FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC NEKEDE

P.M.B 1036 OWERRI IMO STATE

ASSIGNMENT ON

DO A DETAIL STUDY ON THE FOLLOWING:

 COASTAL EROSION
 OIL SPILAGE
 GLOBAL WARMING
 LAND RECLAMATION
 STRIP MINNING

WRITTEN BY

NAMES: ENEMUO CHIDERA DAVID

DEPT: ESTATE MANAGEMENT

LEVEL: HND 1 EVENING

COURSE TITLE: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

COURSE CODE: EST 318

LECTURER:

DATE: FEBRUARY 2024

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 COASTAL EROSION

Introduction

The land ward displacement of the shoreline caused by the forces of waves and currents is termed as
Coastal Erosion. The Coastal areas have become more prone and vulnerable to natural and human
made hazards which lead to Coastal Erosion. The Shoreline retreat is recognized as a burgeoning
threat because of global climate change and other anthropogenic activities that alter the natural
processes of sustaining beaches and coasts. Coastal Erosion mainly occurs when wind, waves and long
shore currents move sand from shore and deposit it somewhere else. The sand can be moved to
another beach, to the deeper ocean bottom, into an ocean trench or onto the landside of a dune. The
removal of the sand from the sand sharing system results in permanent changes in beach shape and
structure. The impact of the event is not seen immediately as in the case of Tsunami or Storm Surge
but it is equally important when we consider loss of property. It generally takes months or years to
note the impact of Erosion; therefore, this is generally classified as a “Long Term Coastal Hazard”.
The present paper attempts to describe a Review on Coastal Erosion Process, Parameters’ affecting,
and methodologies are adopted to identify the erosion and recommend a solution

Shoreline or coastline, the boundary between land and sea, keeps changing its shape and position
continuously due to dynamic environmental conditions. Various developmental projects are made in
shoreline areas, placing great pressure on it, leading to diverse coastal hazards like soil erosion, sea
water intrusion, coral bleaching, shoreline change; etc. Considering Coastal erosion, it is a global
problem affecting almost every country around the world having a coastline. It’s a hazard effecting the
shoreline or coastline pertaining to several changes in the climate, atmospheric disturbances and
constant changes in the water bodies.

However, globally it is estimated that about 60% of the population is dwelling in the coastal
environments. Although the coastal environment can retain some degree of natural character,
increased human modification reduces the “naturalness” (Dahm, 2000). The accelerated release into
the atmosphere of Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses has resulted in a projected global
warming of about 3˚C by the year 2030 (Davis & Fitzgerald 2010).

This increase would be enough to raise the global sea level by as much as 5 m in a few centuries
(Davis & Fitzgerald 2010), which is a short time in terms of human occupation of the coast. This
phenomenon has the tendency to expose a significant proportion of vulnerable coastal areas to
flooding and destruction of habitats for migratory birds and other endangered species. Occurring in
synchrony with these continual changes is the recession of shorelines, estimated to occur on coastal
population and infrastructure of major economic and cultural importance in almost all coastal regions
globally. The location of the shoreline and changing position of this boundary through time are of
elemental importance to coastal scientists, engineers and managers (Douglas & Crowell 2000). Relief
and development agencies also depend on such information to facilitate development of effective
measures to prevent, mitigate or manage disasters. Both sustainable coastal management and
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engineering design require information about where the shoreline is, where it has been in the past, and
where it is predicted to be in the future. Such information is required in the design of coastal protection
(Coastal Engineering Research Centre 1984), to calibrate and verify numerical models (Hanson et al.
1988), to assess sea-level rise (Leatherman 2001) and to develop hazard zones. Remote Sensing helps
to replace the conservative survey data by its rhythmic and less cost-effectiveness.

