EMJ 16302 PRINCPLES OF

ENGINEERING MATERIALS

SEM 1 2023/2024

Chapter 9: Electrical & Magnetic

Materials
REVIEWS
 Chapter 5

 Stress and Strain;

 Tension test,
 Compression tests,
 Shear and torsional tests;
 Elastic Deformation- Stress-Strain Behaviour; Plastic
Deformation-Tensile
 Properties; True Stress-True Strain; Hardness
 Calculation will be discuss in Tutorial
Chapter 6

 Solute + Solvent = Solution

 Phase
 PHASE DIAGRAMS
 Microstructure (Poster presentation}
 Chapter 7

 Mechanisms of strengthening in metals

❑Strengthening by grain size reduction
❑Solid-solution strengthening
❑Strain hardening
❑Recovery
❑Recrystallization
❑Grain growth
 Chapter 8 metal alloy

 You should be able to state examples of ferrous and non-

ferrous metal.

 you should be able to differentiate between low and high

carbon steel and cast iron.

 You should be able to state the properties of 4 non-ferrous

alloys; Mg, Cu, Ti and Al and relate the properties to suitable
applications of these metals
Chapter 9: Electrical & Magnetic
Materials
8

Electrical
 Conductivity & Electron Transport
9

 Only electrons with energies greater than the

Fermi energy may be acted on and
accelerated in the presence of an electric
field.
 These are the electrons that participate in the
conduction process, which are termed free
electrons.
 The electrical conductivity is a direct function of
the numbers of free electrons and holes.
 The distinction between conductors and non-
conductors (insulators and semiconductors) lies
in the numbers of these free electron and hole
charge carriers.
Conductivity & Electron Transport - Metal
10
 For an electron to become free, it must be excited or
promoted into one of the empty and available
energy states above Ef.
 Here are vacant energy states adjacent to the highest
filled state at, Ef.
 Thus, very little energy is required to promote
electrons into the low-lying empty state. Generally, the
energy provided by an electric field is sufficient to excite
large numbers of electrons into these conducting states.
 Conductivity & Electron Transport-
11
Insulator and Semiconductor
 For insulators and semiconductors, empty states adjacent to
the top of the filled valence band are not available.
 To become free, therefore, electrons must be promoted across
the energy band gap and into empty states at the bottom of
the conduction band.
 This is possible only by supplying to an electron the difference
in energy between these two states, which is approximately
equal to the band gap energy, Eg.
 Conductivity & Electron Transport-
12 Insulator and Semiconductor
 The number of electrons excited thermally (by heat
energy) into the conduction band depends on the
energy band gap width as well as temperature.
 At a given temperature, the larger the Eg, the lower is
the probability that a valence electron will be
promoted into an energy state within the
conduction band; thus fewer conduction electrons.
 In other words, the larger the band gap, the lower is
the electrical conductivity at a given temperature.
 Thus, the distinction between semiconductors and
insulators lies in the width of the band gap; for
semiconductors it is narrow, whereas for insulating
materials it is relatively wide.
Electron Mobility
13

 When an electric field is applied, the free electrons due

a force is experience an acceleration in a direction
opposite to that of the field, by virtue of their negative
charge.
 No interaction between an accelerating electron and
atoms-perfect crystal lattice.
 Thus, all the free electrons should accelerate give rise to
an electric current that is continuously increasing with
time.
 However, a current reaches a constant value
indicating that there exist ”frictional forces,”
 These frictional forces result from the scattering of
electrons by imperfections in the crystal lattice,
including impurity atoms, vacancies, interstitial atoms,
dislocations, and even the thermal vibrations of the
atoms themselves.
Electrical Conductivity
14
• Ohm's Law:
V = I R
voltage drop (volts = J/C) resistance (Ohms)
C = Coulomb current (amps = C/s)
A
(cross e- I
sect.
area) V
L
• Resistivity, r and Conductivity, s:
-- geometry-independent forms of Ohm's Law
-- Resistivity is a material property & is independent of sample

