CHAPTER 9

Physics Questions Test 9

1. What is the characteristics of a wave that is responsible for what we interpret as

pitch?
A. Amplitude
B. Shape
C. Height
D. Frequency
2. EE Board October 1997
Which one can't travel in a vacuum?
A. Radio waves
B. Light wave
C. Sound wave
D. Short wave
3. Sound interference is necessary to produce this phenomenon. Which one?
A. Decibels
B. Reverberation
C. Resonance
D. Beats
4. What is a luminous object?
A. An object that gives off a dim blue green light in the dark
B. An object that produces light of its own by any method
C. An object that shines by reflected light only
D. An object that glows only in the absence of light
5. EE Board October 1999
In the well known equation: Released Energy = mc², what is c?
A. Capacitance
B. Velocity of light
C. Plank's constant
D. Relativity constant
6. Sky appears to be blue when the sun is high in the sky. Why?
A. Red light is scattered more then blue
B. Blue light is scattered more than the other colors
C. The color of the sky is really blue
D. Blue is the color of air, water and the other fluids in large amounts
7. The difference of the light emitted from a candle, from an incandescent lamp and
from the sun is basically from the differences of this characteristic? Which one?
A. Energy sources
B. Phases of matter
 C. Materials
D. Temperature
8. When will atoms emit a photon?
A. If one of its electron collides with another of its electrons
B. If one of its electrons is removed from its atom
C. If one of its electrons shift to a quantum state of lower energy
D. It one of its electrons shift to a quantum state of higher energy
9. EE Board April 2003
How many protons (P) and neutrons are there in the nucleus are present in a Pb
nucleus of atomic mass of 206?
A. P92, N = 156
B. P=85, N = 160
C. P82, N = 124
D. D. P90, N = 150
10. Which of the following properties are characteristic of the light waves from a
laser? I. The waves form a narrow beam II. All waves have the same frequency
III. The waves are all in step with one another
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. I, II and III
11. A musical scale is a series of tones known as notes, that sound good when in
combination. What do you call the first note in the scale?

A. Root note

B. Fundamental note

C. Pitch

D. Octave

12. How many nodes and antinodes does the fundamental frequency of a standing
wave on a string has?

A. One node and one antinode

B. One node and two antinodes

C. Two nodes and one antinode

D. Two nodes and two antinodes

13. EE Board October 1996

Which of the following statements is false?

A. Wavelengths of visible light is greater than wavelengths of microwave

B. Frequency of ultraviolet is greater than the frequency of infrared

C. Frequency of radio waves is less than the frequency of infrared waves

D. Wavelengths of x-rays is greater than the wavelengths of gamma rays

14. In music, which of the following is used in place of frequency?

A. Beat

B. Tone

C. Pitch

D. Node

15. What is the time required for a vibrating object to complete one full cycle?
A.Frequency

B. Amplitude

C. Period

D. Time constant

16. The period of a simple harmonic oscillation is dependent to the following,

EXCEPT one. Which one?

A. Mass

B.Amplitude

C. Frequency

D. Force constant

17. Which of the following is true about the energy difference between adjacent
energy levels?

A.It is the same for all quantum numbers

B.It is smaller for small quantum numbers

C. It is larger for small quantum numbers

D. None of theses

18. Which band of light wavelengths are too short to be seen by the human eye?

A. Visible

B. Ultraviolet

C. Infrared

D. X-rays

19. EE Board October 1994

Which band of light wavelengths are too short to be seen by the human eye?

A. Visible

B. Ultraviolet

C. Infrared

D. X-rays

20. Which one is true about sound waves?

I. Sound waves travel faster in solids compared to liquids

II.Sound waves travel faster in liquids compared to gases

III. Sound waves travels faster in warm air compared to cooler air

A. I only

B.II only

C. III only

D. I, II and III

21. What is the reason why we can see under shaded areas such as under the tree?
A. The light has undergo refraction

B. The light has undergo incident bending

C. The light has undergo a change in speed

D. The light has undergo diffuse reflection

22. This one refers to the number of cycles that a vibrating object moves through
during a time interval of one second. Which one?