Several studies using satellite data have proven its efficiency in understanding various coastal
processes (Wagner et al. 1991; Ahmed and Neil 1994; Anbarasu et al., 1999; Makota et al., 2004;
Mani Murali et al., 2009; Boutiba and Bouakline 2011). Space technologies have the capability to
provide information over a large area on a repetitive basis, and therefore, it’s very useful in identifying
and monitoring various coastal features. Douglas, Crowell & Leatherman 1998, formulate policies to
regulate coastal developments (National Research Council 1990), and to assist with legal property
boundary definition (Morton & Speed 1998) as well as coastal research and monitoring (Smith &
Jackson 1992).

Causes and Impacts of Coastal Erosion to the environment

A coastline is a complex series of interlinked physical systems in which both offshore and onshore
processes are involved. Coastal Erosion is one of these physical processes, wearing away and
redisturbing solid elements of the shoreline as well as sediment, normally by such natural forces as
waves, tidal and littoral currents and deflation. The coastal sediments, together with those arising from
inland erosion and transported seaward by rivers, are redistributed along the coast, providing material
for dunes, beaches, marshes and reefs. Coastal Erosion is usually the result of a combination of factors
both natural and human induced operating on different scales. Erosion is defined as the encroachment
of land by the sea after average over a period which is sufficiently long to eliminate the impacts of
weather, storm events and local sediment dynamics (such as Sand Waves) [3]. Coastal Erosion results
in three different types of impact like: Loss of land with economical value (such as the beaches) or
with ecological value; a specific mechanism is the collapse of properties located on the top of cliffs
and dunes.

Merits of coastal erosion

There are economic advantages to coastal development because coastlines are popular tourist
destinations Coastal development negatively impacts coastal ecosystems by contributing to climate
change, increasing ocean acidification, and threatening coral reef ecosystems.

Demerits of coastal erosion

Erosion could also damages transport infrastructure (roads and rail) by flooding and /or eroding
roads. Changes in sedimentation around the coastline could affect navigation routes. Coastal and
harbour walkways/cycleways can also be at risk. This infrastructure has been paid for by residents
through rates and tax.

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 OIL SPILLAGE

Introduction

As the word suggest, it is the release or escape of oil into the sea or any other water body. In other
words, oil spills can be defined as contamination of water bodies due to spilling of oil due to
negligence of humans or an accident. This term oil spills is generally associated with marine oil spills
where the oil is released directly to the deep sea. The oil spills include any type of crude oil or any
type of distilled oil like kerosene, lubricating oil, diesel fuels, gasoline, hydraulic oil and jet fuels. This
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oil spill can be a few gallons to millions of gallons. The costs incurred in cleaning of these spills are
enormous and it can take months and years. The oil spill act was passed in 1990 and further revised in
1994 to prepare and prevent oil spills.

An oil spill is any arbitrary discharge of liquid oil (crude or refined) that pollutes the land, air, and
water, hurting the entire ecosystem. An oil spill brings about contamination of the environment and, as
such, threatens the health of everything in the affected areas.

Types of Oil Spills

Class A oil: Is the most toxic oil. It is light and spreads quite easily. It has a very strong smell. This
type of oil soaks into the soil and easily mixes with water. Crude oil, jet fuel and gasoline come under
class A oil. This adversely affects the marine life and humans.

Class B oil: are less toxic than compare to class A oil. These are non sticky oils which can cause long
term contamination and are highly inflammable. Kerosene, heating oil and low quality crude oil come
under this category.

Class C oil: are thick and heavy oil that do not penetrate or dilute into water and soil quickly. They
produce a sticky film on the surface and cause severe contamination. Variants of crude oil, bunker B
and bunker C oil come under this category

Class D oil: Is considered solid oils. These are the least toxic oils that harden when heated. The
cleaning up of this oil is impossible.

Non petroleum oil: Is this type of oil that penetrates into the soil and water easily and cause severe
damage. Synthetic oils derived from animal and plant fat comes under this category.

Causes for Oil Spills

1. Natural causes: some of the oil spills occur due to natural causes. Sometimes oil may seep out
from the bottom of oceans when sedimentary rocks degradate due natural process at the bottom
of the ocean floor. terrorist act is another cause of an oil spill. When militants vandalize an
oil platform, spillage occurs and invariably pollutes the water within the environment. Also
affected are humans and all living organisms in the entire area.

