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EPY 204: PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

WEEK THREE NOTES
BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THEORIES OF LEARNING
Introduction

Theories of learning are theories that describe how learners absorb, process, and retain
knowledge during learning. They view learning as a reaction of the “cognitive, emotional, and
environmental influences, as well as prior experience and how they all play a part in how
understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained. Some
learning theories which we are going to review in this course, and bring out their influence in the
learning process are: Behaviourism; Social-cognitive; Social constructivism; Cognitive and
Humanistic theories.

1. Behaviourism

Behaviourism is a learning theory that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and
discounts any independent activities of the mind. Behavioural theorists define learning as
nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour based on environmental conditions.
Behaviourism is based on the idea that knowledge is independent and on the exterior of the
learner. In a behaviourist’s mind, the learner is a blank slate that should be provided with the
information to be learnt. As such learning occurs through the interaction between stimulus (from
the environment) and response (from the learner) in which new associations are made. So,
learning is achieved when the provided stimulus changes behaviour. The four main psychologists
who lead to the development of behaviourist theory were Watson, Pavlov, Thorndike, and
Skinner. John B. Watson (1878–1958), is considered “the father of behaviourism”.

Behaviourism is a perspective of learning that focuses on changes in individuals’ observable

behaviours. These changes are in relation to what people say or do. The behaviourist theory of
learning says that learning can only be said to have taken place when there is a change in the
outward behaviour of the learner.

Educational Implication of Behaviourism

In using the behaviourist approach in the classroom setting;

 Teachers should use reward and punishment effectively, in order to shape learners
behaviour
 Learners should be told the explicit outcomes of the learning so that they can set
expectations and can judge for themselves whether or not they have achieved the
outcome of the online lesson
 Course designers have to define sequences of instructions using conditional or
unconditional branching to guide instructional units and pre-determining choices within
the course.
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 Learners must be tested to determine whether or not they have achieved the learning
outcome.
 During the teaching and learning process, teachers are expected to teach, give exercise,
and provide learners with necessary feedback on their performance. As this will go a long
way to facilitate learning.
 Learners readiness should be an aspect of interest to the teacher and curriculum planner.

2. Cognitivism

In contrast to behaviourism, cognitivism focuses on the idea that students process information
they receive rather than just responding to a stimulus, as with behaviourism. There is still a
behaviour change evident, but this is in response to thinking and processing information.
Learning relies on both external factors (like stimulus, information or data) and the internal
thought process of the learner.

Cognitive theories were developed in the early 1900s in Germany from Gestalt psychology by
Wolfgang Kohler. In cognitivism theory, learning occurs when the student reorganises
information, either by finding new explanations or adapting old ones. That is to say, learning is
understood as the acquisition of knowledge: the learner is an information-processor who absorbs
information, undertakes cognitive operations on it and stocks it in memory. This is viewed as a
change in knowledge and is stored in the memory rather than just being viewed as a change in
behaviour. Cognitive learning theories are mainly attributed to Jean Piaget.

3. Social – Cognitivism

The social-cognitive theory is a theoretical perspective in which learning by observing others is

the focus of study. This theory was advanced by Albert Bandura and it is grounded by several
basic assumptions:

 One is that people can learn by observing others. Learners can acquire new behaviours
and knowledge by simply observing a model.
 Assumption two: learning is an internal process that may or may not lead to a behaviour.
Learning may not occur immediately. The observer could process the new behaviour, but
his/her learning may not be affected until a later point or never at all.
 There's also an assumption of goal-directed behaviour. Social-cognitive theorists propose
that people set goals for themselves and direct their behaviour accordingly. They are
motivated to accomplish those goals. These goals direct behaviour.
 Another assumption of the social-cognitive theory is behaviour eventually becomes self-
regulated. Social-cognitivists, unlike behaviourists, believe that people eventually begin
to regulate their own learning and behaviour.
 Our final assumption deals with reinforcement and punishment. Social-cognitivists
believe reinforcement and punishment have indirect (rather than direct) effects on
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learning and behaviour. People form expectations about the likely consequences of future
responses based on how current responses are reinforced or punished. People's
expectations are also influenced by the observation of the consequences that follow other
people's behaviour. This is referred to as vicarious experiences. The non-occurrence of an
expected consequence may also have a reinforcing or a punishing effect.
Observational learning occurs through a sequence of four processes:

 Attentional processes account for the information that is selected for observation in the
environment. People might select to observe real-life models or models they encounter
via media.

 Retention processes involve remembering the observed information so it can be

successfully recalled and reconstructed later.

 Production processes reconstruct the memories of the observations so what was learned
can be applied in appropriate situations. In many cases, this doesn’t mean the observer
will replicate the observed action exactly, but that they will modify the behaviour to
produce a variation that fits the context.

 Motivational processes determine whether or not an observed behaviour is performed

based on whether that behaviour was observed to result in desired or adverse outcomes
for the model. If an observed behaviour was rewarded, the observer will be more
motivated to reproduce it later. However, if a behaviour was punished in some way, the
observer would be less motivated to reproduce it.

4. Constructivism.

Constructivism is based on the premise that we construct learning or knowledge through forming
new ideas based on our own prior knowledge and experiences. Learning, therefore, is unique to
the individual learner. The learner builds upon his or her previous experience and understanding
to “construct” a new understanding. Students adapt their models of understanding either by
reflecting on prior theories or resolving misconceptions. Examples of constructivism in the
classroom include problem-based learning, research and creative projects and group
collaborations.

5. Humanistic theories

Humanism was developed to contrast cognitivism and behaviourism. It is a “learner-centric

approach” in which the potential is the focus rather than the method or materials. With the
understanding that people are inherently good, humanism focuses on creating an environment
conducive to self-actualization. In doing so, learners’ needs are met and they are then free to
determine their own goals while the teacher assists in meeting those learning goals.
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Both Rogers and Maslow (main theorists) based their work in humanism. The key ideas of
humanism are as follows:

 People have a natural desire to learn in order to achieve self-actualisation (see Maslow’s
theory).
 It is not the outcome that is the most important part of education; it is the process of
learning itself.
 The students themselves should be in control of their learning and it should be achieved
through observing and exploring.
 The teacher should be an encouraging role model, motivating, guiding and supporting
students on their own personal journey.
Conclusion

It is part of the human condition to crave knowledge. Consequently, numerous scientists,

psychologists, and thought leaders have devoted their careers to studying learning theories.
Understanding how people learn is a critical step in optimizing the learning process. It is for this
reason that teacher colleges or educator preparation programs spend so much time having teacher
candidates study human development and multiple learning theories. Foundational knowledge of
how humans learn, and specifically how a child learns and develops cognitively, is essential for
all educators to be their most effective instructors in the classroom.

Question for Revision

Discuss the different theoretical views of learning, bringing out their similarities and differences