delinquent behaviour and thought problems remained unchanged.
Results from the YSR indicated that there was no significant time or group effect on any YSR scales,
indicating that there was no impact of therapy on any of the YSR scales.
Downing et al.180 reported that for the children in the counselling intervention group, parents reported a
decrease in sleep disturbance, sexual play with other children, enuresis and general misbehaviour.
However, there was no evident decrease in sexual self-stimulation.
Six weeks after the end of treatment, Reddy et al.176 found no differences on any measure of psychosocial
functioning following CBCT, although the authors suggest that practice frequency was associated with
increased hopefulness and trend for decrease in generalised anxiety.
Self-image
Thun et al.174 found no significant differences between the two groups on the four subscales of the OSIQ-R
(Offer et al.440) used to measure self-image: impulse control, self-confidence, self-reliance and body image.
Negative self-esteem remained unchanged in Nolan et al.178 (as assessed by the CDI).
For Cadol et al.177 results of comparisons of the three experimental groups and control indicate significant
differences between the groups in the cognitive, physical, social and emotional areas. However, results also
indicated that treatment techniques tested do not significantly affect the developmental performance of
the participants.
Effectiveness of psychotherapy/counselling for maltreated children
Summary
A relatively small body of evidence was found pertaining to the effectiveness of psychotherapy/counselling
interventions. Four155,174–176 studies were randomised trials, one177 study was a QEx study and three178–180
studies were COSs.
188
Five155,174,178,180,186 of the eight included studies recruited children who had been sexually abused. The
remaining three studies recruited children who had experienced a variety of forms of maltreatment. The
interventions were disparate, ranging from life story work with children in foster care, to cognitive-based
compassion training – intervention built on mindfulness practice and cognitive restructuring.
Most studies compared psychotherapy with supportive counselling or no treatment, including wait-list
controls. Nolan et al.178 compared the effectiveness of IT with combined IGT, and Trowell et al.155
compared individual psychotherapy with a group therapy that combined psychotherapuetic and
psychoeducational components.
One study176 examined six outcome domains to assess the impact of compassion training, only one of
which (depression) was examined in another study,178 which used a different measure. Four177–180 studies
examined child behaviour as an outcome, but again all used different measures and had very different
samples. It is therefore not possible, meaningfully, to draw any overall conclusions about the effectiveness
of psychotherapy for maltreated children.

All but Nolan et al.178 and Trowell et al.155 were conducted in the USA. Nolan et al.178 was conducted
in Ireland and Trowell et al.155 in the UK. Most of the interventions described have residents with
therapies available in the UK, for example one-to-one counselling,177,180 the therapies provided in
Nolan et al.178 for sexually abused girls and the LSI described by Haight et al.175 Given the dominance of
counselling and current recommendations to increase access to counselling for troubled children, the
dearth of evidence to support the effectiveness of psychotherapy or counselling for maltreated children is
of concern.

Four174,175,178,180 of the studies, including two174,175 of the three trials, were extremely small. The trials were
poorly reported, with low risk of judgements made only in relation to selective outcome reporting (and this
is probably generous). The overall quality of the non-randomised studies was judged to be poor.
Economic evidence
No economic evaluations of psychotherapy/counselling for children who have been maltreated
were located.
Peer mentoring
We identified two181,182 studies that assessed the effectiveness of peer-mentoring interventions.
Study design
Both181,182 studies were randomised trials.
Sample sizes
Both181,182 studies had baseline sample sizes of just 36 and 46 participants, respectively.
Location
Both181,182 studies took place in the USA.
189
RESULTS
Participants
Age and gender

The mean age of participants in the two181,182 studies ranged from 4.3 years to 4.5 years. There were
27 boys to 9 girls in Fantuzzo et al.181 and 8 boys to 12 girls in Fantuzzo et al.182
Recruitment
Participants were recruited from a Family Centre Day Services Program in Fantuzzo 1988181 and from local
Head Start Centres in Fantuzzo 1996.182
Maltreatment
Children in both studies had experienced both physical abuse and neglect.

The intervention used in both studies181,182 was resilient peer treatment (RPT), designed to promote the
development of social competencies of preschool children in the context of classroom play mediated by a
resourceful peer.
In Fantuzzo 1988181 the control group pairs met in the same setting as the treatment group pairs for the
same number of play sessions under identical conditions, except that their peer was instructed to respond
positively to social initiations but to refrain from initiating social interactions. In Fantuzzo 1996,182 control
group participants were paired with a classmate of average interactive play ability.

In both181,182 studies, sessions lasted 15 minutes each, and were spread out over a 2-month period, with no
more than three sessions occurring per week.
Outcomes
Interactive peer play was assessed by Fantuzzo 1996182 using an observational coding system.
Social skills were assessed in the Fantuzzo 1996182 study, using the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS).379
Problem behaviours were also assessed in Fantuzzo 1996182 using the SSRS.379
Positive social behaviours were assessed by Fantuzzo 1988181 through the use of the same observational
coding system, the SSRS.379
Psychological adjustment was assessed by Fantuzzo 1988181 using the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire.455
Pre-academic progress was assessed in Fantuzzo et al.181 using the Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of
Early Development.456
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trials of peer-mentoring interventions

The risk of bias across the two181,182 included trials of peer mentoring is summarised in Figures 39 and 40 in
Appendix 10.

Both trials181,182 stated their participants were ‘randomly assigned’, but gave no other information on the
method of random allocation and allocation concealment. Both were judged ‘unclear’ risk of bias for each
of these domains.
190

One181 study made no reference to procedures to blind participants or personnel, but the other study182
stated that ‘teachers, play supporters and data collectors were not informed of the maltreatment status of
the participants throughout the study’182 (p. 1284). Fantuzzo et al.182 was therefore judged to be of low
risk of bias. The other181 study was assessed as being of unclear risk of bias.

Both181,182 studies stated that children were observed by trained raters who were blind to both the
assignment of children to conditions and the specific hypotheses of the study, resulting in judgements of
low risk of bias.

Both181,182 studies were assessed being of low risk of bias, as both were able to minimise potential attrition
bias by analysing participants based on ‘assigned treatment’ rather than ‘treatment completed’.

Both181,182 studies differed in their choice of outcomes, and there appears to be no evidence that other
outcomes were planned and then omitted from the results. However, in the absence of a published
protocol or trial registration, we categorised these studies181,182 as ‘unclear’ risk of bias.

No other potential sources of bias were identified in these studies.
Results: peer-mentoring interventions

It was not possible to conduct a meta-analysis for any of the outcomes.
Interactive peer play

Children assigned to the RPT intervention showed significantly higher levels of interactive play and
significantly less solitary play post test than the children in the control condition. No significant group
differences were found for the social attention and non-play categories by Fantuzzo 1996.182
Social skills
Children in the RPT group scored significantly higher than those in the control group on the Self-Control
subscale and the Interpersonal Skills subscale. However, no significant group differences were found on
the Verbal Assertion subscale (Fantuzzo 1996182).
In Fantuzzo 1988,181 results indicated that children in the peer-mentoring group demonstrated significantly
increased levels of positive social interaction, whereas levels of social interaction remained the same for the
control group.
Problem behaviours
Children who received the RPT intervention displayed significantly lower levels of both internalising and
externalising behaviour problems (Fantuzzo 1996182).
In Fantuzzo 1988,181 results indicated that, post test, the children in the peer group demonstrated either a
similar, or a decreased, level of problematic behaviours, whereas control groups seemed to demonstrate an
increase in problematic behaviour.
Preacademic progress
Results indicated that there was no significant group effect for pre-academic progress (Fantuzzo 1988181).
191
RESULTS
Effectiveness of peer mentoring for maltreated children
Summary
The two studies of peer mentoring identified in our search were both randomised trials, were both
conducted in the USA by the same researcher. The results provide evidence of a range of benefits
of peer mentoring for maltreated children, although both studies were small and the follow-up periods
were short.

Evidently this evidence base is limited, but it represents the only rigorous evaluation of therapeutic day care
programmes aimed at addressing the needs of neglected of physically abused children. This could be of
relevance to the UK, where there is an increasing move to intervene with children in the school setting.

Compared with most of the included trials, the quality of these peer-mentoring studies is
moderately good.
Economic evidence
No economic evaluations of peer-mentoring for children who have been maltreated were located.
Covered in this section are a number of interventions designed to help children in substitute care or
children in specialist day-care settings. They fall into three broad categories:
1. treatment foster care145,183–193

2. therapeutic residential or day-care services194–197
3. co-ordinated care.198
In this context, treatment foster care is used to describe a number of intensive interventions targeted at
children in foster care, rather than – as is sometimes done – as the name of an intervention. Because
of the heterogeneity of these studies,145,183–198 we discuss each group of studies separately, beginning
with treatment foster care.
Study design
Four of the controlled studies were randomised trials.145,183–191 Fisher et al.192 and Graham et al.193 were COSs.
Graham et al.193 used a subsample recruited from the trial conducted by Fisher et al.183–188 Biehal et al.145
embedded a small randomised trial within a QEx case–control study.
Location
Five studies183–193 were conducted in the USA, whereas the study by Biehal et al.145,146 was conducted in the UK.
Sample sizes
Three trials183–191 had moderate baseline sample sizes of 100, 117 and 156 participants, respectively.
Sample sizes in the COSs were small, with just 30 participants in the Fisher et al.192 study and 37 participants
in the Graham et al.193 study. Biehal et al.145,146 randomised just 34 young people; a further 185 were
included in the QEx sample.145
192
Participants
Age
For the treatment foster care studies, the mean ages of participants in the RCTs were 5.94 years;183–188
11.54 years;189 and 10.46 years.190,191 In the study by Biehal et al.,145,146 the young people were aged
10–17 years (although the intended recruitment age range was 11–16 years).
The mean age of participants across the COSs was 2.35 years in the Fisher et al.192 study and 6.11 years in
the Graham et al.193 study. In Taiissig et al.190,191 the age range was 9–11 years.
Gender
Smith et al.189 focused exclusively on females. The remaining studies145,183–193 had mixed samples that were
> 50% male145,183–192 or 50% female.193
Recruitment
Participants from all studies145,183–193 were recruited from various child welfare systems. Those in the Taussig
et al.190,191 study were in foster care. In the studies of treatment foster care,190,191 children were either
entering or changing foster care placements.
Maltreatment
All studies145,183–193 focused on children who had experienced a combination of physical abuse, emotional
abuse, sexual abuse and neglect.

Control group participants included those who had received RFC in four183–189,192,193 studies. In the studies
by Biehal et al.145,146 and Taussig et al.190,191 they received services as usual.
Four145,146,183–188,193 studies were of MTFC. MTFC has been described as a community-based, multimodal
‘wraparound’ intervention for children and young people with challenging behaviour. It makes use of a
‘team approach’, by which foster parents (and, where applicable, biological parents/future carers) are
trained to provide a therapeutic home environment for children. Foster parents received intensive
preservice training and post placement they received support and supervision by means of daily telephone
contacts, weekly home visits by foster parent consultant, a weekly support group and 24-hour on-call crisis
intervention. Children received services from a behaviour specialist. When appropriate, the family therapist
worked with the biological family to teach the same parenting skills used by programme foster parents in
order to promote generalisation of treatment gains and facilitate reunification.
Three183–188,192,193 of the four MTFC studies used the Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care Program for
Preschoolers (MTFC-P).
Smith et al.189 evaluated the effectiveness of a manualised intervention targeting the prevention of behaviour
problems for girls in foster care at the point of transition to middle school. In the summer prior to middle
school entry, both foster parents and the girls they were caring for participated in separate six-session,
group-based interventions, followed by ongoing training and support to foster carers and girls throughout
the first year of middle school. The girls groups focused on ‘setting personal goals; establishing and
maintaining positive relationships with peers and adults; effective decision-making and problem-solving
strategies; developing support systems for reaching goals; and modelling, practising, and reinforcing
adaptive behaviours’ (p. 271). Foster parents groups were focused on establishing and maintaining
stability in the home, preparing the girls for school and preventing early adjustment problems during the
transition. They were taught how to use a behavioural reinforcement system modelled after systems used
in MTFC.
193
RESULTS
The intervention evaluated in the Taussig et al.190 trial was called Fostering Healthy Futures (FHF), which the
authors describe as a preventative mental health intervention, consisting of two components, specifically a
manualised skills group and one-on-one mentoring.

In the Biehal et al.145,146 study, the duration of an MTFC placement was intended to be around 9 months,
prior to a young person’s return to his or her birth family or to an alternative placement. With one
exception, young people in the study145,146 spent between 5 and 11 months in MTFC placements.
In the Taussig et al.190,191 study the skills groups met for approximately 30 weeks for 1.5-hour weekly
sessions. The mentoring component of Taussig et al.’s190,191 FHF programme provided 30 weeks of
one-on-one mentoring for each child. Mentors spent 2–4 hours of individual time each week with
their mentees.
In the Fisher et al.183–188 study, children are said usually to receive services for between 6 and 9 months.
Information on number and duration of sessions is unavailable from Fisher et al.192 (other than that
reported above). No information on ‘dose’ was provided by Graham et al.193
In the Smith et al.189 study, the summer groups comprised six sessions across 3 weeks, followed by weekly
2-hour meetings (foster parent meeting; one-on-one session for girls) throughout the first year of
middle school.
Outcomes: treatment foster care

No study assessed the impact of the intervention on PTSD, but the primary outcome in Taussig et al.190,191
was mental health functioning, measured using two scales from the TSCC,325 specifically the post-traumatic
stress scale, and the dissociation scales (see Child behaviour, below).
A multi-informant index of mental health problems was also derived in this study, based on TSCC325
scores, the internalising scales of the CBCL269 and the Teacher Report Form (TRF269).
Salivary cortisol
Children’s salivary cortisol levels were used to assess hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activity in
three183–188,192,193 of the four included studies.
Child behaviour
Smith et al.189 assessed children’s internalising problems, externalising problems and prosocial behaviour using
the Parent Daily Report Checklist.458 Taussig et al.190,191 used the Internalising scales of the CBCL269 – Youth
Report and TRFs. Data were combined with TSCC325 scores to create a mental health index (see Results:
treatment foster care).
As one of two primary outcomes in the RCT, Biehal et al.145,146 used the standardised Health of the Nation
Outcome Scales for Children and Adolescents (HoNOSCA382) as a measure of emotional and behavioural
difficulties. It was selected because it enabled the synthesis of large quantities of data gathered from
multiple informants and sources including a range of standardised measure (and which could
accommodate variable completeness of information).
Biehal et al.145,146 also used a range of standardised measures, including the CBCL,257 SDQ721 and
DAWBA-AD.
One of the COSs192 assessed child behaviours problems using the Early Childhood Inventory (ECI462).
194
Attachment-related behaviour
Children’s attachment-related behaviour towards foster parents was assessed by Fisher et al.183–188 using
the PAD.221
Biehal et al.145,146 used the Development and Well-Being Assessment-Attachment Disorder (Minnis et al.,
unpublished manuscript), consisting of 26 items about behaviours associated with the International
Classification of Diseases-Tenth Edition diagnoses of attachment disorder.
Children’s social functioning

Participants’ coping skills were measured in Taussig et al.190,191 using the Positive and Negative Coping
scales of the CSI.459 In this study,190,191 participants’ perceived self-competence was also measured using the
social acceptance and global self-worth scales of the SPPC.413,431
Biehal et al.145,146 used the CGAS292 to assess children’s general adaptive functioning.
Permanency
Placement outcomes were assessed by three145,146,183–188,190,191 studies. Taussig et al.190,191 recorded the
number of placement changes over the 18-month study period of the study, whether or not a child had
experienced a new placement in a residential treatment centre (RTC) during that time or had attained
permanency by 1-year post intervention, plus the types of permanence attained (i.e. adoption or
reunification with family). Fisher et al.183–188 recorded the type of permanent placement, and success or
failure of a subsequent permanent placement. Biehal et al.145,146 recorded care placement type.
Quality of life
Taussig et al.190,191 assessed children’s quality of life using the Life Satisfaction Survey.402 Related to quality
of life, the authors also recorded children’s recent and current use of mental health services and
psychotropic medications (based on caregiver and self-report), and their levels of social support, using
scores from The People in My Life-Short Form.460
Other
Biehal et al.145,146 also gathered data relating to children’s engagement in education and training, including
type of provision received.
Cognitive control
Cognitive control and response monitoring was assessed by Fisher et al.183–188 using a computerised flanker
task, which includes red and green circles as stimuli and trial-by-trial performance feedback.722 We include
a brief description, taken from one of the papers, as this outcome measure is not commonplace. A small
fixation point was displayed in the centre of a computer screen.
For each trial, a warning cue is presented for 200 ms before a horizontal row of five 1-in. circles, with the
central circle directly above the fixation point, is shown for 700 ms. The task comprises congruent trials,
which consist of five red circles or five green circles, and incongruent trials, which consist of a central red
circle flanked by green circles or a central green circle flanked by red circles. A 30:70 ratio (congruent
trials–incongruent trials) is used. Participants are required to respond within 1100 ms. Performance
feedback, which consists of a 1-in. face, is then presented for 1050 ms; a smiling face indicates a correct
response and a frowning face indicates an incorrect response. The intertrial interval varies in length from
0 to 500 ms. The 20-min task consists of three blocks of 60 trials each. In the current study, the STIM
stimulus presentation system (James Long Company, Caroga Lake, NY) was used to control the task
presentation and to record the behavioral and electrophysiological measures for each trial. The children
sat approximately 24 in. from a 14 in. computer monitor and held a button box with a red pushbutton
and a green pushbutton. Prior to beginning the task, color vision, color familiarity, and comprehension of
task terminology were assessed. The children were instructed to press the button that corresponded with
195
RESULTS
the color of the central circle regardless of the color of the flanking circles. They were told to respond
quickly and correctly. The children completed eight practice trials to ensure task comprehension.
Reproduced with permission from Bruce et al.,183 p. 5
Risk of bias: randomised trials of Treatment Foster Care models
Sequence generation
Smith et al.189 stated that a coin flip was used, and for the randomised part of the Biehal et al.145,146 study,
the authors state that the randomisation sequence was generated by a computer-generated random
numbers. Both were therefore assessed as ‘low risk of bias’. Fisher et al.183–188 provide no information on
sequence generation, and Taussig et al.190,191 stated that all children were manually randomised, by cohort
(five), but provided no further information. Both183–189 studies were therefore judged unclear risk of bias.
No study provided information on allocation concealment, and all were judged unclear risk of bias.

No study made any reference to procedures to blind the participants or personnel, and judgements of high
risk of bias were allocated to each.

Smith et al.189 and Fisher et al.183–188 state that research staff and interviewers were blind to participants’
group assignment. Biehal et al.145,146 describe the study as single blind, with outcome assessors blind to
which arm data belonged (although the assessors were not those who provided/gathered the information).
Taussig et al.190,191 attempted to mask independent interviewers to condition but records that some
children did spontaneously disclose treatment condition which could not be controlled for. All studies were
judged low risk of bias.

Fisher et al.183–188 was able to minimise potential attrition bias by making use of a full information maximum
likelihood estimator in Mplus (Muthén & Muthén, Los Angeles, CA, USA) which allows for the inclusion of
participants with partial data on dependent variables, and was judged to be of low risk of bias. Smith et al.189
provided insufficient information regarding dropouts and missing data and was judged unclear risk of bias.
Taussig et al.190,191 undertook data analyses using ITT principles and the study was judged to be of low risk of bias.
Biehal et al.145,146 state that data from the RCT sample was analysed on ITT principles (subject to the availability of
outcome data), with imputation for missing data. Although this study145,146 suffered from differential attrition
(12 of the 34 young people randomised to MTFC did not receive it) the data sources meant that only one person
was lost to follow-up. Overall, we judged this study to be of low risk of bias for incomplete outcome data.

Two trials were registered: Taussig et al.190,191 (NCT00809315) and Fisher et al.183–188 (NCT00701194). Both
were judged to be of low risk of bias, as the authors report on all outcomes listed in the trial registration
(although specific measures were not identified). In the absence of a published protocol, the studies by
Biehal et al.,145,146 and Smith et al.189 were judged to be ‘unclear’.

A potential additional bias was noted in Fisher et al.,183–188 in which randomisation occurred prior to
recruitment into the study, and performance was not assessed prior to the intervention. Therefore,
differences between the two groups may have existed prior to the intervention. No other potential sources
of bias were identified in this studies.
196
Quality assessment of controlled observational studies of intensive

service models
The quality of the two192,193 COSs was very similar. Both provided a clear description of the objectives of
the study, the outcomes, the participants and the interventions. Both addressed potential confounders in
their research, and both provided a clear description of their findings. Both studies reported actual
probability values for the main outcomes.
However, neither study addressed potential adverse effects, nor described the characteristics of patients
lost to follow-up.
It was not possible to determine whether or not participants were asked to participate, or whether or not
those who did participate, and the staff members involved in the study were representative of the entire
population from which they were recruited for any of the studies. Statistical tests used to assess the main
outcomes appeared appropriate. Blinding of participants or outcome assessors was not attempted and it
seems unlikely it would have been feasible owing to the psychosocial nature of the intervention.
Results: treatment foster care

There were no common outcomes recorded across any of the included RCTs. Therefore, it was not possible
to conduct a meta-analysis for any of the outcomes.

Post-traumatic stress disorder symptomatology was assessed only in the Taussig et al.190,191 study, which
reported no significant effect post intervention or 6 months’ follow-up. The study190,191 results indicate that
intervention participants had significantly fewer dissociation symptoms than control group participants,
as measured by the TSCC at the 6-month follow-up (p = 0.02).
Mental health
Taussig et al.190,191 reported that intervention participants had significantly fewer mental health problems
than control group participants at the 6-month follow-up (p = 0.003), as measured by the multi-informant
index of mental health problems. There was no significant difference between intervention and control
participants for recent or current use of psychotropic medications (post test or 6-month follow-up) but
there was a significantly lower rate of recent mental health therapy usage at the 6-month follow-up for
intervention participants (p = 0.04). Intervention participants also had significantly better quality of life at the
end of the intervention (p = 0.006) but this difference failed to reach significance at 6 months (p = 0.38).
Children’s behaviour problems

Smith et al.189 (RCT) indicated that the participants who were part of the MTFC intervention demonstrated
significantly lower internalising problems (p < 0.01) and lower externalising problems (p < 0.01) at
6 months post baseline than the control participants. However, this study189 found that intervention
participants did not have higher prosocial behaviour than the control participants (p > 0.05).
Fisher et al.192 (RCT) found that participants who were part of the MTFC intervention demonstrated
significantly improved behavioural adjustment scores (p < 0.05), as measured by the ECI.
Taussig et al.190,191 reported no significant difference between intervention and control groups for Positive
and Negative Coping skills, perceived self-competence, or social support at post test or 6-month follow-up.
In the study by Biehal et al.,145,146 MTFC participants had slightly better outcomes at follow-up than UC,
as measured by HoNOSCA (adjusted MD –1.04, 95% CI –6.21 to 4.13) but this was not statistically
significant (p = 0.68).
197
RESULTS
Children’s attachment-related behaviour

Children’s attachment-related behaviour towards foster parents was assessed by Fisher et al.,183–188 and
indicated that children in the intervention condition made significant increases in secure attachment
behaviour (p < 0.05) and significant decreases in avoidant behaviour (p < 0.05) compared with children
in the RFC condition. However, treatment was not associated with changes in resistant behaviour.
No between-group differences were found in the Biehal et al.145,146 study.
Salivary cortisol
Children’s salivary cortisol levels were taken by three of the included studies.183–188,192,193 Although the
results of these studies indicated some improvement over time, including daytime patterns, which showed
the salivary cortisol levels of the intervention group becoming closer to the community comparison group
of non-maltreated children,192 and a distinct pattern of change in cortisol slope across the days,189 none of
these results reached statistical significance. Moreover, Fisher et al.183–188 indicated that control group
participants showed significantly greater morning-to-evening cortisol level decreases following placement
changes than the experimental group (p < 0.05), a negative outcome.
Permanent placement outcomes

Permanent placement outcomes were assessed by the studies of Fisher et al.183–188 and Taussig et al.190,191
In Fisher et al.,183–188 participants in both groups entered permanent placements at approximately equal
rates, but the number of placement failures between the two groups was significantly different, with
10% (n = 3) failing in the intervention group compared with 36% (n = 9) in RFC [χ2(1) = 5.11; p = 0.02].
One child in the RFC group experienced two placement failures (no child had two placement failures in the
early intervention fostering group).
In the study by Taussig et al.,190,191 the results indicated a significantly lower rate of placement changes for
the intervention group than the control group (p = 0.04), and a significantly lower rate of new placements
in a RTC (p = 0.03). There was also a higher rate of permanency attained for intervention group
participants than for the control group participants (p = 0.004).
For children whose parents retained parental rights, significantly more intervention youth had reunified at
1 year post intervention than the control youth (p < 0.05). Taussig et al.190,191 also report that 26% of
intervention children had been adopted 1 year post intervention, compared with 8% of control children,
but numbers were too small for conventional statistical tests.
Children’s social functioning

In the study by Biehal et al.,145,146 MTFC participants had slightly better outcomes at follow-up than UC
participants (adjusted MD 1.3, 95% CI –7.1 to 9.7) but this was not statistically significant (p = 0.75).
Biehal et al.145,146 also found no differences for school engagement or school exclusion.
No between-group differences were found in Taussig et al.190,191 in relation to the Coping Inventory or the
Self-Perception Profile.
Cognitive control and response monitoring

Cognitive control and response monitoring was assessed by Fisher et al.183–188 using a computerised
flanker task. There were no group differences on the behavioural measures of cognitive control
(p > 0.05) or response monitoring (p > 0.05). A significant group effect was indicated observed on the
electrophysiological measures of response monitoring. Children who received the intervention were
significantly more responsive to performance feedback than foster children who received services as
usual (p < 0.05).
Economic evidence
Two economic evaluations of intensive service models of care for children who have been maltreated were
located in the systematic review (Wood et al.616 and Lynch et al.615), both carried out in the USA.
198
Wood et al.616 was a cohort study comparing the costs and outcomes for families receiving a child abuse
prevention service (n = 26) and families receiving UC (n = 24). The intervention was home-based
counselling/psychology and the therapists were available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, for a period of
4–6 weeks, providing practical help, FT and liaison with schools other community services in order to
reduce the risk of out-of-home placement.
The evaluation, most accurately described as a cost–consequences analysis, had a 1-year follow-up and
took a limited economic perspective, focusing on the service provider and including the cost of the
interventions and any out-of-home placements. Outcomes were measured in terms of family functioning
and whether or not the children stayed at home. Methods of costing were not outlined.
Children in the families that received the intensive intervention were significantly more likely to remain at
home than families receiving UC and costs were significantly lower, as a result of the lower use of
placements. However, this study616 was carried out some years ago and the methods are severely limited,
with no random allocation, small sample sizes, failure to report the results for all measures of outcome,
lack of incremental analysis and no assessment of uncertainty.
Lynch et al.615 evaluated the net benefit of MTFC-P entering new foster placements. The study615 used data
from the Fisher et al.186 RCT (see subsection Intensive service models, Description of studies) and compared
MTFC-P (n = 57) with RFC (n = 60) for children aged between 3 and 5 years.
The evaluation was conducted from a public agency perspective, including health, social care and
education. Resources used were valued using nationally applicable published unit costs and were reported
in 2008 US dollars (US$). Outcomes were assessed in terms of the primary measure for the clinical trial –
the rate of placement permanency for each group, where permanent placement included reuniting with
the biological parent, adoption by a relative or non-relative adoption. Costs and outcomes were assessed
over a 24-month period and did not appear to be discounted.
Permanent placement rates were higher for the MTFC-P group than the RFC group, although the
difference was not significant. Average total costs were significantly lower for MTFC-P and the incremental
average net benefit was positive for all levels of willingness to pay for improvements in outcome,
indicating that the value of the benefits of MTFC-P was greater than the costs. The authors conclude that
MTFC-P is highly likely to have a positive net benefit for increasing permanent placements in comparison
with RFC. Although no agreed level of willingness to pay for increases in placement permanence exists, the
authors note that lack of permanent placement is associated with a variety of negative outcomes for
young people, and suggest that willingness to pay for reductions in neglect and abuse is high. The study615
suffers from relatively small sample sizes and the lack of a generic measure of outcome associated with
an agreed level of willingness to pay.
Therapeutic residential and day care services
No controlled studies that assessed the effectiveness of therapeutic residential care interventions were
identified. We found three controlled studies194–197 that assessed the effectiveness of Therapeutic Day
Programme interventions, of which only one was a randomised trial.194 The others195–197 were COSs.
Sample sizes
The randomised trial had a sample size of 61 participants at baseline and 35 participants assessed at
follow-up. The COSs195–197 had sample sizes of 34 and 70 participants, respectively.
199
RESULTS
Location
All three therapeutic day programme studies were conducted in the USA.
Participants
Age
At recruitment, the mean age of participants in the RCT was 11 months (SD 7 months) for the intervention
group and 13 months (SD 8 months) for the control group. Participants were followed up to a mean age
of 12 years (SD 7 months) for the intervention group and 13 years (SD 7 months) for the control group.194
The mean age of participants across the COSs195–197 ranged from 3 years195,196 to 4.8 years.197
Gender
All three194–197 studies recruited both male and female participants, although all had samples that were
> 50% male.
Recruitment
Participants from all three194–197 studies were recruited from various CPS.
Maltreatment
All three194–197 studies recruited children who had experienced a combination of physical abuse and neglect.

Two195–197 of the interventions were identified by the study authors as ‘therapeutic day treatment program’.
The third194 was identified as the Childhaven therapeutic child care program. All three194–197 studies aimed
to improve outcomes for children who had experienced maltreatment.
Control group participants in the included studies received either CPS as usual,194 no intervention,195,196 or
were part of a wait-list control group.197
Number and duration of sessions/treatment

Limited information was provided by the RCT study194 regarding the duration and number of
treatment sessions.
The therapeutic day-treatment programme195–197 was described as a classroom-based therapy lasting

6 hours per day, 5 days per week, for approximately 8–9 months.
Outcomes
Behaviour problems
Moore et al.194 used all three report forms (caregivers, teachers and youth report) of the CBCL269,294,418 to
assess the impact of intervention on children’s behaviour.
Moore et al.194 also measured drug and alcohol use with the Winters Personal Experience Screening
Questionnaire723: participants’ involvement in the legal system, using juvenile court files, and – using school
files – their involvement in special classes, their grades, special help, disciplinary actions, suspensions,
or expulsions.
Child development
Children’s developmental progress was measured in both of the COSs195–197 using the Early Intervention
Developmental Profile.465,466 This test assesses five subscales, including perception/fine motor, cognition,
gross motor, social/emotional and language development.
200
Child self-concept
Children’s self-concept was measured using the Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance Scale467 in
Culp 1991197 and the SPPC401 in the Moore et al.194
Risk of bias: randomised trial

In the absence of information about sequence generation or allocation concealment, a judgement of
unclear risk of bias was made in relation to Moore et al.194

No information was provided on the blinding of participants or personnel, and the study194 was judged as
being of high risk, as neither is likely to have been feasible.

Interviewers were initially blind to group assignment, but caregivers did have the opportunity to mention
their treatment experiences, which is likely to have indicated group assignment. A judgement of high risk
of bias was therefore made.

There is a high risk of bias related to incomplete outcomes data, as this study194 analysed only available
case data.

There is no evidence that other outcomes were planned and then omitted from the results, but, in the
absence of trial registration or a published protocol, we judged Moore et al.194 as being ‘unclear’.
See Appendix 10.
Quality assessment of controlled observational studies

The quality of the two COSs was variable. Both provided a clear description of the objectives of the study,
the outcomes, the participants, the interventions and the findings. Only Culp 1991197 addressed potential
confounders in the research. Neither study addressed potential adverse effects, nor did they describe the
characteristics of patients lost to follow-up. Only Culp 1991197 reported actual probability values for the main
outcomes. It was not possible to determine whether the subjects asked to participate, the subjects who did
participate, and the staff members involved in the study were representative of the entire population from
which they were recruited for any of the studies. Statistical tests used to assess the main outcomes appeared
appropriate. Blinding of participants or outcome assessors was not attempted and it seems unlikely it would
have been feasible owing to the psychosocial nature of the intervention.
Results: therapeutic day care

It was not possible to conduct a meta-analysis for any of the outcomes, as only one relevant randomised
trial was found.
Children’s problem behaviour

Moore et al.194 found that for the CBCL (YSR), more children in the control group than in the intervention
group scored in the clinical range, but this difference reached significance only for the aggressive
behaviour subscale (p < 0.05). However, teachers perceived a higher rate of problems for children in the
intervention group, although these differences failed to reach significance.
This study194 found that a significantly higher percentage of control youths showed drug and alcohol use
(p < 0.05). Furthermore, control group youths were first arrested at a significantly younger age than
intervention youths (p < 0.01). There was no significant difference between groups for delinquency records
201
RESULTS
or delinquency episodes and no significant difference for property crime. However, control youths were
arrested significantly more often for serious/violent crimes than intervention group youths (p < 0.05).
This study194 found no significant difference between groups for special classes, grades and special help.
Although there was a higher rate of disciplinary actions, suspensions or expulsions for control group
participants, this difference reached significance only for disciplinary actions for fighting (p < 0.05).
Children’s developmental progress

Culp 1987195,196 measured children’s developments progress on all five subscales of the EIDP, and found
that children who were enrolled in the day-treatment programme scored significantly higher than control
children on perception/fine motor skills (p < 0.001), cognition (p < 0.001), gross motor skills (p < 0.01),
social/emotional (p < 0.001) and language development (p < 0.05). Culp 1991197 found similar results for
perception/fine motor (p = 0.05), cognition (p = 0.01) and social/emotional (p = 0.01). However, this
study197 found no significant difference for gross motor skills (p = 0.07).
Children’s self-concept
Children’s self-concept was measured by Moore et al.194 (RCT) and Culp 1991197 (COS). Culp 1991197 found
children receiving the intervention scored significantly better in cognitive competence (p = 0.05), physical
competence (p = 0.01) and maternal acceptance (p = 0.02). However, there was no significant group effect
for peer acceptance (p = 0.59). Likewise, in the Moore et al.194 study, results indicate that intervention youths
rated themselves higher than control youths on the Social Acceptance Scale [F(1,32) = 3.8; p < 0.07].
Economic evidence
No economic evaluations of therapeutic residential or day-care services for children who have been
maltreated were located.
Co-ordinated care
We identified just one example of co-ordinated care evaluated with a CS.198
Study design and location

The study was a randomised trial198 that took place in the USA.
Sample size
This study198 recruited 45 families with 72 children.
Participants
Children ranged from birth to 17 years old, with a relatively even split of males and females (47% male,
53% female). Participants were recruited from the Department of Social Services.
Maltreatment
Children had experienced multiple forms of abuse, including physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional
abuse and neglect.
Intervention and comparisons

This interagency intervention established a partnership between one private provider and three state
agencies that served maltreated children who were compulsorily removed to out-of-home care, named the
‘Charleston Collaborative Project’, which aimed to:
1. reduce risk factors to promote child safety and child functioning and caregiving functioning, thereby
allowing return of children to their families in a timely fashion
202
2. provide cost savings by delivering effective and focused interventions at the time children enter care to
reduce both the number of children requiring more intensive and costly services and the length of time
children remain in state custody
3. improve service system efficiency by co-ordinating care.
These goals were to be achieved by creating a single point of entry and a ‘seamless system for providing
services’.198 The providers of Charleston Collaborative Project included an assessment worker, a therapist
and a service co-ordinator. Control group participants in this study received TAU.
Outcomes
The primary outcome included in this study198 was Child Functioning, as measured by either CBCL-Parent
Form198) or the Denver II for infants and toddlers (Frankenburg et al.468).
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trial of co-ordinated care
Sequence generation
Low: participants were randomly assigned using a table of random numbers.
Unclear: inadequate information provided.

High: the study198 did not discuss this issue, but blinding these parties is not possible in such
an intervention.

High: some data were collected from the child’s caseworker, and the study198 does not indicate
that the researcher who interviewed family members or caseworkers was blind to allocation status
of families.

Low: only available data were analysed but attrition was low (42/45 families were retained at last data
collection point, and no family dropped out of treatment).

Unclear: there appears to be no evidence that other outcomes were planned and then omitted from the
results. However, the study198 did not provide post intervention means for any of the outcomes, only latent
growth curve data.

Unclear: where multiple children in one family were abused, one child was randomly selected for inclusion
in the analyses of child functioning. No further details were provided.
Results: co-ordinated care

Although this study198 found total behaviour problems (as measured by the CBCL) to decrease significantly
for both intervention and control groups, there was no significant difference between the two groups for
any of the measures post test.
203
RESULTS
The effectiveness of intensive service models
Summary
There is growing evidence for the effectiveness of MTFC for children who have experienced one or more
of physical, emotional, sexual abuse and neglect. The evidence suggests that MTFC can exert a positive
influence on children’s internalising and externalising problems, and may be able to improve children’s
emotional self-regulation (as measured by saliva cortisol), but more evidence is required. The study by
Fisher et al.183–188 suggests that MTSC may increase a child’s chances of a successful permanent placement
for children in out-of-home care. MTSC children in this study198 also made significant increases in secure
attachment behaviour towards foster carers and significant decreases in avoidant behaviour when
compared with children in RFC.
Although included within the group of TFC studies, the intervention evaluated by Taussig et al.190,191 is
more accurately described as enhanced foster care, in contrast with the MTFC examined in the other three
studies. Overall, the findings by Taussig et al.190,191 provide limited support for the effectiveness of the
mentoring and skills group intervention evaluated in improving children’s mental health. Taussig et al.190,191
reports a lower rate of placement changes and lower rates of new placements in RTCs for children who
participated in the mentoring and skills group.
The results of Moore’s evaluation194 of the Childhaven Therapeutic Early Intervention suggest some
improvement in children’s self-concept, in reduced drug and alcohol use and age at first arrest, and in
self-reported levels of aggression. However, the evidence is limited, and no differences were found for
other measures (e.g. school performance) to support its effectiveness. In contrast, the two studies by
Culp et al.195–197 suggest that therapeutic day care of the kind provided can improve children’s development
across a variety of domains and also (perhaps as a consequence) improve their self-concept.
There is no evidence for the effectiveness of the model of co-ordinated care assessed by Swenson et al.198

All183–196 but one145 of the studies were conducted in the USA. The UK study145 was a replication of MTFC.
This study,145 conducted in difficult circumstances, failed to reproduce the results reported from the USA
studies, but this may be due to design and implementation features (not necessarily the responsibility of
the research team) and the quality of the comparison group: MTFC was compared with routine services in
the UK, compared with limited provision of custodial care in the USA. The evidence from Fisher et al.,183–188
although limited, suggests that intensive fostering support such as that provided in MTFC might well be
able to improve the success rates for permanent placements following foster care, although this also needs
to be tested in locations in which the profile of provision is closer to that of the UK than the USA.

Overall, the quality of the evidence from trials is moderate.
Economic evidence
One economic evaluation,198 carried out in the USA, explored the costs and outcomes of a co-ordinated
model of care, the Charleston Collaborative Project, for maltreated children. The paper is also reported in
the effectiveness section above, as it is a combined effectiveness and economic paper. The study used a
RCT design to compare the collaborative model of care (n = 48) to UC (n = 24) for maltreated children
aged between 1 and 16 years.
The paper presents costs and outcomes separately, so would best be described as a cost–consequences
analysis. Participants were followed up post treatment and 3 months post treatment. Effects included
caregiver and child psychosocial functioning. Costs focused on the interventions under consideration,
out-of-home placements and health services. Costs are reported in US dollars but the financial year applied
was not reported.
204
Despite the collaborative project being more expensive than UC, total costs were lower as a result of lower
placement and other service-use costs. Statistical analyses were not reported for all cost categories or
total costs, so it is unclear if this difference is significant. The authors note that much of the difference in
out-of-home placement costs was due to two young people in the UC group, which, given very small
sample sizes (total n = 39 for cost data), may be the result of chance. The authors caution against
drawing any firm conclusions from the cost data. Outcomes were similar across the two groups and as no
formal economic evaluation, combining costs and outcomes, was undertaken no clear conclusion can
be drawn.
We identified six studies199–204 that assessed the effectiveness of interventions that engaged the child in
activity-based interventions, grouped as follows:
l arts therapy interventions199,200

l play/activity interventions201–203
l animal therapy.204
Proponents of these therapies would possibly emphasise the differences between them, as opposed to the
similarities. For this reason, we provide a ‘grouped but differentiated’ account of the descriptive elements
of the studies (designs, sample sizes, etc.) and separate accounts of the findings of the included studies.
Study design
Arts therapy
Both Brillantes-Evangelista199 and Pretorius and Pfeifer200 were QEx studies.
Play therapy
One of the three studies of play therapy was a randomised trial202 and one a quasi-experimental study.203
The third was a COS.201
Animal therapy
The only study of animal therapy204 was a COS.
Location
Arts therapy
Pretorius and Pfeifer200 took place in South Africa and Brillantes-Evangelista199 was conducted in
the Philippines.
Play therapy
The Udwin203 study (QEx) was conducted in the UK. The other two201,202 studies took place in the USA.
Animal therapy
The Dietz et al.204 study took place in the USA.
Sample sizes
Arts therapy
Pretorius and Pfeifer200 and Brillantes-Evangelista199 recruited samples of just 25 and 33 participants, respectively.
205
RESULTS
Play therapy
Both the RCT203 and QEx study202 were very small, with samples of just 34203 and 38.202 The COS201 had a
somewhat larger sample of 88 participants.
Animal therapy
Dietz et al.204 recruited 153 participants.
Participants
Arts therapy
Pretorius and Pfeifer200 recruited girls aged 8–11 years. Brillantes-Evangelista199 focused on a slightly older
population of both girls and boys (64% female), aged 13–18 years. Participants in both199,200 studies were
recruited from either children’s homes200 or shelters for abused children.199
Play therapy
The QEx study203 focused on younger children, aged 3–6 years. The remaining studies201,202 focused,
respectively, on populations with age ranges of 8–17 years202 and 12–21 years.201 Although the COS201
focused solely on girls, the remaining two202,203 studies focused on a fairly equal numbers of males
and females.
Participants in the studies by McDonald and Howe202 and D’Andrea et al.201 were recruited from residential
facilities. No information was provided by Udwin203 on how participants were recruited.
Animal therapy
Dietz et al.204 focused on children and adolescents aged 7–17 years, the majority of whom (94%) were
female. Participants were recruited from CPS, law enforcement, the county district attorney’s office, and
the local children’s hospital.
Maltreatment
Arts therapy
One study200 focused on girls who had been sexually abused, whereas the other study199 focused on
children who had experienced both physical and sexual abuse.
Play therapy
There was limited information regarding the specific types of maltreatment across all three play therapy
studies.201–203 The children were identified as having been ‘abused’,202 as having experienced ‘parental
neglect and/or abuse’,203 or a mixture of ‘physical abuse, sexual abuse, or neglect’.201
Animal therapy
The intervention in Dietz et al.204 was directed at children who had experienced sexual abuse.
Intervention and comparison
Arts therapy
This intervention used in Pretorius and Pfeifer200 was a structured group art therapy programme, aimed at
reducing depression, anxiety, sexual trauma and low self-esteem. Brillantes-Evangelista199 had two
experimental groups: (1) a visual arts group and (2) a poetry group. Both studies included a ‘no treatment’
control group.
Play therapy
The intervention used in the RCT202 was a challenge/initiative programme that aimed to enhance
self-concept using co-operative and adventure games. The QEx study203 assessed the effects of imaginative
206
play training. The COS201 assessed the impact of a sports-based intervention called ‘Do the Good’ (DtG),
which was designed using trauma-informed treatment principles. Control group participants across all
three play therapy studies201–203 received some form of active comparison, including playing other games
with the same researcher but with no debriefing,202 engaging in a variety of activities unrelated to
make-believe203 and structured activities part of participant’s TAU routine.201
Animal therapy
Dietz et al.204 used canine animal-assisted therapy (AAT). Two forms of treatment were compared with a
‘no treatment control’. The treatments were an ‘AAT with therapeutic stories’ group and an ‘AAT without
therapeutic stories’ group.
Frequency and duration of sessions
Arts therapy
Both199,200 art therapy studies aimed at alleviating depression and PTSD and provided treatment over the
course of eight weekly sessions.
Play therapy
All three play therapy interventions used a group-based approach, the duration of which ranged from
30 minutes203 to 60 minutes.201,202
Animal therapy
Both treatments were provided in 12 weekly sessions.
Outcomes: activity-based interventions
Arts therapy
Trauma was assessed by Pretorius and Pfeifer200 (Art therapy) using the TSCC.473 Brillantes-Evangelista199
used CROPS (as cited in Coroner and Fischer472).
Animal therapy
Dietz et al.204 also assessed the impact of animal therapy on trauma symptoms using the TSCC.325
Depression
Depression was assessed in Pretorius and Pfeifer200 using both the TSCC473 and human figure drawing
(HFD474). It was also assessed in Brillantes-Evangelista199 using the Self-Rating Depression Scale (as cited in
Coroner and Fischer472).
Anxiety
Anxiety was assessed in Pretorius and Pfeifer200 using the TSCC.473
Behaviour
Play therapy
D’Andrea et al.201 assessed participants’ behaviour by recording need for (1) physical restraints in
programmes and (2) use of time-outs in programmes. This study201 also assessed participants’ internalising
behaviours, externalising behaviours and total behaviours using the CBCL.724
207
RESULTS
Self-concept
Play therapy
McDonald and Howe202 assessed participants’ self-concept using the Piers–Harris Children’s Self-Concept
Scale.475 Items on this subscale can be clustered into six groups: (1) behaviour, (2) school, (3) physical
appearance, (4) anxiety, (5) popularity and (6) happiness.
Children’s imaginary play
Play therapy
Udwin203 assessed dimensions of children’s imaginative play by recording observations of (1) imagination,
(2) positive affect, (3) concentration, (4) aggression, (5) peer interaction, (6) adult interaction, (7) peer
co-operation, and (8) adult co-operation. Udwin et al.203 also assessed participant’s fantasy predisposition,
using Guilford’s Unusual Uses Test477 and a storytelling task using Children’s Apperception Test.478
Risk of bias: randomised controlled trial of play therapy

Unclear risk: McDonald and Howe202 simply stated that participants were ‘randomly assigned’ but gave no
other information on the method of random allocation or allocation concealment.
Blinding of participants, personnel and outcome assessors

High risk: McDonald and Howe202 made no reference to procedures to blind the participants or personnel
(unlikely to have been feasible) or to outcomes assessors. The study202 was judged high risk of bias on each
domain (participants and personnel, and outcome assessors).

Low risk: there is nothing to suggest that outcome data were incomplete for this study.

Unclear risk: there is no evidence that outcomes were planned and then omitted from the results, but we
have only the paper to rely on, and it is an older paper.

The same researcher was the ‘recreation leader’ for both groups, leading to a judgement of high risk of bias.

studies of activity-based interventions
Arts therapy
The quality of the two199,200 QEx studies was very similar. Both studies provided a clear description of the
objectives, intervention and outcomes in the study, although neither study adequately described their
participants. Neither study addressed potential confounders in their research. Although both studies
provided a clear description of their findings, neither addressed potential adverse effects. Both studies
failed to describe the characteristics of patients lost to follow-up. Statistical tests used were appropriate
and both studies reported actual probability values for the main outcomes. It was not possible to
determine whether or not the subjects asked to participate, or whether or not those who did participate,
or the staff members involved in the study, were representative of the population from which they were
recruited. Blinding of participants and of outcome assessors did not appear to have been attempted by
either study.
208
Play therapy
The quality of the QEx study203 and COS201 was variable. Both studies provided a clear description of
the objectives, participants and outcomes in the study. Both studies only partially addressed potential
confounders in their research. Although both studies provided a clear description of their findings, neither
study addressed potential adverse effects. Both studies failed to describe the characteristics of patients lost
to follow-up, and only one study203 reported actual probability values for the main outcomes. It was not
possible to determine whether the subjects asked to participate, the subjects who did participate, and the
staff members involved in the study, were representative of the entire population from which they were
recruited for any of the studies. Blinding of participants and of outcome assessors did not appear to have
been attempted by either study.
Animal therapy
The quality of Dietz et al.204 was variable. The study provided a clear description of the objectives,
participants, intervention and outcomes, and addressed potential confounders. But, despite providing a
clear description of findings, the study failed to address potential adverse effects. The study also failed to
describe the characteristics of patients lost to follow-up. Statistical tests used were appropriate and actual
probability values for the main outcomes were reported. It was not possible to determine whether the
subjects asked to participate, the subjects who did participate, and the staff members involved in the study
were representative of the entire population from which they were recruited for any of the studies.
Blinding of participants and of outcome assessors did not appear to have been attempted.
Results: activity-based interventions

It was not possible to conduct a meta-analysis for any of the outcomes, as only one RCT was identified.
Arts therapy
In the study by Pretorius and Pfeifer,200 no statistically significant difference was found between the
intervention and control group for trauma as measured by the TSCC or the HFD. In the Brillantes-Evangelista199
study, trauma scores decreased for both intervention groups and increased for the control group, but this
change reached statistical significance only for the visual arts group (p = 0.011).
Animal therapy
The scores for the children in the animal therapy (dogs) with stories group decreased significantly more
than the animal therapy (dogs) without stories group for all of the subscales of the TSCC, except sexual
concerns (p < 0.001). This included subscales of anxiety, depression, anger, PTSD and dissociation. In
addition, the animal therapy without stories group decreased significantly more than the no animal
therapy (dogs) group (p < 0.001).
In the sexual concerns group, children in the animal therapy (dogs) with stories group had scores that
decreased significantly more than those in either the no animal therapy or animal therapy (dogs) without
stories groups (p < 0.001).
Depression
Arts therapy
Although the intervention group participants demonstrated a greater improvement in depression across
both199,200 studies, this difference reached statistical significance only in the Pretorius and Pfeifer200 study
(p = 0.001) when measured by the HFD. The scores on the TSCC failed to reach statistical significance in
Pretorius and Pfeifer.200
209
RESULTS
In the study by Brillantes-Evangelista199 the improvement in scores reached statistical significance only for
the poetry intervention group (p = 0.0445). Improvement in scores for the visual arts intervention group
and the control group failed to reach statistical significance.
Anxiety
Arts therapy
Pretorius and Pfeifer200 found no statistically significant difference between groups for anxiety as measured
by the TSCC, although the experimental group evidenced statistically significantly lower post-test scores
than the control group on anxiety (p = 0.000) as measured by the HFD.
Effectiveness of activity-based interventions
Summary
We were able to identify only two199,200 studies of art therapy, two201,203 studies of play therapy and one204
study of an animal therapy. One202 of these was a randomised trial, three199,200,203 were QEx and two203,204
were COSs. The outcomes targeted in these studies were heterogeneous, as were the interventions,
making it extremely difficult to draw conclusions about their effectiveness. The small samples in these
studies and the generally poor quality exacerbate this problem.

Given the popularity of activity-based therapies in the UK and elsewhere, it is striking that we were able to
identify so few studies. Even more striking is the absence of rigorous studies of music therapy, which
appears to be extremely popular in the treatment of traumatised children, particularly young children.

The quality of the RCT202 was generally poor, as was that of the QEx studies199,200,203 and COSs.201,204
Economic evidence
No economic evaluations of activity-based therapies for children who have been maltreated were located.
210
Chapter 5 Acceptability
Introduction
In this chapter we present evidence on the acceptability of therapeutic interventions to maltreated children,
their families and other carers. The chapter draws on three sources of evidence:
1. data from studies that are designed to investigate factors associated with treatment engagement and
dropout, and data from outcome studies that provide information on these issues, irrespective of
study design
2. data from qualitative studies designed to investigate the experiences of children and young people,
their carers and service providers
3. the views of members of our Young People’s Advisory Groups, and our PAG.
The issue of acceptability was addressed in a variety of ways in these included studies, and the
heterogeneity in the methods of data collection used was further complicated by overall study quality. We
used a systematic approach to reviewing the evidence about acceptability, first summarising the available
data on treatment engagement and completion then summarising qualitative evidence on the views
and experiences of children and young people, their carers and those providing the interventions. The
available studies varied considerably in number, design and quality for each group of interventions (CBT,
relationship-based, etc.), with the result that sometimes there is only a very thin evidence base, sometimes
the evidence is largely sourced from carers or service providers and sometimes there are data from a range
of sources.
We consider some of the key issues in defining acceptability, particularly in relation to quantitative data on
engagement and dropout. We then consider the information on acceptability in relation to studies of
particular interventions and groups of interventions. We present the views of children and young people
about what they want from professionals, and examine the synergies, discrepancies and gaps in the
findings from the published literature. On the basis of the evidence as a whole, we identify some of the
key messages which, we believe, raise some important issues about the acceptability of service provision
to this group of young people, and which are relevant to the development of effective and cost-effective
service provision.
Overview of included studies
Please refer to Chapter 2 for details of the search strategy and approach taken to this area of the review.
Seventy-three studies (see Table 12) were identified that addressed the issue of intervention acceptability.
Thematic analysis of the qualitative data was conducted and discussed by members of the research team.
Analysis of the data and identification of key themes was simultaneously deductive (based on key research
questions for this review) and inductive (emerging from the reported data). Table 12 lists the studies,
and provides an overview of the information available within each that relate to particular aspects
of acceptability.
There is considerable difficulty making any meaningful comparisons across the different therapeutic
approaches, given the diverse range of research methodologies and treatment modalities investigated.
However, a brief summary of the nature and quality of the data (by intervention group) is presented in
Appendix 13, and a more detailed description of each study is available in Appendix 14.
211
212
TABLE 12 Summary of acceptability
Profile of Therapy Caregivers’ Parent– Secondary Client–

Intervention Children – Caregiver – Clinician – completers/ difficult but shared Early therapist impact of therapist Parent–child Practical Quality
type Study satisfaction satisfaction satisfaction attriters worthwhile experience termination tension abuse relationship tension Gender Race considerations Resources assessment
a 481
CBT Barker 2005
ACCEPTABILITY
Buschbacher
629
2002
a
Chasson ✓
482
2008
Chasson ✓
630
2013
Eslinger ✓
631
2014
632

Fraynt 2014 ✓
a 492
Hubel 2014
a 107
Kolko 1996
a 497
Lange 2010 ✓
McPherson ✓
633
2012
a
Salloum
504
2014
San Diego
680
2011
a
Silovsky
505
2007
a 506
Smith 2008
634
Relationship- Cross 2013 ✓
based
Ducharme ✓
510
2000
a
Golding
511
2004
a
Osofsky ✓
515
2007
662
Powell 2010
Sudbery
663
2010
635
Taban 2001
Timmer ✓
656
2004
continued
assessment
Quality
Resources
considerations
Practical
Gender Race
Parent–child
tension
relationship
therapist
Client–
Secondary
impact of
abuse
therapist
Parent–
tension
termination
Early
Caregivers’
experience
shared
difficult but
worthwhile
Therapy
completers/
Profile of
attriters
✓
satisfaction
Clinician –
satisfaction
Caregiver –
satisfaction
Children –
Nelson-Gardell
636
639
161
538
678
637
Woodworth
Ashby 1987
Barth 1994
Peled 1992
Hyde 1995
Costa 2009
Baker 2001
Gustafsson
Danielson
Grayston
Tjersland
De Luca
Rushton
Boisvert
Monck
621
526
673
533
658
664
170
659
676
169
638
Conran
Study
1993
2010
2006
1991
2008
2000
1995
1996
1995
1996
2001
a
a
Psychoeducation
Group therapy
Intervention
Systemic
type
213
214
TABLE 12 Summary of acceptability (continued )
ACCEPTABILITY
Profile of Therapy Caregivers’ Parent– Secondary Client–

Intervention Children – Caregiver – Clinician – completers/ difficult but shared Early therapist impact of therapist Parent–child Practical Quality
type Study satisfaction satisfaction satisfaction attriters worthwhile experience termination tension abuse relationship tension Gender Race considerations Resources assessment
Counselling Baginsky
640
2001
641
Fowler 1992
642
Fowler 1993
175
Haight 2010

Haskett ✓
657
1991
Kilcrease-
Fleming
643
1992
644
Kolko 1999 ✓
Overlien
674
2011
645
Porter 1996
a 176
Reddy 2013
677
Scott 1996
679
Deb 2011 ✓
Thompson
646
2011
665
Psychotherapy Davies 2009
Horowitz ✓
647
1997
675
Jensen 2010
648
Lippert 2008 ✓
Peer mentoring Alaggia

660
1999
assessment
Quality
Resources
considerations
Practical
Gender Race
Parent–child
tension
relationship
therapist
Client–
Secondary
impact of
abuse
therapist
Parent–
tension
termination
Early
Caregivers’
experience
shared
difficult but
worthwhile
Therapy
a Studies that were also included in the review of effectiveness studies.

completers/
Profile of
attriters
✓
satisfaction
Clinician –
satisfaction
Caregiver –
satisfaction
Children –
667
652
145
651
655
Cunningham
Staines 2011
671
Gilbert 1988
Biehal 2012
670
West 2014
Risser 2013
Laan 2001
Gallagher
Shennum
Bannister
Hill 2009
Koverola
Leenarts
Murphy
649
666
672
650
668
669
661
653
654
Mishna
Burgon
Study
2009
2012
2013
1995
1996
2011
2012
2007
2014
Intensive service
Activity-based
Intervention
relevance
therapies
General
models
type
215
ACCEPTABILITY
Defining acceptability
What makes a treatment acceptable? For cancer patients, treatment may be experienced as highly
unpleasant, requiring major disruptions to daily life, and with evident adverse effects for the individual and
their family. Nonetheless, the treatment may be considered acceptable if there are few alternatives.
The ‘costs’ to the individual, and those close to them, may be outweighed by the anticipated benefits.
For maltreated children and their carers, the costs and benefits may seem very different. Children may
initially present with no problems, either emotionally or behaviourally, rendering the apparent cost
of pursuing or accepting services as unnecessary or unnecessarily high, especially if one of the ‘costs’ of
therapy is reliving or retelling experiences that are deeply personal, distressing and often traumatic.
Even when the need for therapy is evident, it may not be easy to persuade either the child or caregivers
to accept help, or to continue accepting help until problems are sufficiently ameliorated, if not resolved.
Possibly one of the most significant issues is that acceptability is rarely considered from the standpoint of
the child or young person. Most of the quantitative studies examining engagement with treatment do so
in relation to child or caregiver characteristics (e.g. maltreatment type, behaviour, age or mental health)
but rarely from the perspective of the child. Among the qualitative studies, most examine issues from the
perspectives of children’s caregivers.
What young people said

At the outset of this study, our consultations with young people focused on three issues: the outcomes
they considered important from therapy; what they felt made it easier to ask for help, or easier to get it;
and what they felt made it harder. We described the methodology in Chapter 2. The two groups with
whom we consulted approached the Q-sort task (used to facilitate discussion) in rather different ways,
but all took it very seriously (see Appendix 15).
Outcomes that matter

In relation to the outcomes they felt were important for maltreated children, one of the two groups felt
that 18 of the 25 outcomes listed on the Q-sort cards were too specific to particular problems (such as
anger or eating disorder) and would entail inappropriate generalisations, so they removed them. In this
group, this left only seven outcomes to discuss, to which the young people themselves added an eighth.
Despite differences in approach, there were clear similarities in the views of both groups. The items ranked
most highly across the two groups were as follows:
Helping the person to:
l learn skills to handle life’s ups and downs (group 1)

l understand what being ‘treated badly’ is, and learning to recognise when things are not OK (group 2)
l learn ways to keep themselves safe (e.g. knowing when to report something and to whom to report it)
(group 2)
l feel safe (groups 1 and 2)
l ‘bounce back’ if things in their life go wrong (groups 1 and 2).
Asking for, and receiving, help

The young people also viewed individuality as central to understanding what things might be important
in making it easier for someone to ask for help, or might make some forms of help more acceptable than
others. For example, two of the cards in the Q-sort were ‘person was still living with their family’ and ‘the
person was no longer living with their family’. The young people pointed out, quite appropriately, that it
was not easy to rank these cards one against the other because their importance would depend on
whether the young person had experienced maltreatment within the family or outside it. One of the things
that they emphasised in their discussions was the importance of choice, both in relation to starting and
ending a service or therapy. Young people in one of the groups were unanimous in the view that the most
216
important factor for a young person was the opportunity to meet a professional beforehand and to decide
whether or not they would be happy to begin getting help from them. Furthermore, the group wanted the
format of this preliminary meeting to be determined by the young person themselves, because some might
want an opportunity to meet a potential therapist informally (e.g. meeting for a cup of coffee) without any
mention of the therapy, whereas others might prefer a formal discussion of what to expect from the
intervention. Clearly these alternatives are not mutually exclusive, but reflect different concerns. The
opportunity to meet someone informally speaks to a concern about the likely quality of the therapeutic
relationship. It may also be a proxy for choice and commitment, both of which may increase the likelihood
of someone engaging with therapy, or staying with a course of treatment. A formal discussion of
expectations can provide an opportunity to allay anxieties, to negotiate boundaries and to make an
informed decision about the acceptability of what the therapist is offering.
Other things that mattered to young people included confidentiality (accessing help in ways that
maintained their confidentiality) and trust in the help-giver. Making their own decisions about whether or
not to get help, or at least being involved in that decision (rather than these decisions being taken by their
parents or carers) was also ranked highly, along with not feeling judged or criticised – and, perhaps
surprisingly, not having to worry about paying for the service. Clearly, many of these issues are of most
relevance to older children and young people, such as those in the advisory groups, but, in terms of
engagement with therapeutic services, they are probably salient to children of most age groups.
Things that get in the way