2. Human causes : oil spills due to various man made reasons like
o negligence and lack of awareness
o lack of proper technology
o leakage during transportation and storage
o lack of proper maintenance of oil vessels
o due to accidents

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Effects of Oil Spills

Effects on marine life: oil spills have negative impact on the marine animals. Since most of the oil
floats in water, the sunlight absorbing capacity of the water decreases. Thus, the oxygen withholding
capacity and the percentage of oxygen in water decreases. This affects the marine animals as there is
less oxygen in water. Due to water pollution, immunity of the marine animals reduces leading to its
death. The reproductive capacity of the females diminishes due to pollution which will lead to
extinction of the species. Marine mammals like whales and dolphins also get affected as the oil clogs
their blowholes making it impossible for the animals to breathe. Their ability to communicate also gets
affected due to oil spills. Most of the plants get affected due to oil spills and they vanish from the
ocean bed. This affects the global food chain.

Effect on environment: oil spills is serious environmental pollution. A lot of toxins are flushed into
the atmosphere and soil. When oil is spilled, the soil absorbs it. This in turn mixes with the water table
below. The natural vegetation, agriculture, plants, shrubs and even trees get affected as they absorb
this toxic water from beneath. Thus the whole are become unsuitable due to infertility. The natural
habitat of the birds, their nesting and breeding grounds gets disrupted due to oil spills on the ground.
This oil can be deadly to the flying birds also. The birds sometimes get coated with oil which makes
them vulnerable to hypothermia (fluctuations in body temperature) and reduces the ability to fly. The
pray also gets coated with oil which when consumed by the birds causes damage to the internal organs
leading to death.

How to Prevent Oil Spill

Laws and Regulations:

Some countries have strict legislation against oil pollution, while others don’t, thereby giving room for
some producers to pollute the environment.

Adequate training:
Exploration companies should provide proper training for their drillers if they are committed to
preventing oil spills. Also, crew members in charge of ship-to-ship cargo transfer must have the
necessary knowledge of cargo transshipment.

Vessels and pipelines maintenance:

It is not enough to check vessels and pipelines for leakages; you should also change ruptured pipes and
ensure the vessel’s hulls are in good condition. Also, do whatever you can to make sure the tankers do
not break down in the middle of the ocean

GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth's surface observed since the pre-industrial period
(between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-
trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth's atmosphere. Global warming is a phenomenon of climate
change characterized by a general increase in average temperatures of the Earth, which modifies the weather
balances and ecosystems for a long time. It is directly linked to the increase of greenhouse gases in our
atmosphere, worsening the greenhouse effect.
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Causes of Global Warming

Generating power

Generating electricity and heat by burning fossil fuels causes a large chunk of global emissions. Most
electricity is still generated by burning coal, oil, or gas, which produces carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide –
powerful greenhouse gases that blanket the Earth and trap the sun’s heat. Globally, a bit more than a quarter
of electricity comes from wind, solar and other renewable sources which, as opposed to fossil fuels, emit
little to no greenhouse gases or pollutants into the air.

Manufacturing goods

Manufacturing and industry produce emissions, mostly from burning fossil fuels to produce energy for
making things like cement, iron, steel, electronics, plastics, clothes, and other goods. Mining and other
industrial processes also release gases, as does the construction industry. Machines used in the
manufacturing process often run on coal, oil, or gas; and some materials, like plastics, are made from
chemicals sourced from fossil fuels. The manufacturing industry is one of the largest contributors to
greenhouse gas emissions worldwide.

Cutting down forests

Cutting down forests to create farms or pastures, or for other reasons, causes emissions, since trees, when
they are cut, release the carbon they have been storing. Each year approximately 12 million hectares of
forest are destroyed. Since forests absorb carbon dioxide, destroying them also limits nature’s ability to keep
emissions out of the atmosphere. Deforestation, together with agriculture and other land use changes, is
responsible for roughly a quarter of global greenhouse gas emissions.