A. Alteration

B. Frequency

C. Period

D. Form factor

23. Which of the following characteristic of light must be increased in order for the
surface to emit photoelectrons?

A. Wavelength

B. Luminous intensity

C. Speed

D. Frequency

24. What lens is thicker at its edges and parallel light rays will appear to originate
from the virtual focus?

A. Diverging lens

B. Spherical lens

C. Chromatic lens

D. Converging lens

25. EE Board October 1993

Energy can neither be destroyed nor created. This is law of

A. Conservation of momentum

B. Conservation of energy

C. Conservation of mass

D. None of these

26. Which of the following is also known as sympathetic vibration?

A. Beat

B. Overtone

C. Resonance

D. Music

27. What is the difference between an echo and a reverberation?

A. The time interval between the original sound and the reflected sound

B. The amplitude of the echo is much greater

C. An echo is a reflected sound while a reverberation is not

D. Reverberation comes from acoustical speakers while echoes comes from cliffs
and walls

28. According to the electromagnetic wave model, how does a visible light
produced?

A. When an object absorbs electromagnetic radiation

B. When an electric charge is accelerated

C. When an object is heated to an appropriate temperature

D. When a blackbody is heated to a temperature above absolute zero

29. Longitudinal mechanical wave will move only through which of the following? I.
Solids II. Liquids III. Gases

A. I only

B. II only

C. III only

D. I, II and III

30. EE Board April 1995 The rate of passage of radiant energy evaluated by
reference to the luminous sensation produced by it is called

A. luminous flux

B. luminous radiator

C. luminous plane
D. luminousity

31. What do you mean by refraction of light?

A. The light wave bends

B. The light wave reflects

C. The light wave is distorted

D. The light wave is amplified

32. Which one is considered an efficient transfer of energy that takes place at a
natural frequency?

A. Beats

B. Resonance

C. Doppler effect

D. Reverberation

33. When can a pendulum comes very close to executing simple harmonic motion?
A. Its bob is not too heavy

B. The supporting string is not too long

C. The arc to which it swings is not too long

D. The arc through which it swings is not too large

34. What color has the shortest wavelength of light?

A. Yellow

B. Green

C. Blue

D. Red

35. The polarization behavior of light is best explained by considering light to be

which of the following?

A. Particles

B. Particles with ends or poles

C.Transverse wave

D. Longitudinal wave

36. EE Board March 1998

Piezoelectricity principle is applied in one of the following. Which one?

A. Ultrasound equipment

B. Thermometer

C. Microphone

D. TV sets

37. How many nodes and antinodes does the fundamental frequency of a standing
wave in an air column of a closed tube has?

A. One node and one antinode

B. One node and two antinodes

C. Two nodes and one antinode

D. Two nodes and two antinodes

38. Which one is the Plank's constant?

A. 6.63 x 10-34 J.s

B. 6.42 x 10-32 J.s

C. 7.33 x 10-32 J.s

D. 5.56 x 10-34 J.s

39. EE Board October 1994 It is the maximum frequency, which the human ear can
hear.

A. 30,000 Hz

B. 10,000 Hz

C. 40,000 Hz

D. 20,000 Hz

40. Before it travels through the earth's atmosphere, a sunlight is mostly what?
A. Visible light

B. Ultraviolet radiation

C. Infrared radiation

D. Blue light

41. Which of the following is true about a simple harmonic motion?

I. It is any motion that results in pure tone

II. It is a vibration with a restoring force equal and opposite to a displacement

III. It is a combination of overtones

A. I only

B. II only

C. II and III only

D. I, II and III

42. EE Board April 1995

Lux is expressed in Chapter 9-Physics Questions

A. lumens per sq. meter

B. lumens per sq. foot

C. lumens per sq. cm

D. lumens per sq. mm

43. What type of vibratory motion occurs when there is a restoring force opposite to
and proportional to a displacement?

A. Simple harmonic motion

B. Under damped harmonic motion

C. Over damped harmonic motion

D. Periodic harmonic motion

44. What type of image will be produced if an object is farther from a converging lens
than to its focal point?
A. Inverted image

B. The same image

C. Virtual image

D. Refracted image

45. In sound, an interval is defined as a ratio of the frequencies of two pure tones.
Which one is called an octave interval?

A. 1:2

B. 2:3

C. 3:4

D. 4:5

46. When can an observer on the ground can hear a sonic boom from an airplane
traveling faster than the speed of sound?

A. When the airplane is directly overhead

B. After the airplane has passed by

C. As the airplane is approaching

D. Only when the airplane breaks the sound barrier

47. EE Board April 1990

Which of the following is a method of light propagation?

A. Convection

B. Refraction

C. Conduction

D. Rarefraction

48. Which of the following is the maximum frequency can be heard by a human ear?
A. 20 kHz

B. 12 kHz

C. 14 kHz
D. 10 kHz

49. Who was the first man to recognized the structure of electromagnetic waves,
predicting that such waves exist simultaneously as high frequency electrical and
electromagnetic waves of the same magnitude?

A. Albert Einstein

B. Oemor Sajor

C. Werner Heisenberg

D. James Clerk Maxwell

50. Which one is the standard speed of light in a vacuum?

A. 2 x 108 m/s

B. 2 x 109 m/s

C. 3 x 108m/s

D. 3 x 109 m/s

51. Which of the following relates the incident and refracted angles and predicts that
the light will bend toward the normal when it enters an optically denser material?

