METALANGUAGE

1. Toxicology. A scientific discipline that overlaps with biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and
medicine involves studying the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms
and diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins and toxins.

2. Allergens it is an antigen that produces an abnormally potent immune response where

the immune system targets and fights a threat or an invader that could potentially harm the
body. Allergens are recognized by the immune system to cause an allergic reaction.

3. Neurotoxins it is referring to toxins that are destructive to nerve tissue. Neurotoxins are an
extensive class of exogenous chemical, neurological insults that can adversely affect function in
both developing and mature nervous tissue.

4. Mutagens are a physical or chemical agent that causes an increase in D.N.A.

modifications by altering the organism's D.N.A.

5. Teratogens. Any agent that can disrupt embryonic or fetal development causes a child's
congenital disability or may completely cease the pregnancy. These agents include radiation,
maternal infections, chemicals, or drugs.

6. Carcinogens are any substance or agents that promote cancer development

(carcinogenesis), causing genome damage or disruption of cells metabolic processes.

7. Persistent Organic Pollutants (P.O.P.s). Organic compounds are resistant to biochemical,

photolytic, and other environmental degradation processes. Because of this, P.O.P.s are
sometimes called "forever chemicals," which can bioaccumulate with potentially detrimental
effects on ecological and human health.

8. Acute effects. A physiological reaction in a human or animal body which cause severe
symptoms that could rapidly develop through acute exposure to toxic substances. However,
it may lead to chronic health effects if the cause is not removed.

9. Chronic effects. An adverse effect on animals or the human body with symptoms that
develop slowly, due to prolonged and continuous exposure to low concentrations of a
hazardous substance.

10. Risk assessment. The combined effort of identifying and analyzing potential events can
negatively affect individuals, assets, and even the environment. It also makes mindful judgments
on the tolerability of the risk analysis and examines factors influencing it.

11. Risk Management. The evaluation, prioritization, and identification of risks followed by
coordinated and economical application of resources to control, monitor, and minimize the
probability or impact of unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of opportunities.
12. Pesticides. Chemical compounds used to eliminate pests, such as insects, rodents, fungi,
and weeds. These chemicals are also used in public health to kill disease vectors (e.g.,
mosquitoes) and pests that damage crops.

13. Herbicides. Pesticides used to kill unwanted plants (weeds). There are selective herbicides
that explicitly target a weed/s by interfering with its growth without harming the desired crop.

14. Insecticides it is any substances that formulate to eliminate or mitigate insects,

including ovicides, which are used against insects and larvicides to kill insect larvae.

15. Fungicides. Biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms (plants or animals) used
to kill parasitic fungi, or their spores can cause severe damage in agriculture, resulting in
decreased yield, crop quality, and profit.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY

The World Health Organization (W.H.O.) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental,
and social well-being. A person can be ill to some extent; however, health can be improved to
live a happier, longer, and more productive and satisfying lives. The disease can also be
influenced by environmental factors such as the Earth's climate system by impairing physical
and psychological functions. The disease is defined as the impairment of an individual's
well-being and capacity to function and is mostly attributed to inadequate behavioral and
environmental change. The factors that result in morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) are diet
and nutrition, infectious agent, hereditary qualities, a poisonous substance, injury, and stress.
Environmental health focuses on disease-causing external factors, including elements of the
natural, social, cultural, and technological worlds in which we live.

GLOBAL BURDEN OF DISEASE (GBD)

● Global Burden of Disease (GBD) is a comprehensive regional and global research

program of disease burden that assesses mortality and disability from major diseases,
injuries, and risk factors.
● It considers the health, social, political, environmental, and economic factors to
determine the cost that particular disease and disability exert upon the individual and
society.
● Mortality data is now based on Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) as a measure
of disease burden.
● Smallpox was completely wiped out in 1977.
● Polio has been eliminated everywhere in the world except for a few remote villages in
northern Nigeria.
● Epidemics of typhoid fever, cholera, and yellow fever are now rarely encountered.
● AIDS has become a highly treatable disease.
● According to the WHO, chronic diseases now account for nearly 60% of the 56.5 million
total deaths worldwide each year and about half of the global disease burden.
 ● Infectious and emergent diseases still kill millions of people. A wide variety of pathogens
afflict humans, including viruses, bacteria, protozoans, parasitic worms, and flukes.
● People rarely die from parasites, but they can be extremely debilitating and can cause
poverty that leads to other deadly diseases.
● Diarrhea, acute respiratory illnesses, malaria, measles, tetanus, kill about 11 million
children under age 5 every year in the developing world.
● Better nutrition, clean water, improved sanitation, and inexpensive inoculations could
eliminate most deaths.