Using transportation

Most cars, trucks, ships, and planes run on fossil fuels. That makes transportation a major contributor of
greenhouse gases, especially carbon-dioxide emissions. Road vehicles account for the largest part, due to
the combustion of petroleum-based products, like gasoline, in internal combustion engines. But emissions
from ships and planes continue to grow. Transport accounts for nearly one quarter of global energy-related
carbon-dioxide emissions. And trends point to a significant increase in energy use for transport over the
coming years.

Producing food

Producing food causes emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases in various ways,
including through deforestation and clearing of land for agriculture and grazing, digestion by cows and
sheep, the production and use of fertilizers and manure for growing crops, and the use of energy to run farm

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equipment or fishing boats, usually with fossil fuels. All this makes food production a major contributor to
climate change. And greenhouse gas emissions also come from packaging and distributing food.

Powering buildings

Globally, residential and commercial buildings consume over half of all electricity. As they continue to
draw on coal, oil, and natural gas for heating and cooling, they emit significant quantities of greenhouse gas
emissions. Growing energy demand for heating and cooling, with rising air-conditioner ownership, as well
as increased electricity consumption for lighting, appliances, and connected devices, has contributed to a
rise in energy-related carbon-dioxide emissions from buildings in recent years.

Consuming too much

Your home and use of power, how you move around, what you eat and how much you throw away all
contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. So does the consumption of goods such as clothing, electronics, and
plastics. A large chunk of global greenhouse gas emissions are linked to private households. Our lifestyles
have a profound impact on our planet. The wealthiest bear the greatest responsibility: the richest 1 per cent
of the global population combined account for more greenhouse gas emissions than the poorest 50 per cent.

Effect of Global Warming on Environment

Hotter temperatures

As greenhouse gas concentrations rise, so does the global surface temperature. The last decade, 2011-2020,
is the warmest on record. Since the 1980s, each decade has been warmer than the previous one. Nearly all
land areas are seeing more hot days and heat waves. Higher temperatures increase heat-related illnesses and
make working outdoors more difficult. Wildfires start more easily and spread more rapidly when conditions
are hotter. Temperatures in the Arctic have warmed at least twice as fast as the global average.

More severe storms

Destructive storms have become more intense and more frequent in many regions. As temperatures rise,
more moisture evaporates, which exacerbates extreme rainfall and flooding, causing more destructive
storms. The frequency and extent of tropical storms is also affected by the warming ocean. Cyclones,
hurricanes, and typhoons feed on warm waters at the ocean surface. Such storms often destroy homes and
communities, causing deaths and huge economic losses.

Increased drought

Climate change is changing water availability, making it scarcer in more regions. Global warming
exacerbates water shortages in already water-stressed regions and is leading to an increased risk of
agricultural droughts affecting crops, and ecological droughts increasing the vulnerability of ecosystems.
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Droughts can also stir destructive sand and dust storms that can move billions of tons of sand across
continents. Desserts are expanding, reducing land for growing food. Many people now face the threat of not
having enough water on a regular basis.

A warming, rising ocean

The ocean soaks up most of the heat from global warming. The rate at which the ocean is warming strongly
increased over the past two decades, across all depths of the ocean. As the ocean warms, its volume
increases since water expands as it gets warmer. Melting ice sheets also cause sea levels to rise, threatening
coastal and island communities. In addition, the ocean absorbs carbon dioxide, keeping it from the
atmosphere. But more carbon dioxide makes the ocean more acidic, which endangers marine life and coral
reefs.

Loss of species

Climate change poses risks to the survival of species on land and in the ocean. These risks increase as
temperatures climb. Exacerbated by climate change, the world is losing species at a rate 1,000 times greater
than at any other time in recorded human history. One million species are at risk of becoming extinct within
the next few decades. Forest fires, extreme weather, and invasive pests and diseases are among many threats
related to climate change. Some species will be able to relocate and survive, but others will not.