A. Snell's law

B. Huygen's principle

C. Shannon's law

D. Doppler's effect

52. What movement can a longitudinal mechanical wave caused to the particles of a
material?

A. Perpendicular to the direction the wave is moving

B. In a circular motion in the direction the wave is moving

C. Back and forth in the same direction the wave is moving

D. In a circular motion opposite in the direction the wave is moving

53. EE Board April 1997

In the SI system, one of the following is NOT in SI unit? Which one is this?

A. Candela

B. Fahrenheit

C. Newton

D. Kilogram

54. How do lights with single frequency called?

A. Intrinsic light

B. Monochromatic light

C. White light

D. Coherent light

55. Wavelengths of light are often expressed in angstroms. Which one is equivalent
to one (1) angstrom?

A. 10−6m

B. 10−9cm

C. 10−10 m

D. 10−10 mm

56. The photoelectric effect proved to be a problem for a wave model of light. Why?

A. The energy of the ejected electrons varies directly with the intensity of light

B. The energy of the ejected electrons varies inversely with the intensity of light

C. The light intensity had no effect on the energy of the ejected electrons

D. The number of electrons ejected varies directly with the intensity of the light

57. How do you call the phenomenon whereby a short wavelength photon hitting an
atom on the surface of a substance causes an electron to be ejected?

A. Quantum effect

B. Photoelectric effect

C. Rutherford's effect
D. Becquerel's effect

58. The displacement of a vibrating object is measured by which of the following?

A. Period

B. Frequency

C. Amplitude

D. Cycle

59. EE Board October 1994

It measures the magnitude of an earthquake.

A. Rossie scale

B. Richter scale

C. Rossie Forel scale

D. Mercalli scale

60. How many nodes and antinodes does the fundamental frequency of a standing
wave in an air column of an open tube has?

A. One node and one antinode

B. One node and two antinodes

C. Two nodes and one antinode

D. Two nodes and two antinodes

61. If the distance between a sound source and a listener is changing, the frequency
heard will differ from the frequency emitted. If the distance is decreasing, the
frequency is higher and if the distance is increasing, the frequency will be shifted
lower. What do you call this shifting effect?

A. Skin effect

B. Hall's effect

C. Decibel's effect

D. Doppler's effect

62. Which light contains wavelengths of all or nearly all colors?

A. White light

B. Laser

C. X-rays

D. Gamma rays

63. Which one is the Boltzmann's constant?

A. 1.56 x 10−23 J/K

B. 1.38 x 10−23

C. 1.42 x 10−22J/K J/K

D. 1.23 x 10−22J/K

64. EE Board October 1993

An instrument for comparing the luminous intensities of two point sources,

A. Quartz fiber electroscope

B. Photometer

C. Leaf electroscope

D.Foot-candle meter

65. When a sound wave goes from air into water; what quantity remains
unchanged?

A. Speed

B. Frequency

C. Wavelength

D. Amplitude

66. What lens is thicker at its center, and parallel light rays will converge to the
focus?

A. Converging lens

B. Diverging lens

C. Optical lens
D. Chromatic lens

67. Transverse mechanical wave will move only through which of the following?

I. Solids II. Liquids III. Gases

A. I only

B. I and II only

C. III only

D. I, II and III

68. Which of the following can only be explained by a wave model of light?

A. Reflection

B. Refraction

C. Interference

D. Photoelectric effect

69. EE Board October 1990, EE Board October 1993

An audio frequency is said to be within.

A. 400 Hz to 40,000 Hz

B. 20Hz to 20,000 Hz

C. 100 Hz to 100,000 Hz

D. None of these

70. A prism separates the colors of sunlight into a spectrum. Why?

I. Red light is refracted the most, violet the least.

II. Longer wavelengths are refracted more than shorter wavelengths

III. Each wavelength of light has its own index of refraction

A. I only

B. II and III only

C. III only
D. I, II and Ill

71. Light moving through a small pinhole does not make a shadow with a distinct,
sharp edge because of which of the following?

A. Refraction

Diffraction

C. Polarization

D. Interference

72. Why is it that x-rays are used to determine crystal structures?

A. Their wavelengths are much shorter than the atomic spacing in crystal

B. Their wavelengths are much longer than the atomic spacing in crystals

C. Their wavelengths are comparable to atomic spacing in crystals

D. Their wavelengths are not much shorter nor much longer than the atomic spacing
in crystal

73. Which of the following is the basis of operation of a laser?

A. The interference of the waves

B. The induced emission of radiation

C. The spontaneous, emission of radiation

D. The recombination of the photons

74. The period of a vibrating object is related to the frequency. Why?

A. They are directly proportional

B. They are inversely proportional

C.They are frequently proportional

D. None of these since they are not related

75. EE Board April 1993

An instrument used to measure the intensity of a light source.

