Example 7.1 The Earth’s Spectrum.

Consider the earth to be a blackbody with average

surface temperature 15˚C and area equal to 5.1× 1014 m2. Find the rate at which energy is
radiated by the earth and the wavelength at which maximum power is radiated. Compare this
peak wavelength with that for a 5800 K blackbody (the sun).

Solution:

T = 15˚C = (15+273) = 288 K

Area, A = 5.1×1014 m2

Energy radiated by earth, E =?

For earth, λmax =?

Peak wavelength, λmax =? (for sun)

For sun, T = 5800 K

σ = 5.67×10-8 W/m2/K

E = σAT4

= 5.67×10-8 × 5.1×1014 × (288)4

= 1.989× 1017 W

2898
λmax =
T (K )

2898
For earth, λmax = = 10.1 µm
288

2898
For sun, λmax = = 0.499 = 0.5 µm
5800

Example 7.2 Tilt Angle of a PV Module. Find the optimum tilt angle for a south-facing
photovoltaic module in Tucson (latitude 32.1˚) at solar noon on March 1.

Solution:

Tilt angle =?

L = 32.1˚

March 1, n = 60

Tilt angle = 90 – βN

βN = 90˚ – L + δ

δ = 23.45 sin [ 360

365
(n−81)
]
 = 23.45 sin [ 360
365
(60−81)
]
= - 8.29˚

= - 8.3˚

βN = 90˚ – 32.1 – 8.3 = 49.6˚

Tilt angle = 90˚ -βN

= 90˚ – 49.6

= 40.4˚

Example 7.3 Where is the sun? Find the altitude angle and azimuth angle for the sun at 3:00
P.M solar time in Boulder, Colorado (latitude 40˚) on the summer solstice.

Solution:

Altitude angle, β =?

Azimuth angle, ɸs =?

L = 40˚

Solstice δ = 23.45˚

sin β = cosL cosδ cosH + sinL sinδ

H= ( 15h ˚ ) . (hours before solar noon)

= ( 15h ˚ ) . (- 3h )
= - 45˚

sin β = cos40˚× cos23.45˚× cos (-45˚) + sin40˚× sin23.45˚

= 0.7527

β = sin-1(0.7527) = 48.8˚
 cosδsinH
sin ɸs =
cosβ

cos 23.45 ˚ ×sin ⁡(−45 ˚ )

=
cos ⁡(48.8)

= - 0.9848

ɸs = sin-1(-0.9848) = - 79.99 = - 80˚ (80˚ west of south)

ɸs = 180 – ( - 80) = 260˚ (100˚ west of south)

cos H = cos (-45˚) = 0.707

tanδ tan 23.45 ˚

= = 0.5169
tanL tan 40 ˚

tanδ
cos H ≥ , ɸs ≤ 90˚
tanL

∴ ɸs = - 80˚ (80˚ west of south)

Example 7.5 Solar Time to Local Time. Find Eastern Daylight Time for solar noon in
Boston (longitude 71.1° W) local time meridian 75° on July 1st.
Solution:
360
B= (n-81)
364
360
= (182-81)
364
= 99.89°
E = 9.87 sin2B- 7.53cosB-1.5 sinB
= 9.87 sin [2-(99.89)]-7.53cos (99.89) -1.5sin (99.89)
=-3.5min
For Boston at longitude 71.7 in the Eastern Time Zone with local time meridian 75°

CT = ST – 4 (min/° )(Local time meridian – local longitude) - E(min)

CT = 12:00 - 4 (75 - 71.1)-(-3.5)

= 12:00-12.1min

= 11:47.9 A.M EST (Eastern Standard Time)

To adjust for Daylight Savings Time, add 1 h, so solar noon will be at about 12:48 P.M. EDT.
Example 7.6 Sunrise in Boston. Find the time at which sunrise (geometric and
conventional) will occur in Boston, local longitude 71.1˚, Local time meridian 75˚ (latitude
42.3˚) on July 1 (n= 182). Also find conventional sunset.

Solution:

L = 42.3˚

n = 182

geometric sunrise =?

−H SR
Sunrise (geometric) = 12:00
15˚ /h

H SR = cos-1(- tan L tan δ)

δ = 23.45 sin [ 360

365
(n−81)
]
= 23.45 sin [ 360
365
(182−81)
]
= 23.12˚

H SR = cos-1(- tan (42.3˚) tan (23.12˚))

= 112.86˚

−H SR
Sunrise (geometric) = 12:00
15˚ /h

−112.86 ˚
= 12:00
15 ˚ /h

= 12:00 – 7.524 h

= 4.476 h

= 4:28.6 A.M (solar time)

3.467
Q= (min)
cos Lcosδsin H SR

3.467
= = 5.5 min
cos 42.3 ˚ cos 23.1 ˚ sin 112.86 ˚

The upper limb will appear 5.5 minutes sooner than our original geometric calculation
indicated, so

Sunrise = 4:28.6 A.M – 5.5 min = 4:23.1 A.M (solar time)