Not enough food

Changes in the climate and increases in extreme weather events are among the reasons behind a global rise
in hunger and poor nutrition. Fisheries, crops, and livestock may be destroyed or become less productive.
With the ocean becoming more acidic, marine resources that feed billions of people are at risk. Changes in
snow and ice cover in many Arctic regions have disrupted food supplies from herding, hunting, and fishing.
Heat stress can diminish water and grasslands for grazing, causing declining crop yields and affecting
livestock.

More health risks

Climate change is the single biggest health threat facing humanity. Climate impacts are already harming
health, through air pollution, disease, extreme weather events, forced displacement, pressures on mental
health, and increased hunger and poor nutrition in places where people cannot grow or find sufficient food.
Every year, environmental factors take the lives of around 13 million people. Changing weather patterns are
expanding diseases, and extreme weather events increase deaths and make it difficult for health care systems
to keep up.

Poverty and displacement

Climate change increases the factors that put and keep people in poverty. Floods may sweep away urban
slums, destroying homes and livelihoods. Heat can make it difficult to work in outdoor jobs. Water scarcity
may affect crops. Over the past decade (2010–2019), weather-related events displaced an estimated 23.1
million people on average each year, leaving many more vulnerable to poverty. Most refugees come from
countries that are most vulnerable and least ready to adapt to the impacts of climate change.

Global Warming Prevention

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Renewable energies
The first way to prevent climate change is to move away from fossil fuels. What are the alternatives?
Renewable energies like solar, wind, biomass and geothermal.

Energy & water efficiency

Producing clean energy is essential, but reducing our consumption of energy and water by using more
efficient devices (e.g. LED light bulbs, innovative shower systems) is less costly and equally important.

Sustainable transportation
Promoting public transportation, carpooling, but also electric and hydrogen mobility, can definitely help
reduce CO2 emissions and thus fight global warming.

Sustainable infrastructure
In order to reduce the CO2 emissions from buildings - caused by heating, air conditioning, hot water or
lighting - it is necessary both to build new low energy buildings, and to renovate the existing constructions.
Sustainable agriculture & forest management
Encouraging better use of natural resources, stopping massive deforestation as well as making agriculture
greener and more efficient should also be a priority.

Responsible consumption & recycling

Adopting responsible consumption habits is crucial, be it regarding food (particularly meat), clothing,
cosmetics or cleaning products. Last but not least, recycling is an absolute necessity for dealing with waste.

LAND RECLAIMATION
Land reclamation, usually known as reclamation, and also known as land fill (not to be confused with
a waste landfill), is the process of creating new land from oceans, seas, riverbeds or lake beds. The
land reclaimed is known as reclamation ground, reclaimed land, or land fill. In some jurisdictions,
including parts of the United States,[1] the term "reclamation" can refer to returning disturbed lands to
an improved state. In Alberta, Canada, for example, reclamation is defined by the provincial
government as "The process of reconverting disturbed land to its former or other productive
uses."[2] In Oceania, it is frequently referred to as land rehabilitation.
Methods of Land Reclamation
Land reclamation can be achieved by a number of different methods. The simplest method involves
filling the area with large amounts of heavy rock and/or cement, then filling with clay and dirt until the
desired height is reached. The process is called "infilling" and the material used to fill the space is
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generally called "infill". Draining of submerged wetlands is often used to reclaim land
for agricultural use. Deep cement mixing is used typically in situations in which the material displaced
by either dredging or draining may be contaminated and hence needs to be contained. Land dredging is
also another method of land reclamation. It is the removal of sediments and debris from the bottom of
a body of water. It is commonly used for maintaining reclaimed land masses as sedimentation, a
natural process, fills channels and harbors
Reclamation is the combined process by which adverse environmental effects of surface minning are
minimized and mined lands are returned to a beneficial end use. End users may be open space, wildlife
habitat, agriculture, or residential and commercial development.

