ASSIGNMENT

Submitted By:

Momin Shakeel
EE-20-62
7th Semester Electrical Engineering
Subject: Power Station Practice
 1 Grid Connected Solar
1.1 Introduction: In recent years, renewable technologies especially photovoltaics (PV) has
become one of most promising power generation technologies worldwide. The distributed solar
power generation is advantageous in providing enhance energy security, low transmission losses,
employment generation, and lowering dependence on fossil fuels. PV technology is vital not only for
large scale power generation but also in building integrated PV segment and would continue to play an
important role in residential and commercial sectors. Thus, for large scale market penetration of building
rooftop solar, the formulation of a comprehensive policy is essential. The renewable energy net metering
policy allows a consumer to become a power producer and feed the extra power to the grid at a certain tariff.

1.2 Building Rooftop Grid Connected Photovoltaic System: Generally, gross

metering and net metering are implemented for billing electricity by state utilities. In gross metering,
the electricity generated by a solar power plant is fed to the grid and the owner is compensated at a
tariff rate known as the Feed in Tariff (FIT) which is generally fixed from time to time. In a typical
standard gross-metering systema unidirectional electricity meter is used which records the imported
electricity from the utility grid whereas in a solar net-metering.
1.3 Classification of solar photovoltaic: Crystalline semiconductors viz. Si and GaAs have
the highest performance as compared the other options available in the market. While, the solar cells
based on the less pure materials viz. polycrystalline or amorphous inorganic or organic materials,
or combination of these having less performance but cost is low. Therefore, researchers all over the
world are exploring other options with higher performance to produce electricity by the means of
solar cells. Also due to low cost and light weight as compared to the mono and poly crystalline solar
cells, the thin film technology has been seen as a potential technology but its low efficiency is still
a cause of concern among the scientific community.For efficiency enhancement of the thin film
technology, the experimental work on three different materials such as, the amorphous silicon,
CdS/CdTe and CIS is going on worldwide. However, due to the environmental related problems
associated to these materials, the polymer and organic materials based thin film technology are the
other competent options . The advancement in the research related to different types of solar cell
materials are given as below:
i. Crystalline materials: The crystalline silicon solar cells have many advantages such as, high
efficiency than that of other solar cells and easy availability which forced the manufacturers to use
them as a potential material for solar cells . In most of the cases, the monocrystalline type solar cells
are used as they have high efficiency but due to higher cost of the material, it is still a cause of
concern for both the manufacturers and the end users. Therefore, the industries are looking for
alternatives and polycrystalline type of solar cell may be another option which has lower cost as
compared to the mono crystalline cell. The scientific community also looking for GaAs based solar
cell as an alternative, which is a compound semiconductor, form by gallium (Ga) and arsenic (As)
having the similar structure as silicon. The GaAs material is having high efficiency and low weight,
but higher cost as compared to the mono- and polycrystalline silicon solar cells. However, the GaAs
based solar cell exhibits to have high heat resistance and found to be suitable for concentrated PV
module for power generation, hybrid use and space applications.
ii. Thin film solar cells: The thin film technology based solar cells are cheaper as compared to
silicon based solar cells due to the fact that the requirement of material is lesser in the
manufacturing process of the former. The amorphous silicon being non-crystalline and disordered
structure form of silicon is having 40 times higher absorptivity rate of light as compared to the
monocrystalline silicon. Thus the amorphous silicon based solar cells are very famous as compared
to other materials such as, CIS/CIGS and CdS/cdTe due to the higher efficiency of the former.
1.1 Power Converter Technology for PV Systems: Typically, the power converters are
classified into string inverters, multi-string inverters, central, and module level (AC module and
DC module) inverters. For solar power farms/plants configured as three-phase systems, the central
and multi-string converters are widely utilized. Comparatively, in residential applications
configured as a single-phase system, string and module converters are intensively adopted .
,Though the configuration of the power converters is different, the power converters have the same
major functions, including islanding detection and protection, reactive power control, grid code
compliance, synchronization, power transfer and DC to AC conversion, and PV power
maximization. Advanced and intelligent controls are required for effective incorporation of these
functionalities and to fulfill customized demands. Additionally, the PV integration can be
enhanced by forecasting, monitoring, and communication technology.
1.2 Block Diagram of Grid Connected Solar:
 2 Wind Power Generation

2.1 Introduction: Wind energy harnesses the kinetic energy of moving air by using large wind
turbines located on land (onshore) or in sea- or freshwater (offshore). Wind energy has been used for
millennia, but onshore and offshore wind energy technologies have evolved over the last few years to
maximize the electricity produced - with taller turbines and larger rotor diameters.Though average wind
speeds vary considerably by location, the world’s technical potential for wind energy exceeds global
electricity production, and ample potential exists in most regions of the world to enable significant wind
energy deployment.Many parts of the world have strong wind speeds, but the best locations for generating
wind power are sometimes remote ones. Offshore wind power offers tremendous potential.