One group found it particularly difficult to identify a single factor that they regarded as the most significant
barrier to young people accessing therapy. This group identified two things that they thought might deter
young people from seeking help. The first was a worry that their situation was too complicated for anyone
to be able to help with, and the second was that some children might think that those offering help would
not believe them. Other factors identified were as follows.
The person does not:
l want to be seen as having mental health problems (group 1)

l know who to ask about getting help (group 2)
l think they need any help (group 1)
l trust the people/services offering help (group 2)
l think that the help available will work for them (group 1).
This is a percipient list from these groups of young people. Children whose families have been engaged
with social services for reasons of maltreatment, some of whom may have been removed from home as a
consequence, may well have ambivalent feelings about public services. It is not unusual for children to feel
responsible for a family break-up, and some are blamed by their parents for the involvement of Child
Protection Services. Together, these point to the importance of services anticipating, and addressing,
feelings of stigma and concerns about the likely effectiveness of services, and ensuring that those who
need help know where and how to access it. The barriers that can be created by parents who prevent
children from accessing services was also identified as an issue.
Most of these concerns or issues surface in the studies included in our acceptability review, although few
have been systematically investigated. We return to these issues after following a review of the
included studies.
Cognitive–behavioural interventions
Fourteen107,108,481,482,492,497,504–506,629–633,680 studies addressed issues relating to the acceptability of a range of

cognitive/behavioural interventions. Details can be found in Table 13.
217
218
ACCEPTABILITY
TABLE 13 Acceptability of cognitive/behavioural interventions
Sample size; response Data collection –

Study/location PICO rate acceptability Analysis Findings
481
Barker 2005 The Sunrise Project 14/67 children seen by Interviews Summary overview Parent views
project and/or their

UK P Children aged 4–18 (mean 9.2) parents; five social l Parents had a clear understanding and
years, with histories of physical, services staff expectations of therapy at outset
emotional, sexual abuse and l Most helpful: child having someone
neglect; 45% female neutral to talk to and reassurance about
their role as a parent
I Individual CBT approach, 1–25 l Least helpful: difficulty articulating what
sessions of 1 hour; emphasis on was less helpful, some felt that ending of
psychoeducation (older children) therapy was premature
and therapeutic play plus
age-appropriate psychoeducation Children’s views
for younger children
l Children had difficulty saying what was
C N/A most and least helpful
l Mixed views about timing of therapy
O Pre–post changes in therapist’s termination
rating of HoNOSCA scores382
Social services staff view
l Overwhelmingly positive but concerns

were raised about reliance on single
worker and funding insecurity
Buschbacher Individualised Support Project n=1 Interviews with foster Foster/adoptive parent’s views
2002629 parent and two
P Physically abused and neglected staff members of l Mother felt like an equal member of

USA male in foster care, aged 2.5 years three-person team the team
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
l Intervention improved quality of life for

I Family-centred, communication- the family
based approach to challenging
behaviour. 1- to 2-hour sessions, Staff views
increasing to 3 hours
l Such a comprehensive approach is
C N/A needed to deal with challenging
behaviour
O Improved child behaviour l Team approach was viewed positively
by all
l Parents should be regarded as partners in
the assessment and intervention process
l Limited time and resources were a source
of frustration
Chasson 2008482 Individual Exposure-based CBT n = 99 Withdrawal metrics Multiple regression Dropout was defined as failing to complete
analysis the PTAP
USA P Child victims or covictims of
trauma: sexual or physical abuse, l 41% children dropped out without
witness to murder/sexual assault; completing PTAP; on average, these
aged 5–19 (mean 10.88, SD 5.3) children attended nearly 15 sessions
years fewer than those who did not
terminate prematurely
68% female; 31% Hispanic, 30% l Mean number of attended sessions:
African American, 29% Caucasian, ¢ Dropouts: M = 5.05 (SD 6.02)
9% Other ¢ Completers: M = 19.66 (SD 8.47)
¢ All: M = 13.61 (SD 10.43)
I 20 × 1-hour sessions of TF-CBT
Higher severity of intrusion and depression
C N/A measured just before termination correlated
with fewer treatment sessions. Immediate
O Avoidance, intrusive thoughts, distress may be related to dropout
(IES279), depression (CDI258)
continued
219
220
ACCEPTABILITY
TABLE 13 Acceptability of cognitive/behavioural interventions (continued )

630
Chasson 2013 Individual Exposure-based CBT n = 134 Withdrawal metrics Regression analysis of In this study, premature treatment
trauma characteristics termination defined in terms of number
USA P Child victims or covictims of (99 from Chasson as predictors of of accumulated sessions
trauma: sexual or physical abuse, 2008482) attrition
witness to murder/sexual assault. Participants more likely to terminate
Aged 5–19 (mean 11.03, SD 3.6) treatment prematurely were those who had:
years l been abused by an older child rather
than by a parental figure
63% female; 34% Hispanic, 28% l not experienced a life threatening/
African American, 29% Caucasian, physical injury
9% Other l experienced a single traumatic incident
rather than multiple
I 20 × 1-hour sessions of TF-CBT
Conclusions: certain trauma characteristics
C N/A may be important to identify children at risk
of dropout
O Avoidance, intrusive thoughts,
depression

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Eslinger 2014631 Individual TF-CBT n = 115 Baseline, post Multinomial logistic Three levels of treatment attendance: early
treatment and regression of predictors dropout, moderate dose of treatment and full
USA P Children who were sexually, 3 months of dropout completion (see p. 125)
physically and emotionally abused,
or neglected (75%), or who l Early dropout 32% (n = 26)
experienced death of a caretaker l Moderate dose 23% (n = 27)
(9%), catastrophic event or l Full completion 54% (n = 62)
terrorism (16%); aged 5–19
(M = 9.7, SD 4.5) years Findings
57% female; 84% Caucasian l Living with biological/adoptive parents

increases risk of dropout
I 20 × 1-hour sessions of TF-CBT l As caregiver’s age increases by 1 year,
the odds that a child and caregiver will
C PCIT fully complete increases by 11%
O child behaviour (CBCL297,349);

PTSD (TSCC-A,325); parenting stress As child age increases by 1 year, the odds
(PSI725) of fully completing decreases by 20%a
For every year of increase in caregiver’s age,

the odds of receiving a moderate dose of
treatment increases by 10%
For every point rise in PTS score the odds that

a child and caregiver will receive a moderate
does increases by 4%
continued
221
222
ACCEPTABILITY

632
Fraynt 2014 Individual, group and/or family n = 562 Factors predicting Binominal regression; African American children had significantly
treatment engagement multinomial logistic shorter trauma-informed treatment duration
USA P Physically and sexually abused regression and higher rates of premature termination
children aged 2–18 (M = 12; SD than Spanish-speaking Latino children,
3.5) years; 49.3% female; 100% even when accounting for other variables
African American or Latino associated with treatment duration and
completion (e.g. child’s age, level of
I Trauma-focused treatment in functional impairment, and receipt of group
a mental health agency; average and field services)
number of sessions = 34 (SD 32.8)
C N/A
O Treatment engagement

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Hubel 2014492 Project SAFE n = 99; n = 67 analysed Child and parent client Child scores
evaluation form
USA P Sexually abused children aged (six-point Likert scale, Satisfaction with group therapists:
6–12 (M = 10; SD 1.63) years; 77% 6 = extremely
female; 80% Caucasian and their unfavourable) l Warm and understanding (M = 2.72,
non-offending parents SD 0.61)
l Knew what they were talking about
I 12 × 90 minutes of parallel group (M = 2.92, SD 0.28)
CBT to explore and cope with
feelings about abuse and empower Group topics:
against future victimisation
l Were important to me (M = 2.81,
C N/A SD 0.47)
O CHILD: depression (CDI430),
anxiety (RCMAS256), loneliness Overall group content:
(CLQ,726), impact of trauma
l Like coming to group (M = 2.83,
(CITES-R,414), fear of victimisation
(CFRV255 + Wolfe and Wolfe 1986, SD 0.045)
unpublished)
Caregiver scores
Satisfaction with group environment:
l Pleasantness of therapy rooms (M = 1.61,

SD 0.76)
l Supportiveness of therapists (M = 1.35,
SD 0.061)
l Relevance of treatment content
(M = 1.77, SD 0.76)
l Overall impact of therapy on child
(M = 2.10, SD 0.94)
continued
223
224

ACCEPTABILITY

107,108
Kolko 1996 Individual CBT n = 25 CBT, n = 18 FT, Treatment expectancy Treatment status and satisfaction
n = 12 control (five-point Likert scale)
USA P Physically abused children; mean l Initial treatment mean ratings for CBT
age = 8.6 (SD 2.2) years; 28% Brief phone call to and FT moderate to high
female each parent between l Ratings for all 10 items (CBT) and five
sessions 3 and 5 to items (FT) children were all > 4.0
I 12 × 1 hours of CBT determine initial l CBT rated higher in: interest in material;

treatment satisfaction learned that session; confidence that
C FT and TAU therapist could minimise abuse potential
Post-treatment 10-item
O Child to parent violence, child CEI Consumer satisfaction ratings (CEI)
externalising behaviour, parental
distress and child abuse risk; l Moderate to high acceptability
family conflict and cohesion l Parents reported high levels of
(see Chapter 4) acceptability and satisfaction
Lange 2010497 Therapist-assisted web-based Sampling via Client satisfaction: Quantitative findings
treatment advertisement and general, with
The Netherlands online application n = 24 treatment and with l Non-participation: pre-treatment
P Sexually abused children aged therapists; interviews withdrawal was high (77%); younger age
14–25 (M = 20, SD 3.5) years plus 10-point rating group had higher rates of pre-treatment
scale (1 = high) withdrawal, age 14–15 years = 87%
I Web-based treatment based on l Treatment dropout was low (17%)
CBT for PTSD in adults comprising Attrition
11 virtual contacts over 8 weeks Improvement during treatment showed
significantly higher effects than during the
C N/A – baseline controlled placebo period (net effect sizes 0.5–1.6)
O Impact of events (IES, Dutch Qualitative findings

adaptation727); depression (subscale
of SCL-90-R728,729); client satisfaction l 22% missed face-to-face contact but
plus routine outcome monitoring were highly satisfied with their therapists
l 91% would recommend treatment
to others
McPherson FSP n = 254 Treatment completion Univariate analysis and l Enrolment in public insurance (Medicaid)
2012633 multivariate logistic and referral to ongoing therapy services
P Sexually abused children aged regression models were associated with successful linkage

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
USA 3–16 years. 74% female to mental health treatment

l Children more likely to complete therapy
I Trauma-focused counselling if caregiver participated
including individual treatment, l Having only one child victim per
group therapy and/or FT; TF-CBT household, referral for ongoing therapy
most common treatment model services and caregiver’s participation in
used therapy services were associated with
treatment completion
C N/A l Having Medicaid and one child victim
were not significant in the multiple
O Linkage to mental health regression model
services plus patient-achieved goals
(retrospective chart review)
Salloum 2014504 Stepped Care TF-CBT n=6 Parents completed: Parent acceptability
USA P Physically and sexually abused l Expectancy l Expectations for successful treatment
children aged 3–7 (M = 4.7, SD Rating Form; were high
0.87) years; 22.2% female; 77.8% l Client l Parental expectations were higher for
Caucasian Satisfaction parents completing step 1 than
Questionnaire non-completers. Treatment satisfaction
I Step 1: 3 × 1-hour parent-led l Treatment costs scores were high (above 29) for
sessions; if insufficient, therapy calculated with the 5/6 parents
moves to 9 × 1.5-hour sessions led Time Tracking l At mid-assessment, mean satisfaction
by therapist System scores were 28 (SD 7.45),
post-assessment M = 31.50 (SD 1.00)
C N/A l Only one parent was uncomfortable
ending treatment
O Children: PTSD
(DIPA730 + TSCYC–PTS731); severity of
psychopathology (CGI-Severity732);
treatment improvement rating
(CGI-I)733
continued
225
226
Sample size; response

ACCEPTABILITY
Data collection –
680
San Diego 2011 TF-CBT 5/6 referred adolescents Participants’ journals; IPA l Recovery is non-linear in nature
participated therapy notes and l Analyses revealed an initial resistance
The Philippines P Sexually abused female children interviews towards therapy, finding it difficult to
aged 16–18 years Referrals came from re-experience traumatic events and
College Dean and struggle with negative emotions. In the
I 15 × 1–2 hours sessions of TF-CBT students in General early weeks they did not think therapy
Psychiatry & Personality would help, but this changed as therapy

C N/A Department progressed
O N/A Therapeutic changes reported include

establishing a sense of self-control;
self-renewal; meaning-making; and social
reconnection
Silovsky 2007505 Treatment for Preschool Children n = 85 CSBP Preschool Group l Caregivers recommended continuing all
with Sexual Behaviour Problems Satisfaction and Social aspects of the group
USA Validity Questionnaire l Knowledge after treatment significantly
P Sexually abused children aged (CSBP-PGSQ). Fata greater than before [t(34) = –11.65;
3–7 (M = 4.9, SD 1.1) years; 58% et al. 1989, unpublished p < 0.05]
F and the non-offending parent measure l Quality of topics rated ‘very useful’
I 12 × 90-minute parallel group Average satisfaction rating on seven-point

sessions followed by a conjoint scale was 6.35
session for parents and child.
Treatment protocol uses
behavioural, cognitive–behavioural
and psychoeducational approaches
C N/A
O Children: sexual behaviour

(CSBI-3734); behaviour problems and
social competence (CBCL,294;
Parents; stress (PSI471)

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Smith 2008506 SAS-CBT n=6 Client Satisfaction Adolescents

Questionnaire
Australia P Sexually abused children aged All adolescents attended every therapy
11–16 (M = 14) years and session apart from one dropout
non-offending guardians; 66%
female Adolescent Satisfaction Questionnaire scores
indicated that 4/5 strongly agreed that the
I 12 × 1.5-hour weekly of SAS-CBT programme was of high quality, it helped
conducted for adolescents and them make progress, it met their needs, they
guardians in parallel. would recommend it and it would help them
to deal more effectively with trauma
C N/A
Adolescents felt understood by therapists and
O Trauma (TSCC258); depression free to express thoughts and feelings related
(CDI258) to abuse
12 weekly sessions Guardians
l 3/6 parents/guardians dropped out

midway; all reasons were based on other
commitments and they continued to
support the adolescents by bringing them
to and from therapy
CEI, Child Evaluation Inventory; CFRV, CITES Fear of Victimisation; CLQ, Child Loneliness Questionnaire; CSBI-3, Child Sexual Behavior Inventory-3; CSBP, Children with Sexual Behavior
Problems; DIPA, Diagnostic Infant and Preschool Assessment; FSP, Family Support Program; IPA, interpretative phenomenological analysis; N/A, not applicable; PICO, participants,
intervention, outcomes, comparisons; PSI, Parenting Stress Index; PTAP, post-treatment assessment packet; SCL-90-R, Symptom Checklist-90-Revised.
a Article misrepresents odds as likelihoods and miscalculates the odds for child’s age. The abstract also misreports the multinomial logistical regression of table 2 as showing a significant
effect for child’s externalising behaviour. Table 2 clearly shows these effects to be insignificant in both models (p = 0.52 in one and p = 0.44 in the other).
227
ACCEPTABILITY
Study design
One107,108 of the included studies was a randomised trial. The rest were uncontrolled studies.
Sample sizes
Sample sizes varied. They included a single case629 and four497,504,506,680 studies with very small samples of
six504,506,680 and 25.497 Five107,108,481,482,492,505 studies had samples numbering between 50 and 100, and four
studies630–633 had samples of > 100. McPherson et al.633 recruited 254. Fraynt et al.632 had the largest
sample of 562 children, but was a study based on data from a core data set in the USA.
Location
These were mostly US based (nine107,108,482,492,504,505,629–633 studies), with two Australasian studies (Australia,506
Philippines680), two European studies (UK,481 The Netherlands497) and one South African study.200
Participants
The age ranges of children varied from 2.5 years to 25 years. Six492,497,504,505,633,680 studies reported on
interventions that were solely treating children for sexual abuse history. Kolko 1996107,108 focused solely on
children who had been physically abused. The other studies recruited children with had experienced one or
more types of maltreatment.
Interventions
Interventions covered individual, group- or family-based therapy. Lange and Ruwaard497 explored the
impact and acceptability of a web-based version of cognitive/behavioural approaches with no face-to-face
contact at all between therapist and client.
The number of sessions ranged from 8 to 34, with most interventions lasting 12 sessions (eight
studies);107,108,481,492,497,504–506,632,680 three629,631,633 studies did not specify the length of treatment. Interventions
in the two Chasson et al.482,630 studies comprised 20 sessions.
Fraynt et al.632 reported variable attendance rates which differed in relation to ethnicity, the focus of
treatment (family treatment vs. no family treatment), group treatment compared with no group treatment,
and location of treatment (office vs. community).
Characteristics of those who complete treatment

Pre-treatment withdrawal was the main focus of the study497 reported by Lange and Ruwaard.
Four482,630,631,633 studies focused on treatment compliance. Factors predicting treatment engagement were
analysed in the Fraynt et al.632 study.
Pre-treatment withdrawal
Lange and Ruwaard497 set out to explore the effects of an online treatment for young victims of sexual
abuse. In light of significant pre-treatment withdrawal in an earlier uncontrolled study, the authors
introduced a number of measures that they hoped would reduce this in the context of a controlled
(within-subject baseline-controlled) study. In common with other online treatment studies, the previous
study had experienced a pre-treatment withdrawal rate of 90%.
In Lange and Ruwaard497 there remained a high level (77%) of pre-treatment withdrawal (82 out of
106 applicants not excluded by the research team), despite the steps taken to minimise it, namely no
randomisation, parental consent required only for children of < 16 years rather than < 18 years (Dutch
law for RCTs of new interventions), raising the upper age level for participants from 18 to 25 years, and
providing the alternative of a structured interview by ‘chat’ if they were reticent to answer screening
questions on the telephone.
228
Data available to the researchers indicated that pre-treatment withdrawal was strongly correlated with
biographic questions, suggesting that anonymity may be an important factor, although whether for
treatment or as an artefact of the study is not clear. The lowest pre-treatment withdrawal was among the
oldest group, among which 46% (19/41) of those aged ≥ 18 years started treatment. All but one of
the eight adolescents aged 14–15 years (and who required parental consent) withdrew, and 12 of the
16 young people aged 16–17 years withdrew (75%). Once engaged in treatment, there were few
subsequent dropouts. The authors conclude that ‘fear of losing anonymity is important for both young
and old participants, whereas the fear of needing parental consent is more or less decisive for younger age
groups’497 (≤ 16 years). Once engaged in treatment, there were few subsequent dropouts.
These findings need to be interpreted against the context of a very small study. One of the
recommendations of the authors is to change the intervention from a therapist-led online treatment to a
wholly ‘self-help’ model, which may resolve the anxieties about loss of anonymity, while not dealing with
some of the legal dilemmas associated with professional accountability and so on.
Treatment engagement
Fraynt et al.632 used regression analysis to investigate factors associated with treatment engagement in
trauma-informed therapies. The paper632 includes no detailed description of the therapies offered these
children, but the interventions they identify as trauma-informed interventions include TF-CBT,
cognitive–behavioural intervention for trauma in schools, CPP, and EMDR therapy.
Although the study632 is set in the USA, its findings raise potentially important issues for the successful
engagement of children and young people in therapy within the UK. Fraynt et al.632 found that age,
functional impairment and the receipt of group and community-based (as opposed to office-based)
services were correlated with increased engagement. Younger children who received more group sessions,
and children who received services in places other than the office, were more likely to engage in
treatment, as were children with more functional impairments, although children with more impairments
were also more likely to be deemed by their therapist to have dropped out of treatment involuntarily.
When these things were controlled for, ethnicity remained a significant predictor of engagement, with
Spanish-speaking Latino clients being most engaged in treatment (an average of 34 sessions) and African
American clients being least engaged (an average of 25 sessions). The authors hypothesise that because
of their language preference, Spanish-speaking Latinos may be more likely to get a therapist of the same
cultural background to themselves, which may enhance treatment engagement compared with African
American families. Furthermore, they hypothesise that the latter may be less engaged in treatment because
they may mistrust or have had negative experiences of mental health treatment services (p. 72). These
findings underline the importance of addressing language and culture in the context of mental health
services. They also highlight the importance of ensuring that services communicate relevance and sensitivity
to families from minority ethnic groups, and to all families who may have found engagement with Child
Protection Services itself a traumatic experience, leaving them reluctant to seek help or engage with
available treatment.
Treatment completion
Regression analyses were used in four482,630,631,633 studies to examine treatment completion. Caregivers’
perceptions of the severity of abuse appear to be a common theme relating to treatment completion.
Chasson et al.482 reported that higher levels of depressive symptoms and feelings of intrusion during
treatment were associated with dropout from TF-CBT. In a later study,630 in which they analysed data from
the same group of children augmented with additional cases, the authors found that children who had
been abused by another child (not by a parental/adult figure), or had experienced a single event and had
not suffered a life-threatening or serious injury, were more likely to drop out than those children exposed
to multiple, physical injurious abuse by an adult.
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ACCEPTABILITY
Eslinger et al.631 found that the odds of dropout were greater for children with younger parents. The
authors also found a relationship between age and dropout, with the odds of dropout being greater for
older children. Children in foster care were more likely to complete treatment than those living with
biological or adoptive parents, although the authors augur some caution as the parents in this study were
more likely to be younger than foster carers. When children’s and parents’ scores were high for PTSD
(which the authors interpret as ‘acknowledgement’) then the odds of children completing at least a
moderate ‘dose’ of treatment were improved. Children who were the only victim in the family were also
more likely to complete at least a moderate dose if their caregivers were involved in the treatment process.
McPherson et al.633 also found that caregiver involvement was positively associated with treatment
completion and achievement of mental health treatment goals among a sample of sexually abused
children who were referred to a hospital-based children’s centre that provided assessment and therapy.
This issue of how seriously the abuse is viewed will be discussed in more detail.
Acceptability
Children’s views
Four107,108,492,497,506 studies used data from rating scales to quantify children’s satisfaction levels. Scores indicated
moderate to high levels of satisfaction, both with therapists and with CBT interventions. When studies also
reported caregiver ratings, children’s reported levels of satisfaction were lower than those of their parents.
Lange and Ruwaard497 asked participants about their satisfaction with treatment in general and also specific
aspects of treatment. Their participants rated the therapeutic alliance, and were asked questions about the
nature of the online contact, whether or not they missed face-to-face contact with their therapists, and how
they perceived the effectiveness of treatment. Participants generally expressed satisfaction with their online
treatment, and, although 22% did miss face-to-face contact, all were highly satisfied with their therapists,
and all but 2 of the 23 said that they would recommend the treatment to others. Significantly, although all
modules were well received, the module that focused on the exposure was most highly rated.
This study497 (which used baselines as a source of historical control) found a steep drop in scores on the
IES279 during the control phase, which Lange and Ruwaard,497 attributed to an effect of screening (which
asked questions that required participants to focus on their trauma and current situations). They
hypothesise that, in combination with the psychoeducation and expectation of treatment, this might have
resulted in increases of awareness and hope.
The studies by Smith and Kelly506 and Kolko107,108 used questionnaires to assess perceptions of treatment
acceptability and treatment expectations. Four of the five participants in the Smith and Kelly study506
agreed that the programme was of high quality, it met their needs and they would recommend it to
others. Children and parents in the study by Kolko107,108 were asked to rate the overall acceptability of the
key components of the interventions allocated to them. At the end of treatment children completed the
10-item Child Evaluation Inventory (CEI301). Mean ratings suggested moderate to high acceptability of
treatment at the outset of treatment, with all but one item scoring a mean rating of > 3 (out of 5). Ratings
tended to be higher than those for FT in relation to participants interested in the material learned that
session (4.6 vs. 3.8) and confidence that therapists could help minimise abuse potential (4.2 vs. 2.8).
The mean ratings for children’s responses on the CEI suggest moderate to high acceptability (25.1 for CBT,
22.6 for FT) and utility (15.1 for CBT, 14.0 for FT).
Barker and Place481 and San Diego680 report qualitative data on children’s and young people’s views of
their treatment. Most of the children were generally positive about the experience, but Barker and Place481
described the children as having some difficulty in articulating what they found most and least useful
about the therapy. The analyses of the progress of five young women through the course of therapy by
San Diego680 illustrated the women’s reluctance at the start of treatment, initial loathing of re-experiencing
trauma and being unsure that therapy would help, but becoming more positive as therapy progressed.
230
Caregivers’ views
Six107,108,481,492,504,505,629 studies reported caregivers’ views of treatment and provided both qualitative and
quantitative data, using a range of data collection methods, from qualitative interviews to focus groups
and evaluation forms. Details are provided in Table 13.
All used rating scales to collect data on satisfaction, and some on caregiver treatment expectancy.
In five107,108,481,504,505,629 of these studies, parents were recruited by a convenience sample, as parents of
children involved in treatment; it is unclear how the caregiver sample was selected in the Project
Safe programme.492
Parents rated treatment satisfaction as ‘high’ in all studies that used treatment rating scales.107,108,492,504,505
The sample sizes in these studies varied from 6504 to 85.41 Some parents in the Barker and Place481 study
felt that the CBT intervention had ended sooner than expected.
Two481,629 studies presented qualitative findings from interviews with parents and carers. Both studies481,629
reported positive experiences of the interventions, including a clear understanding of treatment aims and
their expectations for the therapy, appreciating having someone neutral to whom their child could talk;481
Buschbacher’s single-case study629 found that the mother felt part of the therapeutic team that treated her
son, although this study is particularly vulnerable to bias, as it was effectively (as its title indicates) a
testimonial sought from a selected parent by a clinical team, one of whom conducted the interviews.
The quantitative evidence presented supports the positive reports from the qualitative data.
In the Kolko107,108 study, parents were telephoned between the third and the first treatment sessions and
asked to answer 10 questions using a five-point Likert scale (e.g. how much did the counsellor listen to
you?, how much do you like your counsellor?). At the end of treatment they completed a 16-item
consumer satisfaction questionnaire. Responses indicated high levels of acceptability with both treatments
(53.8 for CBT, 50.9 for FT) and overall satisfaction (27.7 for CBT, 27.4 for FT).
Staff views
Qualitative evidence of staff views was also presented by Barker and Place481 and Buschbacher and Place,629
both of whom report positive findings. However, in both studies,481,629 staff expressed concerns about
resource constraints, or strain, that was felt to threaten the viability of the service. The Sunrise Project481
relied on one worker, and staff referring children to the project worried about the security of this post, the
overall lack of resources and the lack of potential to increase capacity. Concerns about capacity were also
raised by Buschbacher.629
The importance of parents and caregivers in securing successful outcomes in therapy was generally
recognised in all studies, and is a recurring theme that will be discussed in more detail.
Summary: acceptability of cognitive–behavioural therapy interventions

Cognitive–behavioural interventions appear to be broadly acceptable to both children and caregivers,
but the studies reviewed raise some issues for consideration.
Trauma exposure (by a number of means) is a central component of most CBT interventions. Although its
proponents would argue that this is a significant factor in its effectiveness, there is some evidence that this
aspect of CBT might be correlated with treatment dropout, and it is clearly something that parents and
caregivers are anxious about. It suggests that therapist should perhaps be more mindful of the potential
impact of traumatic reactions to exposure and take steps to ensure that therapy does not impose more of
a demand on children and young people than they can tolerate. A guiding principle of early desensitisation
interventions was to ensure that no patient left a session without experiencing ‘coping’.
Although generally ‘one-study stories’, the evidence suggests that the location of therapy should perhaps
receive more consideration than is usual. Most services are offered in clinics or hospitals, but it is possible
231
ACCEPTABILITY
that if services were to be offered in the home then this might be more acceptable to some children and
families. The same study632 that found an advantage for community-based treatments among ethnically
diverse, urban children in the USA also found that children who participated in group treatments were
more likely to complete treatment. Groups may address some of the anxieties that children feel about
engaging in therapy (although of course they may engender some of their own fears).
Most CBT interventions include an element of psychoeducation, and it is notable that Lange and Ruwaard497
reported a steep decrease in scores on the IES,279 which the authors attribute to an unplanned consequence
of screening, which comprised a combination of exposure and learning about abuse and its consequences.
As well as reinforcing the potential of online interventions, this finding suggests that engagement in
treatment might be enhanced by investing time in explaining the treatment rationale to potential patients.
Although a modest study that highlights significant challenges with engagement, Lange and Ruwaard497
indicate the potential for developing web-based CBT interventions, at least for specific sequelae of sexual
abuse. Given the role of these media in young people’s lives, this might be an important delivery mode for
further consideration. However, it raises complex issues around confidentiality and anonymity, and the
ethical obligations placed on therapists.
Eight510,511,515,634,635,656,662,663 studies were included that reported RBIs. One656 study described PCIT, and
three510,511,635 studies were concerned with parent training interventions. Two515,663 studies were of
attachment-based interventions. Although not strictly attachment-based interventions, we consider
two634,662 other studies under this heading. Powell and Cheshire662 explored the benefits of massage by
‘non-offending’ parents for children who had been sexually abused; we include it in this group because it
aims to improve bonding and communication. Cross et al.634 analysed data on study and intervention
retention in a multisite evaluation of projects providing services to children exposed to violence, two-thirds
of whom received interventions focused on dyadic therapy or FT.735
Attachment-based interventions
Details of these studies can been found in Table 14.
Location
The studies by Cross et al.634 and Osofsky et al.515 were set in the USA, whereas the studies by Sudbery
et al.663 and Powell and Cheshire662 were undertaken in the UK.
Study designs
The four515,634,662,663 studies vary widely in design.
Cross et al.634 used data from a multiyear, multisite, national evaluation of 15 sites providing services to
children exposed to violence. They examined retention at 6 months post baseline, using logistic regression
to analyse the characteristics of those retained in treatment.
Osofsky et al.515 report on a multisite study of a pilot infant mental health programme. Interviews were
used to obtain caregivers’ and therapists’ qualitative impressions of treatment.
The Sudbery et al.663 study is the only study of the three that presents children’s views of the intervention.
As well as a focus group, semistructured interviews and survey methodology, case file analysis and
232
TABLE 14 Acceptability of attachment-based interventions

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Study and Sample size; Data collection –

location PICO response rate acceptability Analysis method Findings
Cross 2013634 Safe Start Promising Approaches n = 1085; 60% Predictors of study Single predictors of Children more likely to be retained in the
(SSPA) retained retention defined as study retention – study were those:
USA follows: logistic regression
P Maltreated children aged 1–17 l with older caregivers
(50% 3–7) years; mean age of l Families enrolled in Multivariate predictors l who were older
retained group = 5.56 (SD 3.03) the study, completed of study retention – l who reported more maltreatment
years, mean age of not-retained baseline assessment multivariate regression l who were assigned to the intervention
group = 4.99 (2.81) years but did not provide remodelling
data at 6-month Among those who were assigned to the
Retained 53.3% female follow-up – not intervention group, those who received any
retained services as part of Safe Start Promising
Not retained 50.7% female l Families who Approaches were more likely to be retained
provided data for in the study at 6 months
I CPP, one-to-one and group both time points –
retained Caregivers of intervention and comparison
C N/A children were more likely to be retained
if they :
O N/A
l rated their own physical health as poor
or fair
l reported more maltreatment of the child
l were assigned to the intervention
group
continued
233
234
TABLE 14 Acceptability of attachment-based interventions (continued )
ACCEPTABILITY

515
Osofsky 2007 CPP n = 346 children, Caregivers’ and Caregivers:
n = 57 dyads therapists’ qualitative
USA P High risk parents at risk of impressions of treatment l generally rated the programme
maltreating or had maltreated their positively
children aged 2–52 months at l indicated improvement in family
intake (M = 27, SD 10.91 months); functioning from 76%–96%
35% female l gave a variety of reasons for not starting

or completing treatment, including:
I Number of treatment sessions
ranged from 8 to 92 (M = 27) ¢ inconvenient location (n = 14)
¢ caregiver’s rights terminated (n = 6)
C N/A ¢ family could not be contacted
(n = 4)
O N/A ¢ caregiver incarcerated (n = 3)
¢ caregiver did not co-operate (n = 2)
¢ caregiver’s location unknown (n = 2)
¢ case closed and treatment not
mandated (n = 2)
¢ transportation not available and
school-based treatment was not
possible (n = 1)
¢ caregiver died (n = 1)
¢ reason unknown (n = 23)
Therapists:
l reported positive outcomes

l noted that therapy provided additional
opportunity for early detection of
developmental delay
l helped mothers to realise the need for,
and establishing, support systems

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Sudbery 2010663 Attachment and ‘holding’ therapy n = 45 children Individual and group l Overall, the young people valued
interviews with current therapy as an opportunity to be listened
UK P Children aged 6–21 years who and former residents in to and to talk
experienced multiple abuse residential care l Some children continued to experience
difficulties establishing and maintaining
I Therapy using ‘holding’ Interviews with employees caring relationships, including at
techniques and company directors; follow-up
content analysis of files l There was mixed evidence presented
C N/A and organisational about the acceptability of holding
documents; survey of therapy for both young people
O N/A parents, social workers and parents
and children
Powell 2010662 MOSAC Massage n = 5 children, Semistructured qualitative At follow-up, all mothers were happy with
n = 4 mothers and interviews the practical considerations of the
UK P Sexually abused children and 1 grandmother programme, most found it easy to learn and
their mothers and one attended one-to-one aimed to continue at home. They also felt
grandmother; age range sessions with children less isolated meeting similar mothers
5–18 years, 80% female (one mother attended
with two children) Difficulties:
I Nine sessions using massage to
help address problems associated l practical difficulties related to travelling
with children’s sexual abuse l contrary wishes of older children
C N/A
O N/A
N/A, not applicable; PICO, participants, intervention, outcomes, comparisons.
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ACCEPTABILITY
organisational documentation were used, and two members of the research team were embedded within
the organisation as participant observers.
The Powell and Cheshire662 study was a pilot evaluation that used qualitative methods.
Sample sizes
Pooling data from 15 sites, the sample in the Cross et al.634 study was 1085. Osofsky et al.515 recruited
75 mother–child dyads: 25 from each of three sites. The sample size in the Sudbury et al.663 study is
difficult to ascertain, but the authors appear to have scrutinised the files of 113 children, conducted a
focus group of eight young people and interviewed a further four. Powell and Cheshire662 conducted
semistructured interviews with four mothers and one grandmother.
Participants
Cross et al.634 reported an age range of 1–17 years, with the majority of participants aged between 3 and
7 years. Children in the Osofsky et al.515 study were maltreated young children aged < 5 years, or young
children at risk of maltreatment. Their mean age was 20.19 months (SD 10.91 months).
Sudbery et al.663 report on an older population with an age range of between 6 and 19 years, using
purposive sampling to achieve a demographic mix of participants. Powell and Cheshire662 conducted
interviews with four non-abusing mothers and a grandmother of children aged 5–18 years who had been
sexually abused.
Interventions
Services in the Cross et al.634 study differed across sites but all provided therapy to children, caregivers or
both. Eight of the 15 sites provided a form of CPP,129 often in addition to other services. Detailed
information of the interventions is not reported but the reader is referred to other sources of information.
Osofsky et al.515 describe a model of intervention designed to identify families with children at risk and
provide clinical evaluation and treatment, with a view to enhancing children’s development. The treatment
provided was CPP.
Sudbery et al.663 were focused on the holding therapy techniques used in a therapeutic residential setting
for children, all of whom had been assessed as experiencing disordered attachment, some with an
attachment disorder diagnosis.
The MOSAC Massage Programme (MMP) aims to equip mothers with simple massage routines that will
‘enable them to relax and calm their child, reintroduce positive touch in a safe environment, enable
bonding/rebuilding of the mother-child relationship and work towards replacing memories of touch as
fearful, painful, and distressing with memories of touch as loving, nurturing, and trusting’.662
Characteristics of treatment completers

Cross et al.634 examined five different predictors of study retention: demographics; violence exposure;
child mental health; caregiver demographics; and engagement in intervention. Using logistic regression,
they found, as in other studies, that those with older caregivers and those reporting higher levels of
maltreatment were more likely to be retained. Physical health also had a relationship with retention, with
those who rated their health as ‘poor’ or ‘fair’ also being more likely to maintain treatment. However, this
study634 did not set out to examine treatment retention and thus the methodology falls somewhat short of
exploring the factors related to treatment completion comprehensively, including motivation to change.
Osofsky et al.515 reported that, of 129 child–caregiver pairs referred over 3 years, 75 were non-compliant
from the outset or dropped out of treatment. Some families were court ordered and others were referred
by child welfare or primary care providers. The authors observe that attrition is not surprising in samples in
which substance abuse, parental mental illness or low functioning and homelessness are common. Of the
236
57 dyads that completed treatment, mother’s age at intake and maternal education (completed high
school) were significantly correlated with treatment completion.
Acceptability
Children’s views
In the Sudbery et al.663 study, children reported feeling safer in this setting than they had done in previous
placements (many had experienced multiple placements over a short period of time). The use of restraint
was sometimes seen as important, to keep everyone safe. Some children found it difficult to develop
secure attachments with staff. The data are, however, very limited. The sample is unlikely to be
representative, and the study663 was poorly designed and executed, and fewer children participated than
indicated interest in doing so.
Caregivers’ views
In the Osofsky et al.515 study, 45% of participants who completed treatment also completed a satisfaction
survey, including one participant who did not comply with treatment and one who was still in treatment.
On investigation, the only factor correlated with survey completion was programme site (site 1, 72%;
site 2, 58%; and site 3, 28%). Parents were asked eight questions about the effectiveness of the
programme and their satisfaction with the intervention. Those who responded were extremely positive.
It is not made clear whether these questions were asked face to face or anonymously, which may have an
impact on responses; it is also unclear whether or not those who did not complete the survey (56%) did not
do so because of dissatisfaction with the programme. The differential completion across the three sites may
also suggest variation in delivery.
Sudbery et al.663 briefly mention parents’ views of holding therapy as mixed, but no data are reported.
Powell and Cheshire662 report that mothers were generally happy with the practical aspects of MMP.
They appreciated the ground rules that were established for the group sessions that preceded massage
and the safeguards taken to protect the vulnerability of participants, for example no clothes removed.
One of the five carers felt that because her children were teenagers it was difficult to get them to
10 sessions (they did not want to spend time with their mother).
Staff views
Therapists involved in the infant mental health programme515 noted positive outcomes in both
caregiver–child interactions and other treatment outcomes, for example assistance with the early
identification of possible developmental delays and subsequent follow-up with primary care, and helping
mothers to understand and establish support systems around them. An additional positive outcome that
may be associated with the intervention was that no further reports of abuse or neglect were reported
during treatment and up to post assessment, and there was a major reduction in reports during the first
3 years of the pilot. Although Sudbery et al.663 interviewed staff, this evidence is not presented in any
detail in the paper.

Only one656 study addressed the acceptability of PCIT (Table 15).
Location
The study656 was conducted in the USA.
Study design and sample size

Timmer et al.656 used social exchange theory as a framework within which to examine foster parents’
perceptions of their foster children, their relationships with them and their own functioning, comparing the
views of 102 kin and 157 non-kin foster carers. The rationale for the study656 was that such perceptions
might impact on the investment that foster carers make in their foster children, all of whom had been
referred to PCIT on account of their behaviour problems.
237
ACCEPTABILITY
TABLE 15 Acceptability of PCIT
Data
Study and Sample size; collection – Analysis
location PICO response rate acceptability method Qualitative findings
Timmer PCIT 102 kin Treatment Treatment completers –

2004656 foster carers, completion 13.6 sessions (SD 7.4)
157 non-kin
foster carers Early termination – 7.1
P Foster carers of children sessions (SD 6.7)
USA aged 2–8 (M = 4.4) years,
who experienced multiple 54.9% of kin foster carers
maltreatment; 36% completed treatment,
children female; 95% 36.9% of non-kin foster
foster carers female; 33% carers completed
Caucasian
χ2 (1, n = 259) = 8.09;
I PCIT p < 0.01
C N/A Non-kin foster carers

were more likely to report
O Child behaviour externalising behaviour in
(CBCL;297,736 ECBI311,737); of their foster child
caregiver stress
(PSI297,725,736); caregiver
depression
(SCL-90-R705); child abuse
potential (CAPI366)
N/A, not applicable; PICO, participants, intervention, outcomes, comparisons; PSI, Parenting Stress Index;
SCL-90-R, Symptom Checklist-90-Revised.
Participants
The children were aged 2–8 years (M = 4.37 years) and were victims of multiple maltreatment. The majority
were male (64%), cared for by women (95%) and one-third were Caucasian.
Intervention
The study656 report contains no detailed description of the intervention, but provides a brief outline
of standard PCIT, that is, a two-phase therapy that begins with a focus on enhancing the parent–child
relationships (CDirI) followed by a focus on enhancing child compliance (PDI). Both phases (which each last
around 7–10 sessions) begin with a didactic component followed by therapist coaching, conducted by a
‘bug in the ear’ from a separate observation room.

Treatment completion and withdrawal metrics were reported. Dyads were considered to have completed
treatment if they had mastered the relationship enhancement element of the programme, and could
demonstrate sustained child’s compliance to commands and successful discipline approaches. If dyads did
not attend treatment after the initial session, or if a parent chose to terminate therapy before the
treatment goals had been met, then these were considered as early terminators. The average number of
treatment sessions to treatment completion was 13.6 (SD 7.4). The average number of coaching sessions
for dyads terminating early was 7.1 (SD 6.7). There were few demographic differences between the kin
and non-kin carer groups.
Kin foster carers were significantly more likely to complete treatment than non-kin carers: 54.9% of kin
carers completed treatment, compared with 36.9% non-kin carers completed [χ2(1, n = 259) = 8.09;
p < 0.01].
238
Of the 145 foster carers who terminated treatment early, approximately two-thirds of kin and non-kin
carers left treatment during phase 1 (CDirI). Of the rest, around half terminated treatment during the
second phase (parent directed) and half never started. Of the early terminations, 40% were as a result of
Child Welfare Services moving the child to a pre-adoptive home (more likely to happen in non-kin care
settings). Some 43% were initiated by caregivers. In almost 28% of cases termination was triggered by the
therapist and an 11% early treatment termination was categorised as ended by ‘other’ (not specified).
The results of binary logistic regressions suggest that kin caregivers with clinical levels of parental distress
were more likely to stay in treatment than non-kin foster carers or kin caregivers scoring in the normal
range on this indicator, although this effect was only marginally significant (p < 0.06). From their analyses
the authors conclude that ‘parental distress’ explains some of the differences in overall attrition between
kin and non-kin caregivers, and hypothesise that kin caregivers’ distress reflects their frustration and
helplessness in the face of their foster children’s behavioural challenges and may motivate them to seek
and continue with treatment.
Given that this was a study of foster parents, the authors note their concern about the relationship
between elevated scores on the CAPI and early termination. If so, then this is yet another study that
suggests that those who need help most are those who are least likely to access help or complete
treatment. Similarly, those foster parents who avoided completing the Parenting Stress Index (PSI) were
also more likely to leave treatment early, perhaps because they interpreted this as a measure of their
mental health rather than that of their child, and therefore as a threat.
Parent training interventions

Three510,511,635 studies presented data for parent training interventions. Details are shown in Table 16.
Location
Two510,635 of the studies were based in the USA and one511 in the UK.
Study design
The study by Ducharme et al.510 was a multiple baseline study of the effects of an intervention to help
parents manage oppositional behaviour. The Golding and Picken511 study was a qualitative evaluation of
two forms of group work. The Taban and Lutzker635 study was a study of parental satisfaction and
acceptability of a parent training programme, exploring parental preference for different models
of training.
Sample sizes
Sample sizes were small, with just 15 children from nine families in the Ducharme et al.510 study and
44 children and 41 carers in the Golding and Picken511 study. In the study by Taban and Lutzker635 data
were collected from the 31 parents provided with parent training in Project SafeCare.
Participants
Children in the Taban and Lutzker635 study ranged in age from birth to 5 years old (M = 4.9 years). The
studies by Ducharme et al.510 and Golding and Picken511 examined an older population aged between 3 and
12 years, and the foster carers in the Golding and Picken511 study were caring for school-aged children.
Participants in the Taban and Lutzker635 study were drawn mainly from the Latino population (68%).
Golding and Picken511 suggest that the children fostered by their participants were white British (like the
carers). No information is provided by Ducharme et al.510
Children had been victims of physical abuse and witnessed domestic violence in the Ducharme et al.510
study, and victims of physical abuse and neglect in the Golding and Picken511 study. Eighty per cent of
those who received the parent interaction training in Taban and Lutzker635 were from a sample of
maltreated children referred by the Department of Child and Family Services.
239
240
TABLE 16 Acceptability of parent training interventions
Study and Sample size; Data collection – Analysis

ACCEPTABILITY
Ducharme Group Parent Training n = 28 parents n = 8 mothers completed a Mean satisfaction with:
2000510 satisfaction questionnaire
P Children aged 3–10 years who n = 15 children from (scale 0–5, 5 most positive) l the programme = 4.4
USA experienced physical abuse and n = 9 families l the therapist = 4.8
witnessed domestic violence and their
mothers Mothers rated their children significantly more
cooperative with requests after treatment
I Two group and then individual

(parent–child) sessions of errorless n = 13 families dropped out citing severe stressors:
compliance therapy child apprehension; commitment to psychiatric unit;
suicidal ideation; father refused treatment
C Multiple baseline controls
O Compliance (event recording plus

Compliance Probability Checklist)
Golding 2004511 Parent Training n = 44 children, n = 41 Participant satisfaction Parent Training Group
foster carers questionnaire, qualitative
UK P Foster parents of children aged evaluation, group l 84% found it very helpful
5–15 years, who experienced abuse or facilitator feedback l 55% increased their understanding
neglect and who had challenging l 48% increased their confidence
behaviour; 43% female
Fostering Attachments:
I 18 × 2-hour, monthly sessions of
Fostering Attachments l 60% found it very helpful
l 50% increased their understanding
C IY plus psychoeducational l 50% increased their confidence
component
O SDQ;721 Knowledge Quiz, Symptom Group facilitator feedback

checklist (attachment group only)
l many of the foster carers had their own histories
of abuse and neglect
l attendance was good, with a high degree
of participation
l video vignettes were the least popular
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Study and Sample size; Data collection – Analysis

635
Taban 2001 Project SafeCare n = 45 families health Three social validity Positive
training, n = 37 home questionnaires developed
USA P Parents of children from birth to 5 accident prevention; specifically for the study l Provided them with useful information and skills
(M = 4.9) years, who experienced n = 31 PCIT l Felt more confident
multiple abuse; 64% Latino, 28% l Improved interaction with their children
Caucasian, 7% African American l Enjoyed spending time with their children more
l Would recommend to others
I Eco-behavioural programme l Good training procedures and materials
(partial replication of Project 12-Ways); l Staff behaviour, conduct and training rated highly
15 sessions, three areas of l Counsellors were friendly, helpful and
intervention: home safety; infant and knowledgeable and not too intrusive or critical
child health care; bonding and
stimulation
C N/A
O Not covered in this paper, but

covered in other reports
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ACCEPTABILITY
Intervention
Golding and Picken’s511 study compared two parent training interventions for foster carers. The first was
based around the IY programme, with an additional psychoeducational component. This was compared
with an intervention designed to develop emotional understanding and give skills in providing empathetic
discipline, entitled Fostering Attachments. The IY intervention was delivered in 2-hour sessions over
9 weeks. Fostering Attachments was delivered in monthly, 2-hour sessions over an 18-month period.
In the Ducharme et al.510 study, parents were taught ‘errorless compliance training’ in a five-session group
format. Errorless compliance training is designed to improve children’s compliance while minimising
non-compliance and associated risks of confrontation. The study510 reported generalised improvements in
compliance that were maintained at 6 months’ follow-up.
Project SafeCare was a 15-session programme that targeted home safety, infant and child health care,
bonding and stimulation, and which included a parent–child interaction training component that was
offered to those parents who needed it.635

Only Ducharme et al.510 addressed the issue of treatment completion. However, in this small study510 the focus
was on attrition, which in this study was significant: 13 children out of 28 children failed to complete
treatment. Reasons for attrition were attributed to severe stressors for the child, including child apprehension,
commitment to psychiatric unit and suicide ideation. In one case, the father refused treatment.
Acceptability
All three510,511,635 studies used a parent satisfaction questionnaire, which we have used as an indicator of
acceptability. The views of children were not reported in any of the studies. Golding and Picken511 concede
that limited evaluation was built in to the research design because it was not a formal research study.
Caregivers’ views
Using a five-point rating scale, mothers in the Ducharme et al.510 study indicated a high degree of satisfaction
with the intervention and therapist, and rated their children as being significantly more co-operative after
treatment. However, as indicated above, almost half of the original sample did not complete treatment.
Foster parents receiving the IY parent training intervention were more satisfied than those having the
Fostering Attachments intervention in the study by Golding and Picken,511 with 84% saying that they found
the programme to be very helpful, compared with 60% in the fostering attachment group. Only half of each
intervention group stated that they had some increase in their understanding and confidence.
Participants in the study by Taban and Lutzker635 also reported positive feedback; parents reported high
levels of satisfaction and training procedures and also rated staff highly. There are some limitations using
these non-standardised measures.
Staff views
Group facilitator feedback was described by Golding and Picken511 Facilitators stated that attendance had
been good, with a high degree of participation. They emphasised the importance of trainers having a
sound understanding of the needs of looked-after children. Many of the foster carers in the Fostering
Attachments group spoke about their own histories of abuse and neglect, probably because of the focus
of the intervention and the duration (over 18 months), and this also required skilful handling.
Summary: acceptability of relationship-based interventions

There is a surprising lack of evidence about the acceptability of RBIs. The one515 study that specifically
explored treatment dropout and failure to engage with an attachment-orientated treatment found that
mothers who had completed high school were most likely to complete treatment. The authors also
estimate that every hour of treatment required around 10 hours of ‘engagement’ effort, including
‘frequent telephone calls, home visits, child care visits, and other efforts to build a trusting relationships
242
with the parent’.515 They note that ‘cooperation, collaboration, and communication with foster care
workers was essential, both to retain parents and children in the program and help with engagement
activities’515 (p.18). Notwithstanding these efforts, 72 of the 129 child–caregiver dyads referred to the
programme being evaluated, refused to engage or dropped out of treatment. These dyads were either
referred from child welfare/primary care providers or were court ordered to attend. This is of some
concern: the typical profile of children for whom a child protection plan is in place in the UK.
One issue of concern identified by Timmer et al.656 (not for the first time) is that kin foster carers lack
much-needed support in managing the challenging behaviour of the children whom they are fostering.
The parent training interventions in the included studies were generally welcomed by parents/caregivers,
with the exception of the Ducharme et al.510 study. Here, although attrition was significant, it was
attributable to events outside the intervention, such as the child’s admission to a psychiatric unit. One
father refused treatment and, although it would be a mistake to generalise from this study,510 it is the case
that few studies of interventions even mention the involvement of fathers.
Five526,533,621,673,678 very different studies addressed issues of the acceptability of systemic interventions.
Details of these studies can be found in Table 17.
Study design
The five526,533,621,673,678 studies examined family or multisystemic therapies. The Conran and Love621 study
was a case study, the Costa et al.678 study was an action research project, and the studies by Danielson
et al.526 Tjersland et al.673 and Woodworth533 were uncontrolled studies (see Table 17).
Sample sizes
The FT/MST interventions all had small sample sizes, ranging from a single case621 or samples of just
eight678 and 10 families.526 The sample of Woodworth533 comprised 22 families completing treatment;
Tjersland et al.673 had the largest sample of 31 families.
Location
The studies by Conran and Love,621 Danielson et al.526 and Woodworth533 were US based, whereas the
Costa et al.678 study was set in Brazil and the Tjersland et al.673 study was conducted in Norway.
Participants
Interventions in all five526,533,621,673,678 studies were directed at victims of sexual abuse. Danielson et al.’s526
sample had comorbid substance misuse. Woodworth et al.’s programme533 was for victims of incest.
Participants in the Tjersland et al.673 study were referred by agencies concerned that a child aged
< 18 years was being sexually abused by a family member. Participants in the Costa et al.678 study were
extremely socially excluded, drawn from a population of settlement/dump dwellers with a high level
of mobility.
Only Danielson et al.526 reported the age of participants (mean 15.0 years, SD 1.7 years).
Intervention
Conran and Love621 did not provide any information about the FT intervention provided in the single case.
Costa et al.678 briefly describes a Multifamilial Group Therapy intervention and Danielson et al.526 reported
on RRFT, which was a combination of individual therapy and FT. RRFT was delivered by a university-based
clinic and consisted of weekly 60–90 sessions over 14–34 weeks (M = 24 weeks, SD 8.0 weeks);
243
244
ACCEPTABILITY
TABLE 17 Acceptability of family/systemic interventions
Sample size; Data collection –

Study/location PICO response rate acceptability Analysis method Qualitative findings
621
Conran 1993 FT n = 2, mother and Child’s experience of Child did not feel forced into talking
daughter intervention, interview

USA P Single case of a sexually abused transcribed Uncomfortable using two-way mirror
girl at first
I FT unspecified Ambivalent about use of group approach
C N/A Child suggested therapist being more

‘child-like’ in approach – using jokes,
O N/A tricks and games
678
Costa 2009 Multifamilial Group Sessions n = 28; n = 8 families Benefits and limits of Qualitative Families as a whole feel unprotected and
interviewed psychosocial interventions – epistemology vulnerable to other violence
Brazil P Action research of participation parents/adolescents
of extremely socially excluded questionnaire, children’s Group therapy and shared experiences
families (living in settlements); drawings, evaluation of the made it easier to talk
sexual abuse effects of conversations
and actions in families More sessions were required
I Not specified
Involving other social institutions to
C N/A support the family’s welfare and help to
prepare them for humiliating process of
O N/A police and court process
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690

Danielson 2010526 RRFT n = 10 3–6 months post 90% of participants completed ratings
treatment on the utility of RRFT components
USA P Sexual abuse and comorbid Treatment completers (rating scale of 1–5, 5 most positive):
substance abuse: mean age = 15.0 five out of seven Participants rated their
(SD 1.7, range 13–17) years; 100% sessions (n = 9 satisfaction with each psychoeducation (M = 3.89, SD 0.93)
female; 40% Caucasian, 40% completed all seven component of RRFT on a
African American, 10% Hispanic sessions, n = 1 scale of 1–5, with 5 being Coping/family communication (M = 4.78,
completed five the most positive rating SD 0.44)
I Individual therapy and FT; sessions)
14–34 × 90-minute sessions; mean Substance abuse (M = 4.56, SD 0.73)
number of sessions = 24 (SD 8.0)
PTSD (M = 4.33, SD 1.11)
C N/A
Healthy dating/sexual decision-making
O Substance use; UCLA-A PTSD374 (M = 4.78, SD 0.44)
CDI (Kovacs M, 1983, unpublished
manuscript); FES-Con-A; Sexual victimisation risk reduction
FES-Con-C; FES-Coh-A; FES-Coh-C, (M = 4.44, SD 0.42)
post, 3-month and 6-month
follow-up375
continued
245
246
TABLE 17 Acceptability of family/systemic interventions (continued )

ACCEPTABILITY
673
Tjersland 2006 Eclectic – FT based on crisis and n = 23 families, Data collected from Descriptive coding Children
narrative theory n = 32 children therapeutic session developed by two
Norway observation and follow-up therapists, Majority were reluctant to discuss abuse –
P Sexual abuse allegations; age interviews with mothers, independently at follow-up reasons were given why:
range 3–16 years; 75% female children and alleged rated to verify threatened by abuser; fear of upsetting
perpetrators categorisation mother; fear of not being believed
I FT based on crisis and narrative
theory, which may involve The children in 21 families had symptoms
confronting alleged perpetrators of at start of treatment – this was reduced

CSA; ≥ 6 sessions (M = 20) to three families at end
C N/A In 18 cases, mental health improved.

Children from four families still had severe
O N/A symptoms
Children reported positive comments and,

from observations of child/therapists
exchanges, these were rated as positive,
playful and talkative
Caregivers
Mother participated in most sessions.

Reluctant to discuss abuse in case it had
not happened. Felt vulnerable to how
therapists perceived them. Majority of
mothers described help positively – felt
they understood their children better and
valued contributions from team
Alleged perpetrator
For those who engaged in the process,

it was described as a relief to talk to
someone in a non-judgemental setting.
Those who were discontented with the
process felt that the mother had formed a
coalition with the therapist
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690

533
Woodworth 1991 The Family Project n = 22; n = 40 interviews with 75% of victims and 83% of mothers
n = 13 incest victims, considered intervention personally helpful
USA P Sexual abuse; mean age 14.5 n = 16 interviewed, n = 12 offenders, n = 2
years; typically female; 100% n = 5 refused, n = 1 siblings Clients appreciated the support received
Caucasian could not be found from each other and their counsellors
I Multiple Family Incest Treatment Two clients complained that counsellors

Program – group therapy for left too soon
multiple families with multiple
therapists; peer groups also for Mothers favoured more direct
men, women, couples and children; confrontation of perpetrators
all family members also offered IT,
couple therapy and individual FT Respondents recommended more use of
smaller groups
C N/A
88% of siblings refused to participate:
O Interviews and questionnaire mothers often refused for non-victim
covering personal/family children; siblings were clinically hard to
adjustment, friendship, reach and less convinced that therapy
employment and education client had benefits
satisfaction
FES-Coh-A, Family Environment Scale-Cohesion-Adolescent Report; FES-Coh-C, Family Environment Scale-Cohesion-Caregiver Report; FES-Con-A, Family Environment Scale-Conflict
Scale-Adolescent Report; FES-Con-C, Family Environment Scale-Conflict-Caregiver Report; N/A, not applicable; PICO, participants, intervention, outcomes, comparisons.
247
ACCEPTABILITY
participants were recruited through the university-based urban clinic, which specialises in adult/child
trauma. The FT for suspected familial sexual abuse673 was delivered by one therapist, with a second
therapist observing and reflecting on every session. It was anticipated that each family would be at crisis
point at the start of treatment and this informed the development of the programme: narrative therapy
techniques and relationship-building were used and could include confronting alleged perpetrators. The
Multiple Family Incest Treatment Program533 provided support and therapy for all family members and
included sibling support as one of its priorities, a group that they found particularly hard to reach.
Acceptability
Children’s views
Conran 1993621 reports qualitative findings from a transcribed interview with the single female participant.
Although not feeling forced to talk to the therapist, she said she found the two-way mirror uncomfortable
at the start of treatment, but got used to it once treatment was established. She preferred IT and was
ambivalent about group therapy. She also suggested that the therapist should take a more ‘child-like’
approach, by introducing games, jokes or tricks to engage the young person.
Costa et al.678 describe young people’s feelings of shame, anxiety, fear and pain and sadness; group therapy
with other children with shared experience made it easier for the young people to talk about their problems.
The study by Danielson et al.526 was the only one to report results from a treatment satisfaction measure.
Out of a total of 10 participants, nine completed ratings on the perceptions of the usefulness of treatment
components: psychoeducation; coping/family communication; substance abuse; PTSD; healthy dating/sexual
decision-making; and sexual revictimisation risk reduction. Each domain was rated positively. A total of 90%
of participants completed all seven sessions; one participant ended treatment after five sessions.
Tjersland et al.673 collected data through observations from therapist sessions and follow-up interviews with
children, mothers and alleged perpetrators of sexual abuse. In most cases, the abuse had not been
substantiated at that time, and the majority of children were reluctant to discuss the abuse at follow-up
interview. The reasons given for this reluctance included the following: they had been threatened by the
abuser; they were afraid of upsetting their mother; and they feared not being believed. The majority of
children displaying symptoms at the start of treatment had made progress by the end. Children expressed
generally positive comments, and therapy observations reported positive exchanges between child
and therapist.
Data were collected using interviews with 13 incest victims, 12 offenders and two siblings in the
Woodworth533 study. Overall, three-quarters of victims found the group therapy to be helpful.
The most commonly appreciated aspect of the groups was mutual support and the support provided
by the counsellors. Two clients complained that counsellors left too soon. This may have been as a result
of the use of interns to provide therapy (with shorter tenure), resulting in a negative impact on children
who had formed bonds with them. Out of the 26 siblings, only three agreed to participate in the therapy.
Reasons given for this 88% refusal rate were that mothers often refuse on behalf of non-victim children or
that siblings were less convinced that therapy had benefits for them.
Caregivers’ views
Parents in the study by Costa et al.678 described how they felt their families were unprotected and
vulnerable to further violence. Some expressed fears for their child’s future sexuality, including concern
that the sexual abuse would negatively impact on the child’s sexuality (homosexuality) and how they might
interact physically (i.e. sexually) with other children. The mothers in this action research study valued the
group therapy with other families because it created an opportunity for them to talk to other women with
similar experiences, but there was some criticism that treatment ended prematurely. Financial constraints
impacted adversely on parents’ access to support – for most of the families the male perpetrator (and
primary earner) had been removed from the home.
248
Tjersland et al.673 reported the conflicting interests expressed by participant mothers about treatment: they
wanted help for their child but were concerned about revisiting the abuse by getting their child to talk
about it. Concern for the alleged perpetrator was also observed: fear of criminal prosecution or negative
reactions to the allegations; this was particularly relevant if an immediate family member (husband or son)
had been implicated in the abuse. Some mothers felt vulnerable to being perceived negatively by the
therapist because of their implicit role in the abuse, or acting in an over-protective way. In client
satisfaction ratings, mothers were generally very contented with the treatment. In the Woodworth533 study,
83% of mothers found the group therapy to be helpful but they also favoured more direct confrontation
with perpetrators and smaller group work.
Mothers were generally satisfied with the therapy received in the study by Woodworth 1991,533 with 83%
feeling that it had helped them personally. Three-quarters of respondents in this study533 considered that
the multiple-family group (several families meeting together for therapy) had been helpful. Comments
indicated that some respondents thought that the group needed more guidance from the facilitators, and
that offenders should have been confronted more, and some thought that the group was too large.
Staff views
Staff involved in the Costa et al.678 study recognised the limitations of the intervention in providing
protection to vulnerable young people living in a potentially dangerous environment. They stressed the
need for a wider network of support for these socially excluded families, ranging from the extended family
of parents, grandparents to the social institutions responsible for their care and supervision during the
investigation of child abuse. The process of dealing with criminal justice system can be humiliating and
may have implications for the wider family network, by witnessing ongoing contact with the police,
hospital staff, forensic teams and court officials.
Alleged perpetrators
Alleged perpetrators in the Tjersland et al.673 study were confronted about the abuse during treatment,
one-third of whom were unaware of the suspicions prior to therapy starting. Reactions to the allegations
presented elicited three different kinds of response: confirmation of the abuse; abuse was denied and the
alleged perpetrator withdrew from the mother and child; and abuse was denied but the alleged
perpetrator tried to maintain contact with the family. Six of the alleged perpetrators rated the treatment
positively, and valued the objective role of the therapist. Those who were critical of the therapy (n = 2,
an additional n = 2 were both contented and discontented) were unhappy that they had not been involved
from the start and felt that the therapists had formed a coalition with the mother. At the end of
treatment, conflicts associated with the question of abuse had been clearly reduced in 20 cases;
three families were still facing significant conflict, with two cases brought to court.
In the Woodworth533 study, the offenders were by far the most positive in their satisfaction with the
programme, with 88% saying that they were ‘strongly satisfied’ and 83% describing the therapy as
‘very helpful’ to them personally.
Summary: acceptability of systemic interventions

The heterogeneity of these five526,533,621,673,678 studies makes it very difficult draw out clear messages.
Generally, participants appear to find these interventions acceptable, with the exception of a high refusal
rate amongst siblings in the intervention studied by Woodworth.533 This was a multiple family incest
treatment programme and it is perhaps unsurprising that siblings who had not experienced maltreatment
would be unenthusiastic at participating in an intervention that exposed their family difficulties to
strangers. Participants in the Tjersland et al.673 study reinforced the concerns of young people in the
advisory group of this study673 about the potential adverse consequences of disclosing or sharing their
experiences. Mothers in this study673 were also apprehensive about the negative consequences of therapy:
they wanted help for their child but did not want them retraumatised, and they were worried about the
consequences for family members when these were implicated in abuse. The potential value of group
work for children is evident in several of these studies.
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ACCEPTABILITY
Psychoeducation
Four161,538,658,664 studies considered issues relevant to the acceptability of psychoeducation interventions.