A. Illumination meter
B. Photometer

C. Cygnometer

D. Candle meter

76. In a vacuum, what characteristic of the photons are the same?

A Frequency

B. Wavelength

C. Speed

D. Energy

77. What type of image will be produced if an object is nearer to a converging lens
than to its focal point?

A. Inverted image

B. The same image

C. Virtual image

D. Refracted image

78. Which one will occur when two waves combine so that one subtracts, from the
other?

A. Noise

B. Interference

C. Superposition

D. Resonance

79. When light is directed on a metal surface, what happens to the kinetic energy of
the photoelectrons?

A. It varies with the speed of light

B. It varies with the frequency of light

C. It varies with intensity of light

D. It varies with both the speed and intensity of light so.

80. Which one is another word for harmonic?

A. Resonance

B. Pitch

C. Loudness

D. Overtone

81. How can the resolving power of a lens be improved?

I. Increase the diameter of the lens

II. Increase the wavelength of the light used

III. Increase the brightness of the light used

A. I only

B. I and II only

C. III only

D. I, II and III

82. Which one is the Universal gas constant?

A. 8.314 J/mol-K

B. 9.567 J/mol-K

C. 7.543 J/mol-K

D. 6.960 J/mol-K

83. EE Board October 1994

Among the physical laws listed below, which one is different?

A. Law of acceleration

B. Law of reaction

C. Law of gravity

D. Law of inertia
84. What is the measure of the lumen output per watt input produced by the light
source?

A. Lumen

B. Efficacy

C. Quality factor

D. Coefficient of utilization

85. Max Planck made the revolutionary discovery that the energy of vibrating
molecules involved in blackbody radiation existed only in which of the following?

A. Multiples of certain fixed amounts

B. Amounts that smoothly graded one into the next

C. The same, constant amount of energy in all situations

D. Amounts that were never consistent from one experiment to the next

86. EE Board April 1995

It refers to the magnitude of the auditory sensation produced by the sound.

A. Loudness

B. Intensity

C. Pitch

D. Tone

87. Which of the following waves that can travel in vacuum?

A. Light waves

B. Sound waves

C. Longitudinal wave

D. Particle wave

88. Which one is not a factor involved in the production of the colored patterns
exhibited when white light is incident on a thin film?

I. The varying thickness of the film II. The presence of different wavelengths in white
light III. The interference between incident ray and reflected ray
A. I only

B. I and II only

C. III only

D. I, II and III

89. The period of the pendulum depends on which of the following?

A. Weight

B. Mass

C. Length

D. Speed

90. The extent of displacement of a vibrating tuning fork is related to the resulting
sound wave characteristic. Which one?

A. Frequency

B.Amplitude

C. Wavelength

D. Period

91. What do you call the top points of the wave?

A. Crest

B. Through

C. Frequency

D. Wavelength

92. What movement can a transverse mechanical wave caused to the particles of a
material?

A. In a circular motion in the direction the wave is moving

B. Back and forth in the same direction the wave is moving

C. Perpendicular to the direction the wave is moving

D. In a circular motion opposite in the direction the wave is moving

93. EE Board April 1995

The luminous intensity of a lamp is expressed in

A. candela

B. watts

C. lux

D. lumens

94. Which band of light wavelengths are too long to be seen by the human eye?

A. Visible

B. Ultraviolet

C. Infrared

D. X-rays

95. What will happen if an object pivoted at an arbitrary point is struck at its center of
oscillation?

A. There is no reaction force on the pivot

B. The reaction force on the pivot is a maximum

C. The object oscillates with a shorter period than if struck anywhere

D. The object oscillates with a longer period than if struck anywhere

96. What is a wave?

A. A wavy line that moves through materials

B. A traveling disturbance that carries energy

C. The movement of material from one place to another

D. A electrical signal that curves as it travels

97. What is the image that does not have light rays coming from the image, but is
the result of our brain's interpretations of light rays?

A. Real image

B. Phony image
C. Virtual image

D. Imagined image

98. What do you call the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light
in some transparent materials?

A. Critical angle

B. Total internal reflection

C. Law of reflection

D. Index of refraction

99. What is the other term used to describe propagation of sound?

A. Sonic velocity

B. Threshold velocity

C. Mach number

D. Subsonic sound

100. Sound waves are examples of which of the following?

A. Transverse wave

B. Semi-transverse wave

C. Longitudinal wave

D. Square wave
 KEY TO TEST 9

1. D
2. C
3. D
4. B
5. B
6. B
7. D
8. C
9. C
10. D
11. A
12. C
13. A
14. C
15. C
16. B
17. C
18. B
19. D
20. D
21. D
22. D
23. D
24. A
25. B
26. C
27. A
28. C
29. D
30. A
31. A
32. B
33. D
34. C
35. C
36. C
37. A
38. A
39. D
40. C
41. B
42. A
43. A
44. A
45. A
46. B
47. B
48. A
49. D
50. C
51. A
52. C
53. B
54. B
55. C
56. C
57. B
58. C
59. V
60. V
61. D
62. A
63. B
64. B
65. B
66. A
67. A
68. C
69. B
70. C
71. B
72. C
73. B
74. B
75. B
76. C
77. C
78. B
79. B
80. D
81. A
82. A
83. C
84. B
85. A
86. A
87. A
88. C
89. C
90. B
91. A
92. C
93. A
94. C
95. A
96. B
97. C
98. D
99. A
100. C
 THERMODYNAMICS is a branch of physical sciences that treats various
phenomena of energy and the related properties of matter, especially of the laws of
transformation of heat into other forms of energy and vice- versa.