2.2 Recent trends of wind turbine technology: In the modern wind turbine technology,
the HAWTs are highly developed and currently available in the entire existing wind farm. On the
other hand, the VAWT in the present wind farm is very rare. The technical development of VAWTs
lags significantly behind that of HAWTs, though VAWTs are aerodynamically more efficient than
HAWTs. Moreover, it has been suggested that VAWTs are more appropriate in large scale (10 MW)
wind energy generation . Very recently there has been a revivification regarding VAWTs and many
researches have been carried out due to its aerodynamic efficiency and performance regarding flow
separation and alleviating adverse effects on energy production. It is observed that wind is always
changing its speed, and direction is rarely uniform. VAWTs do not need any unidirectional wind
speed to produce electricity from wind as its counterpart HAWTs very much needed. In other words,
VAWTs are omnidirectional that negates the need for a yawing mechanism. Therefore, VAWTS
can be more effective in the complex urban terrains to harness the wind energy that helps to increase
the capacity of small-scale wind power generation .

2.3 Generator Types: The choice of generating device for wind turbines is one of the prime
design considerations. The generators to be used for wind applications must be robust, cost effective,
fault tolerant and should require minimum maintenance. These attributes are necessary for wind
applications as the machines often have to work in hostile environments at isolated places which
may be away from the immediate technical help. The modern wind turbine generators may be
classified into following four categories:

• Fixed-speed wind turbine generators (Type 1).

• Variable-slip, wind turbine generators with variable rotor resistance (Type 2).
• Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine generators (Type 3).
• Full-converter wind turbine generators (Type 4).

i.Fixed-speed wind turbine generators (Type 1): The fixed speed or type 1 wind turbine
generators (WTGs) do not administer substantial controlling mechanisms and are often referred as
self excited induction generators (SEIGs) due to absence of an exciter. They are squirrel caged
induction machines and may be used both in isolated as well as grid connected modes. Whether
operating in isolated or grid connected mode in both scenarios the main operational constraint is
that they do not generate reactive power rather consume it and hence have an inherently poor voltage
regulation. The voltage regulation, however, can be improved to a large extent by various means
readily available such as series capacitances, statcoms, switched capacitors etc. Furthermore,
because of their poor frequency and voltage regulations they are suited only for constant speed
operations as both the generated voltage as well as frequency are very sensitive to speed variations.
ii. Variable-slip, wind turbine generators with variable rotor resistance (Type 2): The type 2
wind turbine generators work on opti slip concept and are wound rotor induction machines with
capability to offset the effects of variation in wind speed on generated power. The type 2 wind
turbine generators are able to maintain constant output power at speeds higher than the rated speed
by extracting slip power of the machine through a variable resistance connected in series with the
rotor and dissipating the extracted power into heat through an external resistance. Typically, these
generators can maintain constant output power up-to a speed variation of 10 % above of the
synchronous speed of machine. In the nominal and below nominal speed range their response is
similar to type 1 generators. Presently, most of the modern wind turbine manufacturers are
successfully implementing the technology in their designs.
iii. Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine generator (Type 3): The doubly fed
induction generators are essentially the wound rotor induction machines. They have three phase
windings both on stator and rotor and may be fed both on the stator as well as rotor windings which
is why they are called doubly fed or double output induction generators. Typically DFIGs can work
both in generating and motoring modes. However, for dual modes of operation the power electronic
converters and the associated components should be capable of handling power in both directions.
When operated as a generator, the DFIGs are capable of maintaining constant voltage and frequency
over a wide range of variations in speed of wind turbine. This, attribute is especially useful for grid
connected wind turbine generators. They are able to operate at constant frequency and voltage at
variable turbine speeds by maintaining a continuous coordination with the grid.
iv.Full-converter wind turbine generators (Type 4): The type 4 full- converter WTGs consist of
full stage converters between the generator and the grid. They administer control on full power
 flowing between the electrical generator and the grid, unlike DFIGs which only control about 30%
to 40% of the generated power, and hence are costly. The type 4 WTGs are able to effectively
separate the generator from the grid which makes the fault response of the system very rapid as well
as shields the generator from other transient grid disturbances. The inclusion of full converters
provide greater flexibility with respect to variable speed operation as the WTG can operate with a
wide range of turbine speeds facilitating higher power extraction.

2.4 Batteries as a recently developed energy storage technology: Introducing an energy

storage element in connection to a wind power plant changes the spectrum and statistical distribution
of the output power. By increasing the amount of storage systems to the wind power plant, the output
of wind farm has become more controllable and predictable . Due to the stochastic nature of wind,
electric power generated by wind turbines is highly erratic and may affect both the power quality and
the planning of power systems. Therefore, energy storage and conversion have become a prime area
of research to address both the societal concerns regarding the environment and pragmatic
applications such as the powering of an ever increasing cadre of portable electronic devices. Storage
system will have to play an important role in the wind power plant by controlling wind power output
that enables the increased penetration of wind power in the grid syst. A variety of storage technologies
are available for storage of energy in the power system. Recently the electrical energy storage
technologies include the following types of storage media.