See Table 18.
Study design
The study by Hyde et al.538 was related to a randomised trial.169 Although the carers in the Rushton and
Miles664 study were not randomised, the study was part of a trial in which the sexually abused adolescent
girls for whom they cared were randomised, and the carers offered either a carers’ group or individual
support.116 The study by Barth et al.161 was a COS with a control group. The Boisvert et al.658 study was an
uncontrolled study, designed to investigate attrition rates amongst sexually abused children who were
referred to mental health services.
Sample sizes
The total sample in the Barth et al.161 study was 27, with 15 foster carers assigned to the intervention
group. Hyde et al.538 had a sample of 47 adolescents and their families and Rushton et al.658 had a sample
of 65 carers. Boisvert et al.658 analysed data relating to 116 adolescents.
Location
The study by Boisvert et al.658 was based in Canada, whereas the Barth et al.161 study was based in the USA.
The studies by Hyde et al.538 and Rushton et al.664 were conducted in the UK.
Participants and maltreatment

All participants had a history of sexual abuse. Participants in the Hyde et al.538 study were the youngest,
ranging from 4 to 16 years. Both Barth et al.161 and Boisvert et al.658 report data relating to adolescents
aged 12–17 years. Although Rushton et al.’s664 study was focused on carers, the children in the original
trial were aged 6–14 years at recruitment.
Ethnicity was reported for the participants in the Barth et al.161 study (69% black people). Carers and
mothers in the Rushton et al.664 study were largely white and UK born (75%), with another 10% being
African Caribbean and 7% Mediterranean.
The studies by Barth et al.161 and Hyde et al.538 had a predominantly female sample. The Boisvert et al.647
study did not provide any data on gender.
Interventions
All of the interventions were group based, although Barth et al.161 also included some individual work, and
Rushton et al.664 compared group-based support with individual support. Hyde et al.538 also incorporated
some family network meetings.
Groups typically ran for at least 8 weeks and, for some young people, groups ran for around 20 weeks.538,647
In the Rushton et al.664 study, treatment was planned for 30 weekly sessions for the girls, and the work with
carers lasted for the same duration, but the authors note that it was not uniform because of limited
resources. Birth and adoptive parents were usually seen weekly; foster carers were usually seen fortnightly.

In the study by Boisvert et al.,647 those who had attended 15 sessions were considered to have completed
treatment; non-completers attended no more than four sessions. There was a 19.8% dropout rate. Higher
dropout was associated with higher levels of sexual abuse impact, behavioural difficulties, social difficulties
and delinquency. There were no family characteristic differences between treatment completers and
non-completers.
250
TABLE 18 Acceptability of psychoeducation interventions

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Barth 1994161 P Foster parents of sexually abused n = 15 Brief client satisfaction High levels of endorsement, overall
children (mean age 8.2 years); 87% survey group ratings:
USA female; 69% black; 18%
Caucasian; 13% Latino l excellent 42%
l very good 58%
I 11 structured group sessions with
homework Practical considerations
C N/A Providing child care encouraged them to

come and made them feel appreciated
O Child behaviour (CBCL257 and
CSI423) Travel expenses helped – foster carers
are often financially burdened
Boisvert 2008658 P Foster parents of sexually abused n = 116 Dropout (defined as Univariate and 19.8% did not complete treatment
children aged 12–17 (M = 14.63) someone who agrees to multivariate
Canada years therapy and participates analyses exploring Higher dropout was associated with
in at least one session relationships higher levels of:
I 8–22 × 2-hour sessions of and stops before the between dropout
group-based psychoeducation half-way point without and sexual l impact of sexual abuse419,420
therapist approval or an abuse, individual l behavioural difficulties418
C N/A agreement that treatment and family l social difficulties419,420
is finished) characteristics l delinquency418
O N/A
There were no family characteristic
differences between completers and
non-completers
continued
251
252
TABLE 18 Acceptability of psychoeducation interventions (continued )
ACCEPTABILITY

538
Hyde 1995 P Sexually abused children aged Interview and rating Positive
4–16 years; 85% female
UK 71% of children and all of the mothers
I Family network PLUS age-group felt that meeting others with similar
for children, stratified by age; experiences was positive
single-sex groups for abused

teenage girls; separate groups for 78% of children rated the programme
teenage boy perpetrators, adult highly for preventing further abuse
perpetrators, caretakers and
couples in which a partner was 65% found it useful for guilt resolution
an abuser
41% better understood origins of abuse
C Family network treatment
Negative
O Children: All – Health and
behaviour (20-item maternal report/ < 50% of children felt positive talking
interview738) ; Teacher’s Behaviour about abuse
Checklist289)
62% of mothers felt positive
Children 8–16 years: Self-esteem
(SPCC/A401,432); Depression (CDI430); Mothers rated helpfulness of treatment
Health and behaviour lower than children
(12-item self-report/interview738)
Children 6–7 years: Pictorial Scale

of Perceived Competence and
Social Acceptance for children
(PSPCSA467); Family Relationships
(FRT739)
Mothers: Self-esteem (ICHSEQ435);

psychiatric state (GHQ740)
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690

664
Rushton 2000 P Sexually abused children; 75% n = 58; n = 46 Carer interviews: 1- and Carers rated the intervention largely
of mothers and 70% of foster mothers, n = 19 2-year follow-up; positively: 30% found it very beneficial,
UK mothers were white British foster/adoptive follow-up interviews with 48% beneficial
mothers; 14 carers carers’ workers 1 year
I Psychoeducational Group Therapy attended a total after start of treatment Mothers who were in a relationship with
(girls) plus carer support of three groups the abuser were more likely to have
negative/mixed views of treatment.
C Focused individual therapy (girls) Those who reported positively on help
plus carer support for themselves attended on average
8.8 months; those who had mixed/
O Girls: KSADS,405 CGAS;261 negative views attended for less than
carers: interview schedules half this time (4.3 months)
designed for the study
Foster carers/adoptive mothers attended
for longer (9.2 months) but birth
mothers reported higher levels of
satisfaction
Most caregivers reported continued

improvement of children at both 1- and
2-year follow-up
Would have liked longer period of

treatment and ongoing support available
to help deal with isolation and stigma
GHQ, General Health Questionnaire; ICHSEQ, Institute of Child Health – Self-Esteem Questionnaire N/A, not applicable; PICO, participants, intervention, outcomes, comparisons.
253
ACCEPTABILITY
Acceptability
Two161,538 studies collected data on the acceptability of the intervention using client questionnaires. Hyde
et al.538 supplemented questionnaire data with data from interviews. Rushton et al.664 gathered data from
foster carers, using two established schedules at baseline and follow-up (1 and 2 years). Boisvert et al.647
presented a profile of treatment completers.
Children’s views
The rating scale used to measure participant satisfaction is not described in Hyde 1995538 but, as indicated
above, ratings were supplemented with qualitative interviews. Feedback was generally positive, but fewer
than half the children were positive about talking about the abuse or felt that, as a result of the group
work, they understood the origins of the abuse any better. Seventy-eight per cent said that they did find
it useful for preventing further abuse and dealing with feelings of guilt. The helpfulness of treatment was
generally rated higher by children than by their mothers.
Children in this study538 generally welcomed the opportunity provided by the groups to meet with others
with similar experiences, but not all, and less than half of those interviewed felt positively about talking
about the abuse.
Neither the Boisvert et al.658 study nor the Rushton et al.664 study report the views of children.
Caregivers’ views
A brief client satisfaction questionnaire was given to foster parents in the study by Barth et al.161 and
the programme received high levels of endorsement for the group, but the length and intensity of the
intervention were insufficient to observe any measurable changes of effectiveness.
Rushton et al.664 report that most carers were positive about the support provided to them (30% ‘very
beneficial’, 48% ‘beneficial’). Mothers who were still in a relationship with the abuser were more likely to
have negative or mixed views of the help provided to them and their daughter. Analyses indicate that
those who reported positively on the help provided to them attended for an average of 8.8 months
compared with those who had a mixed negative response, who attended just half of this time
(4.3 months). This might mean that mothers who were not helped dropped out sooner, or that those
who attended fewer sessions (perhaps for different reasons) did not receive enough help to find it
beneficial. The authors note that both foster carers and adopters attended for significantly longer periods
(M 9.2 months) than the birth parents (M 6.1 months), although, when levels of satisfaction were
explored, birth mothers appeared to benefit more than foster carers, but the difference was not significant;
few respondents said they received little benefit and foster carers were few in number.
The authors hypothesise that ‘mothers who clearly valued the support provided would probably have
benefited from an independent professional listening to their difficulties and dealing with feelings such as
guilt and anxiety’664 (p. 425), which, in turn, may have prevented deterioration in their relationships with
their children. This study664 was primarily designed to examine the relationship between kinds of support
to carers and outcomes for children hence the rather speculative reflections on what the help meant to
carers themselves.
Summary: acceptability of psychoeducational Interventions

The available evidence presents a rather tenuous and fragmented picture of the acceptability of
psychoeducational interventions. The one658 study to explore attrition identified severity of sexual abuse
impact and behavioural problems as associated with dropout, but this was just one study, with a modest
sample size, providing psychoeducation in a group format.
Where solicited, feedback from children and caregiver was generally positive with the exception of
participants who were still in a relationship with the alleged perpetrator. The authors of this study664
254
speculate that mothers who valued the support provided might have benefited form further, personalised
support. Again, there is support for the value of group work for children who have experienced
sexual abuse.
Seven169–171,636,637,639,676 studies explored the acceptability of children/young persons’ group interventions.

For details, see Table 19.
Study design
All but two171,636,637,639,676 studies were uncontrolled studies. The De Luca et al.170 study was a COS, and the
Monck et al.169 study was a quasi-randomised trial.
Sample sizes
Sample sizes were all small, ranging respectively from just six and nine, respectively, in the studies by
Grayston and De Luca171 and Ashby et al.,636 to a sample of 95 in the study by Monck et al.169
Location
Three636,637,639 studies were based in North America and two170,171 in Canada. The study by Gustafsson
1995676 was conducted in Sweden, and the Monck et al.169 study was UK based.
Participants
Interventions were delivered to children as young as 3 years, and up to 20 years. In five169–171,636,637 studies,
all of the children had been sexually abused. Children in the Peled and Edleson639 were in treatment as a
result of witnessing domestic violence. The participants in the study by Gustafsson 1995676 had suffered
physical abuse, parental alcohol misuse and had witnessed domestic violence.
In two170,636 studies the participants were sexually abused girls and in the study by Grayston and De Luca171
the participants were sexually abused boys. The remaining four169,639,676 studies had mixed gender groups.
Ashby et al.636 describe a population that was 100% American Indian, referred by tribal social services.
Intervention
Interventions comprised group activities (including art activities/circle time), abuse prevention skills, family
reunification therapy and psychotherapeutic approaches. Interventions were delivered in group settings
for children with similar abuse histories or, as in one study,637 a sibling/victim group setting.
In four170,171,636,639 studies treatment lasted between 10 and 12 weeks. Treatment in Monck et al.169 could
last up to 12 months. No information was available in the remaining two studies.63,637
Acceptability
Four169,171,636,637 studies used questionnaires or rating scales to measure satisfaction.
Baker et al.637 reported findings from telephone surveys, used to interview treatment completers, drawing
on four different group evaluations conducted in 1997, 1998 and 2000. Ashby et al.636 augmented data
from children with data from school counsellor reports. Gustafsson et al.676 interviewed group therapists
using semistructured schedules and De Luca et al.170 collected data using child report measures and a
social validation scale. Peled and Edelson639 used interviews and group observations.
255
256
TABLE 19 Acceptability of group work for children
ACCEPTABILITY

636
Ashby 1987 Group Treatment Program n=9 Acceptability and Programme rated on average 9.8, on a
usefulness evaluation scale of 1 (poor) to 11 (outstanding)
USA P Sexually abused girls aged referred rating on numerical scale –
by tribal social services; 100% midway and final group; Indian talking circle was rated as most
American Indian school counsellor reports useful

I 10 × 2-hour sessions led by an Data from school reports saw positive
female Indian therapist behaviour change in 70% of participants
C N/A
O N/A
637
Baker 2001 Family Learning Program n = 5–14 Satisfaction ratings; Satisfaction ratings generally high
evaluations conducted in
USA P Sexually abused children aged 1997, 1998 and 2000; four Reasons for including siblings in
3–18 years group evaluations and treatment:
follow-up telephone survey
I Individual, group (sibling) and of n = 7 terminated clients l High risk of being abused too
family programme, including child l Need to understand abuse and
abuse prevention skills and overcome blame
reunification therapy if required l May feel resentful if left out
of process
C N/A l Help deal with feelings of jealousy
l Deal with perpetrator being removed
O N/A l Practical – no child-care issues
Organisational considerations
Additional resources required

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690

170
De Luca 1995 Children’s Group n = 35 intervention, Child-report measures Positive
n = 35 control
Canada P Sexually abused girls, age range Children liked group members, leaders
7–12 years; and activities
I Circle time and activities designed Group helped children deal with issues,
to address issues around sexual ‘taught me how to say yes, no and who
abuse, groups of six to eight children to tell and taught me that abuse was not
my fault’
90 minutes × 9–12 weeks
Parent feedback was generally positive
C Group of girls with no abuse
history Negative
O SEI436; RCMAS293; CBLC257 Disliked some group members/

disagreements
Frightened by puppets and idea that

abuse might recur
Some parents would have liked to observe

the group and receive more feedback
continued
257
258
ACCEPTABILITY
TABLE 19 Acceptability of group work for children (continued )

171
Grayston 1996 P Sexually abused boys aged n=6 Child feedback and parent Most parents and children found
8–10 years feedback questionnaires intervention helpful
Canada

I 12 × 90-minute weekly group All children enjoyed attending the
sessions programme
C Wait-list Children liked feeling safe and were

satisfied with the group and level of
O CBCL;707 CSBI;259 frequency parental involvement
counts of up to three problem
behaviours identified by caregivers Half of parents suggested more feedback
would be helpful
Gustafsson 1995676 Psycho-pedagogical Group Therapy n = 19 Semistructured interviews Working with the whole family diminished
with group therapists dropout rate
Sweden P Physical abuse and domestic
violence witnesses, children of Children of alcoholics need specific help –
alcoholics; age range 5–20 years, group work was sometimes difficult
53% F because children had relational problems
and were fearful of discussing parent’s
I Based on Alcoholics Anonymous abuse
family systems theory, weekly group
meeting
C N/A
O N/A
169
Monck 1996 Family Network Treatment n = 47 Participant rating Children rated the programme
Programme
UK Positive

P Sexual abuse; 85% female
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Therapist’s interview style, gender, feeling

I Family treatment meeting every understood
4–6 weeks; group treatment by age
ranging from 6 to 8 weeks (mixed Meeting others with similar experiences
gender groups for ages 6–10 years,
parents, perpetrators) to 20 weeks Talking to the abuser
for adolescent girls
Most helpful: preventing further abuse;
C Family treatment only raising self-esteem; offering understanding
and resolving guilt
O Children: CDI;430 SPPC/A;431
FSC-R433; CBCL294 Negative
Parents: GHQ434; ASEP435 Talking to a parent or family about the

abuse
Mixed/no effects
Relations with current family; enabling

further disclosures; planning for the
future; understanding the origins of abuse
Mothers found it helpful preventing

further abuse, offering support and
dealing with their role in the abuse
It was rated unhelpful/no effect for

accepting the abuse has happened;
discovery of future abuse; resolving own
guilt; relating to family; future planning;
relating to perpetrator; understanding
origins of abuse; relating to managing
abused child
continued
259
260
ACCEPTABILITY
TABLE 19 Acceptability of group work for children (continued )


639
Peled 1992 Support and education n = 30 Interviews with n = 16 Findings highlighted four major group
mothers, n = 5 fathers, goals: ‘breaking the secret’ of abuse in the
USA P Children aged 4–12 years who n = 4 group leaders, n = 30 children’s families; learning to protect
had witnessed domestic violence, children; observations of oneself; having a positive experience; and
four children also physically abused; one group strengthening self-esteem. Under a
one sexually abused. 60% female; positive experience, children described
73% white, 27% mixed race needing to feel safe in the group and their
negative expectations of the group, which
I 1 hour × 10 weeks, children’s improved over time
group and concurrent therapy group
for adults
1 hour × one final family group

session
C N/A
O N/A
ASEP, Adult Self-Esteem Profile; GHQ, General Health Questionnaire; N/A, not applicable; PICO, participants, intervention, outcomes, comparisons; SPPC/A, Self-Perception Profiles for
Children and Adolescents.
Children’s views
Using a child feedback questionnaire, Grayston and De Luca171 found that most children found the group
helpful, enjoyed attending, liked feeling safe and were satisfied with the level of parental involvement.
They had no suggestions for changes. No objective measures were used to assess satisfaction levels, and
this is a limitation of this study.171
Participants in the studies by Ashby et al.,636 Monck et al.169 and De Luca et al.170 rated the programmes
positively. On a scale of 1–11 (11 = outstanding), the group treatment programme in the Ashby et al.636
study scored 9.8 on average. Data from school counsellor reports saw positive behaviour change in school
for 70% of participants. Children rated therapists highly in the Monck et al.169 study and valued meeting
others with similar experiences; they also valued being able to talk to their abuser. Some reported negative
feelings about talking about the abuse, their family and the hospital location of the therapy. The majority
felt that it was helpful in preventing further abuse, raising their self-esteem, understanding and feelings of
guilt surrounding the abuse. There was mixed effects for relations with their family, planning for the future
and understanding the origins of the abuse. The children in the De Luca et al.170 study also reported similar
positive and negative responses, plus some elements that frightened them, for example using puppets and
the idea that abuse could recur.
Child-reported benefits of treatment identified in the study by Peled and Edleson639 included self-protection
and strengthening self-esteem.
Caregivers’ views
Parents surveyed in the study by Baker et al.637 viewed the sibling group intervention positively, and, in the
2000 survey, parents’ mean score rating was 1.9 (on a scale of 1 to 4, with ‘4’ = unsatisfactory). Parents
felt that their children had learnt how to deal with inappropriate advances (score 1.5) but helping the child
to cope with stress was rated less positively (score 2.8).
Monck et al.169 also report mothers rating the prevention of further abuse as helpful, but the intervention
fared less well when trying to deal with issues including understanding why and accepting abuse has
happened, resolving guilt relating to the family and managing the abused child. In the De Luca et al.170 study,
parents believed that the children liked feeling understood and having somewhere to talk about the abuse
and someone to talk to, but would have liked to have received more feedback or observe the treatment.
Staff views
The importance of involving siblings in treatment is discussed by Baker et al.637 – siblings have a high risk
of being abused too and often there are unresolved feelings of anger, jealousy and guilt, particularly if a
family member is the perpetrator. On a purely practical level, involving all family members enables therapy
to happen as no child-care issues arise. Sibling therapy also adds to the costs of the treatment, which
may not be covered by the provider; it also has implications for rooms, materials and staffing.
Summary: acceptability of group work interventions

Generally, evidence for the acceptability of group-based interventions for maltreated children is very positive.
Although, superficially, group work may appear to be a very efficient way of providing therapy, it requires a
great deal of planning, special training and resources. Generally, these issues are not considered in one-off
studies of this intervention, although the lack of attention to such issues is not unique to group work.
Counselling/psychotherapy interventions
Fourteen175,176,638,640–646,657,674,677,679 studies addressed issues of the acceptability of counselling interventions.
Four647,648,665,675 studies did so for psychotherapy interventions. In reality, there appears to be little
difference between these two groups of interventions, other than how the authors describe them.
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ACCEPTABILITY
Counselling interventions
Details of the 14 studies of counselling interventions can be found in Table 20.
Study design
The study reported by Haight et al.175 was a randomised trial.
Baginsky640 conducted a review of the pattern of provision in the UK, the Netherlands and Italy and the
reaction of young people who had or had not received services. The literature review was followed by
interviews (both face to face and telephone), group discussions, questionnaires and letters to collect
additional data.
Deb and Mukherjee679 used purposive sampling from four randomly selected shelters across Kolkata, India,
and sourced a non-abused control group from local schools, which were also randomly selected. Both
qualitative and quantitative data collection were used.
The other studies176,638,641–643,645,646,674,677 were uncontrolled designs, each using a purposive sample of those
engaged in treatment. The studies by Fowler et al.641,642 examined the acceptability of counsellor gender
for treatment for sexual abuse. Kilcrease-Fleming et al.643 also investigated counsellor gender using a
standardised rating scale of video-taped interviews analysing differences in verbalisation between male and
female counsellors. Porter et al.645 used the Client Behavior System verbalisation measure to assess gender
differences in counsellors. Thompson et al.646 used two semistructured interview guides to interview both
mothers and youths. Scott 677 also conducted in-depth interviews with parents. Nelson-Gardell638
conducted focus groups. Overlien’s674 investigation of counselling provision in women’s refuges used a
grounded theory approach to conduct face-to-face interviews while using age-appropriate schedules.
Reddy et al.176 relied on qualitative post-treatment feedback to assess intervention acceptability.
Kolko et al.644 conducted quantitative analyses to predict service use and Haskett et al.657 used regression
analysis to investigate treatment entry.
Sample sizes
Sample size varied. Haight et al.175 recruited 17 children from 10 families, and Scott677 recruited
15 children from 12 families. Nelson-Gardell638 recruited 34 participants, and four641,643,645,674 studies
had samples of around 50. The largest study640 had 130 participants. The studies by Fowler and Wagner,642
Haskett et al.,657 Reddy et al.,176 Kolko et al.644 and Deb and Mukherjee679 all had between 70 and
100 participants.
Location
Most of the studies were USA based. One677 was set in Australia, one679 in India and another in Norway.674
Baginsky640 examined counselling provision for young people across three nations: the UK, the Netherlands
and Italy.
Participants
All studies focused on participants with a sexual abuse history, apart from Overlien,674 who examined
physically abused children who had witnessed domestic violence. The sample in Kolko et al.644 had also
been subjected to neglect, and those in the studies by Haight et al.175 and Reddy et al.176 had been
exposed to a range of abuse and neglect. Baginsky640 did not specify type of abuse, but sexual abuse
recovery was included in the findings; therefore, an assumption has been made that at least part of the
sample had been sexually abused.
Interventions
Four644,674,677,679 studies reported on IGT – concurrent with individual counselling. The group therapy
included counselling with other sexually abused girls,679 family members644,677 and play therapy within
a women’s refuge setting.674
262
TABLE 20 Acceptability of counselling interventions

640
Baginsky 2001 Looks at pattern of provision in three n = 130 Italy: n = 36 telephone Summary overview Provision

countries and the reaction of young interviews
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Italy, the Netherlands people who had or had not received Not enough support available
and UK services The Netherlands: n = 25
face to face, letters, Range of provision required for variety
telephone and of needs
questionnaires
Provision at local and national level needs
UK: n = 41 face-to-face to be mapped and made available to young
group and parent people, parents and professionals
interviews
Multiprofessional interventions and
co-ordination required
Open-door policy if clients need to return to

counselling
Sexual abuse
Not enough awareness of damage of sexual

abuse
Schools have a role to play in prevention

and harm reduction
Fowler 1992641 P Sexual abuse; mean age 11.83 n = 35 Seven-point Likert scale n = 19 were examined by a male counsellor,
(SD 3.17) years; 100% female n = 16 by a female counsellor
USA
I Counselling Pre-consultation: n = 25 preferred a female,
n = 7 had no preference, n = 3 preferred
C N/A a male
O Comfort ratings of male vs. Post-examination: No significant differences

female examiner in ratings of comfort with examiner
[χ2(2,35) = 0.50; p > 0.77]
continued
263
264
TABLE 20 Acceptability of counselling interventions (continued )

ACCEPTABILITY

642
Fowler 1993 P Sexually abused; age range 1–17 n = 20 Pre- and post-treatment Pre treatment, all participants stated a
(M = 8.24) years; 83% female; 77% preference for male or preference for female counsellor
USA Caucasian, 22.5% African American female counsellor
Post treatment, 3/10 (30%) of the girls
I Psychoeducationally based treated by male counsellors reported a
individual counselling; preference for male counsellors
50 minutes × six sessions
10/10 (100%) of the girls treated by female

C N/A counsellors continued to indicated a
preference for female counsellors
O N/A
175
Haight 2010 P Physical, emotional, sexual abuse n = 15 children from Views from children, Emic coding Children’s views:
and neglect – children of n = 12 families caregivers and community
USA methamphetamine-misusing parents clinicians; field notes l Most children characterised their
placed in foster care; age range experiences as enjoyable, although
7–14 (M = 9.6) years; 60% male; some found it difficult to talk at first
100% Caucasian l Many felt that therapy was terminated
too early
I 7-month, LSI 1 hour per week
Caregivers’ views
C Wait-list
l Would like intervention to be longer
O CBLC297; PPVT-III441 l Valued non-clinical setting
Clinicians’ views
l Also valued non-office setting, seeing

children in home/leisure settings was
helpful but also created potential
problems with professional boundaries
including issues of confidentiality
l Clinicians requested further training in
narrative therapy
657
Haskett 1991 P Sexual abuse; mean age 8.24 n = 129 children Factors associated with Factors associated with successful treatment

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
(range 1–17) years; 83% female; referred for treatment entry entry
USA 77% white, 22.5% African counselling in a
American 6-month period Attenders: n = 84, mean age 8.5 years
I Long-term counselling Non-attenders: n = 45, mean age 7.7 years
C N/A Higher percentage of males than females

attended
O N/A
Higher percentage of Caucasians attended
Attenders and non-attenders did not differ

in parental educational level, marital status
or SES
Children in homes with telephones more

likely to attend first session and if mothers
felt entire family required counselling
Referrals to private centres more likely to

attend first session
Kilcrease-Fleming P Sexually abused; age range n = 20; n = 18 Three counselling process MANOVA results found no significant
1992643 7–17 years, 100% female videos analysed rating scales of differences in counsellor gender; however,
videotaped interviews a significantly higher verbalisation by female
USA I Six sessions of individual counsellors than their clients was observed
counselling
Conclude that female victims do not
C N/A necessarily need to be treated by female
counsellors
O N/A
continued
265
266
ACCEPTABILITY

644
Kolko 1999 P Neglect, maltreatment, physical n = 86 Children and parents Predictors of Variables associated with overall service
and sexual abuse; mean age 11.6 completed an evaluation service use involvement:
USA (SD 5.29) years; 62% female; 54% of the level of perceived computed using
African American, 38% Caucasian, service needs, motivation Pearson l child race
8% biracial and interests, goals or correlations or l child anxiety
expectations and chi-squared tests l parental distress on the BSI

I Various individual and group obstacles; interviewed l parental childhood abuse history
counselling treatments at study intake and
4–8 months after initial Caucasian children with lower levels
C N/A service of anxiety and parents with heightened
distress, with more abusive experiences
O N/A Services used as children, received more services. Race,
parental distress and low child anxiety
Prediction of total service predicted number of services at post-service
involvement: assessment
Child: CBCL269 Children perceived to have a high level

432
of motivation to participate in services.
Parent: CANIS Children identified parent factors as the
largest obstacle to treatment completion.
BSI741 Sexually abused children were more likely
to have received services at post-service
CAPI366 assessment
Family: SOCSS742
FES710
CTS743
CLEI744
Nelson-Gardell 2001638 P Sexual abuse; age range 10–18 n = 34; five focus Focus group methodology Thematic analysis Four themes emerged:
(M = 13.7) years; 100% female; groups to address the issues of
USA 70% white, 21% black, 9% other interest l being believed about the abuse defines
race or ethnicity help and support – those who believed
were defined as helpers; those who did

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
I Not specified not believe were not helpful or, in

fact, harmful
C N/A l talking about what happened helps but
can be difficult
O N/A l talking about feelings helps – fear of
future negative consequences if
feelings ‘not let out’
l group helps (but no-one wanted to go
at the start) – shared experiences
and understanding
Overlien P Physically abused children, aged n = 50 women’s Face-to-face interviews, Grounded theory Counselling valued and considered helpful
4–18 years, in women’s refuges; refuges directors, age-appropriate schedules approach by most children
2011674 73% female; mostly non-Norwegian n = 22 children
ethnicity Play/leisure time was an important element
Norway of intervention, as well as the physical
I Life in refuge, including safety of the environment as real life and
unspecified counselling school routine activities can be disrupted
by move
C N/A
Some language difficulties, as majority of
O N/A population are immigrants
Porter 1996645 P Sexually abused; mean age 12.65 n = 27 Client Behavior System745 – Girls were rated as verbalising more
(SD 2.79) years; 100% female; 63% verbalisation measure resistance in response to sexual abuse
USA Caucasian, 37% African American questions regardless of the sex of the
counsellor. Verbalisation may be more
I Six sessions of psychoeducation- influenced by the type of question than the
based individual counselling; gender of the counsellor
10 male, 8 female Caucasian
counsellors;
C N/A
O N/A
continued
267
268

ACCEPTABILITY

176
Reddy 2013 P Children aged 13–17 years, n = 70 Qualitative post-treatment 62% found the programme to be very
subject to physical, emotional and feedback helpful; 30% a little helpful
USA sexual abuse or neglect; 65%
female; 89% African American Frequency of thinking about CBCT
principles or lessons outside class? 41%
I Cognitive Based Compassion a lot, 46% once in a while
Training
87% would recommend to friends

C Wait-list
Like programme to be offered in schools?
O CBCL;297 QUIDS-SR;442 STAI-T;333 40% yes, 46% not sure, 14% no
FASM;443 SQFI;444 DERS;446 ICU-P;447
CTQ;448 cortisol and C-reactive Programme length? 60% just right, 27%
protein levels too many, 11% not enough
Participants felt moderately connected to

their classmates (M = 6.86, SD 2.49)
Participants felt more strongly connected to

their instructors (M = 7.14, SD 2.07)
Scott 1996677 P 80% sexually abused; age range n = 10 families In-depth interviews with Mixed views about value of child expressing
15 months to 10 years (n = 17 children) parents painful feelings
Australia
I Individual and group counselling Parent/professional tension – alienated and
ambivalent about professional’s role, plus
C N/A personal guilt and distress
O N/A Contamination of normal sexuality in family

and fear of future sexual/relationship
problems
Disintegration of social network support

and impact on parental relations. Propose
holistic approach to supporting child, which
includes immediate and wider family
679
Deb 2011 P Sexually abused children n = 120 Quantitative and Desruptive 58.3% found counselling beneficial,
rescued from red-light areas; aged qualitative data statistics and 41.7% found it ‘non-facilitative’

India 13–18 years, 100% female Purposive sampling t-tests
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
from four randomly

I Basic support services plus selected shelters
individual and group counselling in (one government
rehabilitation homes; 2–3 months’ run, three private)
duration with weekly-plus
counselling Non-abused control
group from local
C Non-abused comparison group schools
O The Adjustment Inventory

(Paul 1995)746
Thompson 2011646 P 55% had a history of child abuse n = 40 Semistructured interviews Mothers’ views
or neglect; mean age of youth 15.20 developed to elicit
USA (SD 1.38) years, mean age of information about 48% generally satisfied
mothers 41.1 (SD 6.16) years; 65% mothers and youth
female youth experiences and 21% dissatisfied – feeling service providers
satisfaction with mental were not invested or interested in them
I Various mental health services health services
40% both satisfied and dissatisfied –
C N/A felt that some counsellors did not act
professionally
O N/A
Youth views
52.4% were satisfied, liked being able to

talk to someone, learn to deal with anger
23.8% were dissatisfied – medicating was

seen as a short cut, relationship with
counsellor also important
N/A, not applicable; PICO, participants, intervention, outcomes, comparisons; PPVT-III, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Third Edition; SES, socioeconomic status; SNACR, Service Needs &
Concerns Report.
269
ACCEPTABILITY
Five640–643,645,657 studies examined individual counselling, four of which specifically analysed counsellor
gender preferences pre and post treatment.641–643,645 Haskett et al.657 examined factors associated with
successful treatment entry for long-term counselling and, last, Baginsky640 reviewed varied counselling
provision in Europe.
Counselling for sexually abused girls in Kolkata679 was based around basic support services, as many of
these girls had been living on the streets and had been sexually exploited; provision included nutrition,
safety and security, education and training, and medical care, as well as counselling. The intervention
lasted between 2 and 3 months, and individual and group counselling were delivered on a weekly basis,
with more if required.
Participants in the study by Nelson-Gardell638 had received therapy from a range of counsellors, the details
of whom are not provided. In this study638 the researchers wanted to know what and whom the
participants had found helpful in recovery.
Fowler and Wagner,642 Kilcrease-Fleming et al.643 and Porter et al.645 all report a psychoeducation/
psychological treatment programme, which lasted for six sessions. Adolescents in the study by Reddy
et al.176 were provided with CBCT. Haight et al.175 describe the LSI for children who were living with
parental methamphetamine misuse.
Haskett et al.657 describe the intervention as ‘long-term counselling’. Additional content of counselling
intervention is not described in detail.
Young people in the study by Thompson et al.646 received a range of individual and group-based
counselling services in a range of service settings. The families of these participants also received a range
of other counselling services, as well as – for some – FT, drug counselling and inpatient services (mothers).

Only two studies644,657 examined the characteristics of those who remained in therapy or dropped out.
Haskett et al.657 presented factors associated with successful treatment entry for long-term counselling in
a convenience sample. A higher percentage of males attended, as did a higher percentage of white
Americans, but attenders and non-attenders did not differ in parental education level, marital status or
socioeconomic status (SES). Children in homes with telephones were more likely to attend the first session,
as were those referred to a private centre. When mothers felt that the entire family needed counselling,
attendance was also more likely.
In the study by Kolko et al.,644 children and parents were interviewed at study intake and at 4–8 months
after receiving an initial service. Potential predictors of service use were computed using Pearson‘s
correlations or chi-squared tests to determine the relationships between several key clinical characteristics.
Four variables were found to be significant, and these were used to perform multiple regression analyses.
Four variables predicted the number of services received at intake: white American children with lower
levels of anxiety and parents with heightened distress and with more abusive experiences when they
themselves were children received more services at intake. Three of these variables also predicted number
of services at post-service assessment: white American child, parental distress and low child anxiety.
Acceptability
Children’s views
Highlighting issues raised by the young people they surveyed, Baginsky640 concluded that not enough
support was available, and greater awareness was needed of the damage inflicted by sexual abuse.
Young people also stressed the need for open-door policies for clients to return for help if necessary.
270
Another conclusion of those surveyed was that schools have a greater role to play in prevention through
protective education and better sexual education.
Four641–643,645 studies considered counsellor gender preference using rating scales (including verbalisation
measures and counselling process rating scales) and statement of counsellor gender preference pre and
post intervention. The all-female samples in the studies by Fowler et al.641,642 and Porter 1996645 expressed
a preference for a female counsellor pre treatment: 71%, 100% and 100%, respectively. However, only
Fowler and Wagner642 re-tested gender preference post treatment and found that 30% of girls treated by
a male stated a preference for a male counsellor, while 100% of girls treated by a female stated a
preference for a female counsellor.
The studies by Kilcrease-Fleming et al.643 and Porter et al.645 examined client behaviour during a counselling
session. Kilcrease-Fleming et al.643 collected data at the initial counselling session using three different
counselling process rating scales, which were scored by observers. Data were gathered on verbalisation
frequency, overall participation, willingness to return and disclosures made during the session. MANOVA
results found no significant differences in counsellor gender; however, a significantly higher verbalisation
rate was observed in female counsellors than in their clients. Kilcrease-Fleming et al.643 conclude that
female victims do not necessarily need to be treated by female counsellors. Porter et al.645 found that the
type of questions asked may influence verbalisation, regardless of counsellor gender; girls in this study
were found to be more resistant to questions about sexual abuse than other types.
Fifty-eight per cent of the sample in the study by Deb and Mukherjee679 said they found counselling
beneficial, although some caveats were made about the limitations of the study design and the potential
for sensitive data to be suppressed. The qualitative summary findings in Overlien674 conclude that, with
very few exceptions, counselling was valued and considered helpful by the children interviewed. Using a
grounded theory approach, children identified the play element of the therapy as important, creating a
safe and fun place to play with other children.
Kolko et al.644 reported some barriers to successful treatment participation. In this study, the young people
interviewed identified parental factors as among the largest obstacles to accessing therapy, including
‘parent was too busy to attend’ and ‘parent does not think counselling will help’. Children acknowledged
greater obstacles to parental treatment than parents.
Most children in the study by Reddy et al.176 found the programme to be helpful and 87% said they would
recommend the intervention to others. They were less enamoured of undertaking homework tasks and
opinion was split about the desirability of offering the programme within schools. They reported that their
alliances with instructors were stronger than those with their peers. Similarly, the children participating in
the LSI described by Haight et al.175 mostly characterised the experience as enjoyable, particularly the
relationships that they had developed with the community clinicians. Most found having someone to talk
to helpful, but they also expressed anxiety at the early stages of the treatment, particularly talking about
their experiences.
Nelson-Gardell638 identified four important themes, of which ‘being believed’ was considered to be so
important by the focus group participants that they conflated it with ‘being helped’. The other three
themes were that talking about what happened is not easy but it helps; talking about feelings helps and –
although no one had wanted to go to a therapy group – the groups help. Concern was expressed that if
the abuse was not talked about, it would impact on them negatively in the future. In brief, group therapy
was found to be difficult but useful.
Caregivers’ views
In the study by Kolko et al.,644 caregivers rated the severity of family problems higher than children did,
and stressed the importance of targeting behaviour and competence as treatment goals.
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ACCEPTABILITY
Scott677 used in-depth interviews with parents to explore family counselling. Parents expressed
mixed views about the value of talking about painful feelings and many worried about their children
having to relive the experiences through therapy, although other parents felt that this was helpful.
Managing parents’ expectations was also raised as an issue: therapy was referred to by some parents as
a cathartic process, but children may not see it in the same way or wish to talk. There were also some
tensions highlighted in the parent–therapist relationship.
l Some parents had high levels of anxiety but felt unable to discuss these with the therapist because they
were unaware of what was being discussed with their child.
l As discussed previously, issues of parental guilt that the abuse was able to happen – once this issue
was addressed, it became easier to talk about.
l Some parents felt ambivalent about the therapist’s ‘authority’; counselling for some families was
compulsory; once social services were involved, things were taken out of their control.
Scott677 also reports concerns about the impact of secondary abuse. Parents worried about the
contamination of normal sexuality in the home, particularly at bath times and getting dressed/undressed.
The potential threat to masculinity in fathers was also raised, and some parents expressed anxiety about
their child’s future sexual adjustment. Scott677 suggests that female social workers are often unaware of
fathers’ concerns, which can lead to further tension between the professional and the family. In their study
of family group therapy, Costa et al.678 highlighted similar concerns amongst parents regarding their child’s
future sexuality, with some parents afraid that the sexual abuse would result in homosexuality or lead to
inappropriate sexual behaviour with other children.
Secondary abuse also impacted on families’ extended social networks; views of the wider family and local
community became coloured by a significant mistrust of adults; this, in turn, put additional pressure on
their marital relationships. Investigations by social services and police also attached considerable stigma,
which, in turn, negatively impacted on the immediate social support networks of family and friends.
Scott677 recommends that the wider family unit is included in the disclosure and subsequent intervention.
Caregiver perspectives were sought in the study by Haight et al.175 using open-ended questionnaires.
Like the children, their views were largely positive, with the relationship between their child and the
community clinician considered to one of the most beneficial elements of the programme. Caregivers also
recommended that the treatment length should have been extended.
Staff views
Baginsky640 suggests that provision needs to be mapped at both local and national level and made
available to young people, parents and other professionals, and that a multiprofessional response is
also required.
Kolko et al.644 found that sexually abused children were more likely to receive child-directed treatment and
physically abusive families were more likely to receive in-home crisis services, such as family preservation.
At post-service assessment, sexually abused children were more likely to have received services – Kolko
et al.644 attribute this to caseworker perceptions that the sexually abused were at greater risk.
In their interviews, directors of 50 of the 51 women’s shelters in Norway stressed the value of normal and
fun activities within the shelter environment.674 They saw this as especially important when normal family
life has been shattered. Scott677 highlighted that professional staff were sometimes unaware of some of
the therapist–parent tensions emerging from compulsory counselling.
The clinician field notes analysed in the study by Haight et al.175 describe the positive benefits of the
non-clinical setting, but also suggest some difficulties in maintaining professional boundaries within a
community setting while working with vulnerable children. Confidentiality was inevitably breached at
times, when clinicians were made aware of risk factors facing these children.
272
Psychotherapy interventions
Details of these studies647,648,665,675 and the interventions can be found in Table 21.
Study design
All studies647,648,665,675 were uncontrolled. In the study by Horowitz et al.647 the data analysed were collected
as part of a longitudinal study of the psychobiological effects of CSA (Putnam and Trickett, 1987–1988748).
The studies by Davies et al.665 and Jensen et al.675 used qualitative methodologies, and Lippert et al.648
reviewed case records with additional qualitative data collection.
Sample sizes
There were just four participants in the Davies et al.665 study and 15 in the Jensen et al.675 study. The other
studies647,648 had samples sizes of 81 participants647 and 101 participants,648 respectively.
Location
The studies by Horowitz et al.647 and Lippert et al.648 were US-based studies, the Davies et al.665 study was a
UK study and the Jensen et al.675 study was set in Norway.
Participants
Sexual abuse history was the maltreatment experienced by children in three647,648,675 studies, and in the
Davies et al.665 study the four participants had been neglected/abused. The sample was 100% female in
the studies by Jensen et al.675 and Davies et al.,665 whereas in the study by Horowitz et al.647 60% of
participants were female. Lippert et al.648 did not present a gender breakdown. Forty per cent of the
participants in the study by Horowitz et al.647 were described as non-white and the entire sample in the
Jensen et al.675 study was of Norwegian ethnic origin.
Intervention
Davies et al.665 and Jensen et al.675 describe individual psychotherapy, but details of intervention delivery
are not reported in the studies by Horowitz et al.647 or Lippert et al.648 Children in the Davies et al.665 study
had been in receipt of psychotherapy for between 4 months and 3.5 years, and in the Jensen et al.675
study weekly sessions were provided for a mean of 7.5 weeks.

Horowitz et al.647 reported that non-minority children received more therapy. Abuse variables were found
to be powerful predictors of the total number of therapy sessions, and earlier onset predicted more
sessions. Children who experienced higher levels of psychopathological disturbance also received more
treatment. Family functioning did not predict level of treatment in the model.
Lippert et al.648 profiled those who failed to participate in treatment: 46% of the sample of 101 did not
begin therapy and 54% had at least one therapy session (therapy initiators). Initiators of therapy were less
likely to be ethnically black (33%) than decliners (50%), and were more likely to have been subject to
maternal neglect (24%) than decliners (4%). Decliners were those whose first appointments were twice as
long from the initial forensic interview following abuse report. Caregivers who declined treatment reported
lower scores on the Self-Report Family Inventory (SFI) conflict, competence and expressiveness scales.
Reasons for declining included ‘work conflict’ (50%); ‘inaccessible venue’ (40%); ‘child was symptom free’
(15%); ‘caregiver was busy’ (15%); and ‘caregiver wanted to forget about abuse or let their child
forget’ (15%).
Acceptability
Interviews exploring children’s experiences of therapy were conducted in the study by Davies et al.665
Jensen et al.675 interviewed children and their caregivers, separately, at two different points in time: just
after the last therapy session and 1 year later. Lippert et al.648 relied on parents’ accounts, and presented a
profile of non-participation and data from case record reviews. Horowitz et al.647 collected data from
therapists’ reports and ran multiple regression analyses to examine the correlates of therapy usage.
273
274
TABLE 21 Acceptability of psychotherapy interventions
ACCEPTABILITY

Davies 2009665 P Neglect/abuse; age range n=4 Children: IPA Children valued feeling able to make their
8–10 years; 100% female own contributions to therapy; rated
UK Single interview of their importance of non-verbal communication;
I Individual psychotherapy lasting experiences of saw therapists as attachment figures
between 4 months and 3.5 years participation in therapy,
using age-appropraite Practical considerations
C N/A methodologies

The waiting room was important as it gave
O N/A Carers: time with familiar others; increase level of
contact; recommend that physical facilities
Interview could be improved
647
Horowitz 1997 P Sexually abused children; aged n = 81 Therapy experiences Regression Abuse variables were powerful predictors
6–16 years; 100% female; 40% gathered from parents analyses of total sessions of therapy: earlier
USA minority ethnic onset predicted more sessions; child
psychopathology – more disturbance was
I Psychotherapy including individual associated with more treatment; family
and group or FT functioning did not predict treatment
C N/A Non-minority subjects received more

therapy than minority subjects, who were
O N/A typically older, of lower SES and age at
onset of abuse was later
Jensen 2010675 P Sexual abuse; mean age = n = 15 Video-taped therapy Content analysis, Negotiation of goals depended on
8.3 years; 64% female sessions guided by Bordin’s children’s caregiver. No child could
Norway conceptualisation articulate therapy goals at onset but could
I 3 to 17 (M = 7.5) weekly sessions Separate interviews with of the working articulate gradually gained understanding of
of individual psychotherapy children and their carers alliance the purpose of therapy
at the end of therapy and
C N/A 7 years later Therapists need to build a positive bond
with caregivers, as this relationship may be
O CBCL294 a reference point for children in interpreting
their own relationship with the therapist

648
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Lippert 2008 P Sexually abused children aged n = 101 Case record review 54% had at least one therapy session,
3–17 years 47% did not begin therapy
USA Caregiver interviews
I Psychotherapy based at an urban (n = 45) including Initiators of therapy
Child Advocacy Centre ‘perceptions related to
therapy’, including the Less likely to be black (33%) than decliners
C N/A ECBI311 and SFI747 (50%)
O N/A More likely to report maternal neglect

(24%) than decliners (4%)
Closer in time to forensic interview
Caregivers who declined scored lower on

measures of conflict, competence and
expressiveness
Reasons for declining
Work conflict (50%)
DCAC was inaccessible (40%)
Child was symptom free (15%)
Caregiver was busy (15%)
Caregiver wanted to forget abuse or let

child forget (15%)
DCAC, Dallas Children’s Advocacy Center; N/A, not applicable; PICO, participants, intervention, outcomes, comparisons; SFI, Self-Report Family Inventory.
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ACCEPTABILITY
Children’s views
Davies et al.665 used a range of age-appropriate methodologies to garner children’s experiences of
psychotherapy. This was an extremely small sample size (just four), but the children interviewed valued
feeling able to make their own contributions to therapy, and they appeared to view their therapists as
attachment figures. The importance of non-verbal communication was stressed. Physical space was also
raised as an issue: children stated that the waiting room environment was important as it became a
familiar place, but they also felt that it could have been improved. There were no measures of therapy
outcome in this study.665 Jensen et al.675 was designed to explore therapy goals and whether or not these
were achieved. Of the 15 children interviewed, none had therapy goals at the outset, and expectations
of therapy were low, but, through the course of treatment, a better understanding of the therapy was
gained. The play therapy element was also recognised as being enjoyable.
Caregivers’ views
Jensen et al.675 reports mothers’ fears of feeling condemned by the therapist, and anxiety that they were
losing control over the situation. Three aspects were identified as being important in developing a positive
bond with the therapist: the therapists’ personal qualities (in contrast to parents identifying qualifications
as the most important); the collaborative process between therapist and caregiver (identified as the
gatekeeper); and developing a systemic three-way relationship between therapist, child and parent.
Staff views
In the study by Jensen et al.,675 the parent is described as the ‘gatekeeper’ who enables the child to
participate in therapy, and the importance of this three-way relationship is stressed.
Summary: acceptability of psychotherapy/counselling interventions

From the available evidence, we know very little about the factors that predict the engagement of children
with counselling or psychotherapy, or what differentiates those who complete therapy from those who do not.
Generally, children and caregivers are positive about counselling and psychotherapy and the therapists
delivering them. However, it is largely from these studies that parents’ and caregivers’ concerns about
‘knowing what is happening in therapy’ emerge.
There is no strong evidence to suggest that children have marked gender preferences for counsellors, but
it would be a mistake to draw conclusions from this particular set of studies, none of which is very
rigorous, and most of which are very small. Those studies emphasise the importance of addressing
caregivers’ concerns about the wider impact of sexual abuse on family functioning.
As with all interventions considered in this review, most of the studies were undertaken outside the UK,
and there is a need to determine the views of children and young people within the UK.
Peer mentoring
One660 study provided acceptability evidence for peer mentoring (Table 22).
Overview of this study

This was a qualitative study,660 undertaken in Canada, with a sample of 24 families with 26 children.
Participants
Participants had experienced sexual abuse and were aged between 14 and 21 years.
Intervention
The ‘Peer Support Program for Parents and Youths’ was led by parents and young people, and was
delivered on a 12-week cycle but with open-ended membership. It brought to implement and change
276
TABLE 22 Acceptability of peer-mentoring interventions
Data
Sample size; collection – Analysis
Study/location PICO response rate acceptability method Qualitative findings
Alaggia 1999660 PSP 24 families, Interviewed a Summary Parent feedback

26 children sample of overview
Canada P Sexually abused parents, Respectful, sensitive
young people aged youths and staff
14–21 years professionals
Outreach service was
I Parent- and youth-led unique; group gave
peer support groups, them coping strategies
12-week cycle with and they felt that they
open-ended were not alone
membership
Youth feedback
C N/A
Enthusiastic
O N/A endorsement
Outreach and staff

availability highly rated
One-to-one support
most important, group
work less so
Professional feedback
PSP fills gaps in services
No other agency
provides similar support
PICO, participants, intervention, outcomes, comparisons; PSP, Peer Support Programme.
existing normal treatment service and was targeted at families that did not benefit from mainstream
support or services. Specialising in child sex abuse issues, the group offered flexible delivery and outreach
support, and also offered practical advice with legal procedures and child welfare.
Acceptability
A sample of parents, youths and professionals were interviewed to collect data.
Children’s views
Young people ‘enthusiastically endorsed’ (p. 70) provision and found the outreach service to be very
helpful. Staff were available by phone during evenings, which was valued. One-to-one support
was considered to be the most important element and the youth-led support group was less
favourably viewed.
Caregivers’ views
Parents found staff to be respectful and sensitive and identified the outreach service as unique. Parents felt
that the parent-led group gave them information and coping strategies and appreciated hearing that they
were not alone.
Staff views
Staff felt that the group filled services gaps and that no other agency provided similar support.
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ACCEPTABILITY
Summary: acceptability of peer-mentoring interventions

The evidence base for the effectiveness of peer mentoring is relatively slim (see Chapter 4) but these
interventions receive a strong endorsement from children and carers.
Eight studies provided information relevant to the acceptability of a variety of intensive service provision for
maltreated children, details of which can be found in Table 23 (see also Table 24).
Residential treatment Five649–651,666,671 studies described residential facilities that provided care for
maltreated young people with behavioural and conduct problems. West et al.651 examined the views of
young people about a trauma-informed alternative to traditional school policies in a residential care
setting, so we include that study651 in this section.
Enhanced fostering Three145,146,667,671 studies reported on enhanced foster care interventions carers.
No study explored the acceptability of, or satisfaction with, therapeutic day care services.
Therapeutic residential care

Details of the five649–651,666,672 studies exploring different types of therapeutic residential care interventions
can be found in Table 23.
Location
One672 study was based in the Netherlands and three in the USA.649–651 The Gallagher and Green666 study
was undertaken in the UK.
Study design
Cunningham et al.649 described the development of a measure of youth engagement that was suitable for
use with young people in RTCs. In collaboration with staff from two RTCs, the research team established
a programme logic model, which they used to develop a multidimensional measure of engagement,
adapting items from existing measures of readiness to change and the therapeutic alliance. The tools were
then piloted drawing on data from interviews with young people at four time points, interviews with
primary caregivers at the first and last time points, questionnaires to the school, clinical and residential
members of the young people’s treatment teams, and data from the client’s case files and school records.
Confirmatory factor analysis using maximum likelihood estimation was the primary analytic method used
for analysis, and informed subsequent modifications of the measure.
Leenarts et al.672 examined motivation for change among girls in compulsory residential care, using a range
of standardised measures of child maltreatment, trauma and treatment motivation, which they analysed in
relation to motivation for treatment, using multiple linear regression analyses, and treatment dropout,
using logistic regression.
Both Shennum and Carlo650 and Gallagher and Green666 used semistructured interviews. Both interviewed
children who had previously lived in therapeutic residential care; the sample in the Shennum and Carlo
study650 included some children still resident at the time of interview.
West et al.651 used focus groups to explore the views of young people in a school that they attended under
court order.
Sample sizes
A total of 154 adolescent girls participated in the Leenarts et al.672 study and 130 young people were
interviewed on four occasions by the researchers in the study by Cunningham et al.649 Shennum and
278
TABLE 23 Acceptability of therapeutic residential care interventions

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690

Study/location PICO response rate acceptability Analysis method Findings
Cunningham Therapeutic residential care n = 130 Action research Inductive thematic Engaging youth required continual efforts – type
2009649 coding; of engagement varies and can be unstable
P Young people in need of 44 semistructured confirmatory
USA supervision (PINS), with a mean age interviews with RTC staff factor analysis The authors conclude that engagement needs to
of 15.5 (SD 1.1) years; 45% female, be measured at multiple time points across
38% white, 35% African American Interviews with primary treatment
caregiver (T1a and T4a)
I Therapeutic residential care, Staff qualities of client-centred communication
average length of stay 88 months School, clinical and and the use of positive reinforcement were
residential treatment strongly correlated with the composite measure
C N/A team questionnaires of engagement
(T2a and T3a)
O N/A
Data from client case files
672
Leenarts 2013 Compulsory residential treatment n = 154 Multiple linear Age and ethnicity associated with motivation for
regression for treatment; non-Dutch ethnicity and younger age
The Netherlands P Severely traumatised female treatment had significantly higher levels of distress
children aged 12–19 years motivation
logistic regression Emotional abuse predicted motivation for
I Stapstenen stabilisation training to identify possible treatment more strongly than other types of
psychoeducation and non-exposure predictors for maltreatment. The study found no significant
CBT dropout prediction for (time to) dropout
C N/A
O N/A
continued
279
280
TABLE 23 Acceptability of therapeutic residential care interventions (continued )

666
Gallagher 2012 Therapeutic children’s homes Target n = 34 Semistructured interviews Summary overview Positive
ACCEPTABILITY
covering three domains:

UK P 8 facilities, each with three to five Achieved n = 16 l forming a positive relationship with an adult
children aged 16–22 years, subject l life in the TCH l better behaviour with long-term positive
to multiple maltreatment; 63% l life outside outcomes
female; 94% white l life after l life story work and play therapy helpful
l leisure time bonding
I Therapeutic parenting, formal
therapy sessions, life story work Negative

C N/A l mixed views on therapy
l difficulty having friends from outside
O N/A l preparation for moving on – mixed experiences
l guilt leaving others behind
l relationships with staff – not feeling loved,
losing contact post intervention
l not understanding/experiencing normal
family life
l resource intensive, high cost
650
Shennum 1995 Therapeutic residential care n = 80 Interviews with children, Summary overview Positive
58 of whom were
USA P Neglected or abused children with interviewed after l most found formal therapeutic one-to-one
comorbid depression, anxiety, discharge sessions helpful
attention deficit, CD; mean age 11.8 l talking about family was most meaningful
(SD 2) years; 32.5% female Onsite observations; l therapists viewed positively
including video and audio l 70% rated the milieu therapy behaviour
I 1.5–2 years tapes point system as good
C N/A Interviews with staff Negative
O N/A l 20% reported negative experiences –

therapist was too busy, felt forced to talk
l 30% saw milieu therapy as means for staff to
control clients
l 60% disliked behaviour management
l only 20% felt that relationship with staff
was good
l 30% found it difficult living with a large
group of children
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690

651
West 2014 Modified curriculum and ‘Monarch n = 39 Focus group Thematic analysis Six focus groups were conducted to help
Room’ understand the lived experiences of
USA trauma-exposed students and how this impedes
P Abused and neglected classroom learning
court-involved girls attending a
residential school; age range There were 16 total behaviours identified by
14–18 years; 100% female; 23% the students as behaviours displayed in the
white, 69% black, 8% other classroom or school group
I Trauma-informed alternative to Students also identified 23 probable causes

traditional school discipline policies for those behaviours and provided 20
and ‘Monarch Room’ intervention recommendations for improving policies and
designed to develop problem- practices in schools
solving, emotional regulation and
sensorimotor activities to de-escalate Student data were used to build the
problem behaviour trauma-informed training intervention for school
stuff
C N/A
O N/A
a T1 – 4 weeks after admission; T2 – midpoint in treatment; T3 – immediately prior to discharge; T4 – 4 months post discharge.
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ACCEPTABILITY
Carlo650 recruited a sample of 80 young people and Gallagher and Green666 achieved a sample of just 16.
Thirty-nine girls participated in focus groups in the study by West et al.651
Participants
Characteristically, the children served by these interventions were described as ‘unfosterable’ or difficult to
place, because of behavioural issues or physical and psychological conditions and/or disability.
The young people in the study by Gallagher and Green666 had experienced severe sexual, physical and
emotional abuse and neglect, by one or more members of their family, and sometimes others, which had
left them with significant problems of attachment. Previous placements had broken down, often because
of challenging (including sexualised) behaviour. Some had experienced subsequent maltreatment in
foster care.
Shennum and Carlo650 described residential facilities that were providing care for maltreated young people
who were also presenting with behavioural and conduct problems.
Young people in the study by Cunningham et al.649 had a somewhat different profile in that the majority
were in residential care (‘congregate foster care’) as the result of being in need of supervision (53%), and
it is not entirely clear whether or not they had a history of maltreatment. A further 38% were adjudicated
delinquents and 9% had been referred for reasons including abuse, neglect and special educational needs.
It is possible that – with additional information – this study649 would fail to meet our inclusion criteria in
respect of participants.
Those in the Leenarts et al.672 study were in compulsory residential treatment facilities. All had experienced
prior traumas, and their histories were characterised by several out-of-home placements (60%),
homelessness (30%), police contact of family members (45%) and histories of physical or psychological
problems of family members (62%).
The girls in the West et al.651 study were maltreated girls who were involved in the criminal justice system.
Interventions
The therapeutic residential settings ranged from a compulsory treatment facility for severely traumatised
girls651,672 through residential treatment649,650 to a small domestic-style setting described as a Therapeutic
Children’s Home,666 where children lived in ‘families’ of three or four children with two adult staff acting in
loco parentis. In this setting, the therapeutic model comprised three components: therapeutic parenting
(to address attachment issues and a secure base), formal therapy sessions (based on play and expressive
arts) and life story work.
The larger residential facilities provided a range of individual and group therapies as well as education. Typically,
the environment was structured in ways designed to promote prosocial and to adaptive behaviour.649,650,672
The treatment setting in West 2014651 was a residential school, which offered a modified training
curriculum (The Heart of Teaching and Learning: Compassion, Resiliency and Academic Success) and a
‘Monarch Room’ facility, which promoted emotion regulation and skills to de-escalate problem situations
through problem-solving techniques, talk therapy and sensorimotor activities, and avoid student
suspensions and expulsions, which are recognised as counterproductive.