Reason for Land Reclamation

Insufficient land: People embark on land reclamation because of small size of their land. In other to expand
the existing land, they therefore embark on land reclamation. Population pressure: As the population increases,
the need arises to reclaim existing lands that have been occupied by water

Merits and Demerits of Land Reclamation

Advantages: More land has been made available for development. More buildings and infrastructure
can be built, and also for other reasons. Disadvantages: Much greenery has been removed in order for
the land needed. Land reclamation can be damaging to corals and marine life.
Land reclamation leads to sea-level rise that can be much higher than background levels of local and
global rises. This land will likely be impacted first when the climate worsens. As the world races to
consume more we are cannibalising the very systems that give us life.
Land reclamation though with its many benefits has certain disadvantages. Land reclamation is
associated with some dangers, such as flooding and soil liquefaction and reclaimed lands are
expensive and can be damaging to corals and marine life. It also changes the quality of the
surrounding areas of water.
Reclamation processes also result in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from vehicles and machinery
fuel use and through the release of carbon stored in vegetation, soils and sediment in mangroves and
sea grass ecosystem.

STRIP MINNING

Introduction

Strip mining is employed in coal reserves where the overburden is removed in rectangular blocks in
plan view called pits or strips. The pits are parallel and adjacent to each other. Strip mining is
fundamentally different from contour or area mining on how the overburden is displaced, called spoil
handling. In contour or area stripping, the overburden is hauled with different equipment than what
digs or removes the overburden. In strip mining, the overburden is mined and moved by the same

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equipment: draglines or continuous excavators. The movement of overburden in strip mining is called
the casting process.

The operating sequence for each pit includes drilling and blasting, followed by overburden casting,
then coal removal. Some overlap exists in operational steps between pits. Draglines and continuous
excavators move or displace the overburden from the active pit to the previous pit that has had the coal
removed.
The primary planning mechanism used in strip mining is the range diagram, which is a cross-sectional
plan of the shape of the pit in various stages of mining. The range diagram allows the dragline or
continuous excavator equipment characteristics of dig depth, reach, and physical size to be placed on
the geologic dimensions of depth to seams (overburden), and depth between seams (interburden). By
comparing machinery specifications with dimensional characteristics of the geology, the mine
designer can plan the pit width and dig depth (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

As the dragline or continuous excavator moves the overburden to the adjacent empty pit where the
coal has been removed, the rock swells in volume. Earth or rock increases in volume, called the swell
factor, when the material is removed from its in situ or in-ground state and placed into a pit or on the
surface. The range diagram allows the mine planner to identify the equipment dump height required to
keep the displaced overburden (spoil) from crowding the machinery and mining operations. In certain
cases of mining multiple coal seams from one pit, a coal seam can provide the boundary between the
prestrip and strip elevations.

In a relatively new technique that originated in 1970s to early 1980s, explosives are used to move or
throw the overburden into the previous pit in a process called cast blasting. The difference in the
quantity of explosives required to fragment rock in place versus fragment and cast or throw the rock
across the active pit and into the previous pit is cost-effective. Many surface strip mines use explosives
to move overburden in addition to the primary swing equipment (dragline or continuous excavator),
displacing up to 35% of the overburden by cast blasting. When cast blasting is used, the dragline may
excavate from the spoil side of the pit, sitting on the leveled, blasted overburden.

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Surface mine design principles emanate from the operational characteristics of surface mining, which
are drilling and blasting, spoil handling, coal removal, and haulage. Except in a few circumstances,
overburden in surface mining requires the rock to be fractured by explosives to allow it to be
excavated. The goal of drill and blast design is to optimize rock fracturing, which optimizes digging
productivity. Fracturing is optimized by using the correct amount of explosive per cubic yard of
overburden employed in the drill hole spacing in plan view. The amount of explosive in weight per
cubic yard of overburden is called the powder factor. Drill and blast design is accomplished by
empirical methods and by experience. The drill hole layout and powder factor change when cast
blasting is utilized.

Spoil handling design is of critical importance, as this function is usually the most expensive cost
element in surface mining. When the surface mining method utilizes trucks, spoil handling is designed
to minimize the overall haul distance for logical units of spoil volume, which may be driven by pit
layout, topography, or area stripping requirements. Mine plan alternatives are evaluated to minimize
the distance that spoil volumes are moved from the beginning centroid of mass to the ending centroid
of mass. Spoil handling design goals for strip mining surface methods that utilize draglines and
continuous excavators also include the minimization of spoil haulage distance. For the dragline, the
average swing angle is identified by evaluating alternative mine plan layouts. The goal is to minimize
the swing angle, which maximizes productivity.