360
B= (n-81)
364
 360
= (182-81)
364
= 99.89°
E = 9.87 sin2B- 7.53cosB-1.5 sinB
= 9.87 sin [2-(99.89)]-7.53cos (99.89) -1.5sin (99.89)
=-3.5min

For Boston at longitude 71.7 in the Eastern Time Zone with local time meridian 75°

Sunrise (upper limb) = ST – 4 (min/° )(Local time meridian – local longitude) - E(min)

CT = 4:23.1 - 4 (75 - 71.1)-(-3.5)

= 4:23.1 -12.1min

= 4:11 A.M EST (Eastern Standard Time)

+ H SR
Sunset (geometric) = 12:00
15˚ /h

+ 112.86 ˚
= 12:00 15 ˚ /h

= 12:00 + 7.524 h

= 7:31.4 PM (solar time)

Sunset (upper limb) = 7:31.4 + (5.5 – 12.1) min = 7:24.8 P.M (EST)

Example 7.7 Where in the World Are You? With your watch set for Pacific Standard Time
(PST), you travel somewhere and when you arrive you note that the upper limb sunrise is at
1:11 A.M. (by your watch) and sunset is at 4:25 P.M. It is July 1st (δ = 23.1 ° , E = −3.5 min).
Where are you? Local Time Meridian 120°
Solution:
July 1st n = 182
δ = 23.1°
E = −3.5 min
Daylength = sunset – sunrise
= 4:25 PM – 1:11 AM
= 15:14 AM = 15.2333 hr
Midpoint of daylength = daylength/2
= 15.2333 hr/2
= 7.62 hr = 7:37
Solar noon = sunrise + Midpoint of daylength
= 1:11 A.M. + 7:37 = 8:48 A.M. PST
Solar Time = Clock Time + 4 min degree (Local Time Meridian − Local longitude) ◦ +
E(min)
12:00 − 8:48 = 192 min = 4(120 − Longitude) + (−3.5) min
480−3.5−19 2
Longitude = = 71.1°
4
15.233 hour
HSR = · 15◦ /hour = 114.25°
2

L = tan-1 ( tanδ )
cos H SR
= tan- (
−cos 114.25 ° 1
tan 23.1°
= 43.9 )
3.467 3.467
Q= = = 5.74min
cosLcosδsin H SR cos 43.9 cos 23.1sin 114.25

( 15.233−0.191 ) h
HSR = · 15◦ /hour = 112.81
2

L = tan-1( −cos H SR
tanδ )
= tan-1 (
−cos 112.81
tan23.1
= 42.3 )
Example 7.8 Direct Beam Radiation at the Surface of the Earth. Find the direct beam
solar radiation normal to the sun’s rays at solar noon on a clear day in Atlanta ( latitude 33.7˚)
on May 21.

Solution:
direct beam radiation, IB =?

L = 33.7˚

n= 141 (may 21)

IB = Ae-km

A = 1160 + 75 sin [ 360

365
(n−275)
]
= 1160 + 75 sin [ 360
365
(141−275)
]
= 1104 W/m2

k = 0.174 + 0.035 sin [ 360

365
(n−100)
]
= 0.174 + 0.035 sin [ 360
365
(141−100)
]
 = 0.197

β = βN (solar noon)

βN = 90˚ – L + δ

δ = 23.45 sin [ 360

365
(n−81)
]
= 23.45 sin [ 360
365
(141−81)
]
= 20.1˚

βN = 90˚ – 33.7˚ + 20.1˚

= 76.4˚

1
m=
sinβ

1
= = 1.029
sin ⁡(76.4 ˚ )

IB = Ae-km

= 1104 e-0.197(1.029)

= 901.4 W/m2

Example 7.9 Beam Insolation on a Collector. In Example 7.8, at solar noon in Atlanta
(latitude 33.7˚) on May 21 the altitude angle of the sun was found to be 76.4˚ and the clear-
sky beam insolation was found to be 902 W/m 2. Find the beam insolation at that time on a
collector that faces 20˚ toward the southeast if it is tipped up at a 52˚ angle.

Solution:
Solar noon, ɸs = 0

L = 33.7˚

n = 141 (may 21)

altitude angle, β = 76.4˚

clear-sky beam insolation, IB = 902 W/m2

ɸc = 20˚

∑ = 52˚

Beam insolation on collector, IBC =?

IBC = IB cosθ
cos θ = cos β cos (ɸs - ɸc ) sin ∑+ sin β cos ∑

= cos 76.4˚ cos (0 - 20˚ ) sin 52˚ + sin 76.4˚ cos 52˚

= 0.7725

IBC = IB cosθ

= 902 × 0.7725

= 697 W/m2

Example 7.10 Diffuse Radiation on a Collector. Continue Example 7.9 and find the diffuse
radiation on the panel. Recall that it is solar noon in Atlanta on May 21 (n= 141), and the
collector faces 20˚ toward the southeast and is tipped up at a 52˚ angle. The clear-sky beam
insolation was found to be 902 W/m2.

Solution:
Solar noon, ɸs = 0

L = 33.7˚

n = 141 (may 21)

ɸc = 20˚

∑ = 52˚

IB = 902 W/m2

Diffuse radiation on panel, IDC=?