Thermodynamic System or simply a system refers to the quantity of matter or

certain volume in space chosen for study.

Surroundings -the mass or region outside the system.

Boundary- the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings. The boundary of a system can either be fixed or movable.

Kinds of Thermodynamic System

1. Closed System (also known as control mass) is a system in which there is no

transfer of matter across the boundary. It consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no
mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system.
2. Open System (also known as control volume) is a system in which there is a flow
of matter through the boundary. It usually encloses the device that involves mass
flow, such as: compressor, turbine, or nozzle.

3. Isolated System is a system in which neither mass nor energy cross the
boundaries and it is not influenced by the surroundings.

PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

Any characteristic of a system is called property.

Types of thermodynamic Properties

A. State Properties refers to the physical condition of the working substance such
as temperature, pressure, density, specific volume, specific gravity or relative
density.
B. Transport Properties refers to the measurement of diffusion within the working
medium resulting from molecular activity, like; viscosities, thermal conductivities,
etc.
Classifications of thermodynamic Properties

 Intensive Properties are properties which are size independent such as

temperature, pressure and density.
 Extensive Properties are properties which depend on the size or extent of the
system. Mass, volume and total energy are examples of extensive properties.
THE STATE PROPERTIES:

1. Temperature Temperature is an indication or degree of hotness and coldness and

therefore a measure of intensity of heat. The Four Temperature Scales 1. Celsius or
Centigrade (named after Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius)

2. Fahrenheit (named after German Physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit)

3. Kelvin (named after British Scientist Lord Kelvin also known as Sir William
Thomson)

4. Rankine (named after William Macquom Rankine) Absolute temperature is the

temperature measured from absolute zero. Absolute zero is the temperature at
which the molecules stop moving. The absolute zero equivalent to K (-273.15°C) or
0° (-460°F)

9 5
Conversion Formulas: F = C + 32 C= (F – 32)
5 9

R = F + 460 K = C + 273

Where: R Rankine (absolute temp scale, English) K Kelvin (absolute temp scale; SI)
C = Celsius or Centigrade F = Fahrenheit

The Temperature Interval (Change)

Temperature interval is the difference between two temperature readings from the
same scale, and the change in temperature through which the body is heated.

5
ΔTk = ΔTc ΔTc = Δ Tf
9
 g
ΔTR = ΔTF ΔTF = ΔTc
5

Note: 109/5 F° and degree must be written after the temperature scale for it to
indicate that is it a change in temperature.

2. Pressure

Pressure is the force exerted per unit area.

Absolute pressure is the true pressure measured above a perfect vacuum.

Gage Pressure is the pressure measured from the level of atmospheric pressure by
most pressure recording instrument like pressure gage and open-ended manometer.

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure obtained from barometric reading.

where:

Pabs= absolute pressure

Page = gage pressure

Patm= atmospheric pressure

Patm = 101.325 Kpa

=14.7 psi

=1.032 kq/cm²

=29.92in.Hg

= 760 mmHg

=1.013 bar

=1.013 x times 106 dyne/cm²

=760 torr

=1 atm

= 0 Kpag

= 0 psig
Note, Pgage = negative (-) when the pressure is vacuum. The perfect vacuum s-
101.325 Kpa .

Critical pressure is the minimum pressure needed to liquefy gas at its critical
temperature.

3. Density (Specific Weight)

Mass Density is the mass per unit volume.

Where

m= mass (kg, gm,lbm)

v= volume (m³, cm³, ft³)

p=density (kg/m³, g/cm³, lb/ft³)

Weight Density (Specific weight) is the weight per unit volume

W
Where: y=
V

W=weight (IN, gf, lbf)

v= volume ( m³, cm³, ft³)

y = density (kN/m³, g/cm³, lb/ft²)

4. Specific Volume

Specific Volume is the volume per unit mass.

where: W = mass (kg, gm, lbm)

v = volume ( m³, cm³, ft³)

u = specific volume (m³/kg, cm³/g, ft³/lb)

5. Specific Gravity (Relative Density) Specific Gravity is also known as relative

density. It is the ratio of the density of a certain substance to the density of water.