E: electric V I resistivity
 r (Ohm-m)
field L A
intensity J: current density
1
• Resistance: rL L conductivity s
R  r
A As
 Conductivity: Comparison
15
• Room T values (Ohm-m)-1 = ( - m)-1
METALS conductors CERAMICS
-10
Silver 6.8 x 10 7 Soda-lime glass 10 -10-11
Copper 6.0 x 10 7 Concrete 10 -9
Iron 1.0 x 10 7 Aluminum oxide <10-13

SEMICONDUCTORS POLYMERS
-14
Silicon 4 x 10 -4 Polystyrene <10
Germanium 2 x 10 0 Polyethylene 10 -15-10-17
GaAs 10 -6
semiconductors insulators
Selected values from Tables 18.1, 18.3, and 18.4, Callister 7e.
16 Exercise…..try to do..

What is the difference between

the energy band structures and
Electrical conductivity of an
insulator, semiconductor and
metal?
17
Semi conductivity

Intrinsic semiconductors: those in

which the electrical behaviour is based
on the electronic structure inherent in
the pure material.
Extrinsic Semiconductor: the electrical
characteristics are dictated by impurity
atoms.
18 Intrinsic Semiconductor

Germanium Silicon
 Semiconductor Devices
19
The Transistor
Semiconductors in Computers
 Integrated circuits: sometimes called “chips,”
 A photograph of one such wafer containing numerous chips.
 Contains millions of circuit elements: diodes, transistors,
resistors, and capacitors.
20

Magnetic material
What is Magnetic properties of Materials ?

It is common characteristics of Materials . Magnetic properties of material

involve concept based on the magnetic dipole moment. Some of the material
has the ability to create internal Dipole moment . For this reason this kinds of
material present special type of properties. Some common characteristics of
this material is …
1. attracting other magnetic material.
2. Inducing pole in this material .
3. The polarity of two pole are opposite .

21 4.When magnetizing occurring then some parameter of

material is changed ( Current I, Magnetic flux )
 BASIC CONCEPTS
Magnetic Dipoles
 The magnetic field distributions as indicated by lines of
force exist in magnetic materials
 small bar magnets composed of north and south poles
represented by arrows influenced by magnetic fields
 Example: a magnetic compass needle lines up with the
earth’s magnetic field
 BASIC CONCEPTS
Magnetic Field Vectors
 The externally applied magnetic field or the magnetic
field strength is designated by H.
 If the magnetic field is generated by means of a
cylindrical coil (or solenoid) consisting of N closely
spaced turns, having a length l, and carrying a current
of magnitude I, then:

 Units: ampere-turns per meter.

 BASIC CONCEPTS
Magnetic Field Vectors
 The magnetic induction, or magnetic flux density B:
represents the magnitude of the internal field strength
within a substance that is subjected to an H field.
 Unit: teslas [or webers per square meter]
 The magnetic field strength and flux density given by:
The relative permeability, :
The permeability or
relative permeability
Permeability (H/m) of a material is a
measure of the degree
to which the material
 In a vacuum, can be magnetized, or
which a B field can be
flux induced in the
permeability of a vacuum (4π x presence of an
density
10-7 (1.257 x 10-6 H/m) external H field.
within a
vacuum
 BASIC CONCEPTS
Magnetic Field Vectors
 M, is called the magnetization of the solid defined as:
In the presence of an H field, the
magnetic moments within a material
tend to become aligned with the field
and to reinforce it by virtue of their
magnetic fields

 The magnitude of M is proportional to the applied field

as follows:

magnetic susceptibility,
unitless
Types of Magnetic Material

The magnetic behavior of materials can be

classified into the following five major groups:

1. Diamagnetism
2. Paramagnetism
3. Ferromagnetism
26

Magnetic properties of Materials

 Diamagnetism

Diamagnetism is a fundamental property of all matter, although it is usually very

weak. It is due to the non-cooperative behavior of orbiting electrons when exposed
to an applied magnetic field. Diamagnetic substances are composed of atoms
which have no net magnetic moments (ie., all the orbital shells are filled and there
are no unpaired electrons). However, when exposed to a field, a negative
magnetization is produced and thus the susceptibility is negative. If we plot M vs
H, we see:

27

Magnetic properties of Materials

 Paramagnetism
This class of materials, some of the atoms or ions in the material have a net
magnetic moment due to unpaired electrons in partially filled orbitals. One of the
most important atoms with unpaired electrons is iron. However, the individual
magnetic moments do not interact magnetically, and like diamagnetism, the
magnetization is zero when the field is removed. In the presence of a field, there is
now a partial alignment of the atomic magnetic moments in the direction of the
field, resulting in a net positive magnetization and positive susceptibility.