One649 study specifically examined factors associated with engagement, but does not provide relevant data,
as the study concerned the development of a measure appropriate to residential treatment settings.
We discuss the issues raised by Cunningham et al.649 in our concluding discussion. One672 study explored
the factors associated with treatment engagement and dropout, and, given the risks associated with
282
running away from residential care, this study – although conducted in the Netherlands – addresses an
important UK-wide issue.
Leenarts et al.672 report that several demographic variables predicted motivation for treatment, as assessed
by the Nijmegen Motivation List 2 (NML-2749). The 34 items in this self-report questionnaire ask
respondents to answer using a five-point Likert-type scale, ranging from one (‘not at all applicable’) to
five (‘highly applicable’). The NML-2 generates three subscales: (1) preparedness to engage in treatment,
(2) level of distress and (3) doubt about treatment. Data on dropout consisted of a total of five possible
outcomes: ‘client left: runaway’; ‘judge did not extend stay’, ‘transfer to another facility’, ‘regular
termination: end treatment’ and ‘stay not terminated: adolescent is still a resident’. Girls who terminated
their stay by running away were identified as dropouts, that is, those who ran away and stayed away for
> 14 days and, as a result, were discharged from the facility. In this study,672 23 girls (15%) ended their
first uninterrupted stay by dropping out. One girl was transferred to another facility but dropped out after
return, resulting in a total number of girls dropping out of 24. Girls with a non-Dutch ethnic background
and a younger age reported significantly higher levels of distress and were more likely to engage
in treatment.
Level of distress was predicted by a history of out-of-home placements when considering demographics
only, and predicted doubt about treatment when considering demographics and childhood maltreatment.
The authors point out that out-of-home placements and separating children from their parents may
adversely affect their functioning. Out-of-home placements no longer predicted level of distress and doubt
once emotional abuse, anxiety, depression and dissociation were taken into account. The authors conclude
that the relationship between out-of-home placements and motivation is mediated by emotional abuse
and trauma-related symptoms.
Emotional abuse was the type of maltreatment most strongly correlated with motivation to engage with
treatment. Girls who reported internalising symptoms (anxiety, depression) were more likely to experience
high levels of distress than those with fewer such problems. Girls with dissociative symptoms were more
likely to have doubts about treatment. Adolescents are generally more willing to change their internalising
problems than their externalising problems, and the authors point out that dropping out of treatment by
running away may be attributable to externalising symptoms and antisocial behaviour. They go on to
suggest that this is perhaps why the study672 did not find a significant association between dropout and a
history of child maltreatment. The authors suggest that as dropout often occurs when adolescents are on
leave from residential care; future research should investigate whether or not going on leave adversely
affects girls’ motivation for treatment and also the relationship between motivation to change and
motivation for treatment.
Acceptability
Three650,651,666 of these five649–651,666,672 studies specifically explored the view of children and young people.
Children’s views
From the qualitative evidence, young people in the study by Gallagher and Green666 valued the therapeutic
home-like setting provided, but pointed to limits on the extent to which it felt like a real family home;
for example, friends had difficulty calling in if they had not been officially vetted. Participants stressed
the need for developing a special relationship with an adult, so that they felt ‘loved’, and that within the
constraints of the working environment this was sometimes difficult. They liked the life story work.
There was also some evidence of poorly managed transitions, with little or no preparation for leaving care.
This intervention is costly and there is currently an absence of robust effectiveness data to support its use.
Therapists were considered helpful and, in the most part, viewed positively by young people in another
residential setting,650 but, here too, there were negative views reported: 20% felt that their therapist was
too busy to deal with them; 30% disliked the milieu of therapy, as they considered it to be a means of
283
ACCEPTABILITY
controlling young people; and 60% disliked the behaviour management approach. Only 20% of the
sample felt that they had a good relationship with the staff.
The six focus groups convened in the study by West et al.651 were used to understand the lived experiences
of students who had difficulties with their own externalising behaviour and that of others. The girls, over
half of whom had a history of maltreatment (just under half were placed for reasons of delinquency),
attended a school that aimed to ‘treat, heal, and educate its students by following a school discipline system
that incorporates the students’ treatment goals and strategies . . . [and which emphasises] . . . reducing
student disciplinary issues by providing an effective social-emotional learning environment’651 (p. 60).
Students were asked to identify behaviours that they saw in themselves or others (displayed in the classroom
or in the school grounds) and describe the kinds of experiences that led to these behaviours and to say
what advice they would give to teachers working with students like themselves. The girls identified
16 behaviours and 23 likely causes. They made 20 recommendations for improving policies and practices in
schools. The authors observe that these respondents were very aware of their behaviour and that of their
fellow students. They were able to identify triggers from past experience that they felt resulted in highly
charged emotional and behavioural reactions that are common among those who have experienced
complex trauma. The kinds of linkages that students made included unwanted or unexpected touch, raised
voices and references to relatives, as well as triggers unique to particular individuals. They conclude that
schools need more trauma-informed teaching practices in order to manage these behaviours.
Enhanced foster care

Details of the three145,146,667,671 studies of enhanced foster care can be found in Table 24.
No study explored the acceptability of, or satisfaction with, therapeutic day care services.
Location
The studies by Staines et al.667 and Biehal et al.145,146 were conducted in the UK. The Laan et al.671 study
was undertaken in the Netherlands.
Study design
Staines et al.667 used a prospective, repeated-measures design to investigate the supports and services
provided to children and carers in an Independent Fostering Agency (IFA), and the relationship between
these and children’s progress and placement outcomes over a 12-month period. They used questionnaires
to obtain data from carers, children and social workers, at two time points (at the start of a placement and
1 year later). The included paper reports the views of foster parents.
Biehal et al.145,146 undertook a small randomised trial of the effectiveness of MTFC, embedded in a larger,
observational QEx case–control study (see Chapter 4 for details of the RCT).
Laan et al.671 used data from case notes, together with data from a questionnaire completed by foster
carers, to explore the characteristics of children included in an enhanced fostering programme, the content
of counselling provided within the service, placement outcomes, and relationships between children’s
characteristics and placement outcomes.
Sample size
The achieved sample in the study by Biehal et al.145,146 was 219 participants (with 34 participants in the
RCT). Laan et al.671 examined case files for 78 children, and secured questionnaire data from 64 of the 78
foster parents. Staines et al.667 received completed questionnaires from 49% (221) of the IFA foster carers
and 66% of the IFA social workers (299) at time 1 – when child was first placed. At time 2 – either 1 year
following the start of the placement or when the placement ended, the team secured completed
questionnaires from 50% (227) of foster carers and 69% (312) of the IFA social workers. For only 138
placements at time 1 and 80 placements at time 2, were completed questionnaires received from both IFA
social workers and foster carers
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TABLE 24 Acceptability of enhanced foster care interventions

Study and location PICO response rate acceptability Analysis Findings
Biehal 2012145,146 MTFC-A N = 219; two arms: Quantitative and Bivariate and Children’s views
qualitative evidence; multivariate
UK P Care sample: multiple RCT, n = 34 postal questionnaires, analyses of l Children reported many positive views of the

maltreatment; ages 7–17 (mean (experimental face-to-face interviews, qualitative data. programme and, in particular, the points and
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
13.06) years; 46% female MTFC, n = 20; telephone interviews, Thematic analyses levels system
control TAU, reports and parent of qualitative data l Some children disliked the rewards
I Wrap-around multimodal n = 14) records programme and this may have influenced
intervention for children in care In-depth case placement stability and outcome
aimed at reinforcing positive Observational arm: study analyses
behaviour MTFC, n = 92; Caregiver views
comparison, n = 93
C TAU l Caregivers felt extremely supported to deliver
Qualitative the programme and felt in most cases that it
479
O Placement stability; CGAS, purposively was very successful
CBLC,257 DAWBA-RAD sampled case l Children who did not benefit from the
studies n = 20 programme may have been unable to engage
with the programme, may have experienced
negative influences from their birth family or
had emotional problems that the programme
was not primarily focused on treating
Laan 2001671 Project Intensieve Pleegzorg n = 78 Case notes and Analysis of 74% of children remained with their foster family
questionnaire data questionnaire 2 years after the counselling
The Netherlands P Foster parents caring for abused data; thematic
and neglected children; mean length analysis of case Foster care is more likely to end prematurely for
in placement = 5.2 years; comorbid: notes girls, children with psychiatric problems and
learning disabled – 32% mild, 22% for children who had experienced neglect or
moderate, 4% severe, 3% profound; sexual abuse in their biological family
physically disabled or disease 37%;
‘deviant conduct behaviour’ 80% Foster parent views
I Intensive foster care l 82% were satisfied with the counselling,

10% ambivalent, 8% found it not helpful
C N/A l emotional support most important aspect
(72%) compared with informational (14%)
O N/A or instrumental support (8%)
l 79% of foster parents judged the placement
as successful
continued
285
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ACCEPTABILITY
TABLE 24 Acceptability of enhanced foster care interventions (continued )


Staines 2011667 Therapeutic Team Parenting n = 450 Questionnaires – foster Summary overview Foster carer views
parents and social
UK P Physically, sexually and emotionally Demographic workers; at placement l 77% said placement was going very well
abused and neglected children aged information for: start and 1 year on after 12 months; 20% quite well
5–14 (M = 12) years, in foster care; 299 children; l 97% felt that they were important part of
44% female; 87% white; 77% 177 foster carers the team and that their views were taken
difficult behaviour, 26% school fostering 221 seriously
excludes, 20% in trouble with police children
Social worker views
I Intensive foster care
l Many rated process highly, including
C N/A pre-placement planning (but local authority
not always prepared)
O N/A l 17% felt placement was unsuccessful –
primarily due to lengthy decision-making at
local authority level causing delays
l Funding was considered a major problem,
having a negative impact on the child
MTFC-A, Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care for Adolescents; N/A, not applicable; PICO, participants, intervention, outcomes, comparisons.
Participants
Respondents in the study by Laan et al.671 were foster parents looking after learning disabled children with
challenging behaviour. It was the only study671 of disabled children identified. Participants in the study by
Biehal et al.145,146 were children and young people in foster care, aged 10–17 years, who were showing
complex or severe emotional difficulties or challenging behaviours, and whose placements were unstable, at
risk of breakdown, or not meeting their assessed needs. Children in the study by Staines et al.667 were aged
5–14 years, who had been in a placement and provided by the IFA participating in the study for > 1 year.
All of the children had been maltreated, with most having experienced more than one form of abuse.
Interventions
Biehal et al.145,146 evaluated Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care for Adolescents (MTFC-A), described
as a ‘wrap-around multimodal foster care intervention for children with challenging behaviour’.
The IFA in the study by Staines et al.667 incorporated a therapeutic approach to its service provision, which
recognised the importance of individual therapeutic work with children, but focused the efforts of
therapists on supporting foster parents and other staff within the agency. As the authors note, local
authorities typically use IFAs for their more difficult-to-place children and this, together with the
therapeutic focus, is why this study667 was categorised as one that was concerned with enhanced
fostering provision.
Intensive Foster Care [Project Intensieve Pleegzorg (PIP): project for intensive foster care] was the focus of
Laan et al.671 PIP provided foster carers with intensive and specialised counselling by a counsellor who also
had access to an educational psychologist, and a psychiatrist or psychotherapist from a multidisciplinary
PIP support team.

In Laan et al.’s671 analysis, intensive foster care placements were more likely to end prematurely for girls,
for children with psychiatric problems and for children who had experienced neglect or sexual abuse in
their biological family.671 Staines et al.667 and Biehal et al.145,146 do not present systematic data on this issue.
Acceptability
Of the three studies, Biehal et al.145,146 was the only one to canvass children’s views of the intervention.
All three studies considered the views of staff and caregivers.
Children’s views
Using 20 purposively sampled and anonymised case studies, Biehal et al.145,146 provide qualitative evidence
of the acceptability of the intervention to young people. Two young people described the benefits of the
points and levels system integrated in MTFC-A, as both had been experiencing considerable problems in
care and at school, displaying anti-social behaviour. One boy explained how beneficial the programme was:
I thought it was quite good. It was sort of a target to reach, sort of expectation, and it was sort of
good, cos I wanted to sort of beat the expectation, sort of double it. So it was sort of a thing to
push myself.
Young male; Biehal 2012, p. 180145
Both boys interviewed felt secure and cared for in their new foster care setting and by the end of year
both were retained in the placement. The other boy stated:
They treat me nice and all that and they look after me, make sure I’ve got the right things . . . Like
they’re all kind to me.
Young male; Biehal 2012, p. 178145
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ACCEPTABILITY
Biehal et al.145 reported that there was a sense of genuine affection demonstrated by many carers, which
can be absent in other residential care settings. One young person who had been referred for treatment
for risk-taking behaviour had initially found it hard to adapt because of the contrast of the MTFC-A
placement with previous care settings:
It was hard . . . stricter, like trying to keep in your head certain things that you have to do every day
. . . and for someone who’s just come from a house where you had to look after their parents then to
a children’s home where you just run riot basically then come into this structured programme, it was
very puzzling, difficult to get your head round, but then you get used to it (p. 182) . . . . Mary
concludes that ‘Treatment foster care was the best thing ever, I can put my hand on my heart,
if it wasn’t for TFC I would probably be in a secure unit by now.
Young woman participant; Biehal 2012, p. 183145
Some children reacted negatively to the points system during the early stages of the programme:
It’s really strict, it’s really rubbish, I had all my stuff taken off me and I have to do stupid things I would
have done anyway for points.
Young female participant; Biehal 2012, p. 195145
One child felt that the system was artificial and refused to participate, as the system would not be
introduced in a ‘normal family’. Some less successful placements were included in the case studies,
including young people with outcome scores that had showed little change or had deteriorated at
follow-up. In three of the cases that demonstrated mixed outcomes for the children, all had experienced
behavioural difficulties alongside serious emotional problems. Biehal et al.145 conclude that, in some
cases, MTFC may be less effective for young people with serious emotional problems. Although the
programme does offer therapeutic support, the main focus is on behavioural change, which may not be
the most appropriate intervention for these children. Placements that were disrupted early on, were also
less likely to lead to positive changes in the children’s outcome scores.
Caregivers’ views
The Staines et al.667 study reports high levels of success, with 77% of foster carers reporting that the
placement was going well after 12 months. Laan et al.671 reported similar satisfaction levels (79%) with
foster carers identifying the emotional support element of the counselling as the most useful.
In the study by Biehal et al.145,146 many carers found the points and levels system to be a key contributor to
the programme’s success. Typical questionnaire feedback at the 3-month follow up included:
Points and levels rewards are brilliant for her. See this on daily basis. It’s a good thing, gives a second
chance . . . Points system motivates the young person. Spending points, buying privileges brings the
desired reward for good behaviour.
Foster carer; Biehal 2012, p. 192145
A few carers felt that the programme did not suit some young people: children who did not accept that
their behaviour was a problem.
Foster carers in this study145 felt very supported, with the points and levels system creating a distance
between the carer and the sanction for poor behaviour. Responsibility for discipline was shared with the
team, and the carers were less likely to feel ultimately responsible for invoking punishment. This helped
maintain positive relationships. There was also some evidence of carers feeling less stressed because of the
‘depersonalisation of discipline’ (Carer’s view, p. 197).
Resource pressure was cited as a programme difficulty, in particular, staff shortages, which hampered delivery.
288
Finding appropriate education placements was also considered extremely important by caregivers. Children
who had been excluded from school were found an environment to suit their needs, although there was
no evidence of improvement in truancy or exclusion rates by follow-up.
Factors that helped placement progress included removing the young person to a new environment in a single
placement away from antisocial influences; developing a warm and caring relationship with his/her foster carer;
and the child accepting, and being motivated to participate in, the programme. Conversely, the programme
could be hindered by the negative influence of birth families and the placement setting at follow-up.
Staff views
The research by Staines et al.667 on a therapeutic team parenting approach in an IFA found that social
workers considered resource limitations, poor planning and lengthy decision-making to have a direct
negative impact on the child.
Summary: acceptability of intensive service interventions

We have very little research intelligence about the acceptability of intensive service provision, such as
therapeutic residential care or treatment foster care, from the perspective of children and young people,
and not much more from the perspective of carers. The data from West et al.651 indicate that young
people are more aware of their behaviour and its likely triggers (and distal causes) than one might
imagine, and that training teachers to better appreciate the ways in which trauma impacts on behaviour
might help to improve social and educational outcomes for maltreated children, particularly when
combined with approaches to the curriculum and behaviour problems that minimise the adverse
consequences of externalising behaviour (school expulsion) while maximising the opportunities to develop
self-regulation and problem-solving, etc. (the Monarch Room).
The studies indicate that foster carers are able to better care for challenging children when provided with
similar support and training. Although the results of the UK study of MTFC-A145 were – at best – mixed,
the majority of young people and carers were positive about them.
The study by Cunningham et al.649 is of interest because of what it has to say about treatment
engagement, and we discuss this later.
Five652,661,668–670 studies presented qualitative data in relation to the acceptability of the three types of
activity-based intervention: art and creative therapies, play therapies and equine-assisted therapy.
Study designs
All five studies were qualitative studies. The study of art therapy651 was primarily a descriptive account of a
group for children in women’s refuges, but included analyses of children’s drawings and reports of the
children’s written evaluations of their group experiences. The study of equine-assisted therapy669
incorporated participant observation, field notes and interviews (semistructured, ethnographic
conversational plus unstructured interviews). Bannister and Gallagher668 investigated the case histories of
children referred to the NSPCC. Hill670 examined case records, supplemented with 48 interviews with
parents, therapists and children. Mishna et al.661 interviewed children’s parents and professionals using
semistructured interviews at 6, 12 and 18 months following the start of treatment. Both Burgon669 and
Gilbert652 wrote from the perspective of practitioner researchers.
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ACCEPTABILITY
Samples
Samples were extremely small: just seven children in the study by Burgon669 and six in the Bannister and
Gallagher668 study. Mishna et al.661 interviewed the parents, teachers and therapists of 11 children who
were undergoing play therapy. Hill670 examined the cases of 13 children who were seen by four therapists.
No sample size was available in the study by Gilbert.652
Setting
Bannister and Gallagher,668 Burgon669 and Hill670 conducted their studies in the UK. The studies undertaken
by Gilbert652 and Mishna et al.661 were based in North America.
Participants
The seven children in the study by Burgon669 were in foster care; they had all experienced multiple abuse
and presented with additional problems, such as school exclusion or involvement with youth justice. Those
described by Bannister and Gallagher668 were children who had, themselves, been sexually abused and
who were sexually abusing other children.
The children in the study by Gilbert652 had been exposed to domestic violence exposure, and those in the
study by Mishna et al.661 included children who had been exposed to domestic violence, plus children
who experienced serious verbal, physical and/or sexual abuse, neglect by parents or neglect prior to
international adoption by their present parents. The children in the study by Hill670 had also been subjected
to physical and/or sexual abuse and neglect.
Intervention
The length of treatment varied with each intervention and population but in three of the studies, the
therapy could last up to 2 years.661,669,670 The weekly group art therapy reported in the Gilbert652 study ran
for 8 weeks.
In the study by Bannister and Gallagher668 the treatment could last up to 8 months, although one child
withdrew from treatment after 6 weeks, and, at the time of the study, some children were still
receiving treatment.
Two interventions were based around creative activity.652,668 The play therapy interventions described in the
studies by Hill670 and Mishna et al.661 also involved parents. Burgon669 helped to deliver an equine-assisted
therapeutic intervention.
The intervention in the Bannister and Gallagher668 study drew on art, play and drama therapy techniques,
and included an educative–behavioural intervention to treat offending behaviour; carers were involved as
much as possible in the treatment. Two of the six children were seen for 3 months, purely for assessment,
but the authors regarded assessment as intrinsically therapeutic.
Acceptability
None of these five652,661,668–670 studies has anything relevant to say about treatment engagement or
completion. Hill670 notes that ‘gate-keeping’ was an issue when trying to access children’s views in his
research and feels that children’s voices were not adequately represented.
Children’s views
The ethnographic study of equine-assisted therapy by Burgon669 presented some data on children’s
experiences of this therapeutic approach. Working as practitioner–observer, Burgon669 identified some
positive feedback from the seven children with whom she worked, interpreting these experiences as
empowering for them. One young person expressed this as follows: ‘[the horse] kind of made me feel like,
you know, I’m the queen of the world kind of thing because I was higher up’669 (p .171). Another child
described how she learnt to deal with feelings of anger because she knew that she had to be calm around
the horses in case she frightened them. Two other participants demonstrated how trying something new
290
had helped them explore new opportunities with the confidence that they had gained from riding horses.
These young people had gone on to begin training in an equine-related career.
Using written feedback from the final meeting of an art therapy group housed in a women’s refuge,
Gilbert652 gives positive examples of some children’s experiences, but the data are sparse and it is difficult
to draw any conclusions about either acceptability or effectiveness for this group of children who had
witnesses domestic violence. She notes that the children raised multiple issues of concern through the
weekly art tasks, suggesting that the children were comfortable about doing this and that such group
work might provide a fruitful platform for therapeutic work. Unfortunately, this was not the purpose of
the group, and no information is provided that addresses the group’s effectiveness, which Gilbert652
acknowledges as a significant gap.
Bannister and Gallagher668 report mostly positive views of the intervention but one child had found it
difficult to discuss the abuse and felt that the intervention had not helped their own abuse to stop.
Caregivers’ views
The art therapy for child witnesses of domestic violence was timed to coincide with their mothers
attending a therapy session (which meant that babysitters were not required). From a practical point of
view, carers thought that this was helpful.651
Hill’s670 study of parent–therapist interactions highlighted the importance of therapists thinking carefully
about the parents’ needs, when and how it is appropriate to involve them in therapy, and when not, and
the skills required to do so effectively. One parent described how betrayed she felt following the sexual
abuse of her child, and how this had impacted negatively on her trust of all professionals. The ability to
follow the parent’s lead at the start of the therapy was identified as important by one therapist, and Hill670
refers to this as ‘interactional expertise’ – valuing the expertise of others and combining it with professional
expertise. It is also clear from Hill’s paper670 that parents also needed to be ‘taught’ how to engage with
therapy and to recognise that they were part of the therapeutic process too.
Tensions were clear in the study by Mishna et al.,661 who reported that it took parents some time to
develop a relationship with the play therapists working with their children, typically around 1 year. The
parents in this study661 had a history of school failure, and were reluctant to engage with parent/teacher
consultations; building a relationship with therapists who were school based was considered important in
re-engaging the parents in a relationship with the school community.
In the study by Bannister and Gallagher,668 caregivers observed improved behaviour, but this was not
sustained in all cases. No acceptability data per se were obtained from carers or children.
Staff views
Burgon669 described positive interactions with young people using horses as a means of initially communicating
with them, with a shared goal of riding the horse safely and with enjoyment. She documented the growing
confidence of the young people, who were very withdrawn at the start of the therapy, arguing that the
children developed empathy and a strong bond with the animals with which they were involved.
The therapist delivering the art therapy intervention in the study by Gilbert652 expressed frustration about
the fluctuating membership of her group, with only two children regularly attending the group over an
8-week period. This is perhaps because it was an add-on intervention that was timed to coincide with the
maternal therapy group.
The therapists in Hill’s670 study viewed parents as generally supportive, but in need of advice and support in
how to deal with the complex difficulties that are associated with sexual abuse. Feelings of guilt and blame
are common in parents of sexually abused children, and the therapists in this study670 described how they
worked to develop parent confidence in their own parenting skills. Only three fathers were involved in this
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ACCEPTABILITY
study,670 but the therapists interviewed described how they took a proactive approach in involving them in
their child’s therapy.
Therapists in the study by Mishna et al.661 identified some practical considerations. Staff agreed that delivering
the play therapy intervention within a school setting facilitated the development of rapport with teachers and
school administration staff, which was felt to be important to facilitate treatment. Further work was required
to develop relationships with parents. During the first year, therapists reported difficulties with parents, which
might be attributable to feelings of mistrust and guilt (e.g. as described by Hill670) or reluctance to deal with
the school environment. Therapists describe how learning to engage and build trust with the parent ‘typically
took up to a full year before regular contact and a degree of trust was established’ (p. 79).661 There was also
evidence of relationship strain between therapists and the teaching staff, which took time to resolve.
Teachers valued therapist input into classroom behaviour management and also appreciated knowing more
about the child’s family life. More experienced therapists were able to develop a more effective relationship
with teaching staff, which, in turn, helped teachers to develop some empathy for the child’s family situation.
Summary: acceptability of activity-based interventions

There are surprisingly few studies of the acceptability of this group of interventions, which, almost by
definition, are designed to be attractive to children and young people. Possibly their acceptability is taken for
granted. No study of the effectiveness of these interventions incorporated any data that were relevant to any
dimension of acceptability, and the evidence base is also rather weak (see Chapter 4). The limited data
available within these five studies (Table 25) suggest that children are amenable to engaging in these types
of therapy (although we know nothing about those who decline). The most helpful data relate to the
important issue of how therapists relate to parents about their involvement in their child’s therapy,
emphasising the importance of establishing rapport and being inclusive rather than exclusive about the
content of therapy. The study by Mishna et al.661 raises the possibility about the potential use of schools as
settings for therapy, but no more than this. It does remind one of how difficult it can be for parents, who
may themselves have had difficult experiences with education, to find liaison with teachers. Given the impact
of maltreatment on children’s educational progress, this is an important issue that is too rarely addressed.
Studies of general relevance
Three653–655 studies focused on issues relating to children and families receiving a range of services (Table 26).
Study design
All three653–655 studies analysed factors associated with treatment engagement and completion.
Sample sizes
Kolverola et al.653 analysed the records of 118 children and their caregivers.
Risser and Schewe655 collected data on 1365 children (and their caregivers) for whom services were sought
from one of 12 sites between 2001 and 2010.
Murphy et al.654 used data on 928 youth from the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTNS) Core
Data Set (CDS).
Participants included children from birth to age 21 years who received assessment and treatment services
from one of 56 community sites between 2004 and 2010.
Location
All of the interventions were USA based.
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TABLE 25 Acceptability of activity-based interventions


DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
668
Bannister 1996 P Maltreated children sexually N = 6; n = 1 child Pre- and post-treatment Children’s views
offending against other children; refused treatment interviews with social
UK aged 11–12 years; 17% female; after 6 weeks worker, carer and child Five children viewed the intervention positively
83% Caucasian
Most felt treatment length was ‘OK’
I Creative therapy intervention (art,
play, drama therapy techniques) with They enjoyed the creative elements and
educative/behavioural intervention to videotaping their progress
treat offending behaviour; treatment
lasted up to 8 months One child found it difficult to talk about abuse,
the treatment failed to stop their continued
C N/A abuse and more help was needed
O N/A Carers’ views
Two carers felt the treatment was too short
All observed that the children were calmer/less

aggressive but this was not sustained in all cases.
Also reported a decrease or cessation in
sexualised behaviour
There was no follow-up included in the design

but some progress was observed in two children,
over time, who had received both creative and
behavioural aspects of treatment. One child was
investigated for sexually abusive behaviour during
treatment and for violent behaviour post
treatment
continued
293
294
TABLE 25 Acceptability of activity-based interventions (continued )

ACCEPTABILITY
Burgon 2011669 P Maltreated children in foster and Agency referred, Qualitative interviews, Qualitative, Motivation to work with horses led to:
residential care; 71% female n=7 field note observations participative and
UK reflexive l confidence building
I 1–3 hours of equine-assisted ethnography; l self-esteem
learning and therapy/therapeutic thematic analysis l self-mastery
horsemanship; weekly, fortnightly or l empathy
intermittently over 2 years l new opportunities
C N/A

O N/A
652
Gilbert 1988 P Children aged 2–14 years, who Group attendance Art qualitative feedback The children were found to process a number of
had witnessed or been victims of ranged from two their concerns through the modality of art
USA family violence to six children
(average Behavioural approaches and developmental and
I 8 × I hour weekly behavioural attendance n = 4) curative factors provided the therapist with
group therapy, delivered in a mechanisms for structure and role
women’s refuge
Positive group evaluations were received from the
C N/A children, the therapist, the shelter director and
the parents
O N/A
670
Hill 2009 P Physically and sexually abused 13 families: Qualitative case study of Thematic analysis ‘Interactional expertise’ involves valuing the
children aged 2–17 years; 46% 13 cases comprising expertise of others (e.g. family member) and
UK female Mothers, n = 12 in-depth interviews with combining it with one’s professional expertise
therapists (n = 27),
I Individual play therapy with Fathers/stepfathers, parents (n = 18) and It is important, particularly in building trust,
children; individual sessions with n=4 children (n = 3); plus to negotiate parental guilt and sensitivity to
parents, joint sessions with parents examination of case files potential blame, enabling reluctant parents to
and children: parent peer support Children, n = 28 become involved, and involving fathers
group, individual parent support;
variety of models ranging from
6 weeks to 2 years
C N/A
O N/A
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690

661
Mishna 2012 P Physically or sexually abused/ n = 11 63 interviews were Grounded theory School location viewed positively by all: easy to
neglected children plus those who conducted at 6, 12 and approach attend; could view child in context
Canada witnessed domestic violence; age 18 months with parents,
4–10 years; 27% female teachers and therapists Some tensions reported between therapists,
teachers and parents, which required resolution,
I School-based ecological treatment – which took up to 1 year
independent play therapy 2–3 times
weekly, 1 hour of therapist time Proposed guidelines for best practice
with parents and teachers over
18–24 months
C N/A
O N/A
295
296
TABLE 26 General studies

Study/location Intervention; population response rate acceptability Analysis method Qualitative findings
ACCEPTABILITY
654
Murphy 2014 P Physical and sexual abuse; mean n = 928 Examined the direct and Mediation Maltreatment not directly related to the
age 12.1 years; 57% female; 58% indirect associations analyses; linear treatment completion
USA white, 19% black; 24% other among physical and and logistic
minority or multiracial background; sexual trauma, child PTSD regression Indirect associations
41% were of Hispanic or Latin symptomatology modelling
American heritage (PTSD-RI750) and treatment l physical trauma associated with
completion controlling for hyperarousal, but hyperarousal did not
I Community treatment centres demographic variables predict treatment completion
across USA, specialising in childhood and treatment site l sexual trauma significantly associated

trauma, providing EBTs with higher avoidance (in turn,
associated with lower likelihood of
C N/A treatment completion)
l sexual trauma significantly associated
O N/A with overall PTSD symptoms (in turn,
associated with treatment completion
at a marginally significant level
Risser 2013655 P Children aged 1–11 (M = 3.82) n = 529 treatment Background Information ANOVA, MANOVA Child emotional and behavioural problems,
years, exposed to domestic violence completers (BI) and regression general parent stress and income not
USA and/or child abuse; 54% male; 51% analysis correlated with treatment engagement
white, 15.9% black, 15.4% Completion of Services
Hispanic, 16.1% biracial, 0.8% form (CSF) Type of violence exposure, parent–child
Native American; 0.8% Asian stress and race differed by category of
American, 0.3% other CBCL349 treatment engagement
I Individual/family and multimodal PSI367 Children exposed to both domestic violence

therapy and psychoeducation; service and child abuse demonstrated higher rates
length ranged from 0 to 55 (M 6.3, of treatment completion and attended
SD 5.4) months more sessions than children exposed to
either domestic violence or child abuse
C N/A
Caregivers with higher levels of
O N/A parent–child stress were more likely to
engage in treatment
White children in the full sample completed

treatment at higher rates than minority
children
Study/location Intervention; population response rate acceptability Analysis method Qualitative findings
653
Koverola 2007 Eclectic – individual and group both n = 118 Withdrawal metrics Three treatment groups identified:
child and caregiver and FT (including
USA siblings, spouses and grandparents) Children: l non-engagers (20%), attriters (16%),

compliers (64%)
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
P Physical, sexual abuse and neglect l TONI-3751 l no difference in children’s race or

(41.5% also witnessed domestic l CBCL294 gender or caregivers’ gender by
violence); mean age 9.6 (SD 3.76) l CROPS752 treatment attrition type, or referral
years; 44.2% female; 73% African l PROPS753 source
American, 24% Caucasian; 1% l non-engagers were older than attriters
Hispanic Caregivers: or compliers
I Paediatric outpatient mental health l PSI367 Attriters were more likely to live with their
clinic l ESI (Hall, family of origin
unpublished)
C N/A l BSI754 Very few differences in caregivers were
l SSQ755 observed, but caregivers reporting high
O Treatment engagement child-related parental distress and high
psychological distress were least likely to
engage in treatment
Families receiving multimodal treatment

compared with individual/family-only
treatment were more likely to comply
Comprehensive study design and data

collection methodology
Measures used had evidence of reliability

and validity
Interventions clearly described although the

eclectic nature of the IT makes results
hinders generalisations
Data analysis was appropriate and clearly

presented
ANOVA, analysis of variance; CSF, Completion of Services Form; EBT, evidence-based treatment; N/A, not applicable; SSQ, Social Support Questionnaire.
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ACCEPTABILITY
Participants
The participants in the study by Murphy et al.654 had suffered physical as well as sexual abuse. In the
Koverola et al.653 study the children had been referred to outpatients with a history of intrafamilial
violence, and those in the Risser and Schewe655 study had been exposed to violence, including domestic
violence. Ethnicity was reported in all studies, with the majority being white American.
Intervention
Intervention type varied from individual therapy, group therapy and FT653,655 to evidence-based mental
health services for trauma-exposed children.654
Acceptability
Quantitative analysis was undertaken to examine the direct and indirect associations among physical and
sexual trauma, child PTSD symptomology and treatment completion in Murphy et al.654 The data reported
in the study by Koverola et al.653 were collected through an archival chart review process. Data contained
in the charts were drawn from comprehensive assessment protocols completed by the child and his/her
primary caregiver, referral forms, progress notes and discharge summaries. Risser and Schewe655 examined
factors associated with treatment engagement and child outcome. No data are available on children’s views.

Murphy et al.654 concluded that neither physical nor sexual trauma was directly related to the probability of
treatment completion. Indirect associations were found: physical trauma was associated with hyperarousal,
but hyperarousal did not predict treatment completion. Sexual trauma was significantly associated with
higher avoidance symptoms, which, in turn, were associated with lower likelihood of treatment
completion. Sexual trauma was also associated significantly with overall PTSD symptoms, which, in turn,
were associated with treatment completion at a marginally significant level.
In the study by Risser and Schewe,655 children were categorised into groups based on whether or not they
attended any therapy session after the intake, terminated prematurely from therapy or completed
treatment. Results demonstrated that child emotional and behavioural problems at intake, general parent
stress and income did not differ by treatment engagement. Type of violence exposure, parent–child stress
and race differed by category of treatment engagement. Children exposed to both domestic violence and
child abuse demonstrated higher rates of treatment completion and attended more sessions than children
exposed to either domestic violence or child abuse. Caregivers with higher levels of parent–child stress
were more likely to engage in treatment. White children in the full sample completed treatment at higher
rates than minority children.
Koverola et al.653 found no differences in children’s race, gender or caregivers’ gender by treatment
attrition type; 60.5% of the sample were legally mandated to participate in treatment, but whether
treatment was court mandated or voluntary was not associated with a likelihood of engaging in, or
completing, treatment [χ2(2) = 0.1; p = 0.95].
There were some baseline differences in compliers, dropouts and non-engagers in Koverola et al.653
The mean age in the three groups was significantly different [F(2,116) = 4.0; p = 0.02]. Non-engagers were
older than both attriters and compliers (M = 11.1, 9.5 and 8.0 years). Attriters were more likely to be in
the family of origin than non-engagers or compliers. Families referred for child abuse in this study were
also more likely to comply with treatment than those who were referred for domestic violence (67% vs.
33%, respectively) [χ2(2) = 5.6; p = 0.06]. There were very few differences found among caregivers of
attriters, completers and non-engagers. Caregivers’ self-reports revealed that caregivers of completers do
not experience significantly higher levels of social support and daily stress than caregivers of attriters or
non-engagers (F = 0.5; p = 0.63; F = 0.7; p = 0.52). In addition, they do not report higher levels of
internalising or externalising behaviour problems or post-traumatic symptoms in their children (F = 0.5;
p = 0.59; F = 2.9; p = 0.05; F = 1.8; p = 0.17). Differences were found in relation to psychological distress
and parental distress. Caregivers reporting high child-related parental distress [F(2,32) = 3.9; p = 0.03] and
298
high psychological distress [F(2,70) = 3.3; p = 0.04) were least likely to engage in treatment. No differences
were found with regard to children’s self-report of post-traumatic symptoms or cognitive functioning
(F = 0.3; p = 0.71; F = 0.7; p = 0.49). When treatment modality was examined, findings revealed that
families were more likely to complete treatment successfully if they received multimodal treatment relative
to individual or family-only treatment [χ2(2) = 7.6; p = 0.01].
Caregivers’ views
The majority of the mothers interviewed by Koverola et al.653 were reluctant to discuss the abuse because
of fear that it had not happened. Some also felt vulnerable because of how therapists perceived their
reactions – they either felt overprotective or too careless that abuse had happened. Most expressed
positive opinions about treatment and felt that they understood their children better, had new ideas about
possible solutions and valued the contributions made by the team.
Staff views
Conflicts associated with alleged abuse had been reduced in n = 20 cases in the study by Koverola et al.653
Alleged perpetrators who had engaged in therapy expressed relief being able to talk about it in a
non-judgemental setting. Those who did not view the intervention positively felt that mothers had formed
a coalition with the therapist.
Summary
We consider the relevance of these data in the concluding section of this chapter.
Summary: key messages about acceptability
Insofar as the evidence permits, we have summarised data on the acceptability of particular kinds of
treatment above. In this final section, we consider overall messages from the evidence presented above.
What the studies said

The included studies approached acceptability in a number of ways. Some framed it in terms of client
satisfaction, often using questionnaires that required respondents (usually caregivers) to answer by scoring
statements on a Likert scale, representing views from ‘not at all (satisfied)’ to ‘completely (satisfied)’.
Typically, they covered issues such as the respondent’s relationship with the therapist, the perceived
relevance of the therapy and the perceived helpfulness of the therapy and therapist. But, of course, this
measures acceptability only for those who accept services. Findings from these studies tell us nothing
about how acceptable a service or therapy is to those who have not taken up the offer. Did they not
accept help because the help on offer was not something they saw as relevant, or otherwise acceptable to
them? Or was it for other reasons, such as an inability to travel to the service, to secure time off work or
because someone else stopped them attending? Few studies have investigated the reasons why maltreated
children and their carers decline services.
Engaging with therapy is often deemed to be an implicit marker of acceptability, and dropping out of
therapy an implicit marker of dissatisfaction or unacceptability. Again, without asking them, one cannot be
sure why people drop out of therapy or other kinds of help, and relatively few studies present such
information, if indeed they obtained it. Furthermore, engagement [and disengagement (or ‘dropout’)] are
defined in different ways. Often, in the studies we reviewed, researchers excluded from the final analyses all
of those who did not receive a certain ‘dose’ of therapy. Although this might make sense from the point of
view of assessing impact, it leaves unanswered questions about why some people complete therapy and
others leave early. Is it because the therapy is not helping, or is it because the client feels better and in no
further need of help? Or is it for reasons unconnected with the therapy? And do those who drop out of this
therapy continue without further support or do they seek it, and accept it, elsewhere?
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In controlled studies of the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions, concerns about group equivalence is
often the driving force behind those that document reasons for dropout. Researchers are concerned to
identify any evidence of differential dropout between the intervention and comparison groups, and any
evidence to suggest that the reasons for dropout are attributable to factors associated with a particular
intervention or study arm, both of which might confound the results of the study. Rarely, however, do the
lists of reasons include attitudes towards the therapy. Rather, they concentrate on factors such as moving
placement, lost contact, refusal, all of which – from the point of view of acceptability – raise more
questions than they answer.
Examining dropout in controlled effectiveness studies is further complicated because it is often difficult to
disinter the effect of the interventions offered from those of participating in the study, that is, are the
demands of therapy unacceptable or the demands of the study design? This may be particularly true of
randomised trials, for which potential participants may hope to be randomised to receive (or not receive)
the intervention, and opt with their feet when allocated to the unwanted arm of the study. This is one
reason why uncontrolled studies are helpful in exploring acceptability.
Definitions matter
The studies in this review examined the phenomena of treatment engagement, dropout and completion
using differing definitions, ranging from percentage of client-attended sessions to ‘last appointment
missed’. This needs to be borne in mind when considering their results, as variations in definition impact
on the apparent evidence base relating to the prevalence and predictors of attrition.756
In addition to the inherent heterogeneity across studies (in relation to location, samples, settings, staff
profiles, factors explored, etc.), differential approaches to defining core concepts make it particularly
challenging to synthesise the findings of the included studies.
Treatment completion and dropout

How one conceptualises treatment completion dictates how one defines premature treatment termination
or dropout. This, in turn, can change the answers that research studies provide to questions about
treatment acceptability. Even defining completion is not straightforward. Some researchers define it in
terms of attending all sessions. Although one cannot assume that full attendance is equivalent to engaging
with treatment (turning up at a lecture is not synonymous with listening or learning), it may be a
reasonable indicator that someone is finding therapy helpful or expecting it to be helpful. It may indicate
that someone is probably an active participant, although this may not be a reasonable assumption for
children who might have no choice. In contrast, defining lack of success as lack of engagement is, at best,
tautologous. Timmer et al.656 provide an example of the problem. In this study656 of PCIT, parents were
considered to have completed treatment once they:
l had met the mastery criteria for the relationship enhancement element of the programme
l could demonstrate compliance commands from their children
l could successfully implement a discipline procedure, and
l could show maintenance of skills that they had acquired in the first phase of the programme.
In this study,756 failure to comply with all of these tasks was categorised as early termination, but this was
essentially synonymous with programme effectiveness, thereby stacking the odds in favour of a positive
result for the efficacy of the treatment being assessed.
Some studies define completion in terms of ‘dosage’, by calculating the average number of sessions
attended and setting a minimum threshold. Theoretically, this is often argued on the basis of evidence
from earlier studies suggesting that a minimum level of exposure is necessary for a certain intervention to
have an effect.757 So, for example, Laan et al.671 defined premature termination of intensive foster care
placement as those placements that ended within 2 years of inclusion within the intensive fostering
service. In this case, the authors acknowledge that this is ‘something of an arbitrary criterion’, based on
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the belief that fostering can postpone a residential placement and postponement of at least 2 years is
deemed a success. The children in this study757 were predominantly learning disabled children, the
remainder having serious physical impairments or health problems. All were in out-of-home placements as
a result of maltreatment or inadequate parenting. Yet others use definitions such as ‘termination with
therapist approval or mutual agreement’. Some might see these definitions of completion as a source of
bias. Taken as a whole, these factors probably account for some of the contradictory messages that appear
across studies, but perhaps make some of the consistent messages more important.
Although no intervention can demonstrate 100% effectiveness, the odds of success should arguably not
be estimated without consideration of the factors that cause those it is designed to help to decline or drop
out early. The reasons for both might reflect factors that are only indirectly linked to the intervention
(relationship with therapist, service setting, time of day) but are important to know and understand.
Treatment engagement
Almost no study addressed the issue of treatment engagement, which is also subject to various definitions,
some of which can run the risk of being used almost interchangeably with treatment success, that is,
failure is explained in terms of failure to engage, when – in some circumstances at least – engagement
might be a function of service or therapist attitude and behaviour.
Engagement can be used to refer to a variety of closely related things. Most usually it refers to someone’s
commitment to the therapeutic process and active participation in it. As Cunningham et al.649 point out, it
is ‘related to other concepts such as readiness to change, rapport, motivation, working alliance, and
collaboration and compliance’ (p. 64). As such, measures of engagement (the focus of this study) have
looked variously at clients’ motivation for, and expectations about, treatment; the client–therapist
relationship; and client behaviour within therapy.
Expectations of treatment may act as facilitators or barriers to participation in treatment, for example
believing that treatment will – or will not – be helpful, recognising the need for treatment compared with
failing to see a problem to be resolved.
On the basis of the wider therapeutic literature, establishing rapport with the therapist or with care staff is
probably a necessary prerequisite of achieving therapeutic change, but it may present particular challenges
with reluctant, ambivalent or involuntary clients. Cunningham et al.649 noted that engagement by young
people in the RTCs they studied required continual effort because the process of engagement was
unstable and required constant ‘refreshing’. Few studies in this review of psychosocial interventions gave
much attention to this aspect of effective interventions, with only a handful referring (in passing) to
strategies such as motivational interviewing, and none to the wider challenges of engaging young people
in therapeutic interventions.
What the study by Cunningham et al.649 emphasises is the importance of professionals thinking
theoretically and strategically about what they need to do to facilitate engagement, and how this might
vary with context (service setting, timing, voluntary/compulsory and therapy type) and indeed, influence
service outcomes. For the population of seriously maltreated children, engagement may require particular
thought and care, given the fracturing of trust and the damaged ability to form relationships that is so
much a feature of these young people’s lives.
Key themes
We first consider some of the findings from the studies that were designed to explore issues of
engagement and treatment exposure. We then summarise some of the key themes to emerge from our
thematic analysis of all included acceptability studies, recognising that these need to be considered in light
of the issues discussed above. The studies discussed in this section are illustrative – further detail can be
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found in the relevant sections dealing with intervention groups. As indicated above, studies that used data
from key stakeholders typically gathered information from parents or other caregivers and therapists,
rather than children themselves. However, parent and therapist reports of experiences raised a number of
issues that could clearly impact on a child’s engagement or retention in therapy.
Keeping the first appointment

Many children who require help do not receive it because they are not referred for appropriate services
(see Chapter 6). It is also the case, however, that significant numbers of those referred for therapy do not
avail themselves of it.
The study by Haskett et al.657 was one of a few studies that were concerned specifically with
understanding the reasons why children referred for treatment following abuse failed to keep their first
scheduled therapy session. This early American study of referrals for children who had been sexually
abused found that ethnicity (African American) was significantly associated with failure to attend, together
with whether or not the referral was to a public or private centre, whether or not clients had access to a
telephone and whether or not the mother agreed that the family needed counselling. However, these
factors accounted for only some 11% of the total variance between families who failed to keep that first
appointment (45 out of 129) and those who turned up. This points to the importance of factors not
measured in this study, such as practical obstacles, for example parental illness or forgetting appointments.
Mothers who felt that the whole family could benefit from counselling were more likely to attend the first
treatment session, and the authors highlight the potential significance of mediating variables that might
inhibit attendance, such as failing fully to understand the abuse or feelings of guilt and self-blame.
More recently, Lippert et al.648 undertook a study of the factors differentiating those families who decline
therapy from those who initiate therapy. In this study,648 46% of families of sexually abused children who
were referred over a 6-month period did not commence therapy within 2 months. In addition to measures
of child behaviour, family functioning, data from child protection service records and information provided
by caregivers, this study648 also used semistructured interviews to explore caregivers’ support networks;
their perceptions of, and relationship with, the child; and perceptions of therapy. Analyses of the
administrative data indicated only two significant variables, namely the child’s ethnicity and neglectful
supervision by the mother. The odds of entry to therapy were just over two times greater for non-black
children than for black children (p < 0.099) and just under 14 times greater for children whose mothers
were accused of neglectful supervision (p < 0.01). Caregivers from both groups reported low levels of child
problem behaviours as measured by the ECBI,311 but those who declined therapy had lower scores on the
SFI,747 indicating higher functioning. Interview data suggest that mothers who declined therapy were
possibly less child centred than those who attended, that is, ‘decliners’ more often talked about ‘going
places’ as what they enjoy doing with their children, in contrast to ‘attenders’, who more often talked
about playing with the child, talking, singing or engaging in other activities, such as reading or doing
homework. Although most caregivers (80%) initially saw the relevance of therapy, the authors hypothesise
that ‘those who decline child therapy may overlook its emotional benefits’, as these caregivers less
frequently described therapy in terms of emotional help or change (p. 866). Perceived barriers to therapy
identified by caregivers were practical ones, such as location (see below). Although neither of these
studies648,657 was conducted in the UK, both indicate the importance of addressing sociocultural factors,
such as class and ethnicity.
In the study by Koverola et al.,653 caregivers who, at intake, reported high levels of stress related to the
caregiver role (as opposed to general stress) and high levels of psychological distress were least likely to
keep the first therapy appointment after assessment. In this study,653 concerned with children with a
history of intrafamilial violence, the majority of participants (61%) were legally compelled to attend, but
this was neither associated with a likelihood of engaging in, or completing, treatment. Few studies found
any impact of mandatory, compared with voluntary, referral on subsequent engagement or attendance.
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Starting but not finishing

Of those who start treatment, significant numbers cease attending before therapy is scheduled to end.
We identified a number of studies that specifically explored factors associated with dropout from therapy,
and a number that undertook post hoc explorations of those children who dropped out of therapy in the
course of the effectiveness study (see above). These studies simultaneously explored the factors associated
with retention. Studies that explored treatment dropout or retention did so in very different ways, making
it difficult to draw generalisable conclusions. This general problem is exacerbated by the fact that most
of these studies have been conducted outside the UK, most usually in the USA.
Among the factors reported by individual studies or groups of studies are those in four key domains:
(1) sociodemographic variables (age, ethnicity, family status); (2) maltreatment variables (age at onset,
duration and severity); (3) child symptomatology/psychopathology (depression, PTSD, behaviour problems);
and (4) family functioning/caregiver attributes or involvement. Typically, these were explored in relation
to children who have experienced one kind therapy (e.g. CBT) or one kind of maltreatment (e.g.
sexual abuse).
Correlates of treatment engagement and attrition

An early study647 used regression analyses to investigate factors associated with the amount of therapy
(unspecified) received by 81 girls who had been sexually abused (primarily by male family members).
Horowitz et al.647 found that earlier onset of abuse predicted more sessions of therapy, and more
disturbance was associated with more treatment. Non-minority ethnic status also appeared to be
associated with increased treatment, but this failed to approach significance once age at onset was added
to the equation. Around 33% of the variance in total numbers of sessions attended could be explained by
variables from three of the above domains, namely age at onset, number of types of sexual abuse (severity)
and child depression.
The authors noted that their study647 was biased towards families who had engaged with therapy, most of
whom were recruited through Child Protection Services and who may have felt that they had little choice
about attending. Bearing that in mind their findings raise some interesting issues, both for researchers and
for clinicians. They speculate that the significance of children’s abuse history may be attributable to
therapists’ expectations that children who are more seriously abused require more sessions, or indirectly
from the ways in which their abuse influences their behaviour and affect. Although children’s views were
not sought, their parents reported a general pattern of initial reluctance or hostility towards therapy, which
became more positive as therapy got under way, something reported in other studies. This may reflect
children’s initial fearfulness or anxiety when faced with something unknown to them, and which
attenuates as they establish a relationship with the therapist. In this study, the same pattern was noted by
the children’s therapists. In contrast, parents may initially see treatment as something to be welcomed but
subsequently feel threatened by the child’s developing relationship with the therapist and the issues that
therapy might raise within the family. From a research perspective, the authors noted that, in contrast to
other studies of treatment dropouts, ‘family functioning’ did not appear to be correlated with length of
time and treatment. They suggest that researchers may be assessing different family characteristics using
the same general term, and that multiple measures of family functioning would be useful in helping to
identify which families are at risk of dropping out, and how this might be prevented.
Other studies identify maltreatment severity as predictive of treatment completion. In Boisvert 2008,658
higher dropout (those completing fewer than 15 sessions) was associated with higher levels of sexual
abuse impact, behavioural difficulties, social difficulties and delinquency. There were no family
characteristic differences identified between treatment completers and non-completers. In Chasson
2013,630 children who had been abused by an adult figure, had been physically injured, and had been
subjected to more than one event, were more likely to complete treatment. Even if true of all studies or
interventions, knowing these associations is not sufficient to enable one to know what steps to take to
enhance treatment completion.
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Two631,634 studies report correlations between the child and/or caregiver’s age and treatment completion,
although it is worth noting that the study by Cross et al.634 is primarily a report of study retention rather
than treatment retention, and it is particularly difficult to disinter the relative effect of study requirements.
Eslinger et al.631 found that as caregivers’ age increased by 1 year, the likelihood that both child and
caregiver would fully complete treatment increased by 11%, whereas the chance of completing treatment
decreased by 80% as the child’s age increased by 1 year. Similar findings were reported by Cross et al.,634
who found that older caregivers were more likely to continue with treatment, but that the older the child
was, the less likely they were to engage in treatment (see also the study by Koverola et al.653).
In a study633 comprising a retrospective chart review of a sample of children referred for TF-CBT following
sexual abuse, only 254 of 490 referred for therapy (52%) started treatment and only 98 (38% of the 254)
completed therapy. The authors found no evidence that ethnicity, severity and duration of abuse, SES or
placement in foster care influenced use of therapy, which the authors attribute to agency factors, for
example a sliding scale of payment, accepting all insurance plans and an integrated model of assessment
and treatment. What was significant was whether or not the caregiver themselves participated in
counselling services, either individual therapy or FT. When this happened, the young person was more
likely successfully to complete the recommended therapy. The authors attributed this to the fact that
non-offending caregivers often have mental health problems that negatively impact on family functioning
in ways that can interfere with treatment completion. In this agency, the psychosocial assessment was
designed to identify such risk factors and, when identified, referral was made for the caregiver. When
these carers ‘bought in’ to therapy, they believed that this was associated with enhanced motivation to
continue with counselling (for the child) and provide them with important support. Of course, it may also
be simply that parents who received help for the negative impact of sexual abuse on themselves were
more able to provide adequate care and attention to the child. The bottom line is that in this study,633
48% families referred to this agency did not start treatment and, of those who did, 62% did not complete
therapy. Another 532 families were referred to other services, but the study collected no data on service
engagement for these families. The evidence about parental involvement resonates with a trend in the
review of effectiveness studies – that parental involvement is associated with better outcomes.
Ambivalence about the value of therapy

Parents whose children are referred for therapy following maltreatment may be apprehensive for a number
of reasons. Non-offending parents may feel guilty at having failed to protect their child, and may be
fearful of how they will be viewed by others. Those implicated in maltreatment may be even more
trepidatious, anticipating censure. All parents may be concerned about what their child will share with the
therapist, and how this might influence their relationship with their son or daughter. A number of studies
have confirmed the importance of these, and other issues that matter to parents, which, if unaddressed,
may prevent engagement with therapy, lead to premature termination or undermine its effectiveness.
Few studies explored these issues, and none did so with respect to the interventions that appear most
promising from the point of view of effectiveness. Here are some examples.
In a study of the involvement of parents in their children’s play therapy (seen primarily through the eyes of
therapists), Hill670 notes that some parents expressed an initial lack of trust in the professionals and
concludes that rapport and trust is something that the therapist needs explicitly to address. One mother
described her experience as a parent of a sexually and physically abused child receiving play therapy
as follows.
You are going through such emotional upheaval that you don’t trust anyone. And there are definitely
some real difficulties with some professionals. You need honesty . . . you need to be sure that they will
be open with you.
Hill 2009, p. 1670
Therapists decided whether or not mothers should be involved in the child’s therapy, sometimes deciding
against it because of problems in the mother–child relationship. Clearly, communicating those decisions
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to mothers in ways that do not result in them withdrawing the child from therapy is a complex business.
The guilt that mothers may experience may lead them to imagine that professionals are developing very
negative assessments of their parenting, even when therapists are saying otherwise:
I felt so bad about myself that I thought they must be thinking the same thing even if they were
smiling nicely. I think I was very frightened.
Mother; Hill 2009, p. 390670
Hill670 also found that, for some mothers, relief at securing help may result in a metaphorical ‘handing over
of responsibility’ to the therapist, when their involvement is essential to securing a good outcome. In Hill’s
study,670 involving fathers presented particular challenges. There were only three fathers in his small
sample, none of whom had much to do with therapy. The singleton father who became involved did so
because the therapist conveyed a clear expectation that he should be there, rather than leaving it as an
open invitation.
Scott677 used in-depth interviews to explore the views of a small group of parents (n = 10) whose children
were receiving counselling. Twelve of the 17 children in these families had been sexually abused. Parents
expressed mixed views about the value of talking about painful feelings. Some worried about their children
having to relive traumatic experiences in therapy, whereas others felt that this process was helpful. Scott677
highlights the importance of managing parents’ expectations, as some parents clearly had quite unrealistic
expectations. For example, some parents expected particular changes in children’s behaviour as a result of
therapy and were frustrated and disappointed when these did not occur. Typical concerns described by
parents included the following.
l Some parents had high levels of anxiety, but felt unable to discuss these with the therapist because
they were unaware of what was being discussed with their child.
l As discussed previously, issues of parental guilt that the abuse had been able to happen – once this
issue was addressed, it became easier to talk about.
l Some parents felt ambivalent about the therapist’s ‘authority’; counselling for some families was
compulsory once social services were involved, and they felt that things were taken out of their control.
l Parents also reported being distanced from the criminal justice process; once legal action was taken,
it was important for parents to be briefed about any progress on this front.
Similar concerns about ‘wanting to know what was happening’ in the therapy were reported by De Luca
et al.170 and Grayston and De Luca171 Parents interviewed by De Luca et al.170 wanted more feedback from
therapists about their child’s group therapy, and would have welcomed the opportunity to observe
treatment and receive regular updates by phone. Half of those surveyed in the study by Grayston and
De Luca171 said that more feedback would have been helpful.
Tjersland et al.673 reported how vulnerable some parents felt, worried that the therapist would think they
were too overprotective or too careless that abuse had been allowed to happen.
Where parents had clear expectations of treatment, satisfaction levels were higher. Parents who felt part of
the therapeutic team or part of the treatment process experienced less tension with the team.629 Evidence
from studies of the effectiveness of cognitive–behavioural studies confirm the value of parental involvement.
Addressing the needs of caregivers

There is some evidence that caregiver distress is correlated with treatment attrition and that, if this is
addressed, children are more likely to complete therapy. For example, Koverola et al.653 conducted an
exploratory study examining the association between attrition and retention and (1) demographic and
referral characteristics; (2) child functioning; and (3) caregiver functioning. The sample included 118
children, aged 4–17 years, referred for treatment of child abuse and/or exposure to domestic violence.
They classified children into three distinct groups: those who failed to engage with treatment at all (n = 24;
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20%); those who started but failed to complete treatment (n = 19; 16%); and those who completed
treatment (defined as those who were ‘compliant with treatment and who completed their recommended
course of treatment’653 p. 26). The 75 children who completed treatment completed between 1 and
55 sessions (median eight sessions). Data were collected through an archival chart review. The only factors
that predicted treatment completion were high levels of child externalising behaviour and receipt of
multimodal treatment, rather than individual or family-only treatment. In this agency, all children and their
caregivers received one of three treatment modalities: IT for both child and caregiver, FT or multimodal
therapy. Multimodal therapy included individual therapy and FT, and family advocacy services, aimed at
helping families deal with practical issues such as court orders, housing, financial assistance, job training
and school resources. Essentially, the family advocate worked with families and community agencies to
ensure that nothing prevented the family from engaging in treatment. This included providing in-home
services during crises. The authors hypothesise that high levels of externalising behaviour may essentially
ensure that the child’s voice is heard and may generate more concern from parents, teachers and indeed
juvenile justice agencies. Conversely, the authors suggest that caregivers (and others) may underestimate
the adverse consequences of internalising or PTSD symptoms, and that it might be important to
provide psychoeducation regarding the importance of intervention for such children, even when their
symptoms do not interfere with day-to-day life. Similarly, using multinomial logistic regression, Eslinger
et al.631 were able to predict whether a family would complete treatment, receive a ‘moderate dose’ or
drop out early, using the variables age of child, age of caregiver, child’s baseline score for externalising
behaviour (CBCL297,349) and child’s baseline maximum post-traumatic stress score (TSCCA325). Older
caregivers with younger children were more likely to complete treatment, and older caregivers who
identified higher ratings of post-traumatic stress and externalising behaviour were more likely to receive a
moderate dose.
Many of the qualitative studies canvassing the views of caregivers stressed the importance of speaking to
other parents with similar crises in their own families, and the strength they could draw on sharing these
similar experiences, knowing that they were not alone (see, for example, the studies by Powell and
Cheshire662 and Costa et al.678):
I always find it very helpful to meet other mums who’ve been through this. You automatically kind of
feel like you belong. It is a terribly isolating experience, and though you may have friends you can talk
to, they don’t really understand the true horror or the system or what you’ve been through.
Powell 2010 (reproduced with permission), p. 149662
On a rather different note, Mishna et al.661 described difficulty in forming alliances between the teacher
and therapist, and between the therapist and parent, in a play therapy intervention based in a school.
These difficulties took up to a year to resolve, but once the needs of the parents were considered as part
of the therapeutic process, relationships improved – one therapist described their thoughts, thus:
I started realising that something had to shift in my relationship with this parent and I think it shifted
because I was able to hold her in my mind as well as him.
Mishna 2012, p. 79661
Talking to therapists
It is clear that a good relationship between a young person and therapist will benefit treatment. However,
respondents in the included studies reported mixed experiences of the client–therapist relationship. Some
participants reported difficulties with this relationship, which required significant investment, and some
considered that therapists were too analytical and not adequately child focused. Children valued the
personality characteristics of therapists highly, whereas parents were more interested in evidence of
appropriate qualifications.
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A number of children and young people were initially resistant towards therapy and found it difficult to
articulate their feelings and talk about what had happened to them (see, for example, Haight 2010175).
One child in the study by Sudbery et al.663 put it like this:
Having to talk to people about your problems. Having to share your feelings with them as well, which
brings out a lot. I don’t like doing talking about stuff when they want you to talk about it, it feels sad.
It really upsets me, scares me.
Sudbery 2010, p. 1543663
The respondents in this study663 had spent time in residential care and were being interviewed some years
later. Young people in the study conducted by Nelson-Gardell638 also said how difficult they had found it
to talk about their abuse but that doing so was helpful.
In the study by San Diego et al.,680 there was some suggestion that children may have had low treatment
expectations, and felt that therapy would not help them. If this is a problem (and the young people in our
advisory groups identified it as an issue) then it is something that could be improved by placing a greater
emphasis on preparation for treatment. However, no study appears to have explored the treatment
expectations of maltreated children.
For children and young people living in a therapeutic care setting, the issue of acceptability is perhaps more
complex. Although by no means always the case, young people in therapeutic residential care are often not
there by choice, and the (often very troubled) experiences that lead to their placement make it extremely
difficult for them to engage with care staff or those offering a specific therapeutic service. One UK study666
interviewed 16 young people who had previously lived in a therapeutic children’s home. These former
residents were almost certainly not a representative sample but they were generally positive about their
experiences. They valued the relationships with staff, and many of the leisure and therapeutic activities
provided during their time in the home. Here too, some respondents commented on the length of time it
took to build up trust with staff but, having done so, their ongoing contact with them remained important.
Only one interviewee expressed a different view, pointing to something that goes to the heart of the adverse
consequences of severe maltreatment and the challenges facing those providing substitute care and therapy.
. . . in care, you are craving this kind of love but you never really get it . . . The one thing you need
most is to feel genuinely loved. You never quite got that.
Gallagher 2012, p. 440666
Four641–643,645 studies examined young people’s gender preference for their counsellor. Most female
participants expressed a preference for a female counsellor pre treatment; however, in those
studies641–643,645 that measured preferences post treatment, gender appeared to matter less. One643 study
presented evidence that female counsellors verbalised more than their male counterparts but concluded
that gender did not play a significant factor in treating girls. Another study645 suggested that the type of
questions asked (specifically sexual abuse-focused ones) was more important than counsellor gender.
Young people in one of our advisory group consultations said that they thought gender might not matter
per se, but that a young person might wish to talk to someone of a different gender than the person who
had maltreated them – again, choice being important.
Children in foster and adoptive placements