The goals of coal removal and haulage design in surface mining include minimizing the distance coal
is hauled from pits to surface processing and loadout facilities in near term years, locating haul road
ramps out of the pits to minimize interference with overburden removal, and engaging excavation
practices and equipment that minimize coal dilution by mining noncoal rock floor.

Surface mining has two design parameters that affect mine cost, which are minimizing rehandle and
maximizing pit recovery. Rehandle occurs when overburden is handled twice and sometimes multiple
times during excavation and spoil placement. Having 0% rehandle of the original inplace overburden
is not achievable because of inherent design requirements of surface mining such as ramps into the pit
and mining conditions such as sloughing ground that covers the coal. Simulating alternative mine
plans and anticipating where overburden will be placed can minimize rehandle. Rehandle can more
than double the cost of mining portions of the overburden.

The goal of coal pit recovery is to obtain as close to 100% as possible. One method to maximize pit
recovery is to minimize drill and blast damage to the top of the coal. Drill and blast damage is reduced
by stopping the drill holes from touching the coal seam or by placing nonexplosive material in each
drill hole, called stemming. Pit recovery is also maximized by matching the pit width with the
characteristics of the machinery used to extract the coal. Again, the range diagram as a planning tool is
used in this evaluation.

Effects on Environment
Soil and Land Pollution
Mine Tailings
Mining activities and, in particular, strip mining of metal ores produce vast quantities of residues
called mine spoils and mine tailings that may contain significant concentrations of metals (Fig. 14.1).
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Mine spoils or overburden consists of surface materials that do not contain the metal(s) of interest and
that are therefore stockpiled at the surface, often resembling large “mesas.” Mine tailings, in contrast,
are the crushed mineral rock that has been processed to release the metal of interest. These wastes are
often pumped as slurry in “lifts” into valleys or depressions. Mine tailings can be tens of meters deep
due to successive depositions of lifts. Thus these residues, which are usually composed of
unweathered primary minerals, produce environments that are physically and chemically unstable (fast
weathering) and prone to wind and water erosion. Strip mining for copper, for example, produces large
quantities of tailings that often contain concentrations of ~ 100 to < 10,000 mg kg–1 of such metals as
arsenic, cadmium, and lead. Similarly, iron pyrites (FeS 2), which are often associated with copper,
silver, and lead ores, can have a devastating impact on the aquatic environment because their oxidation
releases sulfuric acid into the environment.

However, in an acid stream (pH < 3), fresh pyrite can react in a cascading effect with soluble ferric
iron (Fe3 +), creating even more acidity (Stumm and Morgan, 1996). The reaction rate is controlled by
the oxidation of Fe2 + to Fe3 + in the presence of O2, and results in lowering the pH of the environment.
This process can also occur biologically via autotrophic bacteria which thrive at pH 2–3

Mining operations that treat or leach ores and/or store acid chemicals for the extraction of metals can
generate large volumes of acidic metal-containing wastewaters and/or leachates. For example, low-
grade Cu ore can be extracted by means of sulfuric acid heap leaching. In this process, crushed Cu ore
is continuously leached with sulfuric acid until most of the Cu is solubilized due to both the high
acidity and formation of Cu-sulfate complexes. Spent acid solutions, usually contaminated with other
metals, must be neutralized and stored in lagoons or impoundments. Gold mining also produces vast
quantities of spent ores and liquid process streams that usually contain residual levels of cyanide ion
(CN–) complexes. Metal–cyanide complexes are usually either stable in the soil environment or
biologically degraded into nontoxic forms of N (see Chapter 5). However, when released into aquatic
systems, unstable complexes of cyanide can be extremely toxic to fish if free cyanide is produced.