28

Magnetic properties of Materials

 Ferromagnetism

When you think of magnetic materials, you probably think of iron, nickel or
magnetite. Unlike paramagnetic materials, the atomic moments in these materials
exhibit very strong interactions. These interactions are produced by electronic
exchange forces and result in a parallel or antiparallel alignment of atomic
moments. Exchange forces are very large, equivalent to a field on the order of
1000 Tesla, or approximately a 100 million times the strength of the earth's field.

29

Magnetic properties of Materials

 Application Of Magnetic property

In real world there many operation of magnetic property . This property is use as
two form as Electromagnetic field and magnetic field .
Electronic Motor and Generator
An electric motor that uses electromagnets
in the spinning stator to turn. There is an
electrical 'slip-ring' on the stator that directs
the power to a different magnet section of the
stator
30 to achieve rotation. Quick & dirty, but t
here are books written on the subject.

Magnetic properties of Materials

 Magnetic storage

Magnetic storage and magnetic recording are terms from engineering

referring to the storage of data on a magnetized medium. Magnetic storage uses
different patterns of magnetization in a magnetizable material to store data and is a
form of non-volatile memory. The information is accessed using one or more
read/write heads.

31

Magnetic properties of Materials

 Magnetic bearing

A magnetic bearing is a bearing which supports a load using magnetic

levitation. Magnetic bearings support moving machinery without physical contact,
for example, they can levitate a rotating shaft and permit relative motion with very
low friction and no mechanical wear.

32

Magnetic properties of Materials

 Magnetic separator and Holding Device

Magnetic separator for particle size less than 3mm magnetite, pyrrhotite,
ilmenite and other materials, wet magnetic separation, but also for coal, non-
metallic minerals, building materials and other materials in addition to iron
work.Available downstream, semi-reflux, reflux-type and other forms of magnetic
separator, cylinder surface magnetic field strength can be produced according to
the actual use of the special.

33

Magnetic properties of Materials

Magnetic property in Medical
The Attraction of Magnet Therapy
Some magnets are multipolar, with both the north and south poles facing
the patient/desired body part, often with manufacturers touting that their
circular or checkerboard or triangular pattern is in some way superior. But this
also further limits how far the magnetic field reaches. Any effect inside the
body must be limited to a few millimeters, only skin deep.

34

Magnetic properties of Materials

Magnetic Resonance Angiogram (MRA)
A magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) is a type of magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) scan that uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy
to provide pictures of blood vessels inside the body. In many cases MRA can
provide information that can't be obtained from an X-ray, ultrasound, or
computed tomography (CT) scan.

35

Magnetic properties of Materials

 Using In Security System

Burglar alarm

Passive magnetic field detection

This buried security system is based on the Magnetic Anomaly Detection
principle of operation. The system uses an electromagnetic field generator
powered by two wires running in parallel. Both wires run along the perimeter and
are usually installed about 5 inches apart on top of a wall or about 12"/30 cm
below ground. The wires are connected to a signal processor which analyzes any
change in the magnetic field.
36

Magnetic properties of Materials

Eddy current brake
An eddy current brake, like a conventional friction brake, is responsible for
slowing an object, such as a train or a roller coaster. However, unlike electro-
mechanical brakes, which apply mechanical pressure on two separate objects,
eddy current brakes slow an object by creating eddy currents through
electromagnetic induction which create resistance, and in turn either heat or
electricity.

37

Magnetic properties of Materials

Magnetic relays
A type of overload relay that senses the strength of the magnetic field that
the current flow produces. Magnetic relays are often used in areas that
experience extreme changes in temperature.

38

Magnetic properties of Materials

39

End of Chapter 9
QUIZ 2