Eslinger et al.631 found that children in foster care were more likely to complete treatment than those living
with biological or adoptive parents, perhaps because of the degree of external scrutiny by social workers of
these children and their progress. As Koverola et al.653 observe, in order to ensure that children attend
therapy, there needs to be at least one caregiver who is sufficiently motivated to take them (or ensure that
they are taken) and possibly to participate in treatment. In violent families, there may be no-one able or
willing to do this, and this may be true of families in which children are presenting with other forms of
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maltreatment. However, not all studies found such a clear relationship between treatment completion and
living with foster carers.
In a UK study conducted by Staines et al.,667 the research team investigated the supports and services
provided to children and their foster carers by one IFA. Children placed in IFAs are typically particularly
challenging, and IFAs make much of the additional support they provide to parents compared with those
foster carers registered with the local authority. This IFA described its approach to fostering as inherently
therapeutic and, although recognising the importance of individual therapeutic work, IFA therapists focus
their attention on ‘helping to create ‘therapeutic placements’ through the application of their particular
skills in assessment and consultation to carers and staff’667 (p. 319). In this broad definition of therapy
(seen as the impact of the whole organisation on the young person), foster carers have a formally
recognised role as members of the therapeutic parenting team. The approach seemed to address concerns
often expressed by foster carers that they are not adequately informed about the child or what is
happening, not consulted, and excluded from therapeutic work.
The parenting team was seen to be an essential part of the information-sharing/decision-making

process and many carers commented on the inclusive and respectful nature of the team: ‘We are
always discussing things together and we all make decisions on how to meet the child’s needs.
We always feel equal.’
Staines 2010 (reproduced with permission), p. 8667
Providing foster care for children with a challenging placement profile, the majority of whom displayed
difficult behaviour, this approach contributed to providing stable and successful placements, with 77% of
foster parents feeling the placement was going ‘very well’ after 12 months. Almost all (97%) foster carers
felt that they were a valued member of the team and that their opinions mattered, although the authors
suggest that this is perhaps more reflective of the experience of independent foster agencies rather than
local authority-led foster care.
Other barriers to treatment engagement and completion

A variety of practical obstacles can conspire to prevent children accessing therapy or benefiting from it.
The physical environment – in terms of location and quality of meeting space – was raised in a small
number of studies. Other practical considerations, such as transport costs, child-care facilities or expenses,
were also reported.
Lippert et al.648 examined the reasons given for non-participation (46%) in a sample of 101 children who
were referred for psychotherapy following CSA. Reasons for declining included some factors we have
already discussed, but also covered some important practical obstacles: work conflict (50%); inaccessible
venue (40%); child was symptom free (15%); caregiver was busy (15%); and caregiver wanted to forget
about abuse or let their child forget (15%).
The mothers of sexually abused children in the study of FT reported by Costa et al.678 identified financial
constraints as a barrier to support – particularly viewed in the context of primary earner perpetrators
(fathers) being removed from the home.
The young people surveyed in the study by Kolko et al.644 were perceived to be highly motivated to
participate in services, and the children themselves reported moderate ratings about the need to address
child and family goals during treatment. They identified parent factors as the largest obstacles to
participating in therapy, selecting reasons such as ‘parent was too busy to attend’ and ‘parent does not
think counselling will help’. Clearly, this is relevant to the issue of accessibility of therapy for some young
people. Although caregiver ratings were generally similar to those of the children, they assigned higher
ratings to the severity of family problems and the importance of targeting child behaviour and
competencies as treatment goals. Commenting on the limited number of children who were offered IT in
this study, Kolko et al.644 hypothesise that this may reflect caseworkers’ perceptions that family or parent
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services are more important for the improvement of children’s adjustment, partly as a result of the risk
assessment tool used by caseworkers. They suggest that, in this agency, some children who probably
required services to address specific abuse sequelae or risk factors associated with their own behaviour did
not receive it.
Children in the Tjersland et al.673 study talked about other issues that made them reluctant to discuss their
abuse, including having been threatened by the abuser; being afraid of telling their mother; and being
concerned that that they would not be believed. Nelson-Gardell638 reported that ‘being believed’ by
someone was considered by the sexually abused girls she interviewed as the thing that mattered most to
them, experiencing it as intrinsically therapeutic.
Woodworth533 highlights the problem of staff turnover. In this study,533 as part of a move to be more
cost-effective, college interns were used to provide therapy. Although keeping costs down, one
unintended consequence is the increased risk, for some children, that the departure of someone with
whom they had begun to develop a therapeutic bond may have a detrimental effect.
Summary
The studies
Understanding what makes a therapy acceptable is complex. The immense heterogeneity in those
(relatively few) studies that have sought to ascertain what factors encourage people to seek therapy, to
accept an offer of therapy, to actively engage with therapy and to ‘stick with’ therapy’ means that few
unequivocally clear answers are to be found. The different ways of defining engagement, completion and
attrition make synthesising the data very challenging, but this variation may be indicative of the need to
take a more nuanced approach to thinking about attrition.
Chasson et al.482 point out that treatment is not static and neither is symptom severity (and possibly other
factors that influence engagement). In their study,482 which explored the predictive value for dropout
(from exposure-based CBT) of trauma-related symptom severity, they found that baseline symptom severity
failed to predict dropout. In contrast, symptom severity measured just before termination was significantly
associated with the number of attended sessions, and higher severity of depression, measured just before
termination, was correlated with fewer treatment sessions, that is, immediate distress may be a trigger for
dropping out of treatment. The implication for therapists working with children with mental disorders is
that monitoring those factors that might impact on future attendance on a session-by-session basis could
possibly help to prevent premature termination. This might be particularly relevant for exposure-based
psychological interventions.
Synergies with the views of young people

Some of the studies focused on issues that mattered to the young people in our advisory group, and some
of the findings resonate with their concerns. For example, their concern that some children might be
deterred from seeking help because they felt their situation too complicated or too serious for anybody
to be able to help with is in keeping with findings that severity of abuse is an important factor in
differentiating those who start (and complete) therapy from those who do not. The studies note the
connection, but generally do little more than speculate about the mechanism of effect. It is possible that
caregivers, as well as children, may have doubts about the ability of therapy to ‘fix’ what they may regard
as ‘unfixable’.
The pivotal role that parents and other caregivers play in ensuring the availability of therapy to young
people, particularly younger children, was also recognised as an issue in our consultations, and was
mirrored in the findings from the included studies. Some young people identified parents as a potential
barrier to accessing therapy. Younger children are particularly dependent on having someone reliable and
309
ACCEPTABILITY
willing to get them to the therapist, but even older children may be unable to avail of therapy if their
parent objects, for whatever reason.
Only one of the studies included in this review mentioned the importance of being believed, but the
concern about not being believed was a very significant issue for some of the young people with whom
we talked.
Issues of confidentiality and trust appear not to have been systematically examined in studies of therapy
for maltreated children. It is possible that both researchers and therapists take this for granted, and it is
difficult to say how widespread a concern this might be for young people, but it perhaps merits more
attention, from therapists if not researchers.
Given the limited resources available in children’s mental health services, it is perhaps unsurprising that no
study examined the issue of choice, but the potential benefits of involving children in discussions of
therapy is something that young people identified as one way of enhancing engagement in therapy and
might therefore be worth exploring further. Several studies talk about the process of therapy, and the
considerable anxiety that some children experience at the outset. The suggestions made by the young
people may help to alleviate these concerns for some children.
310
Chapter 6 Discussion
Aim of the review
This review sought to bring the highest standards of evidence synthesis to bear on a significant area of
public health. Maltreatment adversely affects the development of children and young people in many
ways, over long periods of time, and the cumulative consequences of maltreatment in early childhood can
be particularly devastating. Despite recent emphases on the importance of early intervention, significant
numbers of children continue to have to deal with the realities of physical and emotional abuse, physical
and emotional neglect, and sexual abuse, whether directly or indirectly as the result of witnessing the
abuse of others.
The review aimed to achieve a number of objectives. The first was to identify those interventions that are
most effective for maltreated children, and the study was designed so that we might be able to address
the issue of whether or not certain interventions were more effective than others for children with
particular profiles of maltreatment, for example children who have been sexually abused, than for those
who have been physically abused, and those who have experienced more than one form of maltreatment.
Second, when the evidence suggested that two or more interventions might both be appropriate, we
aimed to explore which might be the most likely to be effective. Again, we were mindful that some
interventions might be more suitable than others for particular groups of children or for children and
families in particular circumstances. Third, we sought to identify those interventions for which there was
no evidence of benefit, or when the evidence suggested that they might result in harm. Fourth, we
wanted to know whether different interventions were more accessible and acceptable than others, from
the perspectives of both children and young people, and their caregivers. Finally, we aimed to present
evidence about the economic benefits of available interventions, and to identify the potential value of
undertaking future research.
In this final chapter, we present an overview of the evidence identified, which we discuss in the light of
consultations with our advisory groups of young people, and with a PAG whose members came from a
range of disciplines and service contexts, including foster parents. We conclude with a summary of what
the evidence permits us to conclude in relation to the original objectives of the review, and identify
implications for research and practice.
Evidence base
The details of all of the included studies are presented in Chapters 3 and 4. Altogether, we identified
198 studies assessing the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions for maltreated children. Sixty-one of
the studies were randomised or quasi-randomised trials; eight studies used a QEx design and a further
26 controlled observational designs. A total of 101 studies were uncontrolled. We drew on data
from controlled studies when synthesising the evidence for the effectiveness of interventions.
Only three116,145,146,155 of the controlled studies were conducted in the UK.
The consequences of maltreatment have considerable implications for public services, including not only
health, but also social services, education, criminal justice, employment and welfare. Despite this, we were
able to identify only six studies assessing the cost-effectiveness of relevant psychosocial interventions,
four198,613–615 of which used data from a randomised trial and one612 a decision-analytic model. Only
two613,614 of these studies were conducted in the UK (Box 1).
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DISCUSSION
BOX 1 UK evidence
Two of the 61 controlled trials identified were conducted in the UK.
Two out of the 10 economic evaluations were conducted in the UK.
Fourteen of all 73 studies providing information on acceptability were conducted in the UK.
For studies of accessibility and acceptability, we cast a wider net, and drew on evidence from studies
irrespective of design. In total, we identified 73 studies, 19 of which also addressed the effectiveness of
intervention. Some of these studies were specifically designed to systematically investigate the factors
associated with treatment engagement and completion, and treatment satisfaction, but many of the studies
were small, qualitative studies that explored the experiences of small numbers of respondents. Surprisingly,
relatively few of the studies talked to children or young people. Fourteen145,146,169,481,538,662–670 of the 73 studies
were undertaken in the UK, or included UK participants.640 Many of these studies were conducted by
researchers with social care backgrounds, reflecting a long tradition of client opinion research in this field.758
Coverage of maltreatment and relevance to the UK
Maltreatment severity
For the most part, these studies focus on children who have been seriously maltreated, irrespective of
whether the study recruited children who had been sexually abused, physically abused or neglected or had
experienced multiple forms of maltreatment. Generally, the profile of participants closely resembles that
of children who come to the attention of UK Child Protection Services, and in respect of whom child
protection plans are made and care proceedings sometimes undertaken. Most of the study participants
were children living with their birth parents; relatively few studies focused on children living in substitute
care, whether foster care, adoptive families or residential care. Many looked-after children have particularly
complex needs, particularly those in residential care. Their maltreatment histories are often amongst the
most severe, and their out-of-home placements have often compounded trauma and loss. Those who
have experienced multiple placements will have had particularly limited opportunities to develop secure
relationships, with either adults or peers. Overall, the picture is one of very complex need, and rigorous
evaluations of therapeutic services aimed at this group are few and far between.
Maltreatment focus
There is unevenness in the available evidence base for the effectiveness of interventions for different
kinds of maltreatment (Box 2). Of the 101 controlled effectiveness studies, almost one-third
(3289–105,120,143,150,155,159–163,166–174,178–180,204) focused solely on children who had experienced sexual abuse,
usually girls. These included all five169–173 studies of group work interventions, 1289–104 of the 24 CBT studies
(excluding EMDR), seven155,159,161–163,166–168 of the 17 studies of psychoeducational interventions, and four of
the eight studies of psychotherapy and counselling.174,178–180 The majority of other studies recruited children
who had experienced any form of maltreatment. These sometimes included children who had experienced
sexual abuse, but on the whole the profile was of children who had experienced a combination of physical
and emotional abuse and neglect. Five151–154,156 of the RCTs specifically recruited children who had been
exposed to domestic violence.
We found no controlled studies of interventions for children in which maltreatment took the form of
fabricated or induced illness, and only one uncontrolled study.523
312
BOX 2 Coverage of maltreatment
l Controlled studies cover a range of interventions for maltreated children, with a bias towards interventions
for sexually abused children.
l There is a paucity of controlled studies focusing on improving outcomes for looked-after children.
l There are no controlled studies of interventions for children whose maltreatment takes the form of
fabricated or induced illness.
l More studies are needed that address the reality for many children of multiple experiences of different
forms of maltreatment.
The 2010 NSPCC prevalence survey found that, across the UK, 8.9% of children aged < 11 years, 21.9%
of 11- to 17-year-olds and 24.5% of 18- to 24-year-olds had one or more experiences of physical violence,
sexual or emotional abuse and neglect by a parent or guardian during their childhood.21 Similar rates
of multiple and repeated maltreatment have been found in surveys of family violence conducted
elsewhere.317,759 One therefore needs to be cautious about interpreting the results of studies that are
designed to examine the consequences of particular types of maltreatment, or the effectiveness of
interventions for particular types of maltreatment. As Saunders et al.760 observed, different research teams,
studying different types of violence (physical abuse, sexual abuse, domestic violence), may well be studying
many of the same children, but simply catching them at different times of their lives and subsequently
categorising them according to their particular protocol.
Interventions evaluated
Clearly, the profile of investment in intervention types presented in this review would look somewhat
different had we grouped the included interventions differently. For example, we might have combined
relationship interventions with systemic interventions or combined multisystemic FT with MTFC. We hope
that clarity within the review will mean that readers can make their own judgements, but there does seem
to be a marked unevenness in the available evidence (positive or negative) among the interventions that
might currently be offered to maltreated children and their caregivers.
As anticipated, the intervention that was most frequently studied was CBT, followed by interventions
that sought to improve the relationship between parent and child, interventions that we grouped
together as ‘relationship-based interventions’. They included four attachment-orientated interventions
(ABC,122,125,126,130,132 CPP,123,124,127–129,133 PFR131 and dyadic developmental therapy134,135), PCIT131–138 and
two139,140 studies of parenting-focused interventions.
Focus of interventions
Irrespective of whether or not studies were focusing on a group of children recruited for one particular
form of maltreatment, the interventions studied concentrated primarily on defined disorders associated
with maltreatment, rather than on the broader consequences of maltreatment per se (Box 3). This is
possibly one of the reasons why, with few exceptions, interventions were brief, with the majority
comprising weekly therapeutic sessions over a period of between 10 and 20 weeks. Few studies examined
interventions designed to tackle the more complex and longer-term consequences of maltreatment, which
may, arguably, require a longer-term and broader-based approach to intervention, as well as to the
evaluation of its effectiveness (see below, particularly Conclusions).
One area that is somewhat underdeveloped is that dealing with the provision of residential care. This is not
surprising, given the challenges that are inherent in evaluating ‘whole-service’ interventions, but it would
be possible. In recent years, a number of initiatives have been taken across the UK to introduce more
therapeutic regimens into residential care settings. Interventions have ranged from social pedagogy to
interventions anchored squarely in theories of attachment and social learning [e.g. ARC (Attachment,
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DISCUSSION
BOX 3 Interventions and evidence
l Some interventions have been more frequently subjected to rigorous evaluation than others.
l These differences cannot be explained in terms of some being easier to evaluate than others.
l Few interventions have an explicit theory of change; those that do are more likely to have been
rigorously evaluated.
l Most studies are focused on interventions that are designed to address specific diagnosable disorders, such
as depression or PTSD.
l Few studies examine the effectiveness of interventions that are designed to address the wider
consequences of maltreatment for children’s social functioning or quality of life.
Regulation and Competency); Sanctuary; CARE (Children and Residential Experiences)]. All are designed to
address the complex needs of this very vulnerable population in residential care settings, and the particular
challenges faced by the staff that run them. Unfortunately, the opportunity to conduct controlled studies
of these important initiatives was not seized, and a review of the evidence concluded that there was no
robust evidence of their effectiveness as ‘programmes’. Macdonald and Millen761 conclude that if one was
to ‘drill down’ into particular aspects of these service models (many of which are shared), one would
find a strong evidence base in favour of component parts, but this does not obviate the need for
rigorous evaluation.
Theories of change
Some studies provided (or referenced) a clear theory of change (‘logic model’) to outline how the
intervention was thought to bring about change, but these were in a minority. Those that did were
over-represented among studies that subjected interventions to a randomised trial, and included therapies
that were not tightly manualised, such as CPP. Conceptualisations of maltreatment as trauma informed
a number of the cognitive–behavioural interventions; attachment theory and developing understanding
of the impact of maltreatment on children’s neurological development informed some of the RBIs;
and systems and ecological transactional theory provided the rationale for interventions such as MTFC.
Such conceptual grounding was noticeable, however, in its absence from many of the studies, underpinned
by taken-for-granted assumptions that the intervention in question was an appropriate therapy for
addressing specific sequelae of maltreatment which would not bring about any harm.
However, the very specificity of some interventions is problematic, given the impact of maltreatment
on children’s lives. Children who have experienced severe maltreatment present with complex
psychopathology, which is ‘characterised by attachment difficulties, relationship insecurity, problematic
sexual behaviour, trauma-related anxiety, inattention/hyperactivity, and conduct problems and defiance’
(p. 614).61 For this reason, Tarren-Sweeney61 has argued that we need to reconceptualise the mental health
needs of children in care and adopted, if we are adequately to address their needs, and this may also apply
to significant numbers of children who become subject to child protection plans, but who remain at home.
These children simply do not have single mental health problems, such as PTSD or depression, and many of
the problems with which they present do not fall under the auspices of any diagnostic classification system;
the following are just a selection – smearing faeces, hoarding, eating problems, hiding and storing food,
speech and language delays, sexualised behaviour, low self-esteem and poor social functioning.61,431,762
The design and implementation of effective therapeutic services for maltreated children requires both
researchers and clinicians to develop and understand the potentially varied and pervasive consequences of
maltreatment, particularly during sensitive periods; how even similar histories of maltreatment can lead to a
variety of different outcomes (the principle of multifinality) and the same outcome can arise from very
different maltreatment histories (the principle of equifinality), and that ensuring a ‘logical fit’ between a
child’s needs and the choice of an intervention or interventions depends critically on a detailed assessment.
We return to this issue later, as it is a crucial factor in interpreting the evidence presented in this review.
314
No study included the investigation of adverse effects as part of the study design. This suggests an
unfounded confidence in the benefit of therapy, which, as evidence from related fields suggests, may
be misplaced.763,764
Comparisons
Few studies used a no-treatment or wait-list control. When the desirability of using a no-treatment control
group to determine the effectiveness of an intervention was reported (and rejected), this was usually
because it was deemed inappropriate to withhold intervention. However, it perhaps also reflects the
assumption that therapy is necessarily helpful. Most studies compared a particular intervention with TAU,
which was sometimes minimal, but often quite considerable. Among the CBT studies, where there is a
growing confidence in the effectiveness of TF-CBT in particular, some studies were designed to manipulate
treatment dose (e.g. number of sessions) or intervention components (e.g. TNs, child only vs. parent plus
child) to explore their particular contribution to the intervention’s effectiveness.
Although TF-CBT interventions perform well in controlled evaluations, most of the best evaluations have
been undertaken by the teams who developed the programmes. Independent evaluations are necessary to
consolidate (or test) their effectiveness, and also to determine their effectiveness in locations outside the
USA. This is particularly important in the UK context, for which the profile of ‘comparison’ public services
is very different from, and possibly better than, that of the USA.145,146 The same is true for a number of
other interventions that have been rigorously evaluated either only in the USA and/or in evaluations
conducted by the programme developers, or where programme developers have been heavily involved in
the evaluation.
Outcomes and measures
As in many other areas, the choice of outcomes and outcome measures appears to be the ‘Wild West’ in
relation to studies of the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions. Table 5 provides an overview of the
lack of consensus around what outcomes matter and, perhaps more importantly in this area, how they are
best measured at particular developmental stages. In contrast with, for example, a Cochrane systematic
review, we were not able to establish a small set of primary and secondary outcomes for this review.
This reflects the multiplicity of ways in which maltreatment can impact on children’s lives and who is
determining which outcomes matter, and this was also evident in our consultations with young people and
with the PAG established for this study. It is likely that the concept of a core outcomes set for maltreated
children is a nonsense. However, a core outcomes set for assessing the effectiveness of interventions
designed to address for instance, PTSD or depression among maltreated children, together with agreement
on how these are best measured, would be highly desirable.
The absence of such a consensus is a major reason why, despite identifying a large number of outcome
studies in this area, we were unable to synthesise the available evidence in ways that would strengthen the
cumulative evidence base. This was true even when studies were sufficiently homogeneous to reasonably
combine their data in a meta-analysis, for example among the CBT trials. Furthermore, measures were
predominantly self-report or caregiver/teacher report, although some made use of multiple sources of
information or observational data, for example the Strange Situation Test.336
Even when standardised measures have been used, it is not always evident that they are psychometrically
sound or developmentally appropriate. Most focus on problems rather than strengths or competencies, and
so the impact of interventions on promoting optimal child functioning, development and well-being is
unknown.182 Fantuzzo et al.182 also draw attention to the fact that the external validity of many measures
has not been tested in relation to low income and or minority children. Few studies assess the progress of
children and their families in ecologically valid settings; those that do include some of the relationship-based
therapies and intensive fostering support for preschool children.
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DISCUSSION
Relevance of outcomes and measures

The most insidious consequences of early or chronic maltreatment are those that undermine a child’s
capacity to reach their potential and to develop into a well-adjusted adult, but – as indicated above – a
focus on these consequences of maltreatment is almost absent in the intervention studies in this field.
Unsurprisingly, given the focus of the interventions studies, scrutiny of the outcome domains and measures
used highlights a dominant focus on mental health measures, such as measures of PTSD, depression and
anxiety, rather than measures of overall child development and functioning. Given the consequences of
maltreatment on a wide spectrum of children’s behaviour, some have highlighted the inadequacy of some
of the most commonly used standardised measures of behaviour, such as the CBCL260 and the ECBI.310
Tarren-Sweeney765 has developed a behavioural rating scale for children in out-of-home placements which
more accurately reflects the range of problems that such seriously maltreated children can present, and
which would also be relevant to some groups of maltreated children who remain with their parents.
It includes 10 clinical and two self-esteem scales, covering sexual behaviour, pseudo-mature interpersonal
behaviour, non-reciprocal interpersonal behaviour, indiscriminate interpersonal behaviour, insecure
interpersonal behaviour, anxious–distrustful, abnormal pain response, food maintenance, self injuries,
suicide discourse, negative self-image, and low confidence. Initial research suggests that the instrument
has good content construct and criterion-related validity, and certainly it seems more adequately to capture
the range of problem behaviours commonly presented by maltreated children.
Few studies assess the impact of intervention on children’s physical or cognitive development, speech
and language development, social functioning, self-esteem or educational achievement. In the UK,
governments have for some time been concerned about the underperformance of looked-after children in
relation to educational achievement and employment, and their over-representation among the homeless,
sexually exploited and those involved in substance misuse and offending. The difficulties responsible for
these over-representations start long before children become looked after, and suggest that effective
interventions need to be targeted ‘upstream’, even if resources permit extension of service provision only
to those families whose children are subject to child protection plans and where there is a possibility of
care proceedings.
There is some evidence that the choice of outcome measure might unduly favour experimental
interventions, as when a PTSD measure is used to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention specifically
geared to address PTSD in comparison with an intervention that is not. Selecting measures that are
meaningful measures of the intended effect of the intervention, but which do not unduly favour it, is not
something that is given due consideration in this area. Particularly in the absence of study protocols,
it is worrying that researchers sometimes opt post hoc to report data from total measure scores, and
sometimes from subscales. In the absence of an a priori analysis plan, it is difficult not to be concerned
about the possibility of selective outcome reporting.
Few studies included follow-up periods that extended for even a year following the intervention, and most
had follow-up periods lasting only months or none at all. This will, in part, be a function of available
funding, and the challenges of retaining these families in a study, but it also reflects the treatment focus
of the majority of studies and the changes sought. Even so, the absence of longer-term follow-up is a
weakness in the current body of evidence, given the importance of examining the maintenance of change,
and also the reality that problems (re-)emerge for maltreated children at different times.
Synergies with the views of young people and professionals
As indicated in Chapter 5, young people in our Young People’s Advisory Groups gave their views
regarding the outcomes that they thought would matter most to children and young people like
themselves. Very often, the interventions evaluated in this review focused on, or resonated with, their
concerns, but rarely did they feature in the measures of effectiveness chosen by the researchers.
For example, equipping young people to secure their future safety and to feel safe was a component part
316
of most, if not all, of the CBT interventions, the psychoeducation interventions and the group work
interventions. However, none of these studies used ‘safety’ or ‘perceived safety’ as an outcome, nor did
they examine repeat maltreatment. Many of the interventions (predominantly those focused on children
who had been sexually abused) included content designed to help children recognise ‘what being treated
badly is’ but none evaluated this.
The views of professionals were, unsurprisingly, varied. Like young people, they recognised the importance
of keeping children safe, but they were more inclined to focus on common, maltreatment-associated
mental health problems, such as attachment, depression and consequences for healthy development, such
as emotional development and peer relationships. Although at first glance these views differed from
those of the young people we consulted, the differences seemed primarily to reflect a difference in
developmental perspectives, that is, professionals have the benefit of a knowledge base, their (generally
broad) clinical experience and a sense of how different things matter more at different stages of
development. The outcomes identified by professionals as being important generally reflected their broader
knowledge base of the adverse consequences of maltreatment. Specific outcomes, such as attachment and
depression, are represented in one or more of the included studies that specifically address these sequelae
of maltreatment, but, as indicated earlier, fewer studies monitor broader outcomes, such as emotional
development and peer relationships, not least because very few interventions focus on these outcome
domains, even when the interventions might improve them.
Relevance to clinicians
Research evidence is one of a number of factors that influence clinical decisions regarding the use of
particular psychosocial interventions. The weight afforded to research may depend on many factors,
including the perceived match between the characteristics of research samples and those of patients or
clients seen in ‘real life’; the appropriateness of manualised treatments that might be thought not to
address the very individual needs of each patient; and the view that treatments that do well in the
research literature are biased towards those interventions that are most easily manualised.431 In addition,
there may be challenges to implementation that are not evident from the included studies, particularly
when these are conducted in policy contexts other than the UK. Clinicians may not have the requisite skills
or training opportunities; resources may be such that, of two effective interventions, the one that is the
less effective of the two might, nonetheless, be more likely to be of use in a particular clinical setting.
These were issues that we raised with our Professionals’ Advisory Group when we reported the draft
findings of the review. We asked colleagues whether or not there were any surprises about the coverage
of maltreatment topics or the profile or evidence, whether or not the findings matched their professional
experience and, if not, what might account for this. We asked how clinicians might respond to the key
messages of the report, particularly the weight of evidence relating to CBT, and what barriers might
impede the implementation of the study findings.
Quality of the overall evidence base

Throughout this report we have considered and presented the quality of the evidence base in the context
of the specific psychosocial intervention being evaluated. Although we have been able to draw some
specific conclusions about the effectiveness of individual therapeutic approaches, and to make some
important observations about the features and applicability of the evidence, it is important to comment on
the quality of the body of literature as a whole, and to consider its ability to inform policy and practice
recommendations, as well as decisions about future research investment. Here we provide some broad
observations about the evidence, based on our assessment of the limitations of the evidence base, the
overall strength of the evidence provided, how applicable it is to the children and young people and
services in the UK, and how reliable it is.
We considered the best available evidence for each part of our evidence synthesis and, while respecting
the hierarchy of evidence, the breadth and scope of our review objectives determined the need to include
317
DISCUSSION
studies other than RCTs. To help mitigate concerns about over-interpretation of findings from poor-quality
studies, we assessed the potential impact of design and conduct problems using quality assessment tools
that were appropriate to the type of study. We have also acknowledged the complex nature of studies of
psychosocial interventions in these populations and the difficulties that commonly arise. The following
comments on the overall evidence base are more general and are intended to indicate the level of
confidence that we can have about our findings, based on the sorts of considerations that form a
GRADE assessment (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation766) and
that therefore might be useful to guideline developers and policy-makers. Any decisions taken or
recommendations made on the basis of the evidence presented here will need to take account of these
general concerns.
Throughout this report, we have identified weaknesses in the studies that we found. The nature of these
interventions means that blinding of personnel and participants in these studies is problematic and usually
not possible, rendering them open to the effects of performance bias. We have tended not to focus
attention on this potential limitation, as most, if not all, studies of psychosocial interventions will suffer
from this difficulty, but it is a limitation. Although blinding of outcome assessment is not always
possible (e.g. in the case of self-reported rating scales), the lack of independent evaluation, even in
well-conducted studies, is an important flaw, leaving them open to the effects of detection bias. We also
found extensive evidence of incomplete data in the reports we looked at. Resource constraints mean that
we were not able routinely to contact study authors about the omission of post-treatment and follow-up
data, and the reasons for this. We attempted to provide an indication of the level of attrition based on the
available data points (see Appendix 11), however, and, as we were basing these assessments on the data
available from published reports, these are also illustrative of the level of incomplete outcome data in
these studies.
We have outlined our concerns about the selective reporting and associated reporting bias in the studies
that we found, much of which stems from an inability to access study protocols. As well as reporting bias,
the evidence presented here is very likely to be prone to the effects of publication bias. Owing to the
limited outcome data available for meta-analysis, we were unable to formally assess the impact of
publication bias on our findings using funnel plots. However, it should be noted that many of the studies
that we identified (and studies undertaken on this field more generally) are small and underpowered, and
prone to the biases associated with small studies. Thus, it is likely that these biases are operating in
our analyses.
The frequent lack of detailed descriptions about the children who participated in these studies, and also
what was offered to participants by way of experimental or comparison treatment, is problematic,
not least because the choice of comparator impacts directly on the apparent effectiveness of the
experimental treatment.
As noted in the preceding chapters, the evidence base in this field stems from a highly variable array of
primary studies differing, sometimes quite markedly, on multiple aspects of content. For example, study
populations (where they were described in sufficient detail) varied in age, experience of maltreatment, and
other key factors, making it difficult to arrive at the most appropriate way of grouping them. It was only
rarely possible to organise our evidence summaries for each intervention according to the abuse type
experienced by the child, but, even when possible, there was considerable heterogeneity across studies in
the range of participants with differing experiences and histories. Similarly, interventions were highly
variable in their purpose, approach, content and delivery. Even within our broad categories of interventions
there will be multiple differences between the therapies offered. The outcomes reported were also highly
variable and, in many cases, not comparable with one another. In the relatively few instances where we
were able to pool studies in a meta-analyses, the majority of the pooled estimates indicated moderate to
substantial unexplained heterogeneity and, in these analyses, we identified few outcomes in which we had
confidence to draw clear conclusions (Table 27).
318
TABLE 27 Summary of effect sizes and confidence analyses from meta-analyses
Therapeutic approach and outcome Effect size 95% CI
CBT for sexual abuse (n = 11)
Post-treatment PTSD SMD –0.44 –4.43 to –1.53
Post-treatment depression CDI MD –02.83 –4.53 to –1.13
Post-treatment anxiety SMD –0.23 –0.03 to –0.42
Post-treatment sexualised behaviour MD –0.65 –3.53 to 2.24
Post-treatment externalising behaviour SMD –0.12 –0.40 to 0.17

One-year behaviour management skills of parent MD –0.89 –4.89 to 3.11
Post-treatment parental support to child SMD 0.30 0.03 to 0.57
Attachment-focused interventions (n = 14)
Secure attachment OR 0.14 0.03 to 0.70
Disorganised behaviour SMD 0.23 0.13 to 0.42
Avoidant attachment OR 0.90 0.13 to 6.37
Externalising behaviour SMD 0.10 –0.011 to 0.32
Attrition from RCTs was assessed to provide a proxy measure of acceptability of treatment. The available
data did not allow for a formal analysis of dropout from treatment. To estimate treatment attrition,
the risk ratios were calculated based on the number of people randomised in each group and the number
contributing data post intervention. All available data are presented for transparency. We acknowledge the
possibility that not everybody contributing data post intervention actually completed treatment, and that
some people who did complete treatment may not have contributed data during the post-treatment
phase; however, these analyses are still likely to provide a broad indication of attrition from different
interventions. The forest plots for these analyses are provided in Appendix 11.
Based on the amount of management, oversight and monitoring often provided in these studies, they
resemble attempts at generating information about ‘efficacy’ (where interventions are tested to see if
they work under controlled circumstances) rather than ‘effectiveness’ in real-world settings. Important
features of the majority of studies also differ markedly from the UK context in terms of comparisons,
and organisation and delivery of care, and, as indicated in Box 4, some of the studies reviewed here are
likely to be of limited relevance to the UK context. Only 3116,145,146,155 of the 61 trials and two613,614
BOX 4 Relevance to the UK
Most of the available studies have been conducted in the USA.
Many of the evaluations of particular interventions (such as TF-CBT, CPP and MTFC) have been undertaken by
programme developers.
There is a preponderance of interventions targeted at specific mental disorders rather than the more pervasive
impacts on children’s general functioning and development.
Independent evaluations of interventions, delivered in the UK, are important for deciding their relevance and
effectiveness in this particular policy context.
319
DISCUSSION
cost-effectiveness studies were conducted in the UK and, therefore, only a limited body of evidence is
available that provides any direct consideration of the health and social care environment and context.
It is also difficult to make any reliable judgement about the applicability of the studies that were
undertaken elsewhere due to the lack of detailed descriptions of what was offered to participants. During
this project and through the work of the advisory groups, we acknowledged that we know little about
what is routinely offered to children and young people experiencing maltreatment in the UK, although we
do know that this is highly variable. Thus, even the generalisability of ‘TAU’ or ‘standard care comparisons’
(including those used in studies undertaken in the UK) is hard to judge. Similarly, the mismatch between
the interventions evaluated and those provided in the UK limit our confidence in their applicability. Finally,
our work with Young Persons and PAGs confirm that key outcomes (and ways of measuring these) are
frequently not measured and/or not reported.
In summary, despite the large numbers of studies available to inform decisions about the psychosocial
treatment and support of children and young people who have experienced sexual abuse, or physical and
emotional abuse or neglect, the broad concerns outlined above indicate the need for caution in the
interpretation of the available data.
Summary of findings
In light of the above, what does this body of evidence tell us about the questions we set out to answer?
What interventions are effective for which children, with what maltreatment
profiles, in what circumstances?
The available evidence provides only partial answers to these questions. The use of other-treatment control
group participants, plus susceptibility to bias, may account for the evidence being less than clear-cut in
relation to some interventions (which is not to say that better-designed and better-implemented studies
would necessarily confirm effectiveness). In other circumstances, the results of studies are unequivocally
positive, but they are few in number and some also suffer from weaknesses in design and implementation.
In almost all cases they have been conducted in policy and practice contexts that differ markedly from the
circumstances in which interventions might be offered in the UK. Furthermore, the intervention has been
monitored and quality assured to an extent that they are closer to efficacy trials than effectiveness trials.
This means that even where we have identified evidence of positive outcomes following specific
therapeutic approaches, there can be no expectation that these results would necessarily be observed
in practice.
Some of these interventions focus on particular sequelae of maltreatment, and would be appropriate for
children when an assessment has identified particular mental health disorders, such as PTSD, depression or
anxiety. Others have more promise as broader-based interventions, the impact of which could potentially
improve children’s overall development and function. These are typically interventions designed for use
with families with young children. An overview of those interventions that enjoy some degree of empirical
support is provided below (see Table 28), indicating the age range and focus of intervention. The numbers
of asterisks represent purely a judgement call on the perceived strength of evidence, based on the same
considerations that one would use in constructing a GRADE Summary of Findings (SOF) table, namely
(1) study limitations; (2) inconsistency; (3) indirectness; (4) imprecision; and (5) publication bias. One
asterisk was allocated to each GRADE domain. Interventions that appear to have only very weak, or no,
evidence of effectiveness on these criteria are not mentioned.
As Chapter 4 makes clear, the results sometimes favour the experimental group (e.g. for depression and
anxiety) but are generally very mixed. Although we were able to combine some of the data from these
trials to an extent that we were unable to do elsewhere, the meta-analyses were less comprehensive than
320
would have been desirable. Looking at the body of evidence as a whole, for children who had been
sexually abused, CBT outperformed non-directive or supportive therapies in ameliorating symptoms of
PTSD and anxiety. It did less well when compared with (1) conventional sexual abuse therapy, which was,
in every respect, the same except for two elements [SIT and GE], for which the focus was fear and anxiety
but the children recruited presented with only moderate levels of both, and where elements of SIT and
GE were said to be present in both interventions;89 and (2) supportive therapy for parents plus a form of
psychoeducation for children.99 In both of these trials, significant improvements were reported for
both groups.
For children who had been physically abused, the evidence indicated that CBT may be effective for
addressing PTSD symptoms109 and child behaviour problems,106,109 but, in a third study107,108 that examined
its effect on behavior problems, CBT did not outperform FT.
In studies recruiting children with a variety of maltreatment histories, those that assessed the impact of
CBT on PTSD reported significant differences in favour of CBT compared with TAU,111,120 no treatment111 or
active listening.121 Two of these were studying EMDR. There is mixed evidence of the effectiveness of CBT
for children’s behaviour problems in those studies that examined this outcome.
We identified four122,125,126,130,132 studies of ABC data, two of which we were able to combine in a meta-
analysis with one study of CPP.123 We also identified four123,124,127–129,133 studies of CPP. Both interventions
are designed to promote sensitive and responsive caregiving to children who are adversely affected by
maltreatment, with the focus on the carer–child relationship. Meta-analyses indicate significant increases in
attachment security and decreases in disorganised attachment, and this pattern of findings was reported in
those studies whose data we could not combine. These interventions both focus on relationship changes
that could potentially have significant preventative capacity in stemming potentially cumulative impact of
the maltreatment experienced by children at the point of referral.
There was very little evidence from which to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of systemic
interventions. As indicated earlier, FT and CBT were both reported as effective in addressing child
behaviour problems, compared with routine services, in the one107,108 study that compared these two
interventions, but neither significantly outperformed the other. Only one of the three studies of MST
assessed its impact on PTSD, reporting a significant, positive impact.144 The same study144 also reported a
significant improvement in parent-reported internalising behaviour for MST youth, but no between-group
differences for externalising behaviour. As in the study by Kolko,107,108 the sample in this study144 had
experienced physical abuse or neglect.
Psychoeducation
Group-based psychoeducation appears to be a promising intervention for alleviating PTSD in children,
and possibly ameliorating behaviour problems. Whilst it is difficult to disinter the potentially beneficial
influences of a group (e.g. sharing experiences, reducing stigma) and the findings are not uniformly
positive, there is sufficient evidence to indicate consideration of group-based psychoeducation for sexually
abused children and children exposed to IPV.
Peer mentoring
Only two181,182 studies of peer mentoring have been conducted, but the results of each indicate the
potential of this day-care intervention for maltreated preschool children who have been physically abused
and neglected.
Enhanced foster care

For young children in foster care there is indicative evidence of benefit to maltreated children from three
studies that compared enhanced foster care with RFC.183–189,191 A pilot study183–188 of treatment foster care
321
DISCUSSION
for preschool maltreated children suggests that this form of care may facilitate children’s attachment to
their foster parents, improve the behaviour management strategies used by foster carers, and – perhaps
relatedly – improve the behaviour of these challenging children.
Providing mentoring and skills training to children aged 9–11 years, in foster care (including kinship care), was
reported to impact positively on children’s mental health and better manage the transition to senior school.190
This intervention,191 which was provided over 9 months (30 weeks), also resulted in fewer placement changes,
fewer placements in residential care and higher rates of permanency, including adoption.
There is tentative evidence that MTFC may be able to help foster parents to help children to improve their
ability to self-regulate,193 but further evidence is required.
Improving attachment to caregivers, reducing behaviour problems and promoting placement stability are all
significant achievements for maltreated children in out-of-home care, and are likely to represent significant
improvements with cumulative benefits. Further studies of this intervention in the UK are, however, required.
The less significant results from the UK study of MTFC may be attributable to the older age range of children
in the study and the nature of routine services. The authors concluded – from the RCT and data from the
wider QEx trial in which the RCT was nested – that the intervention might be more beneficial for young
people with antisocial behaviour, but less beneficial than usual treatment for those without.
Therapeutic day care

Although only a small number of studies have evaluated the effectiveness of therapeutic day care, all three
studies (one trial) indicate the potential of this intervention to address some of the behavioural difficulties
of maltreated children and enhance their overall development.
Summary overview of what works, for whom, in what circumstances?

For treating the symptoms of PTSD, TF-CBT currently enjoys the strongest evidence of effectiveness,
although there have been few independent evaluations of this intervention. The most effective CBT
interventions for children who have been sexually abused appear to be those that involve the non-
offending parents. Therapeutic day care and peer mentoring may also provide opportunities to address
developmental and social specific sequelae of maltreatment in preschool children.
For infants and preschool children, the evidence suggests that interventions that target parental sensitivity
and responsiveness (ABC, CPP, MTFC-P) are effective in promoting secure attachments with birth
parents and foster carers. Given the importance of secure attachment in promoting children’s overall
development and well-being, these are important findings. Table 28 provides a summary overview.
Where two or more interventions might be appropriate, which is the most

likely to be effective?
Although a number of studies compared an intervention with TAU, few studies compared treatments
‘head to head’. In order to shed light on the relative effectiveness of alternate interventions for maltreated
children, we consider the results of ‘other-treatment’ controlled studies in relation to children who have
been sexually abused, those who have been physically abused and/or neglected, and those who have
experienced multiple forms of maltreatment. In this section, with two exceptions, we draw only on studies
in which at least one intervention enjoys evidence of effectiveness, that is, those interventions considered
above. The exceptions are (1) a study of AAT,204 in which the evidence indicates the value added of
so-called ‘therapy animals’ as an adjunct to group work with children; and (2) a small (and generally
poor-quality) study180 comparing psychoanalytic therapy with reinforcement therapy. We include this last
study180 as it provides a rare illustration of an intervention that targeted both school and parents while
comparing the two treatments.
322
TABLE 28 Overview of what works, for whom, in what circumstances
Evidence of
Intervention effectiveness PSEa Focus of intervention Age
TF-CBT PTSD * Designed specifically to address a trauma Children and

associated with maltreatment, particularly young people
Anxiety * sexual abuse, TF-CBT combines aged ≥ 4 years
Depression * psychoeducation (see Psychoeducation) with
skills training in affect modulation, stress
management, and personal safety
Participants are helped to understand the

relationships between thoughts, feelings and
behaviour
GE (by means of creating a TN) is used to

enable the child to describe (confront) and
process increasingly distressing details of their
maltreatment
Parents are seen separately and receive similar

interventions together with training in parenting
skills that can help parent and child
The intervention includes some joint sessions
ABC Promoting secure ** Enhances attachment by promoting sensitive Children aged

attachments and responsive caregiving 6 months to
4 years
Reducing avoidant ** Coaches use ‘in the moment’ opportunities to
attachment provide information, shape parental
Promoting *** understanding of, and responsiveness to, the
self-regulation child, and help the parent to avoid maladaptive,
automatic responses learned from prior
experiences
The focus of intervention is the child–parent

dyad
CPP (IPP, PPP) Promoting secure ** Enhances attachment by promoting sensitive Children aged
attachments and responsive caregiving 0–4 years
Reducing avoidant ** Focus is on translating the parent’s and child’s

attachment feelings and experiences to one another as a
Promoting *** means of enhancing emotional reciprocity
self-regulation
The focus of intervention is the child–parent
dyad, and includes interventions designed to
help the traumatised individuals (child and
carer) to (re)learn ways of coping with stress
without undue, dysfunctional, levels of arousal
Psychoeducation PTSD *** Reduces trauma of abuse and promotes healthy Children and
development by providing information about young people
maltreatment (how common it is, the impact it aged ≥ 4 years
often has, and how people typically react,
including unhelpful ways of coping); reduces
stigma and provides an opportunity for parents
and children to know that they are not ‘alone’
and that their reactions are normal (validation)
Psychoeducation interventions are varied, and

many include a focus on developing effective
ways of dealing with their experiences, and
ensuring their future safety
continued
323
DISCUSSION
TABLE 28 Overview of what works, for whom, in what circumstances (continued )
Evidence of
Intervention effectiveness PSEa Focus of intervention Age
Peer mentoring Behaviour *** Peer mentoring aims to help those children Preschool children
problems whose social functioning has been adversely
affected by maltreatment to acquire key
Social behaviour *** developmental skills, namely the ability to form
and maintain effective peer relationships
Maltreated peers with high levels of prosocial

behaviour are paired with withdrawn
maltreated children and trained to involve them
in their play
MTFC-P Behavioural *** Facilitates attachment with caregivers, by Preschool children

problems helping to establish an optimal environment for (MTFC-P)
child development, by helping foster carers
Placement *** provide a responsive, consistent and predictable
permanence daily routine, with preparation for transitions
Self-regulation *** between activities
Foster carers receive extensive training,

including the management of challenging
behaviour, and children receive behavioural
support in preschool or day care, as well as in
home-based settings, and attend weekly
sessions at a therapeutic playgroup where their
behavioural, social and developmental progress
is monitored and addressed
Therapeutic day Behaviour *** Teachers provide children with the environment Preschool children
care designed to facilitate the development of strong
Child development *** teacher–child relationships and caring peer
Peer relationships *** relationships; children are helped to recognise
and deal with their own feelings organised
Parent–child around ordinary preschool activities, and receive
relationships a variety of individual treatments such as play
therapy, speech therapy and physical therapy,
designed to address developmental impairments
associated with maltreatment
Parents also receive services, including

counselling and education
PSE, perceived strength of evidence.
a Perceived strength of evidence. Note that these ratings need to be interpreted cautiously as, in most instances, the
available evidence rests on very few, and often small, studies. Furthermore, in the case of therapeutic day care, these are
not randomised trials.
Children who have been sexually abused
Two studies95,96,102 compared a cognitive–behavioural intervention for sexually abused children with
child-centred psychotherapy95,96 and EMDR.102 The results of the study102 comparing EMDR and CBT
suggest that both were equally effective in reducing PTSD symptoms in a small sample of 14 Iranian girls
aged 12–13 years. However, as well as having only a very small sample, data were available only at
2 weeks post treatment; as the authors observe, it is difficult to disinter therapist effects and no steps
were taken to ensure therapist adherence to either manualised treatment.
324
The results of the study95,96 comparing TF-CBT and CCT indicate that CBT is superior to CCT in alleviating
PTSD. Most studies of CBT used non-directive, supportive therapy as a comparison. In this study,95,96
CCT was a manualised (non-directive) treatment in which therapists provided active listening, reflection,
accurate empathy, and encouraged parents and children to talk about their feelings. The authors state
that the treatment was ‘based on the empirically supported premise that these children and their
parents develop difficulties because they have experienced a violation of trust and disempowerment
(Barker-Collo & Read, 2003;767 Finkelhor, 1987205)’ (p. 398).95 Although manualised in this study,95,96 the
non-directive/supportive therapy provided to participants in the control group was comparable with other
studies in which the treatment was not manualised.
One89 study assessed the value added of including SIT and GE to a conventional sexual abuse treatment.
The results did not confirm the hypothesis that participants receiving SIT and GE would demonstrate
a greater reduction in fear and anxiety symptoms than those in the control group. No differences
were found between the two groups. Reflecting on these results, the authors consider a number of
explanations, including the problem of floor effects (children in this study89 were recruited on the basis of
their abuse rather than reaching a particular clinical threshold for anxiety) and the fact that elements of SIT
and GE were present in both treatment programmes.
Finally, Deblinger et al.99 compared CBT with and without the construction of a TN, alongside an
examination of the impact of eight-session therapy compared with 16-session therapy. The authors99
conclude that TF-CBT was effective irrespective of the number of sessions or the inclusion of a TN
component. Furthermore, they conclude that the eight-session condition with TN seemed most effective
(and efficient) at ameliorating parents’ abuse-specific distress and children’s abuse-related fear and general
anxiety, although parents assigned to the 16-session, no TN, condition reported greater increases in
effective parenting and fewer externalising child behaviour problems post treatment. At the 1-year
follow-up, improvements were sustained among those for whom data were available, and between-group
differences were no longer evident.
Relationship-based interventions and multisystemic therapy

Sexually abused children were rarely included in any RBI, and no study directly compared a systemic
intervention with other interventions for this group of children. Danielson et al.526 compared MST and TAU
in a specialist clinic in which evidence-based interventions were said to be commonly used. In this small
study (n = 30), Danielson et al.526 reported that the young people who received MST fared better than
young people in the control group in terms of significant reductions in substance use and specific
substance use risk factors (substance use was the primary focus of this MST intervention), parent-reported
PTSD, depression and general internalising symptoms. No effects were found for youth-reported PTSD or
externalising behaviour, and the authors526 note that randomisation failed to produce equivalent groups
and that baseline differences existed between the two groups on most variables. We judged that no firm
conclusions should be drawn from this study526 on the probable superiority of MST, particularly in the
absence of detailed information on the interventions received by young people and their families in the
control group.
The one155 UK study that compared psychoeducation with an alternative treatment compared
psychoeducational group therapy with brief, focused, individual psychoanalytic psychotherapy. In this
study,155 substantial reductions in psychological pathology are reported for girls in both treatment
groups, assessed by the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children
(KD-SADS405) and the Orvaschel scale for assessing PTSD.406 No between-group differences were
reported except for ‘manifestations of post-traumatic stress disorder’, where the authors report greater
improvement for girls receiving individual psychotherapy. In the absence of baseline data, the results of this
study155 are difficult to interpret, and there are indications of post hoc selection of subscales in the
analyses reported.
325
DISCUSSION
Counselling/psychotherapy
One180 small study (n = 22) compared psychoanalytic psychotherapy with reinforcement therapy (essentially
contingent reinforcement advice to parents and teachers) for sexually abused children aged 6–12 years.
This study180 used no standardised measures, relying on parent and teacher verbal report, and the authors
provide no details of the procedures used to assign children to each condition. Based on parent report,
children in the reinforcement group made more and faster improvements in behaviour. No child in this
group presented with sleep problems or engaged in sexual play with others at the end of treatment,
whereas such improvements were noted in only a few children in the psychodynamic group. Three out of
seven children in the reinforcement group continued to suffer from enuresis, compared with seven out of
eight children in the psychodynamic group. Neither intervention made a difference to sexual self-stimulation.
Teachers reported the elimination of acting out behaviour among children in the reinforcement group,
whereas 67% of those in the psychoanalytic group continued to disrupt their own and others’ learning after
treatment. Most of the parents in the psychodynamic group reported tension between themselves and
school personnel; in contrast, with one exception, parents in the reinforcement group reported positive
relationships with school staff. Similar differences emerged in school staff perceptions of parents in each
group. Perhaps most significantly, all parents participating in the psychodynamic group, but only 20% in the
reinforcement group, believed that their child would be adversely affected for life as a result of sexual abuse.
Reinforcement therapy has now largely been superseded by TF-CBT.
Animal-assisted therapy
Dietz et al.204 compared three group therapies for sexually abused children aged between 7 and 17 years:
no animal therapy; animal therapy (dogs) without stories; and animal therapy (dogs) with stories. In the
animal therapy (dogs) without stories condition, therapy dogs and handlers were available in the lobby for
30 minutes before the group started, to interact with the children. Dogs and handlers then joined the
group for 10–15 minutes as part of the introductory activity of the group and then left. In the animal
therapy (dogs) with stories condition, therapeutic stories about the dogs were developed specifically for the
session topics. This was designed to add structure and depth to therapy dog visits. A set of questions,
developed to enable the therapist to make a smooth transition from the dog’s visit to the specific topic
from the group, helped to clarify the purpose of the dog’s visit. The results indicate that children in the
groups that involved therapy dogs showed significant decreases in trauma symptoms, with those in
the animal therapy (dogs) with stories condition showing most improvement. This COS204 was of a
reasonable size and quality but the findings, although positive, identify a need for replication using
a randomised design.
Other treatments
There were no other treatment comparisons among the five studies168–173 of group work for sexually
abused girls.
Table 29 summarises the evidence available on the comparative effectiveness of interventions for children
who have been sexually abused.
Children who have been physically abused
Runyon et al.109 compared two CBT interventions, one involving just parents and the other involving parents
and children (see Chapter 4 for further details). Significant improvements were reported for both groups on
parent- and child-reported corporal punishment, total number of PTSD symptoms and parents’ reports on
children’s internalising behaviour problems; only in the CPC-CBT group (CBT for both parents and children)
were significant MDs found in the pre- and post-test measure of positive parenting, and significant
improvements in the pre- and post-test mean scores for externalising behaviour were found only for those
in the parent-only CBT group. Improvements were maintained 3 months after treatment. In a comparison
between CBT and FT, Kolko107,108 found no significant differences between the two groups, although overall
levels of parental anger and use of physical discipline/force were lower in CBT than in FT families.
326
TABLE 29 Studies comparing the effectiveness of different interventions for children who have been
sexually abused
Interventions compared
Findings
Study 1 2 3 4 Outcome favour
Jaberghaderi CBT EMDR N/A N/A PTSD Both groups

2004102 improved
Cohen CBT CCP N/A N/A PTSD CBT

200495
Berliner Conventional sexual Conventional N/A N/A Fear Both groups

199689 abuse treatment sexual abuse improved
plus SIT and GE Anxiety
Deblinger CBT × 8 CBT × 8 + TN CBT × 16 CBT × 16 + TN Parents’ abuse- CBT × 8 + TN
2011100 related stress
Children’s abuse- CBT × 8 + TN

related fear and
general anxiety
Effective parenting CBT × 16
Externalising child CBT 16

behaviours
Danielson MST Unspecified N/A N/A Substance misuse MST
2010526 evidence-based
practices Substance misuse MST
risk factors
Parent-reported MST
PTSD
Parent-reported MST
depression
Internalising MST
Youth-reported Neither
PTSD
Externalising Neither
Trowell Psychoeducational Brief IP N/A N/A Psychopathological Both groups

2002155 GP symptoms improved
PTSD manifestations Individual PT

204
Dietz 2012 GT GTD GTDS Trauma symptoms GTDS
followed by
GTD
All groups
improved
Downing PP RT N/A N/A Sleep RT

1986180
Sexual play with RT
others
Sexual self- Neither

stimulation group
improved
Disruption in school RT
Enuresis RT
GT, group therapy; GTD, group therapy with dogs; GTDS, group therapy with dogs plus stories; IP, individual
psychodynamic therapy; N/A, not applicable; PP, psychoanalytic psychotherapy; RT, reinforcement therapy.
327
DISCUSSION
In the study by Swenson et al.,144 MST was compared with enhanced outpatient treatment, which included
the standard services offered at the centre (including a range of therapies and outward referrals) plus
special measures to maximise the engagement and retention of families in treatment (including telephone
reminders, the scheduling of appointments). The STEP-TEEN768 was provided for all parents. The results
indicated that MST-CAN was more effective than enhanced outpatient treatment in reducing youth mental
health symptoms, parental psychiatric stress, those parenting behaviours associated with maltreatment,
youth out-of-home placements and changes in new placements.
Table 30 summarises the evidence available on the comparative effectiveness of interventions for children
who have been physically abused.
Children who have experienced different kinds of

maltreatment
Rushton and Miles664 compared a cognitive–behavioural parent training intervention based upon (but not
replicating) Webster-Stratton’s IY programme, with an educational programme that was designed to
improve adopters’ understanding of the meaning of children’s current behaviour and to help them see
how this might reflect their past experiences. No differences were found in child behaviour problems
between the two groups at 6 months’ follow-up, although there was greater satisfaction with the
behavioural intervention than with the educational comparison.
Scheck et al.121 compared EMDR with an active-listening intervention, and reported a significant effect for
EMDR on depression and self-concept.
Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up

Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC) was compared in two122,125,126 studies with a home-based
educational intervention designed to enhance cognitive and linguistic development, which was stripped of
components that promoted parental sensitivity to child cues. Different outcome measures were used in
each study. Results favoured ABC in promoting secure attachment in the Bernard et al.122 study and in the
Dozier et al.125,126 study, in which parents reported fewer behaviour problems among older children, and
improvements in foster children’s regulatory capabilities (assessed by saliva cortisol).
TABLE 30 Studies comparing the effectiveness of different interventions for children who have been
physically abused
Study 1 2 Outcome Findings favour
Runyon 2010109 CBT-PO CPC-CBT PTSD CPC-CBT
Internalising behaviour
Externalising behaviour CBT-PO

108
Kolko 1996 CBT FT Both groups improved
144
Swenson 2010 MST Enhanced outpatient treatment Youth mental health MST
Parental psychiatric stress MST

Parenting behaviour MST
Permanency in placement MST

CBT-PO, CBT parents only.
328
Child–parent psychotherapy
Child–parent psychotherapy (CPP) was compared with PPI in three123,124,133 studies and with psychotherapy
plus case management in a fourth study.127–129 Results from the study by Toth et al.133 indicated children
in the CPP group evidenced fewer maladaptive maternal representations and fewer negative
self-representations over time than those in the psychoeducational home-visiting condition or in a
community standard. Similarly, mother–child relationship expectations of children in the CPP group
became more positive than for children in the other groups. The majority of these children had
experienced multiple forms of maltreatment, typically physical abuse, neglect and emotional maltreatment.
In a sample of families in which children had witnessed domestic violence, Lieberman et al.127–129 reported
a significant impact of CPP compared with case management plus community referral for individual
treatment. Results indicate significant improvements in children’s behaviour problems and maternal
psychiatric symptoms of distress for those who completed CPP, compared with case management plus
community referral for IT. Cicchetti et al.123 reported improvement in secure attachment in both those
children allocated to CPP and those allocated to a PPI. Significant results were also reported for both these
interventions in a study examining their impact on normalising biological regulatory processes.124
Other
No studies of treatment foster care, therapeutic day care or psychoeducation included other treatment
controls (Table 31).
TABLE 31 Studies comparing the effectiveness of different interventions for children who have experienced
different kinds of maltreatment
Study 1 2 Outcome Findings favour
Rushton 2000664 CB/PT EPT Child behaviour CB/PT
Parental satisfaction EPT

121
Scheck 1998 EMDR Active listening Depression EMDR
Self-concept EMDR
Bernard 2012122 ABC Home-based educational Secure attachment ABC

intervention
Dozier 2006125,126 Regulatory ability ABC
133 a
Toth 2002 CPP PPI Improvements in children’s CPP
maternal representations
Improvements in children’s CPP

negative self-representations
Improvements in mother–child CPP

relationship expectations
Cicchetti 2006123 CPPa PPI Secure attachments Both groups improved
Maternal psychiatric symptoms CPP
Cicchetti 2011124 CPP PPI Biological regulatory processes CPP

129
Lieberman 2006 CPP Psychotherapy and case Secure attachment CPP
management
CB/PT, cognitive–behavioural parenting training; EPT, educational parent training.
a CPP (Child Parent Psychotherapy) is used in this table. The name of this intervention is adjusted by the research teams to
reflect different age groups, so that Toth et al.133 and Cicchetti et al.123 refer to this intervention as IPP.
329
DISCUSSION
What interventions are of no benefit or may result in harm?