HEAT and ENTROPY

Heat is a form of energy associated with the kinetic random motion of large number
of molecules.
1. Sensible Heat is the heat needed to change the temperature of the body without
changing its phase.

where:
Qs = sensible heat
m= mass
T = change in temperature
C = specific heat

Cwater= 1.0 Cal/gm.C° = 1.0 BTU/lb.F° = 4.186 KJ/kg.K

2. Latent Heat is the heat needed by the body to change its phase without
changing its temperature.
(a) Latent Heat of Fusion-solid to liquid.
(b) Latent Heat of Vaporization-liquid to gas.

Example, melting of ice at 0°C.

Q=mL
Q = heat needed
m = mass
L = latent heat (fusion/vaporization) (+) = heat entering; substance melts

Note;
(-) = heat leaving; substance freezes
Latent heat of fusion of ice (L.) 4=144 BTU/lb = 334 KJ/kg = 80 Cal/gm
Latent heat of Vaporization of boiling water (Lv) L=970 BTU/A6 = 2257KJ/kg =
540 Callgin

Sublimation is the term used to describe the process of changing solid to gas
without passes liquid state.

Deposition is the reversed of sublimation. It is the process of changing gas to

solid without passing liquid state.

ENTROPY is the measure of the randomness of the molecules of a substance.

This is one of the thermodynamic properties very much useful in the evaluation of
thermodynamic processes. The following facts will help solve some
thermodynamic-entropy problems:
  Friction as a natural mechanical process will increase the Entropy of
 the system. Entropy continually increases when heat is added, and
decreases when heat is removed.
 For reversible adiabatic process, the Entropy will not change (or remains
constant).

ENTROPY EQUATION:

dq
Δ S+
T

where:
S = entropy
T= absolute temperature
q = heat

ENTHALPY and INTERNAL ENERGY

Enthalpy is the heat energy transferred to a substance at a constant pressure

process.

Internal Energy is the energy stored within the body. It is the sum of the kinetic
energies of all its constituent particles plus the sum of all the potential energies of
interaction among these particles.

H=U+PV

where:
H= enthalpy
U = internal energy
P= absolute pressure
v= volume

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (Law of Conservation of Energy)

"Energy cannot be created nor be destroyed, it

can only be transformed from one form to
another."

Sum of Energy Entering = Sum of Energy Leaving

where:
PE= potential energy
KE= kinetic energy
H=U+PV
H = enthalpy
PE,+KE+H+ Q = PE₂ + KE₂ + H₂

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

"Heat cannot be transferred from cold body to a hot body without an inp of work.
It similarly states that heat cannot be converted 100% into work The bottom line
is that an engine must operate between a hot and ac reservoir. Also indicated, is
that energy has different levels of potentia do work, and that energy cannot
naturally move from realm of ove potential to a realm of higher potential."

KELVIN-PLANCK STATEMENT APPLIED TO HEAT ENGINE

It is impossible to construct a heat engine which operates in a cycle receives a

given amount of heat from a high temperature body and an equal amount of
work.

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The total entropy of pure substances approaches zero as the a thermodynamic

temperature approaches zero.

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

"When any two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the third body, they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other."

Naze the third body is usually a thermometer

IDEAL GAS OR PERFECT GAS

Perfect Gas- is a theoretically ideal gas which strictly follows Boyle's law and
Charles' law of gases.

Note: Ideal gas must have a compressibility factor of one or approaches to one.
The equation of State of an Ideal Gas:

PV = MRT PV=nRT
where:

R=ga constant
P= absolute pressure

R
R= (for any gas);
M
T= absolute temperature

R=universal Gas constant; n=n0 of moles mass (kg, gm, & lb)

M=molecular weight (kg/mol, lb/mol & gm/mol)

The value of Universal gas constant in different units:

R: 8.314- J/ mol-K =1545- ft-lbf/ mol-R

1.986- BTU/mol R = 0.0821 L-atm/ mol-R

Constant of (diatomic) Oxygen

8.314 J
R(O 2)= −K
mol
RM ( O2 ) 32 kg
mol
J
R ( O2 )=0.2598 −K
kg
R 1545 lbf mol /r
R ( O 2 )= = ft−
M ( O 2) 32 lbm ¿ mol

lb
R (O2) = 48.28 ft−
Ibm−R

Gas Constant of Air

 53.34 ft lbf 0.287 kj
Rair = =
lbm R kg−k

Relation between Cp, Cv, k & R:

Cp→Cv=R

Cp
=k
Cv

KR
Cp=
K−1

R
Cv=
K−1

where: Cp = specific heat at constant pressure

Cv = specific heat at constant volume

k = specific ratio

R= gas constant

BOYLE'S LAW

"In a confined gas, if the absolute temperature is held constant, the volume is
inversely proportional to the absolute pressure."