I DC =C I B ( 1+ cos2 ∑ )
C = 0.095 + 0.04 sin [ 360
365
(n−100)
]
= 0.095 + 0.04 sin [ 360
365
(141−100)
]
= 0.121

I DC =902× 0.121 ( 1+ cos2 52 ˚ )

= 88.17 W/m2

Example 7.11 Reflected Radiation onto a Collector. Continue Example 7.9 and 7.10 and
find the reflected radiation on the panel if the reflectance of the surfaces in front of the panel
is 0.2. Recall that it is solar noon in Atlanta on May 21, the altitude angle of the sun β is
76.4˚, the collector faces 20˚ toward the southeast and is tipped up at a 52˚ angle, the diffuse
sky factor C is 0.121, and the clear-sky beam insolation is 902 W/m2.

Solution:
Reflected radiation, IRC=?

ρ = 0.2

n = 141 (May 21)

β = 76.4˚

ɸc = 20˚

∑ = 52˚

C = 0.121

IB = 902 W/m2

1−cos ∑
IRC = ρ I B ( sinβ+ C ) ( )
2

1−cos 52˚
= 0.2 ×902 ( sin 76.4 ˚ +0.121 )( )
2

= 38 W/m2

Example 7.12 One-Axis and Two-Axis Tracker Insolation. Compare the 40◦ latitude, clear-
sky insolation on a collector at solar noon on the summer solstice for a two-axis tracking
mount versus a single-axis polar mount. Ignore ground reflectance.
Solution:
βN = 90˚ − L + δ = 90 − 40 + 23.45 = 73.45°
1 1
Air mass ratio m¿ = = 1.043
sinβ sin 73.45
From Table 7.6, A = 1088 W/m2, k = 0.205, and C = 0.134.
IBC = IB = Ae-km =1088(W/m2).e-0.205x1.043 = 879W/m2

IDC = CIB [ 1+cos ⁡(90° −β)

2 ]
= 0.134 ×879 [ 1+cos ⁡(90° −73.45° )
2 ]
=115W/m2
The total IC = IBC +¿ IDC =879+¿ 115 = 994W/m2
 IBC = IB cosδ = 879W/m2 cos (23.45° ) = 806 W/m2

IDC =C IB [ 1+cos ⁡(90° −β+ δ)

2 ]
=0.134 ×879 [ 1+cos ⁡(90° −73.45° +23.45)
2 ]
=104 W/m2
IC = IBC +¿ IDC = 806+¿ 104 = 910 W/m2

Example 7.13 Average Monthly Insolation on a Tilted Collector. Average horizontal

insolation in Oakland, California (latitude 37.73◦ N) in July 16 is 7.32 kWh/m2-day. Estimate
the insolation on a south-facing collector at a tilt angle of 30◦ with respect to the horizontal.
Assume ground reflectivity of 0.2.
Solution:

δ = 23.45 sin [ 360

365
(n−81)
]
=23.45 sin [ 360
365
(n−81)
]
= 21.35°
HSR = cos-1(tanLtanδ )
= cos-1(tan37.73° tan21.35° )
= 107.6° = 1.878 radians

I 0= ( 24π ) SC[ 1+ 0.034 cos ( 360

365 )]
n
(cosL cos δ sin H +¿ HSR sinLsinδ )
SR

=( 24π ) 1.37[ 1+ 0.034 cos ( 360.197

365 )]
(cos37.73 cos 21.35sin 1.878+¿ 1.878

sin37.73sin21.35)
= 11.34 kWh/m2-day
IH 2
7.32 kWh/m .day
KT = = 2
I0 11.34kWh /m .day
= 0.645
I DH
= 1.390−¿4.027 KT – 5.531KT2 −¿3.108 KT3
IH

= 1.390 – 4.027(0.645)+¿ 5.531(0.645)2 – 3.108(0.645)3

= 0.258
I DH = 0.258.7.32

= 1.89 kWh/m2-day

I DC = I DH ( 1+cos
2 ) = 1.89(
1+cos 30 °
2 ) = 1.76 kWh/m -day
2

I RC = ρ I H ( 1−cos
2 )
= 0.2×7.23(
1+cos 30 °
2 ) = 0.10kWh/m -day 2

I BH = I H – I DH = 7.32-1.89 = 5.43 kWh/m2-day

HSRC = min {(-tanL tanδ ), cos-1[-tan(L- )tanδ ]}

= min {(-tan37.73° tan21.35° ), cos-1[-tan (37.73° -30° ) tan21.35° ]}

= min (107.6° ,93.0° )

= 93.0°

=1.624 radians

R B =cos ¿ ¿ ¿

cos ( 37.73−30 ) ° cos 21.35 ° sin 93 °+ 1.624 sin ( 37.73−30 ) ° sin 21.35 °
=
cos 37.73 °cos 21.35° sin 107.6 °+1.878 sin 37.73° sin 21.35 °

= 0.893
I BC = I BH R B= 5.43×0.893 = 4.85 kWh/m2-day

I C= I BC + I DC + I RC = 4.85+¿ 1.76+¿ 0.10 = 6.7 kWh/m2-day