On the basis of the studies identified in this review, it is not currently possible to answer this question.
In some areas there is little or no evidence about the effectiveness of interventions, some of which are
routinely used in the UK. Examples of this would be non-directive counselling, supportive therapy, music
therapy, art therapy and some other activity-based interventions. Unfortunately, ‘intelligence’ from our
PAG suggests that these are the therapies that are most likely to be offered to maltreated children.
Very few studies address the issue of harm. One89 1996 study of CBT noted that the symptoms of 5–15% of
children in both treatment groups actually got worse over time. The authors note that, in the absence of a
no treatment control, it is not possible to know whether improvement or deterioration may have occurred
without treatment. Equally, treatment may have limited the level of deterioration but, again, it is not possible
to tell from an ‘other treatment’ control design. This attention to the important issue of deterioration was
the exception rather than the rule. No study appeared to have been designed with the explicit aim of
tracking unintended consequences of treatment.
What interventions are most accessible and acceptable to carers, children

and young people?
One of the key messages to emerge from this body of research is that researchers routinely miss the opportunity
to consider issues of accessibility and acceptability. Although additional dimensions increase the cost of
research, there are some low-cost strategies that could be deployed to explore the barriers and facilitators both
of engagement and of retention in therapy. Given the difficulty of disinterring retention in a study from
retention in an intervention, there is also a research gap in relation to these important issues within the UK.
One of the things to emerge from the studies, and which drew comment from the PAG, was that in the
included studies many users were recruited by research teams into specialist centres, and, even where
the setting was a mainstream service setting, little was said about normal referral pathways. Together with
the fact that very few studies were conducted in the UK, this means that, at a very basic level, we currently
know little about who receives services in the UK, who is and who is not referred, and what factors
determine referral and the acceptance of those referrals by services.
Caregiver support
One factor to emerge from the literature and from the Young People’s Advisory Groups is the important
role that parents and other caregivers play in determining whether or not children and young people
engage with therapeutic services when these are offered. Young children need their parents to take them,
and most children look to their parents for messages, both verbal and non-verbal, about the acceptability
of treatment, in terms of both its probable helpfulness and its acceptability within the family. Although not
discussed in these terms, this may be one reason why therapies generally appear to be more effective
when they involve parents, although the primary reason is likely that such interventions are more
ecologically valid and maximise the opportunities for influence.
Relatively few studies addressed the issue of the relationship between therapist and parent, or indeed the
impact of the therapist’s relationship with the child. We know from the broader psychotherapy literature
that the latter is an important factor, and in this area, both are important influences on the likelihood of
engagement with services and on outcome. Among the PAG there were different opinions as to how
parents’ own prior history of therapy might influence their decisions about seeking treatment for a child,
or accepting it if offered. It is very probable that parents who had been deemed to have maltreated their
children may need some persuasion and skilled workers. Some of the techniques described in studies of
ABC and CPP provide useful illustrations of the skills required to work with these families.
In the absence of studies addressing this, one can only speculate, but the studies included in this review
illustrate (if at times only by omission) the importance of addressing these interpersonal issues. As we
discussed in Chapter 5, young adolescents would clearly like the opportunity to influence decisions about
seeking help, and negotiating the form that this help might take.
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The basics
Although largely conducted in America, studies examining service engagement and retention consistently
point to the probable importance of some very basic considerations, such as location of services, the extent
to which people feel welcome, the importance placed on confidentiality, and knowing what to expect.
The length of the waiting list was a factor implicated as a probable cause of ‘no shows’ in those studies
which examined treatment engagement.
Groups and psychoeducation

Although the results for studies of therapeutic group work were generally disappointing, there was
evidence across the studies that bringing children and parents together in (separate) groups was a useful
adjunct to other therapeutic approaches, such as cognitive–behavioural interventions, psychoeducation and
in some of the intensive service models, such as treatment foster care. Therapeutic day-care settings offer
some of the same characteristics. Groups provide an opportunity for children – and parents – to realise
that they are not alone in coping with difficult circumstances; they provide an opportunity to share
experiences with others whose own circumstances are closer to their own than those of the typical
professional or therapist, and this also provides opportunities for problem-solving and skill development
that are not so readily available in IT. Groups can be organised around activities which can attenuate the
awkwardness that some people feel in one-to-one counselling, or in therapeutic interventions that depend
wholly on talking. As the study by Diez et al.204 suggests, animals may provide one such opportunity.
The studies that have consulted with children and young people participating in groups, make clear that
the prospect of joining a group is not necessarily less intimidating than that of talking alone to a therapist,
and for some children it may be more so. Groups may be cost-effective, but require considerable planning.
Ensuring their effectiveness also requires attending to the issues discussed above.
Psychoeducational group therapy and CBT (which includes a strong component of psychoeducation) may
appeal to parents and children because they represent a sharing of expert knowledge and offer very
concrete strategies for dealing with present and future difficulties. It is possible (although no study has
investigated this, as far as we can tell) that the processing content of psychoeducational interventions
provides participants with a language and a means to address the consequences of maltreatment.
This has certainly been the experience in other fields (e.g. psychoeducational interventions for
people with schizophrenia and their families), which is why it is often referred to as an
empowering intervention.
What do we know about the economic benefits?

Little is known about the cost-effectiveness of alternative interventions for maltreated children. Only six
economic evaluations that could be considered ‘full’ economic evaluations (comparative analysis of
alternative interventions in terms of both costs and effects) were located, and the results are conflicting.
Evidence from an Australian decision-analytic model suggests economic benefits for TF-CBT compared with
no treatment and non-directive counselling, particularly when combined with a SSRI antidepressant.612
In contrast, a UK-based study613 found no evidence of cost-effectiveness of parenting programmes that
included a cognitive–behavioural approach. Another UK-based study614 found economic advantages for a
group-based psychoeducation intervention compared with individual psychotherapy for girls who had been
sexually abused. Two615,616 US-based studies support the cost-effectiveness of intensive service models of
care and the final study,198 also US based, was inconclusive when evaluating a co-ordinated model of care.
In addition to conflicting results, all studies suffered from a number of limitations, primarily small sample
sizes and narrow cost perspectives, but also the lack of generic measures of outcome, incremental analysis
and exploration of uncertainty. None of the studies was scientifically robust enough to have strong
confidence in the results reported and no economic evidence was found for CBT for physical abuse, RBIs,
systemic therapies, activity-based therapies, psychotherapy/counselling, peer mentoring or therapeutic
residential or day-care services.
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DISCUSSION
Exploration of the cost-effectiveness of the most promising intervention, CBT for children who had been
sexually abused, using outcome data from meta-analysis, was still unable to provide a clear conclusion. The
results for all analyses, apart from one, showed no clear economic advantage for CBT. The only exception
was for post-treatment depression outcomes. However, any potential advantage for CBT disappeared by
the 12-month follow-up.
Overall, it is clear that there is a serious lack of robust evidence of cost-effectiveness of interventions for
children who have been maltreated and further good-quality research is needed.
Conclusions
The multiple and different effects of maltreatment vary with maltreatment type; maltreatment
characteristics (duration, intensity, frequency); the nature of support available to the child (during and after
maltreatment); and the child’s innate/genetic vulnerability. It follows that what is needed before offering
therapy (resource-led approach) is an assessment of the child’s current and probable future therapeutic
needs. The needs of looked-after children, in particular, require regular review, albeit in ways that are
acceptable to the children and non-stigmatising. Some children will need treatment for specific psychiatric
sequelae, such as PTSD, anxiety and depression. Most will need services that can minimise the
adverse consequences that maltreatment often has on children’s emotional, social, behavioural and
physical development.
For children in out-of-home placements, in particular, assessments need to include assessments of the
child’s ‘caregiving system’ and how this is influenced by wider systems, such as education and social
welfare.769 It should include an assessment of motivations for caregiving and the factors that impact on
carers’ roles, including how secure they feel in the permanence of their relationships with the child. As this
review makes clear, foster and adoptive parents are a fundamental therapeutic resource for the children
for whom they are caring. Although residential workers are clearly in a different relationship with children,
these factors underline the importance of thinking therapeutically and strategically about this form of care
which, although serving only around 11% of children in care, is usually caring for some of the most
troubled young people.
A rather different, but fundamental, consideration is the need for a comprehensive assessment of the
needs of any seriously maltreated child and his/her family. A point repeatedly made in the sexual abuse
literature is that sexual abuse is an event and not a disorder. Not all children who are sexually abused, or
are the victims of excessive physical punishment, go on to develop PTSD or depression, or behaviour
problems. The consequences of maltreatment differ because every child is different.770 Furthermore, the
consequences of significant maltreatment manifest themselves at different stages of a child’s development
and often in different ways. If PTSD becomes a problem for a child then it is important to address this.
For some children PTSD or depression may not be a problem until triggered by something later in their
lives, or may be a problem that recurs at significant transition points.
Those children whose maltreatment history is such that they are made subject to a child protection plan, or
are placed in out-of-home care, need to have their circumstances comprehensively reviewed (by the
responsible social worker and the core team) and require an overall assessment of the impact of their
experiences – not just in terms of mental disorder, but in relation to their general development and
functioning. They may also need to be kept under periodic review, although managing this without
stigmatising children (particularly those in care) needs very careful handling if it is to be acceptable to them.
For example, speech and language delay are not unusual amongst maltreated children, and maltreatment
frequently impacts adversely on social and emotional functioning and on educational progress. If not
addressed, the cumulative damage of these developmental deficits may well be as costly to the child and
to society as particular psychiatric disorders. Yet relatively few studies examined interventions designed to
address these longer-term problems. Exceptions are the peer-mentoring interventions studied by Fantuzzo
et al.;182 the therapeutic day care evaluated by Culp et al.;197 and the MTFC developed by Fisher et al.183–188
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for preschool children. Both Culp et al.196 and Fantuzzo et al.182 paid considerable attention to the
involvement of parents (directly or indirectly). RBIs, such as those mentioned above, are well placed to
improve developmental outcomes for infants.
The families of children who come to the attention of Child Protection Services in the UK typically have a
wide range of needs, as do their children. An unintended consequence of the Children Act 1989,771
exacerbated by resource shortages, is that many of the children in care, and many of those who are
subject to a child protection plan, have been exposed to maltreatment for many years before services
respond adequately. Their needs are very complex and most are long-term and may be exacerbated by
moves within the care system. One of weaknesses in the current evidence base is that there are few
studies of complex and longer interventions (such as service configurations) designed to address the
realities facing Child Protection Services and partner agencies. It is difficult, on the base of the existing
evidence, to identify interventions with a strong evidence base, but even if this were not the case we
would argue that in this area the choice of therapeutic intervention (such as group work or CBT) needs to
be driven as much by the conclusions of a good-quality assessment as by the occurrence of maltreatment,
however serious. In short, child maltreatment, particularly when chronic or severe, disrupts normal
development, and children who have been adversely affected by maltreatment carry a particular ‘handicap’
(to coin sporting jargon) in the negotiation of developmental transitions. Beyond therapeutic interventions,
they require good caregiving.
Access to therapy
This review generally confirms the relevance to maltreated children in the UK of the interventions
examined in the included studies, but highlights significant gaps that are consequent on the narrow focus
of these studies on particular clinical sequelae of maltreatment, such as PTSD. But, whatever help children
need, it is not easy for them to know where or how to access it.
CAMHS in the UK are currently a scarce resource, with high thresholds and significant waiting lists. Little is
known about the profile of services provided or to whom they are provided. A survey of provision in the
UK would be extremely helpful in ascertaining the extent to which maltreated children, including children
in care, are offered, and are accessing, this provision.
A survey ascertaining the kinds of interventions used in this service would also facilitate a systematic
investigation of a problem reported by our PAG, namely that there would appear to be a mismatch
between the services children are most likely to receive in the UK (as indicated by the PAG) and those
interventions that have been rigorously evaluated in relation to maltreated children, or indeed evaluated at
all. The interventions most rigorously evaluated, and whose results are most promising (CBT, CPP, ABC),
either appear to be very patchy in the UK or, if practised (CBT), not necessarily practised to a high standard
(i.e. with fidelity). In contrast, therapies that have not been subjected to rigorous evaluation, and for which
the evidence base is extremely weak, appear to be routinely available, for example creative therapies and
play therapies. Some of these therapies may be effective; they may be particularly relevant for children
unable to express themselves verbally, either for reasons of trauma or because of their developmental
age, but at the moment they cannot be said to be evidence based. In some cases, interventions in use
have simply not been evaluated and entirely lack empirical support for use with maltreated children
(e.g. non-directive play therapy, art therapy). In the absence of evidence for their use, policy initiatives,
such as the Department for Education’s decision to provide adoptive parents with vouchers to purchase
therapeutic services (the Adoptive Support Fund), may serve only to exacerbate this situation, as such
therapies are also the easiest to access. Adopters need support to help their children access not specialist
services, but effective services.
Children need access to relevant sources of help when they need it. This suggests that sources of help
need to extend beyond those provided by CAMHS. Some of the studies in this review emphasised the
specialist knowledge that is required when working with maltreated children, which is not necessarily
included in qualifying or even post-qualifying training. We return to this issue in the next section.
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DISCUSSION
There was only one497 study of a web-based therapeutic support identified in this review and, despite the
many concerns facing professionals who wish to provide therapeutic help through this medium, the
general principle of using social media as means of communicating and encouraging sources of help,
and providing sources of help, should not be dismissed.
Evidence-based interventions
Compared with the evident need for effective interventions to address the consequences of maltreatment,
the number of interventions for which there is strong empirical support is relatively small. For symptoms
such as PTSD and anxiety, cognitive–behavioural interventions appear to enjoy most support. The evidence
for their effectiveness for depression is less clear. There is promising support for the effectiveness of
relatively brief, focused, manualised interventions to help address insecure attachments among maltreated
infants and toddlers. An even smaller, but also promising, evidence base suggests that therapeutic day
care can help with some of the social interactional problems experienced by some maltreated children.
Psychoeducation, both as part of an intervention such as CBT or as a central component in organising
groups of children, may be effective in reducing trauma and helping children to cope and move forward.
One183–188 study of MTFC for preschool children suggests that this may be an effective strategy for
promoting placement stability.
Increasing capacity to deliver evidence-based intervention

In a survey of relevant mental health clinicians in the USA (including social work, counselling, clinical
psychology and ‘other’) Allen et al.772 provided respondents with a list of 15 interventions, and asked them
to identify those interventions that they commonly used in practice; for which they had received specialist
training; for which they would like to receive training or more advanced training; and that they saw,
regardless of the targeted presenting problem, as empirically supported for use with maltreated children
(maximum of five interventions). The research team did not define empirical support in an attempt to
increase ecological validity. The list was constructed by 10 experts in the field of research with maltreated
children, some of whom might well be deemed to have been a conflict of interest, but the list is broadly
consistent with the conclusions of this review. Irrespective of experience, primary practice setting or
self-reported theoretical orientation, few respondents were able to identify interventions that the expert
advisory group identified as empirically supported, with the exception of TF-CBT, in which 73% of the
262 clinicians said they were trained. Aside from this, no more than one-third were able to identify any
other empirically supported treatments and were not trained in their use. Most reported being trained in,
on average, two non-empirically supported treatments, and many indicated that they used interventions
that they knew were not empirically supported. The more experienced the clinician, the greater the
number of non-empirically supported training interventions undertaken (and the greater the number of
non-empirically supported interventions identified as empirically supported).
These findings reflect common challenges that are inherent in developing and maintaining evidence-based
practice among busy clinicians, namely how best to make the findings of research accessible to them and
how to facilitate their use, with concomitant implications for qualifying training, continuing professional
development and organisational support. For UK clinicians, a further challenge might be scepticism about
the perceived relevance of evidence produced outside the UK.
Concerns were expressed by the PAG that a similar situation exists in the UK, but, to our knowledge, no such
research has been conducted in the UK. Robustly gathered, such information would, alongside information
on the profile of children accessing services from CAMHS, facilitate an evidence-informed approach to
workforce planning, training strategies and the identification of research gaps.
Enhancing placement stability for looked-after children

For maltreated children whose histories require out-of-home placements for long periods of time, the
importance of placement stability in a home where they can develop close relationships with their
caregivers cannot be overstated. It is evident from the studies included in this review that placement
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stability can be enhanced by providing foster and adoptive parents with the skills and support needed to
understand and address the problems that result from maltreatment and insecure attachments.
Tarren-Sweeney61 has argued for a clinical workforce that specialises in children in care or adopted. There
are two strong arguments for this. The first is that such a workforce – which would extend beyond CAMHS
(e.g. including specialist social workers, therapists working with adoption and fostering agencies) – would go
some way to ensuring that children who have experienced maltreatment and, importantly, their caregivers
would have ready access to appropriate services. For some children, such a person might provide an anchor
point in the world where social workers come and go, and placements often change. This is perhaps
optimistic, but it is more difficult to take issue with the second argument, which is that those working with
looked-after children, irrespective of disciplinary background, require specialist training. He suggests that
such training should reflect a broader conceptualisation of practice that incorporates enhanced expertise in
the assessment and formulation of attachment- and trauma-related psychopathology among vulnerable
children, and a greater focus on ‘the nature of family life that sustains and promotes the development of
children who have experienced chronic social adversity; children’s felt experiences and worldview; child
welfare systemic influences; and more detailed consideration of children’s developmental histories, with
particular reference to attachment and trauma theories’61 (p. 619). All of these also need to be understood
by the children’s caregivers, who are the crucial agents of positive change for the children, alongside
therapeutic interventions. In the UK, Golding60 makes a similar point, albeit in the context of multiagency
working. Training in evidence-based, psychosocial interventions is necessary, but not sufficient, training for
practitioners working with the majority of children in the UK who have experienced abuse and neglect.
Strengths and limitations of this evidence synthesis
Strengths
This review is largest and most comprehensive review of what is known about the effectiveness of
psychosocial interventions for maltreated children. The searches were thorough and comprehensive,
unrestricted either by language or by time. This should have ensured that we have missed little, but the
body of evidence was larger and more complex than we anticipated. Our method of judging study
eligibility should have ensured that we did not exclude studies inappropriately.
The study benefited from a multidisciplinary Steering Group of very actively engaged individuals from a
variety of professional backgrounds, from statutory, voluntary and research user organisations. The
involvement of key stakeholders is, we believe, a major strength in this report. Although we were able to
consult with only relatively small numbers of young people, their views provided an important lens through
which to consider the available evidence, and the same is true of the – somewhat more representative –
group of professionals in our PAG.
Limitations
This evidence synthesis was developed to be of value to decision-makers. We have therefore tried,
throughout this report, to consider the five factors influencing quality that are judged as part of a GRADE
assessment. In view of the relatively sparse data available for pooled analyses, the added value of
presenting separate SOF tables for all comparisons was deemed limited, although for illustrative purposes
we have developed a SOF table for CBT alternatives compared with non-CBT-based alternatives for
children who have been sexually abused (see Appendix 11).
Another limitation of the available evidence (rather than the review itself) is the generalisability of findings
from studies that were largely conducted outside the UK. This applies particularly to the effectiveness
studies and studies of economic evaluations, but it also applies to studies of acceptability of interventions
and services. Here, there are marginally more UK studies, and, although their quality is acceptable in
respect of their aims, one would not wish to generalise from the findings of most of these studies,
wherever they are conducted. Their major contribution is shining a spotlight on important issues that
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DISCUSSION
researchers have rarely taken seriously, and which could merit both from dedicated research on these
issues and from being embedded in studies of effectiveness.
A key limitation is the restricted focus of most studies on outcomes deployed in studies of effectiveness.
For this population, it may well be appropriate for a study of CBT or psychoeducation to focus on specific
clinical outcomes, such as anxiety or PTSD, but such a narrow focus on clinical outcomes assumes that,
if these are addressed, so too will be the wider and – we have argued – more serious effects of
maltreatment on the lives of many children and young people.
Given the large number of heterogeneous studies, the time and resource constraints under which we were
working limited our ability to investigate a number of issues that emerged as hypotheses, for example the
extent to which certain intervention components are important irrespective of intervention type. The role
of parents, the role of groups and the contribution of psychoeducation are three such candidates.
Implications for practice
This review cast a wide net in seeking evidence of ‘what works’ in addressing the adverse consequence of
child maltreatment. The field is certainly challenging, for both technical and ethical reasons, and for this
reason we did not seek to restrict our inclusion criteria to randomised trials. It is therefore particularly
disappointing that the available evidence does not lend itself to unequivocal guidance on what therapeutic
approaches are best suited to this population. The key reasons for this stem from the poor quality and
reporting of the available research, and we address this in the final section, Future research. It would
appear also to indicate something of a ‘disconnect’ between the focus of researchers and the reality of
clinical practice, particularly in relation to the populations served by the latter and the inclusion criteria of
the former.
However, reviewing and critically appraising these studies has highlighted a number of implications for
practice. First, although no evidence of effectiveness is not evidence of ineffectiveness, those interventions
that appear to have some benefit share some common features, such as an educational component
(helping children and parents to understand what has happened and to appropriately allocate
responsibility for maltreatment), the importance of being believed and supported, helping children and
parents to establish strategies to ensure their future safety, and – where necessary – addressing the direct
psychological sequelae of trauma, such as post-traumatic stress or depression (where cognitive–behavioural
approaches outperform others). Studies have focused predominantly on the psychological sequelae of
maltreatment, neglecting other areas of functioning and development that may be less dramatic (failing to
fall into a diagnostic category) but, which, nonetheless, can have significant, cumulative effects on a young
person’s development and quality of life.
When studies have inclusion criteria that (rightly) do not simply rely on the ‘fact’ of maltreatment, they
usually apply criteria that draw on mental health diagnoses, for example PTSD. This is clearly a difficult
issue. In order to maximise the chances of detecting an effect, studies often (and rightly) recruit only
children with evidence of an adverse impact of maltreatment. However, the recruitment strategies
of these (mainly North American) studies suggest that the samples are not typical of those children
routinely presenting at UK clinics or indeed clinics worldwide. Many are victims of sexual abuse, often
when the non-offending parent has believed the child and engaged in therapy. Some studies examine the
impact of interventions on children in foster care, and these samples are probably more typical of the
wider population of children who have experienced significant maltreatment, that is, of such a serious
nature that they have been placed in out-of-home care. For these children, adding CBT to the
management of challenging behaviour and (for infants) attachment-based approaches seem to have
most promise.
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More broadly, evidence from the included studies points to the following.
l Many children have experienced more than one form of maltreatment and the harmful effects are
heterogeneous. It is therefore necessary for any therapeutic intervention to be preceded by a full
assessment of the child’s functioning, which goes beyond a search for diagnosable mental health
disorders and includes physical and cognitive development, speech and language development,
interpersonal/social functioning, behaviour, self-esteem and educational attainment.
l Therapy provided for identified mental health disorders, such as anxiety, PTSD and depression, may be
necessary but will often not be sufficient to meet the child’s overall needs.
l Therapeutic intervention may be required at different times in the child’s life, as opposed to a single
time-limited intervention.
l Whatever the nature of the intervention, parents or other primary caregivers need to be included, at
the very least to support the child’s participation, but interventions may also include carers’
participation in the child’s therapy, parallel work with the caregivers, work directed at the caregivers’
interaction with the child, or parenting work to enhance the child’s behaviour difficulties.
l Attention needs to be paid to the expressed needs and wishes of children and their caregivers
regarding the setting of the therapeutic work to be provided.
l There are benefits, both for children and for caregivers, to providing therapeutic work in groups, which
allow for sharing of experiences and reducing of stigma and guilt.
l For symptoms such as PTSD and anxiety, trauma-focused cognitive–behavioural interventions appear to
be most effective. The evidence for their effectiveness for depression is less clear.
l Therapeutic day care and peer mentoring may also provide opportunities to address developmental and
social specific sequelae of maltreatment in preschool children.
l There is promising support for the effectiveness of relatively brief, focused, manualised interventions to
help address insecure attachments among maltreated infants and toddlers.
l MTFC for preschool children suggests that this may be an effective strategy for promoting placement
stability. Its impact on improving outcomes for older children is less clear.
l Many interventions currently used in the UK have no empirical evidence to support their use.
Future research
Given the paucity of evidence directly relevant to the needs of maltreated children and young people in
the UK, the primary recommendation from this review must be for research investment in this area.
This should include robust evaluations of those therapies most commonly used with this group of children.
In identifying these, we have no UK data, and draw only on the knowledge of the research team and
the PAG. The interventions most likely to be offered to maltreated children for identified mental health
problems are cognitive–behavioural therapies (for those suffering from PTSD or depression), attachment-
based interventions (for infants), music therapy (and other activity-based therapies, such as art or play
therapy) and group-based interventions.
There is a need for independent evaluation of these interventions, as well as primary research into the
profile of needs and provision of therapeutic services – including, but not confined to, clinical interventions –
for maltreated children. A particular focus should be on those children looked after by the state, where
there is some evidence that interventions designed to support foster parents, and adopters can enhance
placement stability.
Studies should focus on issues beyond those readily assessed by clinical measures, and address the more
pervasive consequences of maltreatment. Urgently needed is the development and evaluation of
interventions that can address the broader psychosocial needs of maltreated children across the range of
systems that have the potential to mitigate the adverse effects of their experiences. Significantly, these
include schools and day-care settings.
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DISCUSSION
The underdeveloped profile of UK research in this field suggests that commissioners should require
researchers to pay careful attention to the growing literature on how best to conduct studies of complex
interventions, beginning with the development of logic models or theories of change (clearly specifying
why and how proposed interventions are expected to improve outcomes for children who have
experienced maltreatment), using appropriate comparisons, and outcome measures that have ecological
validity, that is, that address the wider impacts of maltreatment and include measures beyond those of
psychological adjustment (e.g. school readiness, well-being, daily life skills, family functioning, academic
achievement). Importantly, studies need to be better designed, with adequate sample sizes (probably
requiring multisite trials), recruiting participants who reflect those presenting routinely to CAMHS, and that
address the wider range of opportunities for dealing with the consequences of maltreatment, for example
school-based interventions, and support to foster and adoptive parents.
The reporting of studies should adhere to CONSORT guidelines, which now include a guideline extension
for the reporting of complex social interventions.773
338
Acknowledgements
W e are extremely grateful to all of the young people and professionals who assisted us in this review.
It made an important contribution to our understanding of what is important to young people and
those delivering services, including foster care. It also assisted in our interpretation of the data.
Further information about the data underpinning this report can be obtained from Geraldine Macdonald.
Contributions of authors
All authors were involved in the conception and design of the study, the acquisition of data or analysis,
data interpretation, drafting and/or revising the report and final approval of the version to be published.
All members of the Steering Committee helped to search the grey literature. Individual contributions were
as follows.
Geraldine Macdonald drafted the original proposal and comanaged the project. Responsible for the
work of the research team. Contributed to screening of studies, quality assured data extraction and
risk-of-bias judgements. Drafted Chapters 1, 2 and 4–6 on the basis of preparatory work from NL, JH,
CMcC and TB, with subsequent contributions from others, particularly DG. With RC, drafted the scientific
summary, abstract and plain English summary.
Nuala Livingstone helped to draft the original proposal. Responsible for the day-to-day management of
the study and the study team (JH, CMcC and TB). Took a lead role in planning the consultations with
young people and the PAGs. Undertook screening of citations, data extraction, risk-of-bias assessments,
meta-analyses of data and SOF tables. Contributed to Chapters 2–6.
Jennifer Hanratty planned and conducted consultations with young people; helped plan the
consultations with the PAGs; drafted reports following the consultations (with RC, NL and CMcC); and
undertook screening of studies, data extraction and quality assessment of included studies. Prepared
and maintained Excel spreadsheet from which tables were produced. Prepared draft of Chapter 3 and
contributed to draft of Chapter 4.
Claire McCartan undertook screening of studies, data extraction and quality assessment of non-
randomised studies. Conducted thematic analyses for synthesis of acceptability data. Drafted Chapter 5 of
the report, and contributed to Chapter 6. Managed all referencing in the final report.
Richard Cotmore was a member of the Steering Group. Took a lead role in planning and implementing
consultations with the Young People’s Advisory Group. Contributed to planning and implementation of
professional liaison group. Drafted sections of the final report relating to the Young People’s Advisory
Group. Commented on, and contributed to, Chapters 1, 3, 5 and 6. Provided advice and assistance in
relation to young people’s views.
Maria Cary assisted with searching the grey literature. Contributed to screening of all studies. Responsible
for data extraction and quality assessment of studies that were relevant to the economic evaluation, and
contributed to the screening of the effectiveness studies. Undertook the economic analysis. Helped draft
the economic sections of the report.
Danya Glaser was a member of the project Steering Committee. Contributed to planning all advisory
groups. Provided expert clinical advice throughout the project. Ensured that the team was up to date with
relevant developments. Helped to draft Chapters 1, 4 and 6.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sarah Byford helped to draft the original proposal. Responsible for the economic component of the
work, including supervision of the health economist (MC). Drafted the economic sections of Chapters 2–4.
Commented on, and contributed to, Chapters 2–5.
Nicky J Welton was responsible for providing advice on evidence synthesis for use in economic
evaluation. Performed sensitivity analysis for quantitative meta-analyses in Chapter 4, and read and
commented on the economic evaluation and Chapters 2 and 4.
Tania Bosqui undertook screening of studies, data extraction and quality assessment of included studies.
Helped to prepare descriptions of included interventions, and prepared section on results of attachment-
based interventions.
Lucy Bowes contributed to the original proposal and to Chapter 1.
Suzanne Audrey assisted in organising the Young People’s Advisory Group, contributed to the study
design as a member of the Steering Group, and contributed to Chapter 5.
Gill Mezey assisted in planning and organisation the first PAG. Contributed to Chapters 4 and 6.
Helen L Fisher helped to critically revise the original proposal. Assisted with facilitation of first PAG and
commented on the subsequent report. Assisted with searching the grey literature and commented on the
final report.
Wendy Riches was a member of the project Steering Group. Took a key role in planning and
implementing consultations with the young people’s advisory group, and those with the professional
liaison group. Commented on Chapters 1 and 4. Provided advice throughout on ensuring relevance to key
stakeholders, such as the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, and policy-makers.
Rachel Churchill Contributed to the original proposal, managed the contract at the University of Bristol
and co-chaired Steering Group/team meetings. Helped to plan consultation with young people and the
PAG. Conducted attrition analyses with assistance from NL; contributed to the structure of the final report,
and drafted Chapter 3, following preparatory work from NL and JH. Contributed to Chapters 2 and 6.
With GM, drafted the abstract and scientific summary.
Data sharing statement
The data in the systematic review reported here can be obtained from the corresponding author
on request.
340
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387
Appendix 1 Research team and Steering

Group members
G eraldine Macdonald (SG)
Nuala Livingstone (SG)
Jennifer Hanratty (ExO)
Claire McCartan (ExO)
Richard Cotmore (SG)
Maria Cary
Danya Glaser (SG)
Sarah Byford (SG)
Nicola J. Welton
Tania Bosqui
Lucy Bowes
Suzanne Audrey
Gill Mezey
Helen Fisher
Wendy Riches (SG)
Rachel Churchill (SG)
Note: SG, Steering Group member; ExO, Ex Officio Steering Group member
389
Appendix 2 Professional Advisory Group

members
Professional Advisory Group meeting attendees:
Wednesday 1 May 2013
Voluntary sector/social work Educational Psychology
Facilitator: Richard Cotmore, NSPCC Facilitator: Wendy Riches
Dorit Braun The College of Social Work Catherine Kelly University of Manchester
Laurence Guinness Kids Company Louise Lightfoot University of Salford
Kate Mulley Action for Children Patrick McArdle University of Salford

Jonathon Rallings Barnardo’s Eamon McCrory University College London
Suzanne Watts Oxford Brookes University Joanne Snee University of Salford
Health Economics Social Science
Facilitator: Sarah Byford, Institute of Psychiatry, Facilitator: Rachel Churchill, University of Bristol
King’s College London
Jennifer Beecham University of Kent Cheryl Burgess University of Stirling
Farhat R Rasul Hounslow Social Services Elaine Farmer University of Bristol
Maria Violato University of Oxford Corinne May-Chahal Lancaster University
Clinical Psychology/Psychiatry Julie Mytton University of the West

of England
Facilitator: Helen Fischer, Institute of Psychiatry,
King’s College London Foster carers
Rachel Calum The University of Manchester Facilitator: Nuala Livingstone, Queen’s University,
Belfast
Andrea Danese King’s College London Marrion Collins Foster carer
Margaret DeJong Great Ormond Street Hospital Sharon Galway Foster carer
Emilio Lemoniatis The Tavistock and Portman NHS Tracey Gibbons Foster carer
Foundation Trust
Kavita Misra Salford CAMHS Helen Harpum Foster carer
Helen Stain Durham University Chris Ingram Foster carer
Health Professionals Foster carers
Facilitator: Gill Mezey, St George’s, University of Facilitator: Geraldine Macdonald, Queen’s University,
London Belfast
Celina Grant Lambeth CAMHS Julie Kee Foster carer
Christine Habgood General practitioner Cherry Largie Foster carer
Narad Mathura St David’s Children’s Centre, Annie Nugent Foster carer

St David’s Hospital
Aideen McLaughlin Belfast Trust, Health & Social Zena Richards Foster carer
Care Services in Northern Ireland
Colin Michie Ealing Hospital NHS Trust Doreen Sylvester Foster carer
Catherine Powell NHS Portsmouth
391
APPENDIX 2
Professional Advisory Group meeting attendees:

Thursday 27 November 2014
Number Forename Surname Organisation
1 Jennifer Beecham University of Kent
2 Sarah Byford King’s College London
3 Rona Campbell University of Bristol
4 Maria Cary King’s College London

5 Rachel Churchill University of Bristol
6 Marrion Collins Foster carer
7 Paula Cooper-Neville Foster team
8 Richard Cotmore NSPCC
9 Tracey Gibbons Foster carer
10 Danya Glaser University College London
11 Laurence Guinness Kids Company
12 Jennifer Hanratty Queen’s University, Belfast

13 Sarah Howcutt Oxford Brookes University
14 Nuala Livingstone Queen’s University, Belfast
15 Geraldine Macdonald Queen’s University, Belfast
16 Gill Mezey St George’s, University of London
17 Annie Nugent Foster carer
18 Jonathon Rallings Barnardo’s
19 Wendy Riches University College London

20 Maria Violato University of Oxford
392
Appendix 3 Examples of search strategies for

different database types
Core search strategy (Ovid MEDLINE)
1. exp Child Abuse/

2. (child$ adj3 (abuse$ or cruelty or maltreat$ or mal-treat$ or neglect$ or victimi#$)].tw.
3. child protection.tw.
4. or/1-3
5. [(emotion$ or psychological$) adj3 (abuse$ or harm or neglect$ or trauma$ or victimi#$)].tw.
6. (physical$ adj3 (abuse$ or assault$ or harm$ or neglect$ or trauma$ or victimi#$)].tw.
7. (sex$ adj3 (abuse$ or assault$ or trauma$ or victimi#$)].tw.
8. Incest/
9. incest$.tw.
10. (maltreat$ or mal-treat$).tw.
11. (intentional$ adj3 injur$).tw.
12. (non-accidental adj3 injur$).tw.
13. or/5-12
14. exp infant/
15. exp child/
16. adolescent/
17. young adult/
18. (child$ or infant$ or teenage$ or adolescen$ or youth$ or young person$ or young adult$ or young
people or preschool$ or pre-school$ or baby or babies).tw.
19. or/14-18
20. 13 and 19
21. 4 or 20
22. exp Psychotherapy/
23. exp Mind-Body Therapies/
24. (psycho$ therap$ or psychotherap$).tw.
25. (psychoanalytic$ or psycho-analytic$ or psychodynamic$ or psycho-dynamic$).tw.
26. Cognitive Therapy/
27. [(cognitive-behav$ or cognitive or cognition) adj3 (program$ or intervention$ or therap$ or
treatment$)].tw.
28. CBT.tw.
29. counsel?ing.tw.
30. (psychodrama or acting out or role play).tw.
31. (meditation or mindfulness or mind training).tw.
32. (Relax$ adj3 (training$ or treatment$ or therap$)].tw.
33. (multisystemic or multi-systemic).tw.
34. [(psychosocial or psycho-social or psychoeducation$ or psychoeducation$) adj3 (intervention$ or
program$ or support$ or therap$ or treatment$)].tw.
35. [(family or group or systemic$ or multimodal$ or multi-modal$) adj3 (program$ or intervention$ or
therap$ or treatment$)].tw.
36. Mental health/
37. exp Behavior Therapy/
38. (behavio?r$ adj3 (program$ or intervention$ or therap$ or treatment$)].tw.
39. [(exposure or abreaction or desensitization) adj3 therap$).tw.
40. (‘Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing’ or EMDR).tw.
41. Foster Home Care/
393
APPENDIX 3
42. [(foster$ or residential or out-of-home) adj3 (care$ or therapeutic$ or treatment$)].tw.

43. peer mentor$.tw.
44. [(gestalt or milieu or residential) adj therap$).tw.
45. (therapeutic adj (alliance or relationship)].tw.
46. dramatherapy.tw.
47. Feedback, Psychological/
48. [(biofeedback or feedback or imagery) adj3 (intervention$ or therap$ or treatment$ or train$)].tw.
49. (hypnosis or hypno-therapy or hypnotherapy or breathing exercise$).tw.
50. object attachment/
51. [(attachment or bond$) adj3 (infant$ or child$ or mother$ or maternal$ or father$ or paternal$ or
parental$)].tw.
52. [(insecure adj2 attachment$) or attachment disorder).tw.
53. [(solution focus$ or trauma$ or talking) adj3 therap$).tw.
54. sensory art therapies/
55. [(art or creative or drama or music or narrative or play$ or sensory) adj3 (program$ or intervention$ or
therap$)].tw.
56. or/22-55
57. 21 and 56
58. (autobiography or biography or comment or editorial or letter or news).pt.
59. 57 not 58
Search strategy for Cochrane Central Register of Controlled

Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and Database
of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (via The Cochrane Library)
ID Search
#1 medical subject heading (MeSH) descriptor: [Child Abuse] 2 tree(s) exploded
#2 (child* near/3 (abuse* or cruelty or maltreat* or mal next treat* or neglect* or victimi*)]:ti,ab
#3 (child next protection):ti,ab
#4 #1 or #2 or #3
#5 [(emotion* or psychological*) near/3 (abuse* or harm or neglect* or trauma* or victimi*)]:ti,ab

#6 (physical* near/3 (abuse* or assault* or harm* or neglect* or trauma* or victimi*)]:ti,ab
#7 (sex* near/3 (abuse* or assault* or trauma* or victimi*)]:ti,ab
#8 MeSH descriptor: [Incest] this term only
#9 incest*:ti,ab
#10 (maltreat* or mal-treat*):ti,ab
#11 (intentional* near/3 injur*):ti,ab
#12 (non-accidental near/3 injur*):ti,ab

#13 {or #5-#12}
#14 MeSH descriptor: [Infant] 1 tree(s) exploded
#15 MeSH descriptor: [Child] explode all trees
#16 MeSH descriptor: [Adolescent] this term only
#17 MeSH descriptor: [Young Adult] this term only
#18 (infant* or child* or baby or babies* or adolescen* or teen* or youth* or young next person* or young next people
or young next adult* or pre next school* or preschool* or baby or babies):ti,ab
394
ID Search
#19 {or #14-#18}
#20 #13 and #19
#21 #4 or #20
#22 MeSH descriptor: [Psychotherapy] 1 tree(s) exploded
#23 MeSH descriptor: [Mind-Body Therapies] 1 tree(s) exploded

#24 (psycho next therap* or psychotherap*):ti,ab
#25 (psychoanalytic* or psycho next analytic* or psychodynamic* or psycho next dynamic*):ti,ab
#26 MeSH descriptor: [Cognitive Therapy] this term only
#27 [(cognitive next behav* or cognitive or cognition) near/3 (program* or intervention* or therap* or treatment*)]:ti,ab
#28 ‘CBT’:ti,ab
#29 (counselling or counseling):ti,ab
#30 (psychodrama or ‘acting out’ or ‘role play’):ti,ab

#31 (meditation or mindfulness or ‘mind training’):ti,ab
#32 (Relax* near/3 (training* or treatment* or therap*)]:ti,ab
#33 (multisystemic or multi next systemic):ti,ab
#34 [(psychosocial or psycho next social or psycho NEXT education* or psychoeducation*) near/3 (intervention* or
program* or support* or therap* or treatment*)]:ti,ab
#35 [(family or group or systemic* or multimodal* or multi-modal*) near/3 (program* or intervention* or therap* or
treatment*)]:ti,ab
#36 MeSH descriptor: [Mental Health] this term only

#37 MeSH descriptor: [Cognitive Therapy] 1 tree(s) exploded
#38 (behav* near/3 (program* or intervention* or therap* or treatment*)]:ti,ab
#39 [(exposure or abreaction or desensitization) near/3 therap*):ti,ab
#40 (‘Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing’ or EMDR):ti,ab
#41 MeSH descriptor: [Foster Home Care] this term only
#42 [(foster* or residential or out-of-home) near/3 (care* or therapeutic* or treatment*)]:ti,ab
#43 (peer next mentor*):ti,ab

#44 [(gestalt or milieu or residential) next therap*):ti,ab
#45 (therapeutic next (alliance or relationship*)]:ti,ab
#46 MeSH descriptor: [Feedback, Psychological] 2 tree(s) exploded
#47 [(biofeedback or feedback or imagery) near/3 (intervention* or therap* or treatment* or train*)]:ti,ab
#48 (hypnosis or hypno next therapy or hypnotherapy or breathing next exercise*):ti,ab
#49 MeSH descriptor: [Object Attachment] this term only
#50 [(attachment or bond*) near/3 (infant* or child* or mother* or maternal* or father* or paternal* or parental*)]:ti,ab
#51 [(solution focus* or trauma* or talking) near/3 therap*):ti,ab
#52 MeSH descriptor: [Sensory Art Therapies] 1 tree(s) exploded
#53 [(art or creative or drama or music or narrative or play* or sensory) near/3 (program* or intervention* or therap*)]:ti,ab
#54 dramatherapy:ti,ab
#55 {or #22-#54}
#56 #55 and #21
395
APPENDIX 3
Search strategy for Social Sciences Abstracts (ProQuest)
[(SU.EXACT.EXPLODE(‘Behavior Modification’) OR SU.EXACT.EXPLODE(‘Role Playing’) OR

SU.EXACT.EXPLODE(‘Group Therapy’) OR SU.EXACT.EXPLODE(‘Psychotherapy’) OR SU.EXACT.EXPLODE
(‘Family Therapy’) OR SU.EXACT.EXPLODE(‘Hypnosis’) OR SU.EXACT.EXPLODE(‘Sociotherapy’) OR
SU.EXACT(‘Group Therapy’) OR SU.EXACT(‘Family Therapy’) OR SU.EXACT(‘Counseling’) OR TI,AB
(counselling OR counseling) OR SU.EXACT(‘Foster Care’) OR SU.EXACT(‘Residential Institutions’) OR (TI,AB
(psycho-therap[*5] OR psychotherap[*5] OR psychoanalytic[*2] OR psycho-analytic[*2] OR psychodynamic
[*3] OR psycho-dynamic[*3]) OR TI,AB[(psychosocial OR ‘psycho-social’ OR psychoeducation[*3] OR ‘
psychoeducation[*3]’) NEAR/3 (program[*3] OR intervention[*1] OR therap[*5] OR treatment[*1])] OR TI,
AB[(behavior[*2] OR behavour[*2]) NEAR/3 (program[*3] OR intervention[*1] OR therap[*5] OR treatment
[*1])] OR TI,AB[(‘cognitive-behav[*3]’ OR cognitive OR cognition) NEAR/3 (program[*3] OR intervention[*1]
OR therap[*5] OR treatment[*1])] OR TI,AB(relaxation OR multisystemic OR ‘multi-systemic’ OR
psychodrama OR ‘acting out’ OR ‘role play’) OR TI,AB[(family OR group OR systemic[*3] OR multimodal[*3]
OR ‘multi-modal’) NEAR/3 (program[*3] OR intervention[*1] OR therap[*5] OR treatment[*1])] OR TI,AB
[(exposure OR abreaction OR desensitization) NEAR/3 (therap[*5])] OR TI,AB(‘Eye Movement
Desensitization and Reprocessing’ OR EMDR) OR TI,AB [(foster[*3] OR residential OR out-of-home) NEAR/3
(care[*3] OR therapeutic[*3] OR treatment)] OR ‘peer mentor[*3]’ OR TI,AB[(gestalt OR milieu OR
residential) NEAR/3 (therap[*5])] OR TI,AB[(therapeutic) NEAR/2 (alliance OR relationship[*3])] OR TI,AB
(biofeedback OR imagery OR hypnosis OR ‘breathing exercises’) OR TI,AB[(‘solution focus[*2]’ OR trauma
[*3] OR talking) NEAR/3 (therap[*5])] OR TI,AB[(attachment OR bond[*3]) NEAR/3 (infant[*1] OR child[*3]
OR mother[*3] OR maternal[*3] OR father[*3] OR paternal[*3] OR parental[*3])] OR TI,AB [(insecure NEAR/
2 attachment[*3]) OR attachment disorder) OR TI,AB[(art OR creative OR drama OR music OR narrative OR
play[*3] OR sensory) NEAR/3 (program[*3] OR intervention[*1] OR therap[*5])] OR TI,AB(dramatherap
[*3])]) AND [(SU.EXACT.EXPLODE(‘Child Sexual Abuse’) OR SU.EXACT.EXPLODE(‘Child Abuse’) OR TI,AB
[(child[*3]) NEAR/3 (abuse[*3] OR ‘at risk’ OR maltreat[*4] OR mal-treat[*4] OR neglect[*3])] OR TI,AB
(‘child protection’) OR TI,AB[(emotion[*3] OR psychological[*3]) NEAR/3 (abuse[*3] OR harm OR neglect
[*3] OR trauma[*3] OR victim[*5])] OR TI,AB(physical[*3] NEAR/3 (abuse[*3] OR assault[*3] OR harm[*3]
OR neglect[*3] OR trauma[*3] OR victim[*5])] OR TI,AB(sex[*5] NEAR/3 (abuse[*3] OR assault[*3] OR
trauma[*3] OR victim[*5])] OR TI,AB(maltreat[*4] OR mal-treat[*4]) OR TI,AB(‘intentional injur[*3]’ OR
‘non-accidental injur[*3]’) OR TI,AB(incest)] AND (SU.EXACT(‘Children’) OR SU.EXACT(‘Adolescents’) OR
SU.EXACT(‘Infants’) OR TI,AB(child[*3] OR infant[*1] OR teen[*5] OR adolescen[*3] OR youth[*1] OR
‘young person’ OR ‘young adult[*1]’ OR ‘young people’ OR preschool[*3] OR pre-school[*3] OR baby
OR babies)])]
Search strategy for EconLit (via EBSCOhost)
S13 S4 OR S12
S12 S10 AND S11
S11 TI(child* or infant* or teenage* or adolescen* or youth* or young person* or young adult* or young
people or preschool* or pre school* or baby or babies) OR AB(child* or infant* or teenage* or adolescen*
or youth* or young person* or young adult* or young people or preschool* or pre school* or baby
or babies)
S10 S5 OR S6 OR S7 OR S8 OR S9
S9 TI(maltreat* or mal-treat*) OR AB(maltreat* or mal-treat*)
S8 TI(incest*) or AB(incest*)
396
S7 TI (sex* N3 (abuse* or assault* or trauma* or victim*)] OR AB(sex* N3 (abuse* or assault* or trauma*

or victim*)]
S6 TI(physical* N3 (abuse* or assault* or harm* or neglect* or trauma* or victim*)] OR AB(physical* N3

(abuse* or assault* or harm* or neglect* or trauma* or victim*)]
S5 TI [(emotion* or psychological*) N3 (abuse* or harm or neglect* or trauma* or victim*)] OR AB

[(emotion* or psychological*) N3 (abuse* or harm or neglect* or trauma* or victim*)]
S4 S1 OR S2 OR S3
S3 ‘at risk register’
S2 ‘child protection’
S1 (child* or adolescen* or teen or infant*) N3 (abuse* or cruelty or maltreat* or mal-treat* or neglect* or

trauma or victimis* or victimiz*)
Database of Promoting Health Effectiveness Reviews (DoPHER)

(eppi.ioe.ac.uk/webdatabases/)
Keyword/categorical search
#2 Characteristics of the study population: children OR young people
#4 Focus of the report: child neglect OR emotional abuse OR physical abuse OR sexual abuse
#5 2 AND 4
397
Appendix 4 Citations of included and

excluded studies
Included controlled studies (citations): effectiveness studies
1. Bagley C, LaChance M. Evaluation of a family-based programme for the treatment of child sexual
abuse. Child Fam Soc Work 2000;5:205–13.150
2. Barth R, Yeaton J, Winterfelt N. Psychoeducational groups with foster care of sexually abused children.
Child Adolesc Soc Work J 1994;11:405–24.161
3. Becker-Weidman A. Dyadic developmental psychotherapy: a multi-year follow-up. In Stuart S, editor.

New Developments in Child Abuse Research. New York, NY: Nova; 2006.135
4. Becker-Weidman A. Treatment of children with trauma-attachment disorders: dyadic developmental

Psychotherapy. Child Adolesc Soc Work J 2006;23:147–71.134
Berliner L, Saunders BE. Treating fear and anxiety in sexually abused children: results of a controlled
2-year follow-up study. Child Maltreat 1996;1:294–309.89
5. Bernard K, Dozier M, Bick J, Lewis-Morrarty E, Lindhiem O, Carlson E. Enhancing attachment

organization among maltreated children: results of a randomized clinical trial. Child Dev
2012;83:623–36.122
6. Biehal N, Dixon J, Parry E, Sinclair I, Green J, Roberts C, et al. The Care Placements Evaluation (CaPE)
Evaluation of Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care for Adolescents (MTFC-A): Research Brief,
DFE-RB194. London: Department for Education; 2012.145
Green J, Biehal N, Roberts C, Dixon J, Kay C, Parry E, et al. Multidimensional treatment foster care for
adolescents in English care: randomised trial and observational cohort evaluation. Br J Psychiatry
2013;204:214–21.146
7. Brillantes-Evangelista G. An evaluation of visual arts and poetry as therapeutic interventions with

abused adolescents. Arts Psychother 2013;40:71–84.199
8. Brunk MA, Henggeler SW, Whelan JP. Comparison of multisystemic therapy and parent training in the
brief treatment of child abuse and neglect. J Consult Clin Psychol 1987;55:171–8.142
9. Fitch MJ, Cadol EJ, Goldson EK, Jackson DF Swartz, Wendell TP. Prospective Study in Child Abuse: the
Child Study Program. Final Report. OCD-CR-371. 1975.177
10. Celano M, Hazzard A, Webb C, McCall C. Treatment of traumagenic beliefs among sexually abused
girls and their mothers: an evaluation study. J Abnorm Child Psych 1996;24:1–17.90
11. Chaffin M, Silovsky JF, Funderburk B, Valle LA, Brestan EV, Balachova T, et al. Parent–child interaction
therapy with physically abusive parents: efficacy for reducing future abuse reports. J Consult Clin Psychol
2004;72:500–10.136
399
APPENDIX 4
12. Champion JD, Collins JL. Comparison of a theory-based (AIDS Risk Reduction Model) cognitive
behavioral intervention versus enhanced counseling for abused ethnic minority adolescent women on
infection with sexually transmitted infection: results of a randomized controlled trial. Int J Nurs
Stud 2012;49:138–50.110
13. Church D, Pina O, Reategui C, Brooks A. Single-session reduction of the intensity of traumatic
memories in abused adolescents after EFT: a randomized controlled pilot study. Traumatology
2012;18:73–9.111
14. Cicchetti D, Rogosch F, Toth S. Fostering secure attachment in infants in maltreating families through
preventive interventions. Dev Psychopathol 2006;18:623–49.123
15. Cicchetti D, Rogosch F, Toth S, Sturge-Apple M. Normalizing the development of cortisol regulation
in maltreated infants through preventive interventions. Dev Psychopathol 2011;23:789–800.124
16. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP. A treatment outcome study for sexually abused preschool children: initial
findings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996;35:42–50.91
Cohen JA, Mannarino AP. A treatment study for sexually abused preschool children: outcome during
a one-year follow-up. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997;36:1228–35.92
17. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP. Interventions for sexually abused children: initial treatment outcome
findings. Child Maltreat 1998;3:17–26.93
Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, Knudsen K. Treating sexually abused children: 1 year follow-up of a
randomized controlled trial. Child Abuse Negl 2005;29:135–45.94
18. Cohen JA, Deblinger E, Mannarino AP, Steer RA. A multisite, randomized controlled trial for children
with sexual abuse-related PTSD symptoms. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004;43:393–402.95
Deblinger E, Mannarino AP, Cohen JA, Steer RA. A follow-up study of a multisite, randomized
controlled trial for children with sexual abuse-related PTSD symptoms. J Am Acad Child Adolesc
Psychiatry 2006;45:1474–84.96
19. Culp RE. Maltreated children’s developmental scores: treatment versus nontreatment. Child Abuse
Negl 1987;11:29–34.196
20. Culp RE, Little V, Letts D, Lawrence H. Maltreated children’s self-concept: effects of a comprehensive
treatment program. Am J Orthopsychiatry 1991;61:114–21.197
21. D’Andrea W, Bergholz L, Fortunato A, Spinazzola J. Play to the whistle: a pilot investigation of a
sports-based intervention for traumatized girls in residential treatment. J Fam Violence 2013;28:739–49.201
22. Danielson CK, McCart MR, Walsh K, De Arellano MA, White D, Resnick HS. Reducing substance use
risk and mental health problems among sexually assaulted adolescents: a pilot randomized controlled trial.
J Fam Psychol 2012;26:628–35.143
23. De Luca RV, Boyes DA, Grayston AD, Romano E. Sexual abuse: effects of group therapy on
pre-adolescent girls. Child Abuse Rev 1995;4:263–77.170
24. Deblinger E, Lippmann J, Steer R. Sexually abused children suffering posttraumatic stress symptoms:
initial treatment outcome findings. Child Maltreat 1997;1:310–21.97
400
Deblinger E, Steer RA, Lippmann J. Two-year follow-up study of cognitive behavioral therapy for
sexually abused children suffering post-traumatic stress symptoms. Child Abuse
Negl 1999;23:1371–8.98
25. Deblinger E, Stauffer LB, Steer RA. Comparative efficacies of supportive and cognitive behavioral
group therapies for young children who have been sexually abused and their nonoffending mothers.
Child Maltreat 2001;6:332–43.99
26. Deblinger E, Mannarino AP, Cohen JA, Runyon MK, Steer RA. Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral
therapy for children: impact of the trauma narrative and treatment length. Depress Anxiety 2011:28;67–75.100
27. Dietz TJ, Davis D, Pennings J. Evaluating animal-assisted therapy in group treatment for child sexual
abuse. J Child Sex Abuse 2012;21:665–83.204
28. Downing J, Jenkins SJ, Fisher GL. A comparison of psychodynamic and reinforcement treatment with
sexually abused children. Element School Guid Couns 1988;22:291–8.180
29. Dozier M, Peloso E, Lindhiem O, Gordon MK, Manni M, Sepulveda S, et al. Developing
evidence-based interventions for foster children: an example of a randomized clinical trial with infants and
toddlers. J Soc Issues 2006;62:767–85.125
30. Duffany A, Panos PT. Outcome evaluation of a group treatment of sexually abused and reactive
children. Res Social Work Prac 2009;19:291–303.162
31. Fantuzzo JW, Jurecic L, Stovall A, Hightower AD, Goins C, Schachtel D. Effects of adult and peer
social initiations on the social behavior of withdrawn, maltreated preschool children. J Consult Clin
Psychol 1988;56:34–9.181
32. Fantuzzo JW, Sutton-Smith B, Meyers R, Atkins M, Stevenson H, Coolahan K, Weiss A, Manz P.
Community-based resilient peer treatment of withdrawn maltreated preschool children. J Consult Clin
Psychol 1996;64:1377–86.182
33. Farkas L, Cyr M, Lebeau T, Lemay J, McDuff P. Treatment effectiveness of MASTR-EMDR therapy for
sexually abused adolescents. Revue Québécoise de Psychologie 2008;29:101–15.120
34. Fisher PA, Gunnar MR, Chamberlain P, Reid JB. Preventive intervention for maltreated preschool
children: impact on children’s behavior, neuroendocrine activity, and foster parent functioning. J Am Acad
Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2000;39:1356–64.192
Fisher PA, Burraston B, Pears KC. The Early Intervention Foster Care Program: permanent placement
outcomes from a randomized trial. Child Maltreat 2005;10:61–71.184
Bruce J, McDermott JM, Fisher PA, Fox NA. Using behavioral and electrophysiological measures to
assess the effects of a preventive intervention: a preliminary study with preschool-aged foster
children. Prev Sci 2009;10:129–40.183
Fisher PA, Kim HK. Intervention effects on foster preschoolers’ attachment-related behaviors from a
randomized trial. Prev Sci 2007;8:161–70.185
Fisher PA, Kim HK, Pears KC. Effects of multidimensional treatment foster care for preschoolers
(MTFC-P) on reducing permanent placement failures among children with placement instability.
Child Youth Serv Rev 2009:31;541–6.186
401
APPENDIX 4
Fisher PA, Stoolmiller M, Gunnar MR, Burraston BO. Effects of a therapeutic intervention for foster
preschoolers on diurnal cortisol activity. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2007;32:892–905.187
Fisher PA, Van Ryzin MJ, Gunnar MR. Mitigating HPA axis dysregulation associated with placement
changes in foster care. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2011;36:531–9.188
35. Foa EB, McLean CP, Capaldi S, Rosenfield D. Prolonged exposure vs. supportive counseling for sexual
abuse-related PTSD in adolescent girls: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2013:310;2650–7.101
36. Graham AM, Yockelson M, Kim Hyoun K, Bruce J, Pears KC, Fisher PA. Effects of maltreatment and
early intervention on diurnal cortisol slope across the start of school: a pilot study. Child Abuse Negl
2012;36:666–70.193
37. Graham-Bermann SA, Lynch S, Banyard V, De Voe ER, Halabu H. Community-based intervention for
children exposed to intimate partner violence: an efficacy trial. J Consult Clin Psychol 2007;75:199–209.151
38. Grayston AD, De Luca RV. Group therapy for boys who have experienced sexual abuse: is it the
treatment of choice? J Child Adolesc Group Ther 1995;5:57–82.171
methamphetamine-involved families: experimental assessment with qualitative elaboration. Child Youth
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40. Hamama L, Hamama-Raz Y, Dagan K, Greenfeld H, Rubinstein C, Ben-Ezra M. A preliminary study of

group intervention along with basic canine training among traumatized teenagers: a 3-month longitudinal
study. Child Youth Serv Rev 2011:33;1975–80.205
41. Hébert M, Tourigny M. Effects of a psychoeducational group intervention for children victims of
sexual abuse. J Child Adolesc Trauma 2010;3:143–60.163
42. Holland P, Gorey KM, Lindsay A. Prevention of mental health and behaviour problems among
sexually abused aboriginal children in care. Child Adolesc Social Work J 2004:21;109–15.164
43. Holt T, Jensen TK, Wentzel-Larsen T. The change and the mediating role of parental emotional
reactions and depression in the treatment of traumatized youth: results from a randomized controlled
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45. Hughes JR, Gottlieb LN. The effects of the Webster-Stratton parenting program on maltreating
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48. Kolko DJ. Clinical monitoring of treatment course in child physical abuse: psychometric characteristics
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403
APPENDIX 4
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404
78. Spieker SJ, Oxford ML, Kelly JF, Nelson EM, Fleming CB. Promoting First Relationships: randomized
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81. Sullivan PM. The effects of psychotherapy on behavior problems of sexually abused deaf children.
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82. Swenson CC, Randall J, Henggeler SW, Ward D. The outcomes and costs of an interagency
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children: six- and 12-month follow-up. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1998;37:44–51.280
6. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP. Predictors of treatment outcome in sexually abused children. Child Abuse
Negl 2000;24:983–94.583
7. Coleman H, Jenson JM. A longitudinal investigation of delinquency among abused and behavior problem
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8. Collado C, Levine P. Reducing transfers of children in family foster care through onsite mental health
interventions. Child Welfare 2007;86:133–50.585
9. Currier LL, Wurtele SK. A pilot study of previously abused and non-sexually abused children’s
responses to a personal safety program. J Child Sex Abuse 1996;5:71–87.586
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17. Howes C, Ritchie S. Changes in child–teacher relationships in a therapeutic preschool program.