EMERGENT DISEASE

Emergent diseases are those not previously known or that have been absent for at least 20
years. Rapid international travel makes it possible for these new diseases to spread around the
world at jet speed. Epidemiologists warn that the next deadly epidemic is only a plane ride away.

Emergent diseases in humans and ecological diseases in natural communities arise due to
stresses in biological systems that upsets normal ecological relationships. These growing
concerns are adverse synergistic interactions between emerging diseases and other infectious
and non-infectious conditions leading to the development of novel syndemic. Many emergent
diseases originated from a non-human animal species, such as HIV which originated in
chimpanzees, and SARS which came from the Masked Palm Civet native to China.

Factors Contributing to Disease Emergence:

1. Microbial adaption - e.g., genetic drift and genetic shift in Influenza A

2. Changing human susceptibility - e.g., mass immunocompromising with HIV/AIDS
3. Climate and weather - e.g., diseases with zoonotic vectors such as West Nile Disease
(transmitted by mosquitoes) are moving further from the tropics as the climate warms.
4. Change in human demographics and trade - e.g., rapid travel enabled COVID to
rapidly propagate around the globe
5. Economic development - e.g., use of antibiotics to increase meat yield of farmed cows
leads to antibiotic resistance.
6. Breakdown of public health - e.g., the current situation in Zimbabwe
7. Poverty and social inequality - e.g., tuberculosis is primarily a problem in low-income
areas
8. War and famine – e.g., Gulf war, Ukraine war
9. Bioterrorism - e.g., 2001 Anthrax attacks
10. Dam and irrigation system construction - e.g., malaria and other mosquito borne
diseases.

ECOLOGICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY
Ecological Epidemiology. It is the study of the ecology of infectious diseases. It includes
population and community-level studies of the interactions between hosts and their pathogens
and parasites and covers diseases of both humans and wildlife. Examples:

● Ebola hemorrhagic fever kills up to 90% of its human victims. A global outbreak killed ¼
of all the gorillas.
● Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is caused by a prion. CWD is one of a family of
irreversible, degenerative neurological diseases known as transmissible spongiform
encephalopathies (TSE) that include mad cow disease in cattle, scrapie in sheep, and
Creutzfelt-Jacob disease in humans.
● Tropical diseases, such as malaria, cholera, yellow fever, and dengue fever, have been
moving into areas from which they were formerly absent as mosquitoes, rodents, and
other vectors expand into new habitat

Resistance to Drugs, Antibiotics, and Pesticides

The protozoan parasite that causes malaria is now resistant to most drugs, while the
mosquitoes that transmit it have developed resistance to many insecticides. The following are
the reasons for antibiotic resistance to develop - Antibiotics do not work against certain
diseases, e.g., viral infections. They are given when the person could recover fully without them
and starting and not finishing a full prescription. Hence, there is also a widespread use of
antibiotics in animal agriculture.

ECOTOXICOLOGY

Ecotoxicology is the study of toxins (poisons) and their effects, particularly on living systems
because many substances are known to be poisonous to life (whether plant, animal or
microbial). It is a broad field, drawing from biochemistry, histology, pathology, pharmacology,
and many other disciplines. Toxin’s damage or kill living organisms because they react with
cellular components to disrupt metabolic functions. They are harmful even in extremely dilute
concentrations. In some cases, billionths, or even trillionths of a gram can cause irreversible
damage.
EFFECTS OF TOXINS

● Allergens are immune-activating agents. Some allergens act as antigens directly; that
is, white blood cells recognize them as foreign and stimulate the production of specific
antibodies. Certain allergens function indirectly by linking and modifying the composition
of foreign materials and become antigenic and induce an immune system to the
response.
● Formaldehyde is an excellent example of a widely used chemical that is a potent
sensitizer of the immune system. It is directly allergenic and can also trigger reactions to
other substances. Commonly used in plastics, wood products, insulation, glue, and
fabrics, formaldehyde concentrations in indoor air can be thousands of times higher than
in healthy outdoor air. Some people who suffer from sick building syndrome have
headaches, allergies, and chronic fatigue. And other symptoms caused by improperly
ventilated indoor air contaminate with carbon monoxide, mold spores, nitrogen oxide,
formaldehyde, and other pollutants emitted from carpets, furniture, fabrics, and
construction materials and other sources.

Immune System Depressants suppress the immune system. Dead animals contained high
levels of pesticide residues, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and other contaminants that are
suspected of disrupting the immune system and making it susceptible to a variety of
opportunistic infections.

Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that disrupt the natural activity of hormones. Hormones
are chemicals released by cells into the bloodstream in one part of the body to regulate the
function and development of tissues and organs in the body. We realize now that some of the
most gradual, yet harmful effects of persistent chemicals such as dioxins and P.C.B.s are that
they interfere with healthy growth, development, and physiology of a variety of
animals—including humans—at shallow doses.
Hormone mimics have similar shapes to natural hormones and amply their effects. BPA
(Bisphenol A) is known to be a hormone mimic used for plastic products ranging from water
bottles to tooth-protecting sealants. The chemical can cause abnormal chromosome numbers
which is the leading cause of miscarriages and several forms of mental retardation. It also is an
environmental estrogen and may alter sexual development in both males and females. Bills are
considered to ban BPA and certain phthalates in children’s toys and feeding products.

Hormone blockers prevent natural hormones from attaching to their target organ. Endocrine
disruption is linked to increased risk of breast cancer, develop- mental and reproductive toxicity,
allergies, and immuno-toxicity.

Neurotoxins are a particular class of metabolic poisons that individually attack nerve cells
(neurons). The nervous system has an essential function in controlling the body activities,
especially to a fast-acting and devastating events.
Neurotoxins have different types, and it acts in different ways. Heavy metals like lead and
mercury destroy nerve cells and cause permanent brain damage. Organophosphates
(Malathion, Parathion) and carbamates (carbaryl, zineb, maneb) inhibit acetylcholinesterase, the
enzymes that control the transfer of signals between nerve cells and the tissues or organs they
innervate (e.g., muscle). Anesthetics (ether, chloroform, halothane, etc.) and chlorinated
hydrocarbons (D.D.T., Dieldrin, Aldrin) disrupt nerve cell membranes needed for nerve action.
Most neurotoxins are both fast-acting and highly toxic.

Mutagens are agents that damage or modify the genetic material (D.N.A.) in cells, such as
chemicals and radiation. If the cost happens during embryonic or fetal development, this may
contribute to congenital disability. Later in life, genetic damage can contribute to neoplastic
(tumor) formation. If reproductive cells undergo injury, the effects may be passed on to future
generations. Cells have repair mechanisms to diagnose and repair defective genetic material,
but specific changes may be hidden, and the repair cycle itself can be flawed. It is widely agreed
that there is no “safe” threshold for mutagens exposure. Any contact has the potential to cause
harm.

Teratogens are chemicals substance or other factors which cause different abnormalities
during embryonic growth and development. Some chemicals that are usually not dangerous
may cause a severe problem at these vulnerable stages of life. Alcohol is probably the most
popular teratogen in the world. Drinking during pregnancy can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome—a
cluster of complications that persist throughout a child’s life, including craniofacial abnormalities,
developmental disorder, behavioral problems, and mental defects. Even one alcoholic drink a
day has been associated with reduced birth weight during pregnancy.

Carcinogens are substances that cause cancer, invasive, and out-of-control cell growth
resulting in malignant tumors. Cancer rates rose over the twentieth century in most developed
nations, and cancer is now the second leading cause of death in the U.S., killing more than half
a million people in 2002.
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

Bioaccumulation and biomagnification increase concentrations of toxins. The cell performs a

selective absorption and storage of variation of molecules called bioaccumulation. It allows
them to accumulate nutrients and essential minerals, but at the same time, they also may
absorb and store harmful substances through these same mechanisms. Toxins that are instead
dilute in the environment can reach dangerous levels inside cells and tissues through this
process of bioaccumulation. The effects of toxins also are magnified in the environment through
food webs. When organisms ingest other organisms making toxins accumulated from the base
and concentrated in the highest trophic level, it is called biomagnification.

PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPs)

Some chemical compounds are volatile and degrade rapidly under most environmental
conditions so that their concentrations decline quickly after release. Most modern herbicides
and pesticides, for instance, promptly lose their toxicity. Other substances are more persistent
and last for years or even centuries in the environment. Metals—such as lead—P.V.C. plastics,
chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, and asbestos are valuable because they are resistant to
degradation. However, this stability causes problems because these materials persist in the
environment and have unexpected effects far from their original use sites. Some persistent
organic pollutants (P.O.P.s) have become extremely widespread, being found from the tropics to
the Arctic. Long-living top predators such as bears, humans, raptors, and sharks are where it
frequently accumulates. The following are some of the most significant concerns:

● Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE). These are known as flame retardants

usually used in textiles and plastics found in computers and appliances; these chemicals
are now found in humans and other species everywhere globally. Relatively low
exposures in the womb or shortly after birth can irreparably harm children’s reproductive
and nervous systems.
● Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, also known
as C8) are widely used as a nonstick, waterproof stain-resistant product such as Teflon,
Gortex, Scotchguard, and Stainmaster. The industry makes use of their slippery,
heat-stable properties to manufacture everything from airplanes and computers to
cosmetics and household cleaners. This chemical family has been shown to cause liver
damage as well as various cancers and reproductive and developmental problems in
rats. Exposure may be especially dangerous to women and girls, who may be 100x more
sensitive than men to these chemicals.
● Phthalates (pronounced thalates) These are present in products such as deodorants,
plastics, and cosmetics. Also present in products used for children's toys, medical
equipment, and packaging for food. Some chemicals pose a toxic threat to animals
found in laboratories as they damage the kidney and liver and might cause cancer. Many
phthalates act as endocrine hormone disruptors, and have been linked to reproductive
abnormalities and decreased fertility.
 ● Perchlorate is a waterborne contaminant leftover of fuel utilized by rockets and from
propellants. It includes the cause of pollution in our waters, especially in waters used for
irrigation. Thus, allows it to enter the human food chain. Perchlorate can interfere with
iodine uptake in the thyroid gland, disrupting adult metabolism and childhood
development.
● Bisphenol A (B.P.A.), widely used in various products such as bottled water and
tooth-protecting sealants. It is a vital component in the creation of polycarbonate
plastics. Furthermore, it is an environmental estrogen and may alter sexual
development in both males and females. It has been found in humans with or without
known chemical exposure. It has been found out that the presence of such a chemical
causes abnormal chromosome numbers called aneuploidy. Having this kind of
abnormality will result in in several forms of mental retardation and miscarriages during
pregnancy.
● Atrazine is a substance applied to crops such as corn, cereal grains, sugarcanes,
and Christmas trees as herbicide in the United States of America. It is also the cause
of damage and disruption to the hormonal functions in mammals of their endocrine
system, resulting in low birth weights, disorders in the neurological services, and
abortions.

Chemical Interactions Increasing Toxicity

● Interactions happen because some substances have antagonistic reactions in which

materials will interfere with the effects or will somehow stimulate the breakdown of other
chemicals.
● The reaction occurs in Vitamin E and A, which enables to diminish the response of
some carcinogens. Subsequently, there are also materials which occur together in
exposures: this is an additive.
● In essence, rats exposed to both lead and arsenic show that the toxicity level rats are
exposed to double compared to being presented with one of them.
● The most significant concern about this is the synergistic effect. An interaction in which
one substance intensifies the impact of another material is called synergism.
● In essence, exposing to occupational asbestos, it will increase the rate of lung cancer
20-fold times. At the same time, smoking will also intensify rates of lung cancer by the
same amount. In other cases, workers exposed to asbestos at the same time smoke
have a 400-fold increase in cancer rates. The question now is how many substances,
when combined, will give intensified results?
● Synergism is an important concept that considers pollution at the same time. It is the
interaction of different materials, which results in a total effect more significant than the
added impact of separate substances.

Factors Influencing Toxicity

There are several origins of poisonous and dangerous chemicals in the environment and
various factors related to each compound itself. The sources are toxics and hazardous
chemicals in the environment that is related to the release of chemicals itself. The target of
these chemicals is both biotic and abiotic community. The dose (amount), route of entry, the
timing of exposure, and sensitivity of the organism all play an essential function in determining
toxicity. In this section, we will look at each of these characteristics and how it affects
environmental health.

A. Factors Related to Toxic agent.

1. Chemical composition and reactivity
2. Physical characteristics (such as solubility, state)
3. Presence of impurities or contaminants
4. Stability and storage characteristics of a toxic agent
5. Availability of vehicle (such as the solvent) to carry agent6. Movement of the agent through
the environment and into cells

B. Factors Related to Exposure

1. Dose (concentration and volume of exposure)
2. Route, rate, and site of exposure
3. Duration and frequency of exposure
4. Time of exposure (day, season, year)

C. Related Factors to Organism

1. Storage, cell permeability of agent and resistance to ingestion
2. Ability to metabolize, inactivate, sequester, or eliminate the agent
3. The tendency to activate or alter nontoxic substances, so they become toxic.
4. Concurrent infections or physical or chemical stress
5. Species and genetic characteristics of an organism
6. Nutritional status of the subject
7. Sex, body weight, age, maturity, and immunological status

Solubility is one of the essential characteristics in determining how, where, and when atoxic
material will move through the environment. It also includes the body at its place of action. The
classification of chemical substances divides into two main groups:
1. those that dissolve more easily in oil.
2. Those that dissolve more easily in water.

Since water is everywhere, water-soluble compounds move rapidly and widely in the
environment. They seem to have easy access to most cells in the body since aqueous solutions
bathe all our cells. Molecules that are oil-or fat-soluble (usually organic molecules)generally
need a carrier to move through the environment, into, and within, the body. Once inside the
body, however, oil-soluble toxins quickly pass into tissues and cells, since the membranes that
enclose the cells are composed of similar oil-soluble chemicals. Once they get inside cells,
oil-soluble materials are likely to be accumulated and stored in lipid deposits. They are
protected from metabolic breakdown and will continue for several years.