Energy source factors

Coal is primarily obtained by surface mining (sometimes called “strip mining,” but not by the
industry) and underground mining. There are two main sources of power plant coal in the United
States: (1) Pennsylvanian-age coals in eastern basins like the Appalachian, Illinois, and Black Warrior,
and (2) Paleocene-age coals in western states such as Wyoming, Colorado, and Montana. The eastern
coals tend to be higher in grade, ranging from bituminous to anthracite, but also tend to be higher in
sulfur. Some of the eastern coal seams are considered metallurgical coals suitable for steelmaking, and
can command a higher price than the run-of-the-mine coal that is used in power plants. Western coals
are lower grade, ranging from lignite to sub bituminous, but are also lower in sulfur. These lower-
grade coals provide less Btu value per ton, so more fuel is needed per megawatt compared to eastern
coals, but the reduced sulfur content also makes them economical. Because of their increasing
efficiency with larger sizes, the land footprint of a coal power plant can be quite substantial.

There typically needs to be sufficient space to unload and store significant amounts of coal feedstock.
Coal is often processed at the mine to create uniform-size particles (“comminution”), remove
noncombustible minerals, and provide other conditioning to improve performance. Increasing numbers
of power plants are using this so-called “refined coal,” but if the pre combustion cleaning,
comminution and conditioning has to be done at the power plant site, this requires even more land.
Large cooling towers might be necessary for plant operations, and sufficient land area for gathering
and handling the post combustion products is also needed. Many coal power plants are located along
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waterways or large rivers like the Ohio to facilitate the delivery of coal via barges or railroads. Some
large surface coal mines, such as Wyodak near Gillette in eastern Wyoming have a power plant on-site
to utilize the coal at the mine and sell electricity directly into the national grid.

Problems of strip mining

Strip minning is less harmful to the environment than shaft mining but it can be dangerous for miners.
Strip mining is a process of surface mining, where a layer of soil is removed to obtain the mineral
resource. Strip mining presents many different problems, including the destruction of ecosystems
through removal of vegetation and dumping into streams (such as in mountaintop removal mining),
problems with blasting damage and noise pollution, flooding, and extreme hazards

Illegal mining activities can lead to environmental degradation, including deforestation, soil erosion,
and water pollution. These negative environmental impacts can deter tourists who seek pristine and
sustainable destinations.

While mining practices have improved in recent years, mining activity can have a number of negative
impacts on the environment, including: Contamination of ground and surface water supplies; Loss of
biodiversity, and. Air pollution (release of microscopic dust particles that are harmful to human
health).Mining is a significant driver of deforestation. Not only do mines clear native forests for
mineral extraction, they also often establish new infrastructure, which indirectly facilitates new access
to land and further clearing.

REFERENCES

Mazda, Y., Magi, M., Kogo, M. & N.P. Hong. 1997. Mangroves as a coastal protection from waves in
the Tong King delta, Viet Nam. Mangroves and Salt Marshes, 1: 127–135.

Mendez, F.J. I.J. & Losada. 2004. An empirical model to estimate the propagation of random breaking
and nonbreaking waves over vegetation fields. Coastal Engineering, 51: 103–118.

Moller, I., Spencer, T., French, J.R., Leggett, D.J. & M. Dixon. 1999. Wave transformation over salt
marshes: A field and numerical modeling study from North Norfolk, England. Estuarine,
Coastal and Shelf Science, 49: 411–426.

GowthamRajagopal, RahulNath.R, Savin Viswanathan, Satheesh Babu P K “Determination of

Efficient Recovery Methods Based on Nature of Spilled Oil” pp 1

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(September 2017)

David R. Vieites, Sandra Nieto-Roman, Antonio Palanca, Xavier Ferrer, Miguel Vences, “European
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Horizon Gulf of Mexico oil spill disaster, pp 2-5.

Markus Huettel, Alissa Zuijdgeest, “Dispersants Can Move Hydrocarbons Faster and Deeper into Gulf
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“Hall universal wide greenhouse”, http://www.hallsgreenhouses.co.uk/halls_universa

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