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415
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40. Kolko DJ. Individual cognitive behavioral treatment and family therapy for physically abused children
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420
Appendix 5 Types of interventions

W e identified therapies according to 10 different therapeutic approaches, as summarised below.
Detailed descriptions of each approach are also provided.
Cognitive–behavioural therapies:
l cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT)

l behavioural therapies
l modelling and skills training
l trauma-focused CBT (TF-CBT)
l eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR).
Relationship-based interventions (RBIs):
l attachment-orientated interventions
l Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC)
l parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT)
l parenting interventions
l dyadic developmental psychotherapy (DDP).
Systemic interventions:
l systemic family therapy (FT)

l transtheoretical intervention
l multisystemic FT
l multigroup FT
l family-based programme.
Psychoeducation
Psychotherapy (unspecified)
Counselling
Peer mentoring
Intensive service models:
l treatment foster care

l therapeutic residential/day care
l co-ordinated care.
l arts therapy
l play/activity interventions
l animal therapy.
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APPENDIX 5
Cognitive–behavioural therapies
Cognitive–behavioural therapies are a group of interventions that draw on a number of theories of

learning, both to account for, and address a range of, emotional, psychological and behavioural problems.
They have a wide application, ranging from addressing health and mental health problems to more
interpersonal and social problems, such as social skills deficits and delinquency. As such, they have
considerable relevance to the problems associated with child maltreatment. Before describing the core
features of a cognitive–behavioural approach, we briefly describe the therapeutic approaches associated
with earlier behavioural and social learning theories, as these continue to form important components of
complex cognitive–behavioural interventions.
Behavioural therapies
The earliest interventions were essentially behavioural, drawing on operant (instrumental) and classical
(respondent) conditioning paradigms of learning, associated, respectively, with BF Skinner and I Pavlov.
Operant conditioning focuses on how behaviour changes with changes in the environment, as when a
child’s antisocial behaviour increases as a result of adult attention (reinforcement). Classical conditioning
focuses on associative learning, whereby a person learns to respond in a particular way (e.g. becoming
anxious) to a neutral stimulus (e.g. a place) by dint of the pairing of the neutral stimulus with a traumatic
event (e.g. sexual assault, humiliation).
Although now rarely viewed as adequate conceptualisations of human behaviour, operant and classical
conditioning continue to inform the interventions required to address complex social and psychological
problems, such as those associated with child maltreatment. Strategies drawing on both operant
and classical conditioning are used in psychosocial treatments. The most commonly used classical or
respondent-based technique is relaxation training. Children are trained to relax in the face of a hitherto
stressful stimulus (e.g. a memory of sexual abuse) either as a way of neutralising the impact of the stimulus
(where it forms part of an exposure therapy) or as the means of providing an opportunity to practise other
ways of coping, such as ‘reframing’ (locating the responsibility for the maltreatment with the perpetrator
rather than blaming themselves; practising positive self-talk). Some of the included studies evaluate
a purely respondent approach to anxiety management. Operant techniques, such as differential
reinforcement (essentially ensuring unwanted behaviour is not reinforced and positively reinforcing
prosocial or wanted behaviour) form an important part of interventions that are designed to address the
behavioural problems that are often associated with maltreatment, particularly for younger infants
and children.
Modelling and skills training

Social learning theory224,241 recognises that we are not simply the product of our environments: we do not
simply respond to stimuli – we interpret them. What we think influences what we do and how we respond
to other people and events, and our experiences lead us to expect certain outcomes from certain courses
of action under certain circumstances. Furthermore, a large proportion of our behavioural repertoire
(e.g. our social skills, our ability to problem solve) comes not from simple respondent or operant processes,
but by learning from others. We learn how to do things and how to behave by watching other people or
via processes of vicarious learning (e.g. by books or verbal instruction). Reinforcement will play a part in
determining whether or not we adopt or use certain responses, and some may find it difficult to manage
particular situations if they have not had the opportunity to develop the appropriate skills, including
social skills. Social learning theory informs our understanding of how certain forms of maltreatment
may be associated with the certain outcomes, for example in understanding how witnessing intimate
partner violence can exert a ‘modelling effect’ on children, particularly boys, which – in the absence of
opportunities to learn alternate ways of managing conflict or frustration (for example) – can lead to
intergenerational cycles of violence.778 The understanding of the importance of modelling and behaviour
rehearsal (with feedback and positive reinforcement) is used to inform a number of psychosocial therapies
that aim to help individuals find more adaptive ways of responding to situations.
422
Cognitive–behavioural therapies
In contrast with traditional learning theory, cognitive theories afford the mind a central role in
understanding behaviour, and in developing interventions designed to address psychosocial problems.
Unlike the behaviour therapies, which emerged from laboratory-based experiments, cognitive therapies
developed from clinical practice, largely in the field of depression, and thus predated the empirical data
that have subsequently accrued. For example, Beck 1979779 argued that depression resulted from the
reciprocal interaction of three things: a negative way of viewing oneself, one’s situation and one’s
prospects (cognitive triad), rigid ways of thinking about the world (schema) that often develop early in life
or based on the interpretation of prior experience, and which result in negative, automatic thoughts, and
biased and erroneous thinking (faulty information processing). It is thought that children who have
experienced maltreatment may well develop unhelpful ways of thinking about themselves, their situation
and their prospects, which may cause them difficulties or prevent them overcoming associated problems.
For example, children who have been maltreated may well blame themselves for what has happened to
them; they may have internalised a negative self-image; they may have ‘learned’ that nothing they do can
bring about a sought-after outcome (to be loved, thought well of), resulting in poor self-efficacy or indeed
depression. Many of the psychosocial interventions designed to address the problems experienced by
maltreated children are concerned to influence these cognitive sequelae. Cognitive–behavioural therapies
seek to do so quite directly by helping individuals to identify maladaptive beliefs and ways of thinking, to
challenge them (reality testing) and to replace them with more realistic and positive ways of thinking.
Trauma-focused cognitive–behavioural therapy

Trauma-focused CBT (TF-CBT) is a manualised intervention developed by Cohen, Mannarino and
Deblinger.267 TF-CBT directly addresses traumatic symptoms, alongside other components that are typical
of CBT interventions, such as coping skill training and symptom management, cognitive restructuring and
gradual exposure. However, key differences are a greater focus on graded exposure, creating an
appropriate account of the trauma [a trauma narrative (TN)] and cognitive processing of experiences. This
focus builds on findings from research that support a model of trauma in which traumatic memories and
related symptoms are maintained by cognitive biases and avoidance strategies. The TN component aims to
address this in order to reduce symptomology and process traumatic memories.100 TF-CBT combines joint
child–parent sessions and individual sessions for both child and non-offending parents. Parent involvement
provides opportunities to address misperceptions and to validate parental reactions to their child’s
traumatic experiences, to train parents to support their child’s therapeutic work and to provide a
supportive environment at home (e.g. the studies by Cohen et al.95,96 and Cohen and Mannarino93).
Eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing

We identified two controlled studies (both randomised trials) of EMDR. EMDR is a manualised intervention
developed by Shapiro et al.690 Because its core features combine strategies from the learning theories
outlines above, we have included it in the group of cognitive–behavioural interventions. EMDR involves the
identification and processing of traumatic memories using bilateral stimulation, desensitisation through
imaginal exposure, and challenging and replacing maladaptive beliefs about the trauma. The information
processing model suggests that this helps to process traumatic memories into long-term memory, thereby
reducing trauma-related symptoms, such as hypervigilance, as well as replacing unhelpful beliefs, related to
the trauma, with more adaptive ones.120
Attachment-orientated Interventions
Attachment describes an infant’s strong disposition ‘to seek proximity to and contact with a specific figure
and to do so in certain situations, notably when . . . frightened, tired, or ill’.780 It is a behavioural system that is
a product of human evolution, designed to trigger protection in the face of perceived danger and to alleviate
its associated response, fear. Most infants develop an attachment to their primary carers, and, for most
infants, the relationship with the mother is the first intimate relationship in which they engage. From these
423
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attachment relationships children start to form a sense of who they are, what they can expect from others,
and what behaviour it is useful or dangerous to engage in. Infants whose primary carer provides sensitive
and responsive care develop what is called a secure attachment. Carer sensitivity and responsiveness to
their infant’s needs helps to ‘shape their physiological regulation and biobehavioral patterns of response’
(p. 624),123 and, as infants develop a secure attachment (sometime towards the end of their first year), they
use that attachment and associated feelings as a secure base from which to explore their worlds.
Emotional and physical neglect or abuse, and exposure to violence, can result in insecure attachments or
sometimes disorganised attachments, which, if unresolved, will contribute to a wide range of problems in later
development, including poor socioemotional development, self-regulation difficulties, maladaptive behaviour,
sleep disturbance, language delays, poor peer relationships, school underachievement, and psychopathology
and delinquency in later life.130,781,782 It has also been associated with a disturbed hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal
axis, which is important for self-regulation and stress management.124 Disorganised attachment styles develop
when children are emotionally and physically depending on someone who is also a source of fear and anxiety.
Unsurprisingly, disorganised attachments styles are prevalent among children living in families in which there is
child maltreatment, parental depression, parental history of loss or trauma, parental dissociation, parental
frightening behaviour or marital discord.783 The cascade of negative outcomes associated with a disturbed
attachment has been referred to as ‘toxic stress’.784
There is a sizeable literature focused on interventions that are designed to promote maternal sensitivity
and responsiveness (see van Ijzendoorn et al.783). In this review, we included only those interventions
that specifically focused on families when maltreatment was deemed to be an issue. Although these
interventions might arguably also be viewed as secondary prevention (and therefore not appropriate for
this review), the nature of attachment is such that interventions designed to promote secure attachments
inevitably focus on the primary caregiver. Given the significant impact on subsequent development, these
interventions were judged to meet the inclusion criteria of a psychosocial intervention dealing with the
adverse consequences of maltreatment for children.
Attachment interventions generally involve caregiver–infant sessions, and aim to enhance parental
sensitivity to emotional and behavioural cues in order to improve a child’s attachment security (e.g. Moss
et al.130). This may involve child development training, parenting skills, coping strategies, developing social
support networks, enhancing the caregiver’s capacity to provide safety, child–caregiver joint narrative of
trauma experiences, addressing negative maternal representational models in the parent–child interaction,
providing a corrective emotional experience for caregivers or addressing a caregiver’s own attachment
difficulties stemming from childhood.123,124,127–130 In attachment-based interventions, the focus of the
intervention is not the caregiver or the child but rather the caregiver–child relationship.785 This relationship
is used as a vehicle to address a child’s emotional, cognitive and social functioning difficulties.127–129
Attachment and biobehavioral catch-up

Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC) is informed by both attachment theory780 and neurobiology.125,126
ABC focuses specifically on disorganised attachment styles, which are associated with frightening or frightened
parental behaviour rather than purely a lack of attunement or insensitivity by the parent.122 This form of
attachment has been found to mediate disrupted maternal behaviour and children’s behavioural difficulties
and dysregulation.786 Children’s behavioural level and biobehavioural level dysregulation is characterised by
externalising behaviour problems, conduct difficulties and disrupted cortisol patterns (which are associated with
stress reactivity).125,126
Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up (ABC) is a manualised didactic intervention which was designed to
decrease parental frightening behaviour and increase parental sensitivity.787 In contrast with more general
attachment-based interventions, the focus of ABC is on parental behaviour change rather than changing
parental internal representations.122 The aim of the intervention is to help children learn self-regulatory skills by
changing the way parents interpret their children’s behaviour, over-riding their own issues that interfere with
their caregiving and providing an enabling environment for developing self-regulation skills.125,126
424

Parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT) was developed by Sheila Eyberg.222 PCIT draws on the work of
Diana Baumrind (on parenting styles), as well as attachment theory and learning theory. In its original
form it was designed to help parents to establish a secure and nurturing relationships with their child,
and enhance prosocial behaviour while decreasing undesirable behaviour. Unlike parent training, PCIT
involves in vivo child–parent dyadic sessions in which parents are taught behaviour management
techniques, often being coached through a one-way mirror.138 To an extent, PCIT resembles a
behavioural version of play therapy [Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI)] and behavioural parent
training (parent-directed interaction).
Most studies of PCIT seek to minimise the risk of maltreatment or future maltreatment and secure
children’s well-being by promoting nurturing parenting and reducing those parental practices that have
been linked to maltreatment and attachment disorders, such as inappropriate discipline, coercive cycles of
behaviour and negative communication.137,788
Dyadic developmental psychotherapy

Dyadic developmental psychotherapy (DDP) is designed to address the impairments associated with
attachment disorders and complex childhood trauma.789,790 The intervention uses the child–therapist
relationship to establish a relational context in which the child can learn how to engage with, and benefit
from, relationships with others. The therapist seeks to establish a relationship that mirrors the general
principles characteristic of parent–child relationships that facilitate secure attachments, for example
attunement, reflecting back to the child his/her subjective experiences (including the trauma s/he has
experienced) and helping him/her to make sense of these ‘with acceptance, curiosity and empathy’. In the
same way that attachments develop as a result of experience (preverbally), DDP emphasises the importance
of healing experiences. In order to benefit from DDP, children need to be in a safe and secure environment
(at home or in substitute care) and parents (or carers) are active participants in the therapy, either being
with the child in the sessions or watching the therapy through a one-way mirror.791
Child–parent psychotherapy
Child–parent psychotherapy (CPP) is a home-based, manualised intervention provided on a weekly basis
for 1 year by trained master’s level therapists.124 It is described as a ‘supportive, non-directive, and
nondidactic’ intervention that ‘includes developmental guidance based on the mother’s concerns’
(p. 794).124 When children are aged ≤ 1 year, this therapy is referred to as Infant–Parent Psychotherapy;
when they are older, the intervention is called, alternately, Pre-School Parent Psychotherapy or
Toddler–Parent Psychotherapy.
In general, parent training interventions aim to change unhelpful or maladaptive parenting practices in
order to improve child development and well-being. As such, most parenting programmes that address
maltreatment are concerned with secondary prevention, but we found three studies114,139,140 with a specific
focus on improving outcomes for children who have been exposed to maltreatment, and these studies were
included. One study114 evaluated the effectiveness of a parenting programmes designed to help foster parents
and parents to co-parent children in foster care, with a view to ameliorating the child behaviour problems
associated with, and return the children to, the care of their biological parents. A second assessed the impact
of training maltreating mothers in elaborative and supportive reminiscing about positive and negative
everyday past events with young children, as a means of addressing multiple sequelae of maltreatment.140
The third specifically examined the impact of the Webster-Stratton IY programme on children’s autonomy, as
well as positive parenting, recognising that autonomy is an important subjective state and a critical behaviour
acquired in the early years, and which is related to the quality of parenting.139
425
APPENDIX 5
Systems theory posits that individuals are embedded in, and influenced by, a number of interacting
systems, including – most importantly – the family. Within systems theory, the problems affecting an
individual are conceptualised as a function of the relationships and patterns of interaction that surround
him or her, with the resulting implication that effective interventions necessitate locating individual
problems within that context and – in many circumstances – directing intervention at the family, rather
than simply the individual. Systemic analyses can also be applied to other social systems, such as wider
family networks, groups or organisations. Given the inclusion criteria, systemic interventions were included
only when they directly focused on ameliorating the consequences of maltreatment for the children in the
family (as opposed to halting it and creating a supportive family system that was capable of promoting
optimal child development).

There are many forms of FT,792 most of which are informed primarily by structural family systems theory793
and drawing on a wide range of techniques from other interventions, such as CBT. This can make
assessing its effectiveness quite challenging, as some forms of therapy are essentially systems-focused
cognitive–behavioural interventions.
Multisystemic therapy (MST) is a short-term, multifaceted intervention for children and young people with
serous psychosocial and behavioural problems. It differs from FT in that it includes a combination of
multiple systems in the treatment focus, such as family, peers, school, neighbourhood or community.
Consistent with social ecological theories of human development, this broader focus is based on the view
of the programme developers – that children’s difficulties are caused and maintained by multiple factors
within these systems and their interaction. The intervention therefore focuses on identifying and targeting
these factors in order to reduce symptoms and distress142,794 and promote health.
Psychoeducational interventions
At the heart of psychoeducational interventions is the view that helping people to understand how their
problems have arisen and how they are maintained is an important first step in empowering them to
address those problems. Information or education is therefore at the heart of psychoeducational
interventions. It may include information about available resources that people might access and direct
instruction on coping strategies or change strategies. The educational component is often combined with
other activities designed to support change, and psychoeducational interventions are often run in group
formats in order to enable the modelling of acceptable behaviour, modifying of inappropriate behaviour
and the development of social competencies.152
Group psychotherapies (or therapeutic groups) are interventions in which the group format is central.
The group itself is deemed to be ‘therapeutic’, providing a number of essential components, such as a
feeling of universality, reducing isolation, extending social networks, social skills practice, healthy
relationship building170 and normalising.171
The interventions’ group content includes psychoeducation, as well as skills training and experiential learning.
This may include assertiveness training, narrative therapeutic activities, such as storytelling169 or body image
and self-esteem enhancement.170 Many of these interventions are based on social learning theory.169
426
Common to all psychotherapeutic interventions that address individual, familial and community-level
issues, is a non-judgemental, insight-orientated approach with a strong focus on the therapeutic alliance795
and dynamic relational processes with therapists or group members. Using these processes to work
through past and current relationships, losses and disruptions, is thought to address underlying
psychological processes in relation to traumatisation and to enable long-term change.155 Many the
studies we identified provided only very general descriptions of these talking-based therapies (such as
‘psychotherapy’ or ‘counselling’), often with little or no information on the underpinning theory of the
approach used.
Peer mentoring
Peer mentoring aims to help those children whose social functioning has been adversely affected by
maltreatment to acquire key developmental skills, namely the ability to form and maintain effective peer
relationships. Maltreated peers with high levels of prosocial behaviour are paired with withdrawn
maltreated children and trained to involve them in their play.
Intensive service provision
Treatment foster care

Enhanced Foster Care is designed specifically to meet the developmental, social and emotional needs of
children in foster care with particularly challenging behaviour. A multidisciplinary team works with specially
trained foster parents to reduce behavioural difficulties, increase regulatory abilities and increase a young
person’s secure attachment-related behaviour through a consistent and predictable environment. It
involves high rates of positive reinforcement for desirable behaviours, clear limit setting, 24-hour crisis
intervention for foster parents, support groups for foster parents, group therapeutic support for children
and FT for relationships with biological family.183
Therapeutic residential/day care

Like milieu therapy, therapeutic residential care entails creating a nurturing, stable and consistent
environment and a predictable routine for children and young people who need specialist help, and whose
problems make it difficult to provide that help in any other way. Indeed, for some maltreated children
their experiences of maltreatment, combined with adverse care experiences, may mean they cannot be
managed in substitute home-based care settings, such as adoption and fostering. A variety of specific
interventions are used in the therapeutic residential care studies included in this review, among which are
therapeutic parenting, life story work,553 trauma-focused psychological therapy,551 addressing cognitive
distortions, improving impulse control, social skills training, risk management, sex education and behaviour
modification,557 as well as preparation for independence for older adolescents.562
Therapeutic day programmes aim to meet the developmental needs of children in terms of fine motor,
language, and social and emotional skills.559 Therapeutic day programmes are held in classroom
environments and usually run intensively over numerous full days per week. The programmes can include
milieu therapy (see below), developmentally appropriate play and activities, structured interaction,
individual and parent counselling, and education services, within a psychologically safe environment that is
consistent and predictable.195,196,558,563
Milieu therapy is a therapeutically planned approach to a residential or day-care environment that is

designed to provide a safe environment in which adults can assist children to address the consequences of
maltreatment. Safety, containment, structure, support, involvement and validation are key therapeutic
activities. Like therapeutic communities (the terms are sometimes used interchangeably), the aim is to
427
APPENDIX 5
provide a safe, nurturing environment that can engage the ‘whole child’ in processes of psychological
change. Through multiple and repeated experiences that are carefully controlled (safe), children can learn
about their behaviour and how to discuss distressing feelings and find alternative ways of expressing these.
They can develop their self-esteem, learn to trust others, and learn to negotiate relationships and to
acquire problem-solving skills. Milieu therapy draws on a range of theoretical frameworks, including
attachment theory and object relations theory. Staff use their understanding of transference and
countertransference to identify how a child’s feelings and behaviour towards others reflect those with
parents, siblings and significant others in their lives, and use this to facilitate change.
Co-ordinated care
Co-ordinated care refers to interventions designed to provide a single point of entry to services, combined
with a seamless system of service delivery. It has much in common with initiatives designed to improve
interagency working. It is designed to address some of the weaknesses that are inherent in a reliance
solely on case management.
Arts therapy
Children who have been maltreated can find it difficult to verbalise their experience, and may feel
intimidated by the therapeutic environment and overwhelmed by the verbalisation of abuse experiences.
Using a variety of media – such as paint, clay, photos, poems, storytelling or music – arts-based therapies
are thought to help facilitate the non-verbal and verbal expression of thoughts, feelings and life narratives.
In this way, arts can provide a non-verbal medium for therapeutic communication and cognitive processing
for children for whom verbal forms of therapy are not possible. It can help to bridge the gap between the
internal world and the limitations of verbal language, particularly in latency age children,199 and provide a
mode of communication for children who are unwilling or unable to talk about what has happened
to them.200
Play/activity interventions
Play or activity interventions, depending on the age of the target population, are based on the premise
that play and activity are vital for healthy development. Play therapy views play as a ‘natural medium in
which children express themselves’ (p. 28).576 It therefore provides a way to communicate complex ideas
that would be otherwise difficult, through verbal means and helps children make sense of their internal
and external worlds.576 Furthermore, deficits in imaginative play have been observed in children who have
experienced maltreatment that have been negatively associated with positive affect, peer interaction and
problem-solving.203 Activity-based interventions, such as sports or game based interventions, view activity
as an appropriate medium for adolescents because it is more enjoyable than one-to-one office-based
therapy, requires the development of social skills and peer relations, has physiological benefits through
physical exercise and requires cognitive skills, such as impulse inhibition and planning.201
Interventions included under this category are those identified by the author as imaginative play training,
challenge/initiative games and the sports-based intervention ‘Do the Good’.
Animal therapy
Animal therapy (or animal-assisted therapy) uses animals as part of the therapeutic process. Animals
(from dogs through to horses) are used to assist with the therapeutic process and strengthen treatment
strategies. They are thought to aid the therapeutic environment through the provision of warmth,
acceptance, empathy and unconditional love.204 Animal therapy is based on research that has found that
the presence of animals has improved the communication skills of children participating in therapy,
lowered anxiety while undergoing therapy and improved motivation for therapy, as well providing
opportunities to teach boundaries and appropriate touch in maltreated populations.205
428
Appendix 6 List of databases searched,

with dates
Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) Issue 4 of 12 April 2014
Ovid MEDLINE 1946 to May Week 3 2014
EMBASE (Ovid) 1980 TO 2014 Week 21
Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL Plus) 1937 to current
(EBSCOhost)
PsycINFO (Ovid) 1967 to May Week 4 2014
Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE) and Social Sciences Citation Index 1970 to 28 May 2014
(SSCI) (Web of Science)
Social Care Online All available years
Social Services Abstracts (ProQuest) 1979 to current
Education Resources Information Centre (ERIC) (ProQuest) 1966 to current
British Education Index (ProQuest) 1975 to current

Australian Education Index (ProQuest) 1977 to current
Health Technology Assessment (HTA) database Issue 2 of 4, 2014
Health Management Information (HMIC) Consortium (Ovid) 1979 to March 2014
Trials Register of Promoting Health Interventions (TRoPHI) All available years
EconLit (EBSCOhost) 1886 to current
NHS Economic Evaluation Database (NHS EED) Issue 2 of 4, 2014
Health Economic Evaluations Database (HEED) All years

Paediatric Economic Database Evaluation (PEDE) 1980 to 2012
IDEAS All available years
The Campbell Library All available years
Database of Promoting Health Effectiveness Reviews (DoPHER) All available years
Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE) Issue 2 of 4 April 2014
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (CDSR) Issue 5 of 12 May 2014
429
Appendix 7 Other searches

Resource Website Searcher
1. Mental Health Foundation www.mentalhealth.org.uk/ DG
2. Barnardo’s www.barnardos.org.uk/ NW
3. Carers UK www.carersuk.org/ GM
4. ChildLine www.childline.org.uk NL
5. Children’s Society www.childrenssociety.org.uk/ RC
6. Depression Alliance www.depressionalliance.org/ RCh
7. MIND www.mind.org.uk/ HF
8. Anxiety UK www.anxietyuk.org.uk/ NL
9. NSPCC www.nspcc.org.uk/ RC
10. Princess Royal Trust for Carers www.carers.org/ NL
11. SANE www.sane.org.uk/ NL
12. The Site www.thesite.org/ NL

13. Turning Point www.turning-point.co.uk/ MC
14. Young Minds www.youngminds.org.uk/ SB
15. National Child Traumatic Stress Network www.nctsn.org/ NL
16. OpenGrey www.opengrey.eu/ SA
17. Google www.google.com All
431
Appendix 8 Checklist: quality of data within

economic evaluations
Drummond’s checklist for the critical appraisal of
economic evaluations
1 Was a well-defined question posed in answerable form?

1.1 Did the study examine both costs and effects of the service(s) or programme(s)?
1.2 Did the study involve a comparison of alternatives?
1.3 Was a viewpoint for the analysis stated and was the study placed in any particular decision-
making context?
2 Was a comprehensive description of the competing alternatives given (i.e. can you tell who,
did what, to whom, where and how often)?
2.1 Were any important alternatives omitted?
2.2 Was (Should) a do-nothing alternative (be) considered?
3 Was the effectiveness of the programmes or services established?
3.1 Was this done through a randomised controlled clinical trial? If so, did the study protocol reflect what
would happen in regular practice?
3.2 Was effectiveness established through an overview of clinical studies (systematic review/
meta-analysis)?
3.3 Were observational data or assumptions used to establish effectiveness? If so, what are the potential
biases in results?
4 Were all the important and relevant costs and consequences for each alternative identified?
4.1 Was the range wide enough for the research question at hand?
4.2 Did it cover all relevant viewpoints? (possible viewpoints include the community or social viewpoint,
and those of patients and third-party payers)
4.3 Were capital costs, as well as operating costs, included?
5 Were costs and consequences measured accurately in appropriate physical units (e.g. hours of
nursing time, number of physician visits, lost work days, gained life-years)?
5.1 Were any of the identified items omitted from measurement? If so, does this mean that they carried
no weight in the subsequent analysis?
5.2 Were there any special circumstances (e.g. joint use of resources) that made measurement difficult?
Were these circumstances handled appropriately?
6 Were costs and consequences valued credibly?
6.1 Were the sources of all values clearly identified? (possible sources include market values, patient
preferences and views, policy-makers’ views and health professionals’ judgements)
6.2 Were market values employed for changes involving resources gained or depleted?
6.3 Where market values were absent (e.g. volunteer labour), or market values did not reflect actual
values (such as clinic space donated at a reduced rate), were adjustments made to approximate
market values?
6.4 Was the valuation of consequences appropriate for the question posed (i.e. has the appropriate type
or types of analysis – cost-effectiveness, cost–benefit, cost–utility – been selected)?
7 Were costs and consequences adjusted for differential timing?
7.1 Were costs and consequences that occur in the future ‘discounted’ to their present values?
7.2 Was any justification given for the discount rate used?
433
APPENDIX 8
8 Was an incremental analysis of costs and consequences of alternatives performed?

8.1 Were the additional (incremental) costs generated by one alternative over another compared with the
additional effects, benefits, or utilities generated?
9 Was allowance made for uncertainty in the estimates of costs and consequences?
9.1 If data on costs or consequences were stochastic, were appropriate statistical analyses performed?
9.2 If a sensitivity analysis was employed, was justification provided for the ranges of values (for key
study parameters)?
9.3 Were study results sensitive to changes in the values (within the assumed range for sensitivity analysis,
or within the CI around the ratio of costs to outcomes)?
10 Did the presentation and discussion of study results include all issues of concern to users?
10.1 Were the conclusions of the analysis based on some overall index or ratio of costs to consequences
(e.g. cost-effectiveness ratio)? If so, was the index interpreted intelligently or in a mechanistic fashion?
10.2 Were the results compared with those of others who have investigated the same question?
If so, were allowances made for potential differences in study methodology?
10.3 Did the study discuss the generalisability (external validity) of the results to other settings and patient/
client groups?
10.4 Did the study allude to, or take account of, other important factors in the choice or decision under
consideration (e.g. distribution of costs and consequences, or ethical issues)?
10.5 Did the study discuss issues of implementation, such as the feasibility of adopting the ‘preferred’
programme given existing financial or other constraints, and whether any freed resources could be
redeployed to other worthwhile programmes?
434
Appendix 9 Outcome domains and

measures used
Primary outcome domains
Psychological distress/mental health
1. Adult Self-Esteem Profile (adapted from the ASEP).435

2. Anxiety Disorders interview Schedule DSM-IV.290
3. Avoidance Symptoms (Impact of Events Scale; IES).279
4. Bayley Scales of Infant Development.356,449
5. Beck Depression Inventory-Second Edition.272,332
6. Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scale (BERS).410
7. Brief Infant Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA).352
8. Child Attachment: Ainsworth Strange Situation Procedure.336
9. Child Dissociative Checklist.417,426
10. Child Post Traumatic Stress Reaction Index French version).416
11. Child post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Symptom Scale – Interview.287
12. Child PTSD Symptom Scale.286
13. Child Report of Post-traumatic Symptoms (CROPS).288
14. Child Witness to Violence Questionnaire (CWVQ).156
15. Childhood Trauma Questionnaire.796
16. Children’s Apperception Test.478
17. Children’s Attributions and Perceptions Scale (CAPS).270
18. CDI.258,430
19. Children’s Impact of Traumatic Events Scale (Wolfe and Gentile, 1991, unpublished). Children’s Impact
of Traumatic Events Scale-Revised (CITES-R; Wolfe and Gentile, 1991).414
20. Children’s Knowledge of Abuse Questionnaire (CKAQ).411
21. Clinician Administered PTSD Scale for Children and Adolescents (CAPS-CA).305
22. Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory.436
23. Cortisol.
24. Difficulties with Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS).446
25. Early Intervention Developmental Profile.465,466
26. Emotional Regulation Bayley-III.354
27. Expectations Test.327
28. Family Environment Scale (FES).372,375,710
29. Family Inventory of Life Events and Changes.373
30. Fear Survey Schedule for Children-Revised.255
31. Fear Thermometer for Sexually Abused Children.291
32. General Health Questionnaire (GHQ and GHQ-28).434,740
33. Global functioning (Children’s Global Assessment Scale, CGAS).261
34. Global Severity Index of the Brief Symptom Inventory.380
35. Health of the Nation Outcome Scales for Children and Adolescents.382
36. IES.279,303
37. Impact of Events Scale (intrusive thoughts and avoidant thoughts; IES).279
38. Intrusive Symptoms (Memories) (IES).268,303
39. Kiddie Schedule for Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders (KSADS).268,797
40. Lifetime Incidence of Traumatic Events.288,329,330
41. McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities.285
42. Mood and Feelings Questionnaire.694
435
APPENDIX 9
43. Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children.283

44. Number of placement changes.
45. Offer Self-Image Questionnaire-Revised.440
46. Parental Support Questionnaire (PSQ).273
47. Penn Inventory for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.334
48. Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance Scale.467
49. Piers–Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale.475
50. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Interview.331
51. Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale.397
52. Preschool Symptom Self-report.263
53. PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version.348,479
54. PTSD Subscale.295
55. Randolph Attachment Disorder Questionnaire.364
56. Reabuse/Abuse.
57. Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS).256
58. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.404
59. Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC; 8- to 12-year-old version).413
60. SPPC.413
61. Self-Perception Profiles for Children and Adolescents (adapted).448
62. Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS).798
63. SDS.798
64. Self-representation scores (MacArthur Narrative Coding Manual-Rochester Revision, Robinson,
Mantz-Simmons and Macfie, 1996, unpublished).
65. Self–Other Four Immeasurables Scale (SOFI).444
66. Semistructured Interview for Diagnostic Classification.343
67. Sexual Abuse Fear Evaluation (SAFE) scale (Wolfe VV, Wolfe DA. University of Western Ontorio,
London, ON, 1989, unpublished questionnaire).
68. Shame Questionnaire (Feiring).284
69. Short Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale.369
70. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children.799
71. Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ).308
72. Subjective wellbeing.
73. Symptom Checklist-90.380,741
74. Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (Roid).335
75. The Preschool Separation–Reunion Procedure unpublished.
76. The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders.106
77. Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC).325,383,415,452,473,800
78. Treatment Outcome Questionnaire.142
79. University of California Los Angeles PTSD Index for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders.374
Behaviour (particularly internalising and externalizing behaviours)
1. Attitudes About Family Violence (AAFV).394

2. Bayley Infant Behavior Record.451
4. Behavior Assessment System for Children.365
5. Behavior Problem Checklist.438
6. Behavior Problem Checklist-Revised.438
7. BERS.410
8. Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development.456
9. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL).257,260,269,294,297,309,344,349,353,418,706,707,720,724,736
10. Child Behaviour Characteristics Questionnaire (Mother’s perceptions of child’s behaviour).
436
11. Child Sexual Behavior Inventory (CSBI).259,324,734

12. Children’s Action Tendency Scale.385
13. CAPS.270
14. Cognitive Mediators of Aggression Questionnaire.427
15. Conflict Tactics Scale.398,743
16. Early Childhood Inventory (behaviour problems).462
17. ECI.462
18. Early Intervention Developmental Profile465,466
19. Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory.310,439
20. Functional Assessment of Self-Mutilation.443
21. Global functioning (KGAS).405
22. Hostility (Children’s Hostility Inventory).301
23. Inventory of Callous and Unemotional Traits-Parent Report.447
25. Miller Behaviour Style Scale.277
26. Parent and Therapist Perceptions of Adjustment (devised by author).119
27. Parent Daily Report.458
28. Parent, social worker and self-report of problem/delinquent behaviours.
29. Positive Social Behavior (Observational Coding).453,454
30. Preschool Behavior Questionnaire.455
31. Risky Sexual Behaviour (n sexual partners in previous 3 months plus any diagnosis of
sexually transmitted infection).
32. Rutter Teacher Scale.289
33. Self-Injurious Behavior Questionnaire (Sadovsky, unpublished).
34. Semi-Structured Interview for Diagnostic Classification DC: 0-3 for Clinicians, Traumatic
Stress Disorder.343
35. Shapiro Control Inventory (SCI).428
36. Social Behavior Inventory (SBI).327
37. SDQ.308
38. Sutter–Eyberg Student Behaviour Inventory-Revised.311
39. Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (Post traumatic symptom scale).278
40. Visual analogue scales (used to gauge improvement).116
41. Weekly Behaviour Record.91
42. Youth Outcomes Questionnaire.424
Social functioning, including attachment and relationships with family

and others
1. Adolescent Interpersonal Competence Questionnaire (AICQ).409

3. BITSEA.352
4. Child’s Attitude to Mother (CAM) and Child’s Attitude to Father (CAF) questionnaires.422
5. CAPS.270
6. Children’s Global Assessment Scale.261
7. CHI.301
8. Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory (CADRI).407
9. Dyadic Parent–Child Interaction Coding System II (DPICS-II).701,702,801
11. Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scale II.389
12. Family Assessment Device.711
13. Family Assessment Form (FAF).390
14. FES (Cohesion and Conflict Subscales).372,375,710
437
APPENDIX 9
15. Family Relations Test.739

16. Friendship Questionnaire.300
17. Global Assessment Functioning Scale, APA 1987.296
18. Global functioning (KGAS).261
19. Index of Peer Relations.386
20. Indicator of Parent-Child Interaction.351
21. Interactive peer play observational coding system.181
22. KSADS.268,797
23. Level of Moral Reasoning.429
25. Parent Attachment Diary.697
26. Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC).302
27. Parenting Social Support Index.387
28. Peer Play Interactive Checklist (PPIC).457
29. Personal Safety Questionnaire.412
30. Preschool Social Skills Rating System (SSRS).144
31. Randolf Attachment Disorder Questionnaire.364
32. SCI.428
33. Sibling Interaction Quality (unpublished).
34. SBI.327
35. Social Competence Scale (Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group).395
36. SSRS (Parent functioning).379
37. Social Support Factor Score [derived from principal components factor analysis of scales scores from
‘The People in My Life-Short Form’].460
38. Social Support Questionnaire.281
39. SDQ.308
40. Toddler-Attachment Sort-45.350
41. ‘What If’ Situations Test.276
Cognitive/academic attainment
1. Anatomy/Physiology Sexual Awareness Scale.173

3. CBCL – Youth Self-Report and Profile.260,269,297,418
4. Cognitive Mediators of Aggression Questionnaire.427
6. Global functioning (KGAS).261,405
7. Guilford’s Unusual Uses Test.477
9. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Third Edition.441
10. Problem-Solving Inventory.388
11. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised.363
Quality of life
1. Life Satisfaction Survey.402
438
Secondary outcome domains
Substance misuse
1. Addiction Severity Index.384,681

2. Indexes of drug/alcohol use.
3. Short Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test.802
4. Time Line Follow Back Interview.376
5. Urine tests.
6. Winters Personal Experience Screening Questionnaire.463
Delinquency
1. Juvenile and court reports.

2. Parent, social worker and self-report of problem/delinquent behaviours.
Resilience
1. Children’s Hope Scale.445

2. Coping Questionnaire for Sexually Abused Children.103
3. Coping Scales Inventory (Positive and Negative Coping scales).459
4. Coping with stressful life events (ask participants to rate their perception of coping with daily life on a
five-point Likert scale).
5. Empowerment Scale (23-item).421
6. Self-Report Coping Scale.425
7. Ways of Coping Questionnaire.420
Acceptability
1. Brief Client Satisfaction Inventory.161

2. Child Feedback Questionnaire (developed by University of Manitoba to assess acceptability
of treatment).659
3. Client Satisfaction Questionnaire Treatment.321
4. Expectancy of Therapeutic Outcome for Adolescents (Enhanced Outpatient Treatment Assessment,
EOT-A).
5. Parent Feedback Questionnaire (developed by University of Manitoba to assess acceptability
of treatment).
6. PSQ.273
7. Treatment Evaluation Inventory.323
Other outcome domains
Parent/carer outcomes
1. Adult–Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI).340,709

2. Adults SSQ (Mothers).403
3. Alabama Parenting Questionnaire (Frick PJ, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, 1991, unpublished).
4. Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI).380
5. Child Abuse Potential Inventory (CAPI).366
6. Child Caregiver Interviewer Impressions Form (Parenting strategies).461
7. CAPS-CA.346
439
APPENDIX 9
8. DPICS-II.701,702,801
9. GHQ.434,738
10. Knowledge of child development (30-item).148,149
11. Life Stressor Checklist-Revised.345
12. Maternal Sensitivity: Maternal Behaviour Q-Set.339
13. Mother’s perceived quality of life (nine-item scale adapted from Andrews and Withey).402
14. Parent Daily Report (parental stress measure).458
15. Parent Emotional Reaction Questionnaire.273
16. Parenting Practices Questionnaire (PPQ).274
17. Parent Report of Post-traumatic Symptoms.288
18. CTSPC.302
19. Parental Attribution Scale.803
20. Parental Problem Solving.388
21. Parental Reaction to Incest Disclosure Scale.262
22. Parenting Daily Hassles Scale.319
23. Parenting Sense of Competence Scale.318
24. Parenting Stress Index.342,360,367,471,725
25. Perceptions of Adult Attachment Scale.338
26. Raising a Baby (Kelly JF, Korfmacher J. University of Washington, Seattle, WA, unpublished).
27. Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS-R).398
28. The Conflict Checklist.370
29. The Parent Feedback Questionnaire (developed by University of Manitoba to assess acceptability
of treatment).
30. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory (Mothers’ self-esteem).404
31. This Is My Baby.359
32. Treatment Evaluation Inventory.323
33. A subscale of the Emotional Availability Scales.368
Placement stability
1. Expression of feelings questionnaire.315

2. FAF-modified.390
3. Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment.464
Other
1. AAFV (Frederick, Pynoos and Nader,1992, unpublished).

2. CWVQ (unreferenced).
3. CKAQ.411
4. Expectancy of Therapeutic outcomes for Adolescents (EOT-A).
5. Severity of Violence against Women Scales.393
6. STI.
440
Appendix 10 Risk-of-bias graphs for included

randomised trials
441
442
APPENDIX 10
Random sequence generation (selection bias)

Allocation concealment (selection bias)
Blinding of participants and personnel (performance bias)

Low risk of bias
Blinding of outcome assessment (detection bias) Unclear risk of bias
High risk of bias
Incomplete outcome data (attrition bias)
Selective reporting (reporting bias)
Other bias
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
FIGURE 23 Risk-of-bias graph: cognitive–behavioural studies (sexual abuse).

Blinding of outcome assessment (detection bias)


Other bias
Berliner 199689 + + – – – ? +
Celano 199690 ? ? – + ? ? +
Cohen 199691,92 + ? – – – ? +
Cohen 199893,94 + ? – + + – +
Cohen 200495,96 ? ? – – + + +
+ Low risk of bias
Deblinger 199697,98 ? ? – – ? ? + ? Unclear risk of bias
– High risk of bias
Deblinger 200199 + ? – – ? ? +
Deblinger 2011100 ? ? – – + – +
Foa 2013101 ? + – + + + +
Jaberghaderi 2004102 ? ? – + – ? +
King 2000103 ? ? – – – ? +
FIGURE 24 Risk-of-bias summary: cognitive–behavioural studies (sexual abuse).
443
444
APPENDIX 10


Low risk of bias
High risk of bias
Other bias
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
FIGURE 25 Risk-of-bias graph: cognitive–behavioural studies (physical abuse).



Other bias
Kolko 1996107,108 + ? – + – ? +
+ Low risk of bias
Lesure-Lester 2002106 ? – – – + + – ? Unclear risk of bias
Runyon 2010109 + + – ? – ? +
FIGURE 26 Risk-of-bias summary: cognitive–behavioural studies (physical abuse).
445
446
APPENDIX 10


Low risk of bias
High risk of bias
Other bias
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
FIGURE 27 Risk-of-bias graph: cognitive–behavioural studies (multiple abuse).



Other bias
Champion 2012110 ? ? – + – ? +
Church 2014111 ? ? – + + ? +
Farkas 2010120 ? ? – – – ? +
Jensen 2014112 + ? – + + + +
+ Low risk of bias
Linares 2006114 ? ? – + + ? + ? Unclear risk of bias
Linares 2012115 ? ? – + + ? +
Rushton 2010116 + ? – – + + +
Scheck 1998121 + ? – – – ? +
Shirk 2014117 ? ? – ? + ? +
FIGURE 28 Risk-of-bias summary: cognitive–behavioural studies (multiple abuse).
447
448
APPENDIX 10


Low risk of bias
High risk of bias
Other bias
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
FIGURE 29 Risk-of-bias graph: RBIs.



Other bias
Bernard 2012122 ? ? ? + + ? –
Chaffin 2004136 ? ? ? + + ? +
Cicchetti 2006123 ? ? + + + ? +
Cicchetti 2011124 ? ? ? + + ? +
Dozier 2006125,126 ? ? + + + – –
Hughes 2004139 + ? ? + + ? +
Lieberman 2005127–129 ? ? ? + + + +
+ Low risk of bias
Moss 2011130 ? ? ? + + ? + ? Unclear risk of bias
Spieker 2012131 + ? ? + + + +
Sprang 2009132 ? ? ? – + ? ?
Thomas 2011137 ? ? ? + + ? +
Thomas 2012138 ? ? ? + + ? +
Toth 2002133 ? ? ? + ? ? +
Valentino 2013140 ? ? ? + + ? +
FIGURE 30 Risk-of-bias summary: RBIs.
449
450
APPENDIX 10


Low risk of bias
High risk of bias
Other bias
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
FIGURE 31 Risk-of-bias graph: systemic interventions.



Other bias
Brunk 1987142 ? ? – + – – +
Danielson 2010143 + ? – – + + +
+ Low risk of bias

Kolko 1996107,108 + ? – – – ? +
? Unclear risk of bias
Linares 2015141 ? ? – + + ? +
Meezan 1998148,149 ? ? – – – – +
Swenson 2010144 + ? – – + – +
FIGURE 32 Risk-of-bias summary: systemic interventions.
451
452
APPENDIX 10


Low risk of bias
High risk of bias
Other bias
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
FIGURE 33 Risk-of-bias graph: psychoeducation.



Other bias
Graham-Bermann 2007151 + ? – – – ? –
Howell 2013152 + ? – – – ? +
Overbeek 2013153 ? ? – + + ? +
+ Low risk of bias
Sullivan 2002154 ? ? – – + ? – ? Unclear risk of bias
Trowell 2002155 ? ? – – + ? +
Wagar 1995156 ? ? – – – – +
Wolfe 2003157 ? ? – – – – +
FIGURE 34 Risk-of-bias summary: psychoeducation.
453
454
APPENDIX 10


Low risk of bias
High risk of bias
Other bias
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
FIGURE 35 Risk-of-bias graph: group work with children.



Other bias
+ Low risk of bias
Monck 1996169 + + ? – ? ? + ? Unclear risk of bias
FIGURE 36 Risk-of-bias summary: group work with children.
455
456
APPENDIX 10


Low risk of bias
High risk of bias
Other bias
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
FIGURE 37 Risk-of-bias graph: psychotherapy/counselling.



Other bias
Haight 2010175 ? ? – ? – ? +
+ Low risk of bias
Reddy 2013176 ? ? – ? ? ? +
Thun 2002174 ? ? – ? – ? +
Trowell 2002155 ? ? – – + ? +
FIGURE 38 Risk-of-bias summary: psychotherapy/counselling.
457
458
APPENDIX 10


Low risk of bias
High risk of bias
Other bias
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
FIGURE 39 Risk-of-bias graph: peer mentoring.



Other bias
+ Low risk of bias
Fantuzzo 1988181 ? ? ? + + ? +
Fantuzzo 1996182 ? ? + + + ? +
FIGURE 40 Risk-of-bias summary: peer mentoring.
459
460
APPENDIX 10


Low risk of bias
High risk of bias
Other bias
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
FIGURE 41 Risk-of-bias graph: intensive service models.



Other bias
Biehal 2012145,146 + ? – + + ? +
Fisher 2005183–188 ? ? – + + + –
? ? – – – ? + + Low risk of bias

Moore 1998194
Smith 2011189 + ? – + ? ? +
Swenson 2000198 + ? – – + ? ?
Taussig 2010190,191 ? ? – + + + +
FIGURE 42 Risk-of-bias summary: intensive service models.
461
462
APPENDIX 10


Low risk of bias
High risk of bias
Other bias
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
FIGURE 43 Risk-of-bias graph: activity-based interventions.



Other bias
+ Low risk of bias
McDonald 1989202 ? ? – – + ? –
Udwin 1983203 ? ? ? + + ? +
FIGURE 44 Risk-of-bias summary: activity-based interventions.
463
Appendix 11 Summary of findings:

cognitive–behavioural therapy for sexually
abused children
Cognitive–behavioural therapy compared with
non-cognitive–behavioural therapy-based alternatives for
children who have been sexually abused
Patient or population Patients with children who have been sexually abused.
Settings Health service/hospital, and community.
Intervention CBT [CBT interventions include group treatment approaches, Recovering from Abuse
Program, sexual abuse-specific CBT, and TF-CBT].
Comparison Non-CBT-based alternatives (non-CBT-based alternatives include non-directive supportive

therapy, CCT, standard community care and wait-list control).
465
466
APPENDIX 11
Illustrative comparative risksa (95% CI)
Assumed risk Corresponding risk Number of Quality of

participants the evidence
Outcomes Non-CBT-based alternatives CBT (studies) (GRADE) Comments
Child depression (CDI)

Short term (immediately after The mean child depression The mean child depression (CDI), 421 (five studiesc) ++– – lowd,e,f MD –2.83
treatment) (CDI), short-term (immediately short term (immediately after (95% CI –4.53
after treatment) ranged across treatment), in the intervention to –1.13)
CDI control groups from 7 to 15.5 groups was 2.83 lower (4.53 to
1.13 lower)b
Scale from 0 to 100
Intermediate term The mean child depression The mean child depression (CDI), 288 (four studiesc) ++– – lowd,f,g MD –1.76
(3–6 months after treatment) (CDI), intermediate term intermediate term (3–6 months (95% CI –3.33
(3–6 months after treatment) after treatment), in the to –0.20)
CDI in the control groups was intervention groups was
5.77–13.83 1.76 lower (3.33 to 0.2 lower)b
Scale from 0 to 100
Follow-up: 3–6 months
Long term (at least 1 year) The mean child depression (CDI), The mean child depression (CDI), 301 (four studiesc) ++– – lowd,f,g MD –1.42
Child Depression Inventory long term (at least 1 year) long term (at least 1 year), in the (95% CI –2.91
ranged across control groups intervention groups, was to 0.06)
CDI from 5.25 to 10.17 1.32 lower (2.84 lower to 0.19
higher)b
Scale from 0 to 100
Follow-up: 1 year

Child PTSD (various scales)

j
Short term (immediately after The mean child PTSD (various The mean child PTSD (various 442 (six studiesi) ++– – lowd,f, SMD –0.44

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
treatment) scales), short term (immediately scales), short term (immediately (95% CI –0.73
after treatment) ranged across after treatment), in the to –0.16)
Various scalesh control groups from 2.32 to intervention groups was 0.44 SDs
41.8 lower (0.73 to 0.16 lower)b
Intermediate term The mean child PTSD (various The mean child PTSD (various 327 (five studiesi) +– – – very SMD –0.39
(3–6 months after treatment) scales), intermediate term scales), intermediate term lowd,f,g,k (95% CI –0.74
(3–6 months after treatment) (3–6 months after treatment), in to –0.04)
Various scalesh ranged across control groups the intervention groups was 0.39
from 1.91 to 10.92 SDs lower (0.74 to 0.04 lower)b
Long term (at least 1 year) The mean child PTSD (various The mean child PTSD (various 246 (three studiesi) ++– – lowd,f,g SMD –0.38
various scalesh scales), long term (at least scales), long term (at least (95% CI –0.65
1 year) ranged across control 1 year), in the intervention to –0.11)
Follow-up: 1 year groups from 1.33 to 9.58 groups was 0.38 SDs lower
(0.65 to 0.11 lower)b
Child anxiety
Short term (immediately after The mean child anxiety, short The mean child anxiety, short 434 (five studies) +++ – SMD –0.23
treatment) term (immediately after term (immediately after moderated,f (95% CI –0.42
treatment) ranged across treatment), in the intervention to –0.03)
Various scalesl control groups from 12.8 to groups was 0.23 SDs lower
55.08 (0.42 to 0.03 lower)b
Intermediate term The mean child anxiety, The mean child anxiety, 296 (four studies) ++– – lowd,f,g SMD –0.38
(3–6 months after treatment) intermediate term (3–6 months intermediate term (3–6 months (95% CI –0.61
after treatment), ranged across after treatment), in the to –0.14)
Various scalesl control groups from 26.14 to intervention groups was 0.38 SDs
55.08 lower (0.61 to 0.14 lower)b
Long term (at least 1 year) The mean child anxiety, long The mean child anxiety, long 278 (four studies) ++– – lowd,f,g SMD –0.28
term (at least 1 year) ranged term (at least 1 year), in the (95% CI –0.52
Various scalesl across control groups from 12.4 intervention groups was 0.28 SDs to –0.04)
to 32.38 lower (0.52 to 0.04 lower)b
Follow-up: 1 years
467
468
APPENDIX 11


Child sexualised behaviour (CSBI)
Short term (immediately after The mean child sexualised The mean child sexualised 451 (five studies) ++– – lowd,f,m MD –0.65
treatment) behaviour (CSBI), short term behaviour (CSBI), short term (95% CI –3.53
(immediately after treatment) (immediately after treatment), to 2.24)
CSBI ranged across control groups in the intervention groups was
from 3.74 to 17.85 0.65 lower (3.53 lower to 2.24
higher)b
Intermediate term The mean child sexualised The mean child sexualised 133 (three studies) +– – – very MD –0.46
(3–6 months after treatment) behaviour (CSBI), intermediate behaviour (CSBI), intermediate lowd,f,g,n (95% CI –5.68
term (3–6 months after term (3–6 months after to 4.76)
CSBI treatment) ranged across treatment), in the intervention
control groups from 3.91 to groups was 0.46 lower
Follow-up: 3–6 months 16.78 (5.68 lower to 4.76 higher)b
Long term (at least 1 year) The mean child sexualised The mean child sexualised 161 (three studies) +– – – very MD –1.61
behaviour (CSBI), long term behaviour (CSBI), long term lowd,f,g,o (95% CI –5.72
CSBI (at least 1 year) ranged across (at least 1 year), in the to 2.49)
control groups from 7.5 to intervention groups was 1.61
Follow-up: 1 years 16.79 lower (5.72 lower to 2.49
higher)b
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690

Child externalising behaviour (CBCL Externalising)

Short term (immediately after The mean child externalising The mean child externalising 537 (seven studies) ++– – lowd,f,p SMD –0.12
treatment) behaviour (CBCL Externalising), behaviour (CBCL Externalising), (95% CI –0.4 to
short term (immediately after short term (immediately after 0.17)
CBCL treatment) ranged across treatment), in the intervention
control groups from 10.7 to groups was 0.12 SDs lower
59.04 (0.4 lower to 0.17 higher)b
Intermediate term The mean child externalising The mean child externalising 175 (four studies) ++– – lowd,f,g SMD –0.11
(3–6 months after treatment) behaviour (CBCL Externalising), behaviour (CBCL Externalising), (95% CI –0.42
intermediate term (3–6 months intermediate term (3–6 months to 0.21)
CBCL after treatment) ranged across after treatment), in the
control groups from 13.04 to intervention groups was
Follow-up: 3–6 months 65.44 0.11 SDs lower (0.42 lower to
0.21 higher)b
Long term (at least 1 year) The mean child externalising The mean child externalising 355 (five studies) ++– – lowd,f,g SMD 0.05
behaviour (CBCL Externalising), behaviour (CBCL Externalising), (95% CI –0.16
CBCL long term (at least 1 year) long term (at least 1 year) in the to 0.27)
ranged across control groups intervention groups, was 0.05
Follow-up: 1 year from 10.34 to 59.84 SDs higher (0.16 lower to 0.27
higher)b
469
470

APPENDIX 11
Parent’s belief of child
Short term (immediately after The mean parent’s belief of The mean parent’s belief of 211 (two studies) ++ – lowd,f,g SMD 0.3
treatment) child, short term (immediately child, short term (immediately (95% CI 0.03 to
after treatment) ranged across after treatment), in the 0.57)
q
Various scales control groups from 22.8 to intervention groups was 0.3 SDs
87.95 higher (0.03 to 0.57 higher)r
Intermediate term The mean parent’s belief of The mean parent’s belief of 143 (one study) + – very lowd,f,g SMD –0.32
(3–6 months after treatment) child, intermediate term child, intermediate term (95% CI –0.65

(3–6 months after treatment) in (3–6 months after treatment), to 0.01)
q
Various scales the control groups was 33.75 in the intervention groups was
0.32 SDs lower (0.65 lower to
Follow-up: 3–6 months 0.01 higher)r
Long term (at least 1 year) The mean parent’s belief of The mean parent’s belief of 146 (one study) ++ – lowd,f,g SMD –0.1
q
various scales child, long term (at least 1 year) child, long term (at least 1 year), (95% CI –0.43
in the control groups was 87.01 in the intervention groups was to 0.23)
Follow-up: 1 year 0.1 SDs lower (0.43 lower to
0.23 higher)r
Parenting skills (PPQ)
Short term (immediately after The mean parenting skills The mean parenting skills (PPQ), 278 (three studies) ++ – lowd,f,g MD 3.86
treatment) (PPQ), short term (immediately short term (immediately after (95% CI 0.47 to
after treatment) ranged across treatment), in the intervention 7.26)
PPQ control groups from 136.81 to groups was 3.86 higher (0.47
139.19 to 7.26 higher)r
Intermediate term The mean parenting skills The mean parenting skills (PPQ), 231 (three studies) ++ – lowd,f,g MD 2.36
(3–6 months after treatment) (PPQ), intermediate term intermediate term (3–6 months (95% CI –1.55
(3–6 months after treatment) after treatment), in the to 6.28)
PPQ ranged across control groups intervention groups was
from 132.86 to 148.39 2.36 higher (1.55 lower to
Follow-up: 3–6 months 6.28 higher)r
Long term (at least 1 year) The mean parenting skills (PPQ), The mean parenting skills (PPQ), 193 (two studies) ++ – lowd,f,g MD –0.89
long term (at least 1 year) long term (at least 1 year), in the (95% CI –4.89
PPQ ranged across control groups intervention groups was 0.89 to 3.11)
from 133.93 to 143.08 lower (4.89 lower to 3.11
Follow-up: 1 year higher)r
DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
SD, standard deviation; SMD, standardised mean difference.

a The basis for the assumed risk (e.g. the median control group risk across studies) is provided below. The corresponding risk (and its 95% CI) is based on the assumed risk in the
comparison group and the relative effect of the intervention (and its 95% CI).
b Lower score equals reduction in symptoms.
c One additional study (Foa et al.101) assessed depression but presented data in ways that could not be incorporated into the meta-analysis.
d Risk of bias due to study designs, randomisation and allocation concealment, and it not being possible to blind participants or personnel.
e Moderate levels of heterogeneity (I2 = 22%).
f Insufficient number of studies available to test for funnel plot asymmetry.
g Total population size is < 400.
h PTSD assessed using CBCL, CITES-R, Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV, Kiddie Schedule for Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders, Epidemiologic Version, TSCC,
and Post-Traumatic Symptoms and CROPS.
i Two additional studies101,102 assessed PTSD but presented data in ways that could not be incorporated into the meta-analysis.
j Moderate levels of heterogeneity (I2 = 46%).
k Substantial levels of heterogeneity (I2 = 51%).
l Anxiety measured using STAI and the RCMAS.
m Substantial levels of heterogeneity (I2 = 67%).
n Substantial levels of heterogeneity (I2 = 69%).
o Moderate levels of heterogeneity (I2 = 43%).
p Substantial levels of heterogeneity (I2 = 58%).
q Parent’s belief of child measured with PRIDS and PSQ.
r Higher score equals improvement in parenting skills.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence
l High quality Further research is very unlikely to change our confidence in the estimate of effect.
l Moderate quality Further research is likely to have an important impact on our confidence in the estimate of effect and may change the estimate.
l Low quality Further research is very likely to have an important impact on our confidence in the estimate of effect and is likely to change the estimate.
l Very low quality We are very uncertain about the estimate.
471
Appendix 12 Attrition analyses
CBT Control Risk ratio Risk ratio

Study or subgroup Events Total Events Total Weight M–H, fixed, 95% CI M–H, fixed, 95% CI
CBT for sexual abuse
Celano 199690 10 25 5 22 3.1% 1.76 (0.71 to 4.36)
Cohen 199891,92 11 41 19 41 11.0% 0.58 (0.32 to 1.06)
Cohen 200495,96 22 114 24 115 13.9% 0.92 (0.55 to 1.55)
Deblinger 199697,98 4 50 3 25 2.3% 0.67 (0.16 to 2.75)
Foa 2013101 3 31 5 30 2.9% 0.58 (0.15 to 2.22)
Jaberghader 2004102 2 9 2 9 1.2% 1.00 (0.18 to 5.63)
King 2000103 0 24 2 12 1.9% 0.10 (0.01 to 2.01)
Paquette 2011104,105 0 15 0 20 Not estimable
Subtotal (95% CI) 309 274 36.3% 0.81 (0.58 to 1.11)
Total events 52 60
CBT for physical abuse
Kolko 1996107,108 5 25 2 12 1.6% 1.20 (0.27 to 5.32)
Lesure-Lester 2002106 0 6 0 6 Not estimable
Runyon 2010109 14 34 12 26 7.9% 0.89 (0.50 to 1.59)
Subtotal (95% CI) 65 44 9.5% 0.94 (0.55 to 1.63)
Total events 19 14
CBT for multiple abuse
Champion 2012110 49 288 50 249 31.1% 0.85 (0.59 to 1.21)
Church 2012111 8 8 8 8 4.9% 1.00 (0.80 to 1.25)
Jensen 2014112 13 71 9 64 5.5% 1.30 (0.60 to 2.84)
Linares 2006114 10 80 10 48 7.2% 0.60 (0.27 to 1.34)
Linares 2012115 1 49 1 45 0.6% 0.92 (0.06 to 14.25)
Rondeau 1983119 0 9 0 8 Not estimable
Rushton 2012116 1 20 0 18 0.3% 2.71 (0.12 to 62.70)
Shirk 2014117 5 20 3 23 1.6% 1.92 (0.52 to 7.03)
Subtotal (95% CI) 545 463 51.3% 0.92 (0.71 to 1.19)
Total events 87 81
EMDR
Farkas 2010120 12 33 5 32 2.9% 2.33 (0.92 to 5.86)
Subtotal (95% CI) 33 32 2.9% 2.33 (0.92 to 5.86)
Total events 12 5
Total (95% CI) 952 813 100.0% 0.92 (0.77 to 1.11)
Total events 170 160
Test for subgroup differences: χ2 = 4.54, df = 3 (p = 0.21); I2 = 33.9%
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10

Favours CBT Favours control
Attrition from cognitive–behavioural therapy studies. df, degrees of freedom; M–H, Mantel–Haenszel.
473
474
Relationship based Control Risk ratio Risk ratio
Attachment-oriented interventions
APPENDIX 12
Becker-Weidman 2006134,135 1 35 4 34 8.9% 0.24 (0.03 to 2.06)

Bernard 2012122 0 60 0 60 Not estimable
Cicchetti 2006123 4 32 8 52 13.3% 0.81 (0.27 to 2.48)
Lieberman 2005127–129 6 42 4 33 9.8% 1.18 (0.36 to 3.84)
Moss 2011130 5 40 7 39 15.5% 0.70 (0.24 to 2.01)
Spieker 2012131 16 105 19 105 41.6% 0.84 (0.46 to 1.55)
Sprang 2009132 3 29 2 29 4.4% 1.50 (0.27 to 8.32)
Toth 2002133 0 23 0 35 Not estimable
Subtotal (95% CI) 366 387 93.4% 0.82 (0.54 to 1.25)
Total events 35 44

PCIT
Chaffin 2004136 0 75 0 35 Not estimable
Subtotal (95% CI) 75 35 Not estimable
Total events 0 0
Test for overall effect: not applicable
Hughes 2004139 1 14 1 14 2.2% 1.00 (0.07 to 14.45)
Valentino 2013140 2 20 2 20 4.4% 1.00 (0.16 to 6.42)
Subtotal (95% CI) 34 34 6.6% 1.00 (0.22 to 4.60)
Total events 3 3
Total (95% CI) 475 456 100.0% 0.83 (0.56 to 1.24)

Total events 38 47
Test for subgroup differences: χ2 = 0.06, df = 1 (p = 0.81); I2 = 0%
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Favours relatonship Favours control
Relationship-based interventions. df, degrees of freedom; M–H, Mantel–Haenszel.