P1 V 1=P2 V 2
CHARLES' LAW

"In a confined gas, if the absolute pressure is held constant the volume is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature."
V1 V2
=
T2 T 2

MODIFIED CHARLE'S LAW or GAY-LUSSAC LAW

"In a confined gas, if the volume is held constant, the absolute pressure is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature."
 P 1 P2
=
T2 T 2

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

Thermodynamic process is any change that a system undergoes from one

equilibrium state to another. It can be reversible or irreversible. Path is the series
of states through which a system passes during a process.

1. Reversible Process (Quasi-equilibrium process). It is the process that can be

reversed without leaving any trace on the surroundings. That is, both the system
and the surroundings are returned to their initial states at the end of the process.

2. Irreversible Process. It is the process that proceeds spontaneously in one

direction but the other. Once having taken place, the process cannot reverse
itself and always results in an increase of molecular disorder.

CYCLIC PROCESS

Cyclic Process a process which gives the same states/conditions after the
system undergoes a series of processes.

NON-FLOW WORK (Work in the Non-Flow Process)

2
W n =∫ PdVP(W 2−V 1 )
1

STEADY FLOW WORK (Work in the Steady Flow Process)

2
y s =∫ VdP=V (P 1−P 2¿)¿
1

where: P= pressure

v= volume

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

Mass m1entering the system is equal to the sum of the stored mass (Am) and the
mass (m2) that leaves the systems.
 m=m2 + Δ m
Δ m=m−m2

STEADY FLOW SYSTEM (Am = 0)

AV1p1 = A2V2P2

where:

A= cross-sectional area
v= velocity
p = density

PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS

Isometric or Isochoric or Isovolumic Process

Isometric process is an internally reversible constant volume process of a

working substance.

a. PV and T relation (V=C)

P 1 P2
= (Charles Law)
T2 T 2

b. PV and TS Diagram

c. Nonflow Work

W n =∫ PdV
W n =0
 where :dV =0 @V =C
d. Steady Flow Work

¿
W 1=−∫ Vd P =V (P1−P 2)
e. Change in Internal Energy

Δ U=mC Δ T

f. Change in Enthalpy
Δ H = mC Δ T

g. Heat Transferred

Q= Δ U+W
W = 0 @V=C
Q= Δ U

h. Change in Entropy

dS =dQ/ T from:

AS = mC, In(T2/T1)

Isobaric Process

Isobaric Process is an internally reversible constant pressure process of a

working substance.

a. PV and T relation (P = C)

V1 V2
= (Charles' Law)
T2 T 2

b. PV and TS Diagram

c. Nonflow Work
 W n =∫ PdV
W n =P(V 2−V 1 )

d. Steady Flow Work

2
W a=∫ VDP
1
W s=0
where: dP = 0 @P=C

e. Change in Internal Energy

Δ U = mC Δ T

f. Change in Enthalpy
Δ H = mC Δ T

g. Heat Transferred
Q = ΔU + W
Q = Δ U + Δ PV
Q = ΔΗ

h. Change in Entropy

from: dS = dQ/dT

dT

Δ S = mCp In(T2/T1)

Isothermal Process

Isothermal Process is an internally reversible constant temperature process of a

working substance.

a. PV and T relation (T = C )

P1V₁ = P2V2 (Boyles' Law)

b. PV and TS Diagram

c. Nonflow Work

2
W =∫ PdV
1

where: P = C/ V
W = PV In(V2/V1) = mRT In(V2/V1)

d. Steady Flow Work

2
W =∫ PdV
1

where: V = C/P

W = PV In(P2/P1) = mRT In(P2/P1)

Wa=Ws

e. Change in Internal Energy

Δ u=0
f. Change in Enthalpy
Δ H =0

g. Heat Transferred

Q= Δ U+W
Q = W (for AU = 0)

h. Change in Entropy

from: dS = dQ/T
 V2
Δ S=mR ln ⁡( )
V1

Isentropic Process

Isentropic Process is an internally reversible constant entropy process of a

working substance. It is also known as a reversible adiabatic process.

Adiabatic Process is a reversible process in which there is no flow of heat

between a system and its surroundings (Q = 0).

a. PV and T relation (S = C or PV^k = C)

k k
P1 V 1=P2 V 2

( )
K−1
T1 V 2
=
T2 V 1

( )
K−1
T 1 P2 k
=
T 2 P1
b. PV and TS Diagram

c. Nonflow Work

2
W =∫ PdV where P=C /V
1

P 2 V 2−P1 V 1 mR ( T 2−T 1 )
W n= =
1−K 1−k

d. Steady Flow Work

 2
W =∫ V dV whereV =C /P
1

P 2V 2−P 1 V 1 mR (T 2−T 1 )
W S= =
1−K 1−k

e. Change in Internal Energy

∆U = mC∆T = - W

f. Change in Enthalpy

∆H = mC Δ T

g. Heat Transferred (Adiabatic; Q=0

from; Q = AU+W

ΔU = - W

h. Change in Entropy

∆S=0

Polytropic Process
Polytropic Process is an internally reversible process during which PV^{n}=C ,
where; n is a constant.

a. PV and Trelation (PV^{n}=C)

n PV₁ = n P2V2

T1
=¿
T2
n−1
T1 P1 n
=⌊ ⌋
T2 P2
b. PV and TS Diagram
c. Nonflow Work

2
W =∫ PdV where P=C /V
1

P 2 V 2−P1 V 1 mR ( T 2−T 1 )
W n= =
1−K 1−k

d. Steady Flow Work

2
W =∫ V dV whereV =C /P
1

P 2V 2−P 1 V 1 mR (T 2−T 1 )
W S= =
1−K 1−k

Ws = n W

e. Change in Internal Energy

ΔU = m CΔT = - W

f. Change in Enthalpy

∆H = m C, ΔΤ

g. Heat Transferred

Q = mC ΔT

where;
 k−n
C n=C v ( )
1−n

h. Change in Entropy

from: dS = dQ/T

ΔS = m C In(T2/T1)

GENERAL EQUATION FOR THERMODYNAMIC CURVES

The general equation of any process is:

n
P V =C

If.

n=0 Isobaric Process

n=1 Isothermal Process
n=k Isentropic Process
n¿−∞ ¿+∞ ;; Polytropic Process
n=∞Isometric Process

Note: PV^{k} is steeper than PV curve;

THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES

1. CARNOT CYCLE

Sadi Carnot (1796-1832), a French engineer, was the first to develop the theory
of heat engines in 1824. Carnot cycle is the most efficient hypothetical cycle
which is composed of four reversible processes.

Two isothermal processes

Two adiabatic processes which can be executed either in closed or a steady flow
system.
PV (Pressure-Volume) Diagram TS (Temperature-Entropy) Diagram

Process 1-2: Isothermal Expansion of saturated liquid to saturated vapor

Process 2-3: Isentropic Expansion of vapor
Process 3-4: Isothermal Compression of vapor
Process 41: Isentropic Compression

Analysis of Carnot Cycle:

a. Heat Added (Q_{A})

Q=T(S2-S1)

b. Heat Rejected

QR=T2(S4-S3)
QR = T (S1-S2)
QR=T2(S2-S1)

c.. Net Work or Work Done

Wnet=QA-Q Wnet =(T2-T1)(S2-S1)

d. Cycle Efficiency

e=
( )
W net T high −T ❑low T 1−T ❑2
Qa
=
T low
=
T1
=¿
 Note: Carnot Cycle Efficiency can be increased by increasing T₁ and lowering
T2.

2. RANKINE CYCLE
(Ideal Vapor Cycle) Rankine Cycle is the ideal cycle for steam power plants.

TS-DIAGRAM PV-DIAGRAM

PROCESSES OF RANKINE CYCLE:

1 - 2 ; isentropic expansion in the turbine
2 - 3: Constant pressure rejection of heat in the condenser·
3 - 4: Adiabatic pumping
4 - 1 : Constant pressure addition of heat in the boiler

ANALYSIS OF RANKINE CYCLE

1.Heat added in the boiler, Qa
Q a=h1−h 4( )kj
kg
Q A =m ( h1−h 4 ) kw
Where m=mass flow rate of steam (kg/s)

2.Heat Rejected
 Q R=h 2−h3 ( kgkj )
Q R=m(h 2−h3 )Kw

3.Turbine Work
W t =h 2−h3
W t =m(h 2−h3 )(Kw)

Note: if change in kinetic energy is given:

W t =h 1−h2 + Δ KE kj/kg
Wt=m( ( h1−h 2 ) + K E 1−K E2 )KW

4.Pump work
Exact pump work
kj
W p =h 4−h 3
kg
W p =m(h 4−h 3) KW
Approximate pump work
V ( P 4−P 3 ) kj
W p= r3
kg
W p =m(h 4−h 3)kw

5. Net Cycle Work

W net =W r−W p
W net =h 1−h 2−W p

6.Thermal Efficiency
e th =W net /Q A

OTTO CYCLE (Gasoline cycle)

Otto Cycle is a constant volume combustion cycle introduce by Nicholas A Otto

(1832 - 1891)
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic Compression
Process 2 – 3: Isometric Heat Addition
Process 3 – 4: Isentropic Expansion
Process 4 – 1 Isometric Heat Rejection

Analysis of Otto Cycle

a. Heat added
Q A =mC v (T 1−T 2)
b. Heat Rejected
Q R=m C v (T 4 −T 1)
Q R=m C v (T 1−T 4 )

c. Net Work or Work Done

W net =Q A −Q R