Systematic FT Control Risk ratio Risk ratio

Systematic FT
Kolko 1996107,108 2 18 2 12 5.9% 0.67 (0.11 to 4.11)
Subtotal (95% CI) 18 12 5.9% 0.67 (0.11 to 4.11)
Total events 2 2
Trans-theoretical intervention
Linares 2006141 2 13 1 9 2.9% 1.38 (0.15 to 13.07)
Subtotal (95% CI) 13 9 2.9% 1.38 (0.15 to 13.07)
Total events 2 1
Multisytematic FT
Brunk 1987142 5 21 5 22 12.0% 1.05 (0.35 to 3.10)
Danielson 2012143 2 15 0 15 1.2% 5.00 (0.26 to 96.13)
Schaeffer 2013147 2 45 10 45 24.6% 0.20 (0.05 to 0.86)
Swenson 2010144 1 26 0 18 1.4% 2.11 (0.09 to 49.08)
Subtotal (95% CI) 107 100 39.3% 0.68 (0.33 to 1.40)
Total events 10 15
Multigroup FT
Meezan 1998148 0 42 0 39 Not estimable
Subtotal (95% CI) 42 39 Not estimable
Total events 0 0
Family-based programme
Bagley 2000150 8 35 28 58 51.9% 0.47 (0.24 to 0.92)
Subtotal (95% CI) 35 58 51.9% 0.47 (0.24 to 0.92)
Total events 8 28
Total (95% CI) 215 218 100.0% 0.59 (0.37 to 0.94)

Total events 22 46
Test for subgroup differences: χ2 = 1.14, df = 3 (p = 0.77); I2 = 0%
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Favours systematic Favours control
Systemic therapies. df, degrees of freedom; M–H, Mantel–Haenszel.
475
476
Psychoeducation Control Risk ratio Risk ratio
Barth 1994161 2 15 2 12 5.4% 0.80 (0.13 to 4.87)
APPENDIX 12
Graham-Berman 2007151 9 123 0 58 1.6% 9.04 (0.54 to 152.71)

Hébert 2010163 17 68 0 39 1.5% 20.29 (1.25 to 328.37)
Howell 2013152 7 46 14 67 27.5% 0.73 (0.32 to 1.66)
Overbeek 2013153 23 108 10 56 31.8% 1.19 (0.61 to 2.33)
Santibáñez 2000165 0 14 0 16 Not estimable
Simoneau 2008159 6 49 0 14 1.9% 3.90 (0.23 to 65.30)
Tourigny 2007160 6 42 0 13 1.8% 4.23 (0.23 to 70.48)
Tourigny 2008168 14 35 0 18 1.6% 15.31 (0.96 to 242.76)
Trowell 2002155 1 35 1 36 2.4% 1.03 (0.07 to 15.81)
Wolfe 1993157 25 121 8 70 24.5% 1.81 (0.86 to 3.79)

Total (95% CI) 656 399 100.0% 1.94 (1.34 to 2.82)
Total events 110 35
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Favours psychoeducation Favours control
Psychoeducation compared with control. df, degrees of freedom; M–H, Mantel–Haenszel.
Experimental Control Risk ratio Risk ratio

De Luca 1995170 5 35 14 35 100.0% 0.36 (0.14 to 0.88)
Grayston 1995171 0 6 0 6 Not estimable
McGain 1995172 0 15 0 15 Not estimable
Verleur 1986173 0 16 0 14 Not estimable
Total (95% CI) 72 70 100.0% 0.36 (0.14 to 0.88)

Total events 5 14
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Favours group work Favours control
Group work. M–H, Mantel–Haenszel.

Cadol 1976177 45 106 0 25 10.4% 22.11 (1.41 to 347.23)
Downing 1988180 0 12 0 10 Not estimable

DOI: 10.3310/hta20690
Fantuzzo 1988181 0 12 0 12 Not estimable

Haight 2012175 4 12 3 10 42.5% 1.11 (0.32 to 3.84)
Nolan 2002178 1 20 3 18 41.0% 0.30 (0.03 to 2.63)
Reddy 2013176 0 35 0 35 Not estimable
Sullivan 1992179 0 35 0 27 Not estimable
Thun 20002174 2 6 0 7 6.1% 5.71 (0.33 to 99.97)
Total (95% CI) 259 165 100.0% 3.25 (1.34 to 7.88)

Total events 52 6
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Favours psychotherapy Favours control
Psychotherapy/counselling. df, degrees of freedom; M–H, Mantel–Haenszel.

Total (95% CI) 33 33 Not estimable

Total events 0 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Favours peer mentoring Favours control
Peer mentoring. M–H, Mantel–Haenszel.
477
478
Culp 1987195,196 1 35 1 35 3.0% 1.00 (0.07 to 15.36)
Culp 1991197 0 17 0 17 Not estimable
APPENDIX 12
Fisher 2000192 0 0 0 0 Not estimable

Fisher 2005183–188 0 57 7 60 22.0% 0.07 (0.00 to 1.20)
Graham 2012193 0 7 0 21 Not estimable
Moore 1998194 11 32 15 29 47.5% 0.66 (0.37 to 1.20)
Smith 2011189 0 48 0 52 Not estimable
Swenson 2010198 0 44 0 42 Not estimable
Taussig 2010190,191 4 79 9 77 27.5% 0.43 (0.14 to 1.35)
Total (95% CI) 319 333 100.0% 0.48 (0.29 to 0.81)

Total events 16 32

0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Favours intensive service Favours control
Intensive service models. df, degrees of freedom; M–H, Mantel–Haenszel.

Brilliantes-Evangelista 2013199 0 11 4 11 86.5% 0.11 (0.01 to 1.85)
D’Andrea 2013201 34 62 0 26 13.5% 29.57 (1.88 to 464.98)
Dietz 2012204 0 61 0 32 Not estimable
Hamama 2011205 0 9 0 9 Not estimable
McDonald 1989202 0 18 0 20 Not estimable
Pretorius 2010200 0 6 0 6 Not estimable
Udwin 1983203 0 17 0 17 Not estimable
Total (95% CI) 184 121 100.0% 4.08 (1.39 to 11.96)

Total events 34 4
0.005 0.1 1 10 200
Favours activity based Favours control
Activity-based interventions. df, degrees of freedom; M–H, Mantel–Haenszel.

Appendix 13 Overview of acceptability evidence

by intervention group
Intervention type Quantitative Quantitative Qualitative
(number of studiesb) evidence overview evidence Qualitative overview Quality
Cognitive–behavioural Nine studies Attrition and treatment Six studies Children mostly viewed Generally
approaches (15) (two smalla; completion profile – (four small; interventions positively; good quality
seven mediuma perceived severity of two medium) four studies reported
sample size) abuse associated with mixed views
completion
Parents tended to rate
interventions more
positively than child
Staff reported mixed

views
Activity based (5) – – Five studies Received positive Adequate

(all small) evaluations quality
Therapist views
expressed including
some tension between
parents/therapists
Attachment based (3) One study Treatment completers – Two studies Parents and children Mixed quality
(large) older caregivers (one small; viewed positively
with poorer health, one large)
perceived severity of
abuse
Therapeutic residential One study Treatment completion – Three studies Importance of Generally
care (4) (medium) age/ethnicity factors (one small; re-engaging youth good quality
two medium) during treatment process
Children had very positive

and some negative
experiences
Enhanced foster One study Evidence of placement Two studies Foster carers very positive Generally
care (2) (medium) stability following (one medium; about both interventions good quality
intervention one large)
Family/systemic (4) One study Positive ratings Three studies Children and parents Mixed quality
(small) (all small) expressed mixed views
One study reported high

rate of sibling refusal in
family intervention
PCIT (1) One study Kin foster carers more – – Good quality
(medium) likely to complete than
non-kin foster carers
Counselling (10) Seven studies Therapist gender not Four studies Children mostly positive Generally
(three small; significant (two small; good quality
four medium) two medium) One study reported mixed
White children more parental views including
likely to enter therapy pain of talking about
abuse and negative
impact on family and
social networks
479
APPENDIX 13
Intervention type Quantitative Quantitative Qualitative

(number of studiesb) evidence overview evidence Qualitative overview Quality
Children/young Three studies Mostly positive ratings Five studies Mixed views from Mixed quality
people’s groups (6) (all small) from children, parents (all small) children, parents and
and school counsellors, therapists
but some mixed views
also expressed
Psychoeducational (4) Two studies Children who had Three studies Foster parents expressed Mixed quality
(one small; suffered more abuse (all small) positive views
one medium) and had behavioural/
social difficulties more Children and parents also
likely to drop out mostly positive
Parents wanted more

feedback from therapists
Psychotherapy (4) Two studies Initiators of therapy Three studies Children rated positively Generally
(all medium) and predictors of total (two small; good quality
sessions one medium) Three-way process of
therapy between child,
parent and therapist
Peer mentoring (1) – – One study Children rated Good quality

(small) intervention highly
Parent and staff positive

reports
Eclectic (3) One study Attrition/treatment Two studies Children reported positive Mixed quality
(medium) completers (all small) and some negative views
Caregivers more positive
One study presented

alleged perpetrators
experiences of therapy,
mixed views
Other (9) Four studies Ethnicity associated Five studies Varied range of Good quality
(one medium; with early termination (all small) interventions described,
three large) both positive and
Profile of treatment negative views expressed
completers by children, parents and
clinicians
a Sample size: small (n < 50), medium (n = 50–299), large (n ≤ 300).
b Individual paper may include both quantitative and qualitative data, therefore the total number of studies may not tally
with the number indicated in columns 2 and 4.
480
Appendix 14 Overview of acceptability evidence

by study interventions
Cognitive–behavioural interventions
Study Sample size Data collection Analysis Quality overview

481
Barker 2005 14/67 children; Interviews Summary overview Aims of the research were clearly
5 staff stated
Methodology and research design

were appropriate for qualitative
data
Data collection was not adequately

described
The findings not clearly described
Buschbacher n=1 Interviews with foster Aims clearly described but this
2002629 parent and staff was a testimonial rather than a
members research study
One of the treatment team

conducted interviews with foster
mother and colleagues
Retrospective interview in one

successful case
High risk of bias

Chasson n = 99 Withdrawal metrics Multiple regression Aims were clearly stated and the
2008482 analysis methodology and research design
were appropriate
Data collection was adequately

described
Potential confounders not added to

statistical model
Findings were clearly described
Chasson n = 134 Withdrawal metrics Regression analysis of Aims were clearly stated and the
2013630 (99 from trauma characteristics methodology and research design
Chasson 2008) as predictors of attrition were appropriate
Data collection was adequately

described
Potential confounders were not

added to statistical model
Findings clearly described
Eslinger n = 115 Baseline, post Multinomial logistic Study design was appropriate
2014631 treatment and regression of predictors
3 months of dropout Sampling methods were not
sufficiently clear; age range
was quite wide and sample
heterogeneous
Data analysis was appropriate
481
APPENDIX 14
Fraynt 2014 632

n = 562 Factors predicting Binominal regression; Study design and sampling was
treatment engagement multinomial logistic appropriate; however, the study
regression did not measure the type of
intervention received other than
individual or group treatment,
which limited the validity of
the study
Data collection methods and

measures were appropriate for the
population and the analysis was
adequate for the aim of the study
Hubel 2014492 n = 99; n = 67 Child and parent client Study design was appropriate but
analysed evaluation form the acceptability questionnaire lacks
validity, as it relied on satisfaction
ratings
Findings were clearly reported
Kolko 1996108 n = 25 CBT, Treatment expectancy Study design appropriate and

n = 18 FT, (Likert scale) procedure were clearly described
n = 12 control
Brief telephone calls to Standardised measures were
parents used with evidence of reliability
and validity
Post-treatment CEI
Findings were reported clearly
Lange 2010 497

n = 24 Client satisfaction: Study design appropriate and
general, with procedure were clearly described
treatment and with
therapists Sampling through the media open
to bias
Interviews plus
10-point rating scale Standardised measures were used
(1 = high) with evidence of reliability and
validity; however, acceptability was
Attrition measured using subjective
satisfaction ratings
Findings were clearly presented
McPherson n = 254 Treatment completion Univariate analysis and Appropriate study design and
2012633 multivariate logistic sampling
regression models
Data collection based on electronic
medical files which relies on
accuracy of record-keeping
Data analysis was appropriate and

clearly described
Salloum n=6 Parents completed Study design was appropriate

2014504 expectancy rating form;
client satisfaction Acceptability measure relied on
questionnaire plus satisfaction ratings, although used
treatment costs a questionnaire that used in other
calculated with the time research; however, no ‘depth’ of
tracking system data was captured by this measure,
such as why caregivers were or
were not satisfied with treatment
482
San Diego 5/6 of those Participants’ journals, IPA Study was well designed, and
2011680 referred therapy notes, and appropriate data collection
interviews methods and analysis were used
Ethical considerations were not

clearly outlined
Silovsky n = 85 CSBP preschool group Study design was appropriate but

2007505 satisfaction and social measure of acceptability relies on
validity questionnaire – satisfaction ratings
caregiver satisfaction
Smith 2008 506

n=6 Client satisfaction Study design was appropriate but
questionnaire measure of acceptability relies on
satisfaction ratings
Findings only partially reported

descriptively
CSBP, Children with Sexual Behavior Problems; IPA, interpretative phenomenological analysis.
Acceptability of attachment-based interventions
Study Sample size Data collection Analysis method Quality overview
Cross 2013 634

n = 1085; 60% Case file data Single predictors of One site was excluded because it
retained study retention – did not comply with study protocol
logistic regression
Programme content and delivery
Multivariate predictors varied across the 15 sites
of study retention –
multivariate regression
remodelling
Osofsky n = 346 children; Caregivers’ and Study design suffered from
2007515 n = 57 dyads therapists’ qualitative differing procedures across sites
impressions of
treatment Some measures used were
standardised and had evidence of
reliability and validity, although
impressions of treatment was
measured using satisfaction ratings
of ‘yes’ or ‘no’
Findings were clearly presented but

lacked depth
Sudbery Experiences Interviews; content Study was adequately designed and
2010663 reports of n = 45 analysis of files and described and the findings were
children organisational clearly reported
documents; children;
surveys of social
workers and others
Powell 2010662 n = 5 children, Semistructured Methodology and research design
n = 4 mothers and qualitative interviews were appropriate for the research
1 grandmother aims
Data were reported clearly and

thoroughly
It is unclear whether or not ethical

issues were considered
483
APPENDIX 14
Acceptability of parent–child interaction therapy
Timmer 102 kin; Treatment completion The study design was limited by
2004656 157 non-kin having no control group
foster carers
Patterns of termination of
treatment were measured by
clinician discharge sheets
Results were reported in full and

the analysis is appropriate
Acceptability of parent training interventions

Ducharme n = 28 parents Eight mothers The study design was limited by not
2000510 completed the having a control group
n = 15 children satisfaction
from n = 9 questionnaire Treatment satisfaction was
families measured using mother’s self-report
rating scales
It is unclear how perceptions of

treatment was measured and
analysed
Results were limited by not

reporting variance
Golding n = 44 children, Participant satisfaction Study design and methodology

2004511 n = 41 foster questionnaire, were appropriate
carers qualitative evaluation,
group facilitator Findings were clearly reported
feedback
Taban 2001635 n = 45 families Three social validity Study design was appropriate
health training, questionnaires
n = 37 home developed specifically Social validity questionnaire was
accident for the study well developed, but relied on
prevention; satisfaction ratings as a measure of
n = 31 PCIT acceptability
Findings were partially reported
484
Acceptability of family/systemic interventions
Conran n = 2, mother Interviews This single case study was not

1993621 and daughter adequately designed or reported
Costa 2009678 n = 28; n = 8 Questionnaires, Qualitative The study aims and objectives were
families children drawings, epistemology clearly stated and the research
interviewed evaluation of the methodology was appropriate
effects of conversations
and actions in families Reporting of findings was
appropriate
Danielson n = 10 3–6 months post Study was well designed, and the
2010526 treatment data collection, analysis and
findings were clearly reported
Ecological functioning
measure treatment
satisfaction and
adherence
Tjersland n = 23 families, Observational data Descriptive coding Some relevant points about the
2006673 n = 32 children from therapeutic developed by tension that mothers feel between
sessions; interviews two therapists, not wanting to talk about the
with mothers, independently abuse/suspected abuse to protect
children and alleged rated to verify their child, but also wanting to
perpetrators categorisation help them
Nothing useful on children’s

perspectives
Woodworth n = 16/22 N = 40 interviews with Poorly described

1991533 n = 13 incest victims,
n = 12 offenders, Opportunistic sampling, insufficient
n = 2 siblings methodological information to be
able to properly assess the quality
of the work
Acceptability of psychoeducation interventions
Study and Sample size; Data collection:

location response rate acceptability Analysis method Quality overview
Barth 1994 161

n = 15 Brief client satisfaction Study design was appropriate
survey but acceptability measures relied
on satisfaction ratings with no
other detail
Boisvert n = 116 ‘Dropout’ defined as Univariate and Study design did not include a
2008658 someone who agrees multivariate analyses control group and compared
to therapy and exploring relationships characteristics of only treatment
participates in at least between dropout and completers and those who
one session and then sexual abuse, dropped out
stops before the half- individual and family
way point without the characteristics Standardised measures were used
therapists approval or but the study did not describe the
an agreement that treatment in any detail or measure
treatment is finished effectiveness, which limited the
(Garfield 1994804) conclusions of the study
485
APPENDIX 14

Hyde 1995538 Interview and rating Study procedure is unclear
Measures used had evidence of

reliability and validity and were
age appropriate
Analysis of data is unclear
Rushton n = 58; n = 46 Carer interviews – Methodology and research

2000664 mothers, n = 19 1- and 2-year design were appropriate for the
foster/adoptive follow-up research aims
mothers;
14 carers Follow-up interviews The research findings were
with carers’ workers reported clearly
1 year after start of
treatment
Acceptability of group work for children
Study and Data collection:

location Sample size acceptability Analysis method Quality overview
Ashby 1987 636
n=9 Acceptability and The research aims were clearly
usefulness evaluation described but the methodology,
rating on numerical scale – analysis and findings were not clearly
midway and final group; reported
school counsellor reports
Baker 2001637 n = 5–14 Satisfaction ratings; The research aims were clearly
evaluations conducted in described but the methodology,
1997, 1998 and 2000 analysis and findings were not clearly
reported
Four group evaluations and
follow-up telephone survey
of n = 7 terminated clients
De Luca n = 35 Child-report measures Study design was limited by no

1995170 intervention control group
n = 35 Treatment satisfaction was measured

control using self-report social validation
ratings by children and parents
Presentation of results was limited to

percentages
Unclear how themes responded to

were identified
Grayston n=6 Child feedback and parent Research aims were clearly defined
1996659 feedback questionnaires and methodology is appropriate
Data collection and ethical

considerations were not described
in detail
Gustafsson n = 19 Semistructured interviews Research was well designed but

1995676 with group therapists findings were not clearly reported
486
Study and Data collection:

location Sample size acceptability Analysis method Quality overview
Monck n = 47 Participant rating Study design was appropriate but

1996169 the wide scope means that
interventions lack specificity in terms
of aims and theoretical underpinning
Although randomised, small sample

size
Data collection lacked detail in

description and appeared to lack
sophistication in terms of non-
standardised measures and the use
of subjective rating scales
Data analysis lacked complexity and

included a simplistic presentation of
ratings
Peled 1992639 n = 30 Interviews plus Aims and methodology were well

observations explained, and data collection and
analysis appropriate
Acceptability of counselling interventions

Baginsky n = 130 Telephone interviews Summary overview Research was well designed but data
2001640 (Italy) collection methods were not similar
across the three countries and may
Interviews, letters, not have been representative
telephone and
questionnaires Findings were clearly reported
(the Netherlands)
Individual and group

interviews (UK)
Fowler n = 35 Seven-point Likert scale The study design is appropriate for the
1992641 research aims although is limited by a
sample that includes only girls
Gender preference was measured

using only self-reported rating scores
Results were reported in full and the

analysis was appropriate
Fowler n = 20 Pre- and post-treatment Although the study design was

1993642 preference stated appropriate, sampling methods may
not be representative of the typical
population
The method of data collection is

questionable, as data were collected
post intervention but longer-term
follow-up may have been more
informative
Age range was wide and may have

been too heterogeneous
487
APPENDIX 14

The type of data analysis conducted

was appropriate
Haight n = 15 Views from children, Emic coding

2010175 caregivers and
community clinicians;
field notes
Haskett n = 129 Factors associated with Study design was appropriate and the
1991657 treatment entry sampling included all referred cases
within a set time frame
Data relied on parents self-reports

with no use of standardised
questionnaires
The same therapists were also used as

researchers; however, the analysis was
appropriate and thorough
Kilcrease- n = 20 Three counselling An innovative design using observer

Fleming process rating scales of ratings but with an unclear
1992643 videotaped interviews methodology in terms of participant
recruitment, intervention type
Although measures were designed for

the study and lack prior use or testing,
clear efforts were made to improve
the reliability of the measures
The analysis was appropriate but the

small sample size hampered
generalisations
Kolko 1999644 n = 86 Children and parents Predictors of service A clear study design, participant
completed an evaluation use computed recruitment strategy and assessment
of the level of perceived using Pearson’s schedule
service needs, motivation correlations or
and interests, goals or chi-squared tests Measures included standardised and
expectations and non-standardised measures
obstacles; interviewed
at study intake and Analysis was appropriate and findings
4–8 months after initial were clearly presented
service
Nelson-Gardell n = 34 plus five Focus group methodology Thematic analysis The aims of the research were clearly
2001638 focus groups to address the issues of defined and the methodology was
interest appropriate to meet these aims
Data analysis was not fully described
Overlien n = 50 women’s Face-to-face interviews, Grounded theory Study design was appropriate, analysis
2011674 refuges age-appropriate approach was adequate and findings were
directors, n = 22 schedules clearly reported
children
Unclear if all ethical considerations
were made
488

Porter 1996645 n = 27 Client Behavior System745 – Study design was appropriate overall
verbalisation measure but relies on the measurement of
verbalisation within one specific
session; however, attempts were
made to blind therapists to the study
aims and observer raters were
recruited externally and trained to
standardise ratings using a
predetermined protocol (the Client
Behavior System)
Findings were clearly reported,

although descriptions lack direction,
such as reporting that non-abuse-
related questions elicited significantly
more non-abuse-related answers
Reddy 2013176 n = 70 Qualitative Study design was appropriate as was

post-treatment feedback sampling. However, data collection for
treatment acceptability relied on non-
standardised rating scales. Findings
were reported clearly
Scott 1996677 n = 10 families In-depth interviews with Research aims were not clearly stated
(n = 17 children) parents but research design and data
collection clearly described
Deb 2011679 n = 120 Quantitative and The study design was appropriate for
qualitative data the aims of the research
It is unclear how perceptions of

treatment were measured and analysed
Results were limited to descriptive

narratives and percentages
Thompson n = 40 Semistructured The methodology and research design

2011646 interviews developed to were appropriate for the research
elicit information about aims
mothers and youth
experiences and The research findings were reported
satisfaction with mental clearly
health services – Mother
Interview Guide and
Youth Interview Guide
489
APPENDIX 14
Acceptability of psychotherapy interventions

Davies 2009665 n=4 Single time point IPA Aims of the research were clearly
interview of children’s defined and the methodology was
experiences of appropriate to meet these aims
participation
Horowitz n = 81 Therapy experiences Regression Study was part of a larger longitudinal

1997647 gathered from parents analyses study but the design suffers from a
reliance on therapists’ own feedback,
lacking child feedback and a lack of
clarity on the type of intervention other
than the format (individual, family or
group); however, the analysis of data
was appropriate and findings were
clearly reported
Jensen n = 15 Follow-up interview in Content analysis Aims of the research were clearly
2010675 child’s home guided by Bordin’s defined and the methodology was
conceptualisation appropriate to meet these aims
of the working
alliance Findings were reported clearly
Lippert n = 101 Case record review Systematic and appropriate study
2008648 design, including both quantitative
Caregiver interview and qualitative components
including ‘perceptions
related to therapy’ Measures used were standardised and
interviews used a predetermined
protocol
Data analysis was appropriate, although

reported results lacked qualitative depth
IPA, interpretative phenomenological analysis.
Acceptability of peer-mentoring interventions

Alaggia 24 families, Interviewed a sample Summary overview Aims of the research were clearly defined
1999660 26 children of parents, youths and the methodology was appropriate to
and professionals meet these aims
Data analysis was not fully described
490
Acceptability of therapeutic residential care interventions

Cunningham n = 130 Semistructured Inductive thematic Study design was adequate, and method
2009649 interviews with RTC coding; confirmatory was clearly described and appropriate
staff; school, clinical factor analysis
and residential Data were collected over a number of
treatment team time points (weeks after admission,
questionnaires the approximate midpoint of the client’s
(T2 and T3); data stay, immediately prior to discharge and
from client case files 4 months after discharge) and from
multiple sources
Clear thought was given to the

age-appropriateness and ethics of data
collection from young people
Thematic analysis and factor analysis

were both appropriate and reported
in detail
Gallagher 16/34 Semistructured Summary overview Study was well designed and described,
2012666 interviews and the findings were clearly reported
Leenarts n = 154 Multiple linear Appropriate study design and sampling
2013672 regression for
treatment motivation. Measures had evidence of reliability
Logistic regression to and validity
identify possible
predictors for Appropriate data analysis and findings
dropout were clearly reported
Shennum n = 80 Qualitative interviews Summary overview Appropriate study design but sampling
1995650 with participants was unclear
Measures had evidence of reliability and

validity
Data analysis could have been more

rigorous but findings were clearly reported
West 2014651 n = 39 Focus group Thematic analysis Aims, methodology, data collection and
analysis were all good quality; however,
the content may not be very relevant to
our review – it is more focused on the
components that a good intervention for
externalising behaviour in a school
setting should contain
RTC, residential treatment centre.
491
APPENDIX 14
Acceptability of enhanced foster care interventions

location response rate acceptability Analysis Quality overview
Biehal n = 219; Postal questionnaires; Bivariate and Aims and progress of the study
2012145,146 RCT n = 34; interviews; reports; multivariate clearly stated
observational parent records analyses plus
n = 185 thematic analyses Criteria for case study selection clear
of interview data and appropriate
Case studies and more in-depth
n = 20 analyses of case Data analyses appropriate and
study data findings clearly described
Laan 2001671 n = 78 Case notes and Analysis of Study design was appropriate
questionnaire data questionnaire
data; thematic Data collection relied on satisfaction
analysis of case ratings, although bias was addressed
notes by matching with qualitative answers
when given
Satisfaction ratings were clearly

presented but there is limited
reporting of qualitative findings
Staines n = 450 Questionnaires – foster Summary overview A well-designed study with

2011667 parents and social appropriate data collection measures
workers; at placement
start and 1 year on Questionnaires were anonymised to
prevent bias

RCT, randomised controlled trial.
Acceptability of activity-based Interventions

Bannister n=6 Pre- and post-treatment Aims, methodology, analysis and

1996668 interviews with social findings were not clearly described
worker, carer and child
Burgon n=7 Qualitative interviews, Qualitative, Aims, methods and design of the
2011669 field note observations participative and study were appropriate
reflexive
ethnography; Recruitment of sample was unclear
thematic analysis and author was participant researcher,
which may be subject to bias
Reporting of findings were clear
Gilbert Group attendance Art qualitative feedback Aims and methodology were clearly
1988652 ranged from two described but data collection and
to six children analysis were lacking in depth
(average
attendance n = 4)
492

Hill 2009670 13 families: Qualitative case study Thematic analysis Aims, methods and design of the
mothers n = 12, of 13 cases files plus study were appropriate
UK fathers/stepfathers in-depth interviews with
n=4 therapists (n = 27), Data analysis was adequate
parents (n = 18) and
Children n = 28 children (n = 3) Reporting of findings are clear
Mishna n = 11 63 interviews were Grounded theory Aims of the research were clearly
2012661 conducted at 6, approach stated, and the methodology and
12 and 18 months with research design were appropriate
parents, teachers and
therapists Data collection was adequate
described and the findings were
clearly described
493
Appendix 15 Report of consultations with young

people and professionals
Introduction
The involvement of young people and professionals was seen as important for helping to:
l shape the review

l interpret the evidence
l draw conclusions from it.
It was hoped that engagement with a range of stakeholders would help to ensure the relevance of
the review report to the UK practice and policy contexts. In addition, it would help to identify the
potential barriers and facilitators to the implementation and use of the review findings from the
following perspectives:
l children and young people who have been maltreated and who could benefit from
psychosocial interventions
l those involved in the identification of such young people
l those responsible for referring them
l those who deliver the interventions.
Approach and methods
The plan that was outlined in the proposal consisted of an advisory group process with young people
and professionals that would reflect the different above purposes. Consultations took place at two points:
1. early in the review process to help ‘shape’ the review planning

2. late in the review process to help with interpretation and conclusion forming.
An overview of the advisory group sessions that were held is provided in Table 32. The key questions and
methods for the ‘early’ advisory groups for young people and professionals were the same. There were
three sets of questions around:
l outcomes for maltreated young people from psychosocial interventions

l factors that would facilitate them getting the help they needed
l factors that would act as barriers to them getting that help.
More specifically, the questions that the young people addressed were:
l What difference would ‘helpful help’ make for a child or young person who had been treated badly?
l What would make it easier to ask for help or get help?
l What would make it harder to ask for help or get help?
A sorting and ranking exercise was conducted with the early Young People’s Advisory Groups and
Professional Advisory Groups (PAGs), called the Q-Set. Group members were presented with a set of cards,
each of which had a different possible outcome/facilitator/barrier, generated by the Steering Group from
495
APPENDIX 15
TABLE 32 Advisory group sessions
Early Young people Group 1 Voice of Young People in Care, Belfast: seven young people aged between
16 and 24 years, 27 March 2013
Group 2 Voices from Care, Cardiff: seven young people aged 18+ years, 9 April 2013
Professionals Group of 39 professionals, 1 May 2013, from a range of professional groupings: voluntary
sector/social work; health economics; clinical psychology/psychiatry; health professionals;
educational psychology; social science; and foster carers
Late Young people Group of six young people at NSPCC participation event, 27 October 2014, aged
15–19 years
Professionals Group of 20 professionals, 27 November 2014, from a range of professional groupings
knowledge of the research and from professional experience. Group members were first asked to review
the cards individually and consider their own opinions on where each card should be placed on the
large Q-sort pyramidal grid. They were then asked to discuss their opinions in the group and to work
together to create one single, group-agreed, Q-sort pyramid. Cards placed to the right of the grid would
be those that were the most important outcomes/facilitators/barriers, and the least important were placed
to the left. Group members were informed that they could amend the cards if necessary. They were also
welcome to add new cards if they felt that any potential factors were missing, and to remove any cards
that they felt were irrelevant.
The two Young People’s Groups were cofacilitated by a member of the project team and an existing group
facilitator who was well known to the young people. The Q-Set process proved to be quite effective at
engaging the young people and serving as a basis for discussion, although there were some limitations to
this in both groups. It became clear that the task for the young people was a demanding one, and we
had been a bit optimistic as to what could be achieved in one session. In one group the energy levels
noticeably dipped as the session wore on. In the other, only three or four of the group were well engaged
with the task at any one time, although those who were engaged changed during the course of the
discussion. As a result of the experience of the first group, the second group was run a little differently,
including revision of the sequence of issues (which had started with a discussion of facilitator factors
originally) and part of the session was spent in smaller subgroup discussions. It is notable that groups
responded so differently to the same task. This is encouraging, as it suggests that, despite the limitations
noted above, the young people felt an ownership of the task and hence that the engagement process was
meaningful for them.
The early PAG session also used the Q-Set process in a similar way. Given the large size of the group, it
had to be organised into smaller groups to enable meaningful discussion and the steering group decided
to organise the groups by professional discipline. This was principally to enable all groups to have a say,
but it was hoped that it would also highlight any differences between the groups and reasons for this,
as well as areas of agreement. Groups were facilitated by members of the project team/steering group.
Given the intensity of debate across all groups, this exercise seems to have been effective at promoting
engagement and participation.
The ‘later’ consultations with young people and professionals focused on responses to evidence from the
review, although the focus and methods were different. The Young Persons’ Group was cofacilitated by
members of the research team and steering group, without an adult present that the young people knew
well. This session was part of a broader participation event, for which known and trusted adults were
available to support the young people should they become distressed. We explained to them that during
the session they would hear quotations from young people that were quite powerful and which they
496
might find unsettling. In such an event we told them that they could let us know if they wanted a break or
simply take themselves off to the agreed point to find their identified adult supporter. One young person,
who had been the only one to struggle to engage with the process, seemed to become bored and did ask
to leave the session.
In the first part of the session, members of the research team provided an overview of the key intervention
types that were identified through the review: CBT; counselling/psychotherapy; family intervention;
attachment therapy; activity-based interventions; and therapeutic residential care. In addition to talking
about these, pictures were provided, on large laminated sheets, to help illustrate key features of these
approaches. The main part of the session was focused around three sets of questions:
1. Prioritising between interventions:
¢ Which of these intervention types would young people want more?

¢ Some therapies have a lot of evidence showing that they work, but others do not. If you were
the government, which ones would you give the money to?
2. Responses to ‘acceptability’ statements:
¢ Therapy does not help people to forget about abuse – they just make them talk about it over and
over again
¢ In some situations when the child starts therapy, he/she can get upset, and the parent then does
not want them to go. What advice would you give a parent if their child was upset for the
first time?
¢ It’s not just the child that needs help – parents do too.
¢ Do other people need to know what the therapist and child talk about?
¢ Does a young person have to like their therapist for treatment to help?
3. Disseminating research evidence and findings to young people:
¢ Suggestions for how to do this most effectively.
The group was given a range of tools to help the discussion. For example, they were given a pile of fake
bank notes to help them allocate the funds to different intervention types. The visual component to this
was important, and the young people ensured that they distributed the money carefully to reflect their
priorities. They were also given voting cards with which to respond to the acceptability statements,
with different colours representing different options.
A much longer, detailed and technical presentation of the findings was provided for the ‘later’ PAG. Given
the smaller size of this compared with the earlier group, the whole session was held as one group, without
splitting into subgroups, as this seemed unnecessary. A series of questions was developed to focus
the discussion:
1. Do you think there is anything missing?

2. Are there any:
i. surprises about the coverage of maltreatment types?

ii. surprises about the profile of evidence across different types of intervention?
iii. disappointments or puzzles?
3. To what extent do the findings match your experience of what is offered by clinicians?
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APPENDIX 15
4. If different, what might account for this?
i. training
ii. therapeutic context
iii. therapeutic preferences
iv. resource constraints
v. other.
5. How do you think clinicians will respond to the messages about the weight of evidence in favour
of CBT interventions (broadly defined)?
6. What are the barriers to implementing the findings, and how might these be addressed in the
final report?
7. What do you see as the priorities for research?
Findings from early advisory group process
Outcomes
There were striking differences between the two Young People’s Groups in how they ranked outcomes.
This, in part, reflected differences in how they approached the task. One group did the rankings as
outlined, whereas the other group felt that it would be inappropriate to rank the majority of outcomes.
Their reasoning for this was because they felt that those outcomes were too specific to an individual’s
particular problems and circumstances, such as anger or an eating disorder. They were unhappy about the
task as originally outlined, as they felt it made them ‘generalise’ inappropriately about the population of
maltreated young people. Therefore, they removed those cards, leaving only seven plus one that they
added, as they felt that those remaining were more general and could apply to the majority of young
people. As a result, one group ranked many more outcomes than the other. The full lists of outcomes
rankings are provided in the appendix.
There were some similarities between groups in the highest ranking outcomes, as shown in Table 33.
There is an emphasis on safety (both keeping and feeling safe) and resilience. There is also a similarity in
the absence of positive rankings for interpersonal relationship outcomes. In other words, they were
defining the outcomes more narrowly, as for the young person only. For the group that ranked a large
majority of the outcomes, their rationale for ranking, as least important, the outcomes around stealing and
drug use, for example, was that these represented individuals’ situations and choices, and hence were less
generally applicable. This resonates closely with the rationale of the other group for removing many of
those cards. In other words, although the groups approached the task very differently, there was an
important similarity in their narratives, which formed a link with the later consultation exercise, as young
people argued for the importance of each individual to be assessed according to their needs and
circumstances, rather than just as part of a wider grouping.
TABLE 33 Highest-ranked outcomes by Young People’s Groups
Rank Group 1 Group 2
+4 Helping the person to learn skills to Helping the person to understand what being ‘treated badly’ is,
handle life’s ‘ups’ and ‘downs’ learning to recognise when things are not OK
Helping the person to learn ways to keep themselves safe

(e.g. knowing when to report something and to whom to report it)
+3 Helping the person to feel safe Helping the person to feel safe
Helping the person to ‘bounce Helping the person to ‘bounce back’ if things in their life go wrong
back’ if things in their life go wrong
Helping the person to stop worrying
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The highest-ranked outcomes by the professional groups were well-being; attachment; emotional
development; keeping safe; placement stability; peer relationships; and depression. The least important
outcomes were socioeconomic; suicide prevention; violence/aggression; self-harm; criminality/legal;
mental health literacy; substance abuse; and eating disorders (see appendix to this report for a full listing).
There were significant differences between the eight professional groupings, as shown both by their
different rankings and their reasoning for these. Placement stability is an example of an outcome that
attracted a wide range of rankings. This was generally ranked high, except for one group, which did not
rank it at all – reasoning that this was not because it was unimportant, but because it did not represent an
outcome, but rather a facilitator. This is significant in raising a definitional question about outcomes
and also in focusing on the relationship between different types of outcome; for example, that
placement stability could be seen as an intermediate outcome that would enable other outcomes to
be achieved.
The relationship between outcomes was reflected in the high ranking for ‘well-being’, as two groups both
referred to this as an ‘overarching’ outcome that other outcomes would feed into. Even here, though,
with the highest-ranked outcome across all professional groups, there was disagreement, as neither of the
foster carer groups rated it as an important outcome. Reasons given for the low ranking of some
outcomes included:
l A question of timescale, such that these more ‘tangible’ outcomes would feed into broader
outcomes ‘downstream’.
l The framing of the outcomes, either in that they could prove to be negative for the young person as
well as positive (e.g. they may adopt coping skills that have negative effects) or that they were too
much of an ‘adult concept’, such as intimate relationships.
l Neurodevelopmental outcomes can be very difficult to change.
l Not understanding what was meant by ‘mental health literacy’.
Facilitating factors
As with the outcomes discussion above, the two groups of young people approached the task differently,
with one group removing a large number of cards. An example concerned the two cards: ‘the person was
still living with their family’ and ‘the person was no longer living with their family’. They argued that these
could not be ranked against each other, as the importance of each would differ, depending on whether
the young person had experienced abuse from within or from outside their family. As with the outcomes,
this group argued that such factors would be dependent on an individual’s circumstances and that it
would be wrong to generalise. The facilitating factors ranked highest by the two groups are presented in
Table 34. The key similarity across the groups is the importance of choice for the young person, both in
starting and ending the service. Group 1 created the factor that was their most highly ranked, focusing on
what would help the young person decide to start to receive the service. The group added to this that the
format of the preliminary meeting should be determined by the young person, for example that he/she
should have the option of either having an informal chat over coffee without any mention of the
intervention, or a formal discussion of what to expect from the intervention.
Other highly ranked factors reflect the importance of the ‘boundaries’ of the service in relation to
confidentiality, trust in the help-giver, a quality to the experience such that they do not feel judged
or criticised, and not having to worry about paying for the service (see Table 34). The lowest ranked
factors included:
l what other people think, such as parents or social workers

l characteristics of the help-provider, such as gender.
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APPENDIX 15
TABLE 34 Highest-ranked facilitating factors by Young People’s Groups
+4 The person could meet the person giving help beforehand, to The person knows that the person giving the
decide if they would be happy to begin getting help from them help would not judge them or criticise them
The person knows that the help will not stop

before they are ready for it to stop
+3 The person knows that no one would see them getting this The person knows that they could trust the
help (e.g. no one would see them in that room, or see them person/people that they would be getting
through the window from the street) the help from
The person knows that it is their own decision whether to get The person did not have to worry abut
the help or not, and not the decision of their parents or carers having money to pay for the services
The factors that were ranked the highest as facilitators by the PAGs were interventions tailored to
individual needs and providing ‘young person-friendly’ information about services. Other factors to rank
highly were high-quality research evidence; services are free to use; knowing where to find help; support
for family/carers; and help/interventions available online. There was generally a high level of agreement
among the PAGs on these, although there was some disagreement over ‘services are free to use’, with the
range from high ranking to not being ranked at all. In the latter case, a group member explained that this
was because it was ‘taken for granted’.
There was some disagreement too over ‘reducing stigma’. This was rated as the most important
(4) by both foster carer groups, as they saw that getting the child/young person to engage with services
and actually attend was most important. Other groups saw reducing stigma as less important, particularly
the voluntary sector/social work group. Discussions indicated that this group felt that if services were
well designed and delivered then the service would overcome any barriers created by stigma.
The factors that the professionals rated as being the least important in facilitating change were:
child/young person can meet the service provider before therapy begins; choice of location of
service delivery; child/young person can choose when the service ends; mental health literacy; and
school-based interventions. Three of these five factors relate to the young person’s choice and represent a
striking contrast with the importance given by young people to choice. A factor that young people
and professionals agreed on, however, was in the importance of tailoring the intervention to
the individual.
Barriers
As with outcomes and facilitators, the two groups of young people approached the task a little differently.
One group found it difficult to agree on which factor was the most likely barrier, and felt that several of the
cards held an equal status and were equally important. It was agreed that they could have more than one
highest-ranked barrier, and these were moved into a specially created ‘+5’ column. This is significant
in showing how the young people took ownership of the task and responded creatively when faced with their
own barrier. The factors rated as the most likely barriers by the two groups of young people are presented in
Table 35.
A range of factors is highlighted, including suspicion and concern over the service being offered;
implications of receiving the service, such as feeling judged or being labelled; feelings about one’s own
needs and situation, and barriers created by others, such as parents. The point about not knowing where
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TABLE 35 Factors rated highest by young people as barriers
+5 The person thinks that their situation is too complicated for anyone to help
The person thinks that the people offering help will not believe them
+4 The person does not want to be seen as having mental health problems The person does not know who
to ask about getting help
The person does not think they need any help
The person does not think that the help available will work for them
The person does not trust the people/services offering help
+3 The person does not trust the

people/services offering help
The person’s parents or carers

will not allow it
to look for information reflects the points made under facilitators about the importance of child-friendly
information. There was agreement between the two groups about the relative lack of importance of
practical issues. A facilitator noted, for example, that one group had a remarkable trust that the services
would accommodate them as necessary, for example coming to where they were if they could not travel,
services were free so money was not a concern, and translators or someone who speaks your language
would be made available if that was a problem for you.
The factors that were ranked the highest as the most likely barriers by the professionals were
embarrassment; inadequate resources; stigma; lack of trust in service providers; fear; negative attitude;
and lack of training for staff. Themes of stigma and lack of resources come strongly through the
professionals’ responses. There is a significant difference between the professionals’ focus on lack of
resources and the trust that young people put in the system to make the necessary service available.
There was generally a high degree of agreement between groups of professionals as to the relative
significance of the various barriers. Groups generally ranked items related to the theme of stigma/fear
highly, with the exception of the social work/voluntary sector group. They ranked all items relating to the
child or young person as less important than items relevant to service providers and wider structural
barriers, such as lack of training for staff, inadequate resources and ineffective health system structures.
They indicated that if services are effective then they will be designed so that barriers relating to the
child/young person would be eliminated. Other groups disagreed with this approach, as they saw stigma
and fear as a wider social issue. Barriers relating to the child/young person were seen as equally important,
and in some cases more important, than the barriers that were relevant for service providers.
The relative importance of ‘negative attitude’ also caused some disagreement. The majority saw this as the
negative attitude of the child/young person towards the service, although the educational psychology
group were clear that they saw the negative attitudes of other professionals as an important barrier.
The educational psychology group also differed in their ranking of continuity of service. They ranked high
staff turnover and continuity of service as the most important barriers. Other groups ranked these barriers
as of medium importance (range –2 to 2). Money was ranked as a barrier by half of the groups. Those
who did not rank it saw it as too broad/generic a barrier and so excluded it. Those groups who did rank it
indicated that it was an important barrier, with the exception of one of the foster carer groups, which felt
that ‘they would always find the money’ if necessary.
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APPENDIX 15
Findings from later advisory group process
Of the intervention types that were presented, the Young People’s Group felt that the most widely known
among young people were CBT; counselling; and FT. The initial response from the group when starting
the resource allocation exercise was that they found it hard to answer, as they suggested that it was
important to know the individual before judging what interventions would be effective. Looking across
the interventions, the group felt that all the interventions could potentially be useful, but again the
judgement about this for an individual would have to be made in the light of that individual’s
circumstances, their experience and environment. For example, if they had suffered ‘bad’ abuse, they
may not want counselling – they may prefer CBT and attachment-based work. Hence on this basis, the
group considered that all the different therapies should be made available.
The group considered different ways of completing the task, for example allocating the available resource
equally across all intervention types and to the intervention types with fewer well-developed evidence
bases. The group was very thoughtful about what sorts of information they would need to help make the
judgement, including:
l asking people what service they would prefer

l having a choice, as some young people may prefer not to talk but would find ‘doing’ things helpful
l the nature of evidence that is available
l the need to ascertain as much information about an individual at the beginning as possible,
with a suggestion that a ‘survey’ could be done with them.
They were concerned that focusing all of the resource to CBT, for which there is already evidence, does
not help the other interventions to establish their own evidence bases. Nevertheless, they did not want
to lose the benefits from CBT, given the evidence of its effectiveness. The group finally decided that they
would want to continue to deliver CBT, but would also want to invest resources in the lesser-known
therapies – attachment, activity based and therapeutic residential care – to see if it was possible to
generate an evidence base for those.
Table 36 shows a high degree of consensus among the young people as to their views on a range of
statements. The statements had been framed based on views expressed within the review of studies for
the acceptability of interventions. The group disagreed with statement 1, from a parent who was critical
of the therapeutic process for their family member, for two reasons:
l It is not possible to forget about the abuse. The best thing is to talk about it to get it in the open.
It should be the child’s decision as to what works best for them.
l Therapy does not mean going over it again and again. It means going over it once, thinking about the
experience, learning how they feel about it, but then doing different things.
TABLE 36 Responses to series of statements about interventions
Statement Red Amber Green
1. Therapy doesn’t help people to forget about abuse, they just make them 5 0 0
talk about it over and over again
2. It’s not just the child that needs help, parents do too 0 1 4
3. Do other people need to know what the therapist and child talk about? 0 5 0
4. Does a young person have to like their therapist for treatment to help? 0 0 5
502
The group could understand why it may be difficult for a parent, as they may take it personally and feel
that it is their fault. They suggested that parents can need reassurance and it may help them to talk
through the process. This could mean that the parents could meet the therapist first, or even get some
therapy first, as they may need it. This led neatly into their consideration of the second statement,
with a large majority of the group agreeing that parents may also need therapy. The group member who
had selected ‘amber’ said that this was because the parent may not need therapy as such, but may instead
need some guidance. The rest of the group agreed that support, rather than therapy, may be more
appropriate in some situations. Meeting other parents was seen as potentially helpful, possibly with
mothers’ and fathers’ groups run separately before being brought together.
The reason for the middle ‘amber’ position to statement 3 was that the group felt that it would depend on
the child’s views as to who their information should be shared with, including parents. However, they did
agree that other services would need to be informed if the child was in danger. There was agreement too
in response to statement 4. Group members felt that young people would have to feel comfortable with
their therapist for the therapy to be effective and this would mean feeling listened to and not feeling
judged. A downside to this, however, is that if the therapist leaves, as this could result in the young person
going back to their ‘old ways’. This led to a discussion about the nature of the therapeutic relationship:
that it should not be too personal, as it is a job for the therapist; they are not a ‘friend’, so the young
person should not become too attached to them.
The Professionals’ Advisory Group reflected on the significance of some of the factors that had been
identified as facilitators, including parental involvement in the therapeutic process, as results have indicated
that parent-plus-child therapy may be more effective than child-focused therapy alone. The foster carers
stressed that the parent/carer must be involved in the process and be aware of what’s happening.
For example, if a child wakes up at night having nightmares following a revelation made during therapy,
the parent/carer must know how to deal with this. It was acknowledged that carers can be involved in
different ways. One foster carer shared his/her experience of regular update meetings with the child’s
therapist, in which they do not hear about the details of the sessions but can consider any implications
arising from them. He/she felt that this arrangement had represented a balance between being sufficiently
‘in the loop’ and maintaining client confidentiality. A voluntary sector representative reminded the group
that many children do not have a ‘functioning adult’ in their lives, and that this would have to be
considered in any push towards greater carer involvement in the therapeutic process.
There was a nuanced discussion about the possibility of increasing the young person’s choice-making in
relation to their own therapy. There was some resistance to the idea that young people should be more
involved in deciding which type of therapy they should have, on the basis that they do not know or
understand enough about the choices with which they are presented. A suggestion from this followed –
that it may be more important to involve young people in discussions about the options for their therapy
rather than simply seeing it as their choice. The group confirmed the importance, underlined by the first
PAG, about the need to tailor interventions to individual children’s needs: ‘We cannot look at a child as a
set of symptoms, we must look at each individual as a whole.’ This discussion was grounded by the view
that choice and tailoring may not actually matter, given that young people are probably offered only
whatever intervention is available locally. Despite these constraints and the caveats above about
choice-making, the group considered that not enough was known about what outcomes children wanted
and that this should be a future research priority.
The Professionals’ Advisory Group considered implications arising from the lack of evidence of effectiveness
of interventions. A concern was raised about how any decisions on resource allocation or priorities could
be made based on such a limited evidence base. It was agreed that, other than for CBT, it was important
to emphasise for the other interventions that they should not be seen as ineffective, but that there is
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APPENDIX 15
currently no evidence of their effectiveness. Some group members were not surprised at the lack of
evidence of effectiveness for CBT at follow-up, for a couple of reasons:
l CBT is very limited in duration (often delivered over 12 weeks), which may not be sufficient given
the complexity of needs experienced by maltreated children.
l CBT may be inappropriate for children, given that it was originally designed for adults.
The group considered the importance that young people had attached to the outcome of safety. They
were concerned, however, to be careful when talking about ‘safety’ as an outcome, as it may be more
related to prevention, and this could be misunderstood, given some confusion between prevention and
early intervention. The group agreed that early intervention should be defined as an intervention that
occurs at ‘the first recognition of trouble’, regardless of the child’s age. It was suggested that the review
findings should be situated carefully within these discourses to avoid confusion and because of their
current salience in government policy.
The group also highlighted practice contexts that the review findings will be seen within. The issue that
came across most strongly concerned the pressures under which professionals are operating, including
budget cuts for local authorities, a large-scale turnover of social workers and a large number of vacancies
in social work departments. It was suggested that there is a risk that this review could add to the pressure
on professionals by promoting criticism of them from the lack of evidence of their effectiveness, and the
group was keen that this should be avoided.
Pressures on the professional system can help to explain, in part, why there can be little choice for the
service user as to the type of intervention offered, such that there is a risk that the service is offered
because it is available rather than because it is needed. There is also potentially a gap between the services
that are researched and reported on in this review and those that are offered more widely in practice.
There was agreement in the group that an urgent next step should be to conduct a survey of what services
are currently being offered to maltreated young people. This was one of a range of future research
priorities identified by the group, which included:
l access to psychosocial interventions and impact of different referral routes on the effectiveness
of interventions
l children’s views concerning desired outcomes
l mechanisms of change in therapy
l importance of therapist persona
l effects of the age of child on outcomes achieved by different interventions
l experience of maltreated children who are asymptomatic.
Summary
The advisory group process was arguably quite limited. Nevertheless, it achieved the purpose for which
it was designed. The early consultations provided a very helpful reminder of the range and diversity of
views about desired outcomes for psychosocial interventions. There were different narratives for the
relationships between different types of outcome and a definitional question about outcomes and
facilitators. This was a further reminder of the contested nature of this field. There was a range of views
too over the factors that were seen as facilitators of, and barriers to, change. This fed through into the
later consultation phase, which considered different possible interpretations of the findings. The later
consultation phase helped the project team to situate the findings within current policy and practice
contexts, which is essential for promoting engagement with, and use of, the findings.
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Appendix
Young People’s Advisory Group 1: 27 March 2013, Belfast
‘What difference would ‘helpful help’ make: Rank Notes

Helping the person to learn skills to handle life’s +4
‘ups’ and ‘downs’
Helping the person to feel safe +3

Helping the person to ‘bounce back’ if things in their +3
life go wrong
Helping the person to stop going over and over in +2

their mind the bad things that have happened to them
Helping the person to feel better about themselves +2
NEW CARD – Helping the person to not feel alone +2

and to recognise that they are not ‘different’ to other
people
(The group did not place any cards in the ‘+1’ column) +1
(The group did not place any cards in the ‘0’ column) 0
(The group did not place any cards in the ‘–1′ column) –1
(The group did not place any cards in the ‘–2′ column) –2
Helping the person to stop taking their problems out –3

on other people
Helping the person to look after their physical health –4
CARDS REMOVED
The group removed all of the following cards because they felt that they were all too specific to an individual situation, e.g.
it is not possible to rank whether eating properly is more important than not using drugs. A person with an eating disorder
would rank addressing that as a more important outcome than a person who was using drugs, and so forth
Helping the person to stop feeling sad or unhappy
Helping the person to stop worrying
Helping the person to stop wanting to hurt himself

or herself
Helping the person to eat well and not overeat or
eat too little
Helping the person to stop bullying other people
Helping the person to stop using too much alcohol

Helping the person to get on better with their friends
Helping someone who was stealing to stop
Helping the person to do their best at school
Helping the person to get on better with their family
Helping the person to stop using drugs
Helping the person to be happier
Helping the person to stop getting in fights

Helping to stop the person being bullied
Helping the person to feel less angry
Helping the person to control their temper
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APPENDIX 15
‘What difference would ‘helpful help’ make: Rank Notes
Helping the person to understand what being ‘treated

badly’ is, learning to recognise when things are not OK
Helping to person to learn ways to keep themself safe
(e.g. knowing when to report something and to whom
to report it)
Young People’s Advisory Group 2: 9 April 2013, Cardiff
What would ‘helpful help’ help with? Rank Notes
Helping the person to understand what being ‘treated 4 Both +4 rankings were made by one more-senior
badly’ is, learning to recognise when things are not OK member of the group
There was little discussion of these two rankings by

the rest of the group
Helping the person to learn ways to keep themself safe 4 Both +4 rankings were made by one, more senior
(e.g. knowing when to report something and to whom member of the group
to report it)
There was little discussion of these two rankings by
the rest of the group
Helping the person to ‘bounce back’ if things in their 3

life go wrong
Helping the person to feel safe 3
Helping the person to stop worrying 3 This was seen as a big problem for many in the group
They expressed how they often or always felt anxious

and worried about everything
Helping the person to control their temper 2 More than half of the group made reference to that
being relevant for them, or joked about needing
‘anger management’
Helping the person to stop feeling sad or unhappy 2 A number of people in the group said they suffered
badly with depression
Helping the person to feel better about themselves 1 Ranked highest of the ‘+1’ rankings
Helping the person to stop going over and over in 1

their mind the bad things that have happened to them
Helping the person to stop taking their problems out 1

on other people
Helping the person to be happier 0 Being happy was seen as a choice: ‘some people are
happy being miserable’
Helping the person to do their best at school 0 This was not seen as overly important by the majority,
but two participants expressed the view that doing
well at school is important to help you ‘get out’ or
get away from the bad situation you are in and make
a better life for yourself in the future
Helping the person to eat well and not overeat or 0 A number of people in the group mentioned not
eat too little eating right but this was not seen as a particularly
important problem to overcome
It was seen as being related to other bigger issues,

such as the overall stresses of their lives
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What would ‘helpful help’ help with? Rank Notes
Helping the person to look after their physical health 0 The items on drugs, alcohol and food were all seen
as relating to physical health and also a form of
self-harm
They felt that looking after your physical health

would include eating well, not abusing drugs and
alcohol
Helping to stop the person being bullied 0
Helping the person to learn skills to handle life’s –1 This one came out surprisingly low compared with
‘ups’ and ‘downs’ the rating from Young People’s Advisory Group 1
Helping the person to stop using drugs –1 The items on drugs, alcohol and food were all seen
as relating to physical health and also a form of
self-harm
They felt that looking after your physical health

would include eating well, not abusing drugs and
alcohol
Helping the person to stop using too much alcohol –1 ‘That’s a personal choice, some people can enjoy
drinking. It’s not always a problem for most people’
Helping the person to stop wanting to hurt himself –1

or herself
Helping the person to feel less angry –2 Controlling your temper was seen as more important
because sometimes getting angry is a good thing.
It can help you protect yourself and stop people
taking advantage of you
Helping the person to stop bullying other people –2
Helping the person to stop getting in fights –2 ‘That’s a personal choice’
Helping the person to get on better with their family –3
Helping the person to get on better with their friends –3 ‘If your friends don’t understand then you’ve got the
wrong friends’
Helping someone who was stealing to stop –4 This was not seen as a problem related to
maltreatment . . . ‘That’s an individual choice’,
‘If you can get something for free then get it’
One person rated this as more important than the

rest of the group as ‘getting into trouble or getting
caught could mess up your whole future’
Professional Advisory Group: 1 May 2013
Outcome domain Average ranking SD Number of groups Theme
Well-being 2.83 1.47 6 Well-being
Attachment 2.63 1.19 8 Attachment/emotion
Emotional development 1.88 1.73 8 Attachment/emotion

Keeping safe 1.86 1.95 7 Being/keeping safe
Placement stability 1.57 2.57 7 Placement stability
Peer relationships 1.50 1.20 8 Relationships
Depression 1.25 1.91 8 Mental health
507
APPENDIX 15
Outcome domain Average ranking SD Number of groups Theme
Cognitive 1.17 0.98 6 Neurological/cognitive
Anxiety 1.13 2.10 8 Mental health
Coping skills 1.13 1.64 8 Well-being
Academic 1.00 1.15 7 Attainment
Conduct/behaviour 0.88 1.55 8 Externalising behaviour

Intimate relationships 0.75 1.75 8 Relationships
Post-traumatic stress 0.75 2.05 8 Mental health
Physical health 0.57 2.30 7 Physical health
Family relationships 0.50 1.85 8 Relationships
Self-efficacy 0.50 1.85 8 Well-being
Self-regulation 0.29 1.11 7 Attachment/emotion
Neurodevelopmental 0.25 3.10 4 Neurological/cognitive

Socioeconomic 0.00 0.82 7 Attainment
Suicide prevention 0.00 2.00 8 Internalising behaviour
Violence/aggression –0.14 1.57 7 Externalising behaviour
Self-harm –0.38 1.92 8 Internalising behaviour
Criminality/legal –0.50 1.51 8 Externalising behaviour
Mental health literacy –0.60 1.14 5 Well-being
Substance abuse –0.86 1.35 7 Internalising behaviour
Eating disorders –1.80 1.48 5 Internalising behaviour

SD, standard deviation.
508
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HEALTH TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT

VOLUME 20 ISSUE 69 SEPTEMBER 2016

The effectiveness, acceptability and cost-effectiveness

Geraldine Macdonald, Nuala Livingstone, Jennifer Hanratty,

Geraldine Macdonald,1,2* Nuala Livingstone,1

Children (NSPCC), London, UK

Declared competing interests of authors: none

Published September 2016

Macdonald G, Livingstone N, Hanratty J, McCartan C, Cotmore R, Cary M, et al. The effectiveness,

Health Technology Assessment is indexed and abstracted in Index Medicus/MEDLINE, Excerpta

ISSN 1366-5278 (Print)

ISSN 2046-4924 (Online)

Impact factor: 4.058

Editorial contact: [email protected]

Criteria for inclusion in the Health Technology Assessment journal

NIHR Journals Library Editor-in-Chief

NIHR Journals Library Editors

Dr Martin Ashton-Key Consultant in Public Health Medicine/Consultant Advisor, NETSCC, UK

Dr Tessa Crilly Director, Crystal Blue Consulting Ltd, UK

Dr Eugenia Cronin Senior Scientific Advisor, Wessex Institute, UK

Ms Tara Lamont Scientific Advisor, NETSCC, UK

Professor John Norrie Health Services Research Unit, University of Aberdeen, UK

Dr Rob Riemsma Reviews Manager, Kleijnen Systematic Reviews Ltd, UK

Editorial contact: [email protected]

NIHR Journals Library www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk

The effectiveness, acceptability and cost-effectiveness of

Geraldine Macdonald,1,2* Nuala Livingstone,1 Jennifer Hanratty,1

*Corresponding author [email protected]

List of tables xvii

List of figures xix

List of boxes xxi

List of abbreviations xxiii

Plain English summary xxvii

Scientific summary xxix

Chapter 1 Background, aims and objectives 1

Chapter 2 Review methods 7

Data synthesis: effectiveness studies 16

Chapter 3 Description of studies 21

Chapter 4 Results 105

Economic analysis: cognitive–behavioural therapy 139

Risk of bias: randomised trials of Treatment Foster Care models 196

Chapter 5 Acceptability 211

Group work with children 255

Chapter 6 Discussion 311

Outcomes and measures 315

Appendix 1 Research team and Steering Group members 389

Appendix 2 Professional Advisory Group members 391

Appendix 3 Examples of search strategies for different database types 393

Appendix 4 Citations of included and excluded studies 399

Appendix 5 Types of interventions 421

Appendix 6 List of databases searched, with dates 429

Appendix 7 Other searches 431

Appendix 8 Checklist: quality of data within economic evaluations 433

Appendix 9 Outcome domains and measures used 435

Appendix 10 Risk-of-bias graphs for included randomised trials 441

Appendix 11 Summary of findings: cognitive–behavioural therapy for sexually

Appendix 12 Attrition analyses 473

Appendix 13 Overview of acceptability evidence by intervention group 479

Appendix 14 Overview of acceptability evidence by study interventions 481