• Batteries
• Flow batteries
• Fuel cells
• Flywheels
• Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
• Super capacitors
• Compressed air energy storage (CAES)
• Pumped hydro

However, by considering all aspects along with flywheel, fuel cells and batteries are the two most
impacting energy storage devices in the RE systems. Batteries take in electricity from another
producing source, convert the electricity to chemical energy, and store it as a liquid of solution.
When operators need energy from the battery, an electric charge chemically converts the energy
back into electrons, which then move back into a power line on the electric grid. There are several
promising battery technologies for grid energy application including advanced lead-acid, nickel
cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), sodium–sulfur (NaS) and
flow batteries.

3 Grid Integration Problem & Solutions:

3.1 Introduction: The increasing share of renewables in the power grid will bring both positive
and negative consequences. The positive aspects include relief in line congestion, reliable power in
remote locations, energy security, reduction in pollution and global warming. However, the issues
arising from RE power in grid is much more challenging and thus needs more considerations.
Renewables can be embedded into all types of electric networks, from small to large capacity grids.
But, due to the relatively small capacity and the remoteness from HV transmission lines, these
generators are usually grid connected at the distribution level, either at LV level or MV level. The
grid integration of RE power depends on a number of factors. These include: the share of RE power,
size and location of network in which it is connected, energy conversion technology, the effect on
system inertia, droop, power quality, system protection etc.

3.2 Issues With Grid Integration Of Renewables: An electric power system is a network of
electrical components comprising of generators, transformers, feeders, protection devices and loads;
used to generate, transmit, protect and use electric power. Traditionally, power system networks are
designed in such a way that both active power (P) and reactive power (Q) flows from the higher to
the lower voltage levels, that is, from the transmission network to the distribution system; and from
there it is distributed to the customers. This is the conventional radial system, represented by a single
voltage source on each distribution feeder. Due to the absence of generators connected, distribution
systems are called passive circuits. However, with the introduction of renewable based generators,
the situation will reverse. There will be many voltage sources in a single feeder. With significant
level of RE based generators connected at distribution level, the power flows in the circuit may
become reversed and the distribution network is no longer a passive circuit supplying loads.
Depending up on the generation capacity, grid integration of renewable systems can be done at the
transmission level (large capacity) or at the distribution level (small capacity). At present, majority
of the RE systems are connected at LV distribution level. The technical issues that need to be
addressed while integrating RE resources on the distribution system are:

i. Point of common coupling (PCC) and Voltage level

ii. Voltage variations & Power quality
iii. Voltage ride-through capability
iv. Reactive power compensation capability
v. Frequency regulation capability
vi. Protection issues.
3.3 Possible Solutions to Address Renewable Integration Challenges: Several
possible solutions are being proposed in the literature for addressing the challenges associated with
the variability and uncertainty of RE power generation. The main consideration in selecting a
particular method is the cost-effectiveness of the technology and the characteristics of the network.
Grid infrastructure, operational practices, generation type, and regulatory aspects all impact the
types of solutions that are most economic and viable. Generally, systems need additional flexibility
to be able to accommodate the additional variability of renewables. Flexibility can be achieved
through better forecasting, operational practices, energy storage, demand side flexibility, flexible
generators, and other mechanisms.
i. Forecasting of wind and solar resources: Forecasting of solar and wind can help reduce the
uncertainties associated with these generations. It can help grid operators more efficiently commit
or de-commit units to accommodate changes in wind and PV generation, besides helping to reduce
the amount of operating reserves. There are different forecast methods such as short-term and long-
term forecasts. The short-term forecast, usually in hours, is relatively less complex as compared to
long-term forecast. Forecast errors typically range from 3 to 6% of rated capacity one hour ahead
and 6 to 8% a day ahead. ii. Operational Practices: Fast Dispatch and Larger Balancing Authority
Areas: Fast dispatch helps manage the variability of RE power as it reduces the need for regulating
resources, improves efficiency, and provides access to a broader set of resources to balance the
system. With faster dispatch, load and generation levels can be more closely matched, reducing the
need for more expensive regulating reserves.
iii. Reserves management: Modified reserve management practices can be used to help address
the variability of wind and solar power. This include a). putting limits on wind and PV power ramps
to reduce the need for reserves and b). by enabling variable renewables to provide reserves or other
ancillary services such as regulation, inertia etc.
iv. Interconnecting more distributed resources: The impacts of intermittence of RE power can
be minimised by interconnecting large number of small distributed resources spread over a larger
geographical area instead of 9 large unit concentrating in one area. Fluctuations in the total output
will be minimum as the local variations affect only small units, not the total output power.
v. Energy Storage: with increased levels of renewable penetration, energy storage is a standard
solution to minimise generation curtailment. An alternative to expensive storage systems is large
“overbuilding” (200- 300%) and curtailment.
 vi.Wind-PV hybrid systems: Since wind and solar PV outputs are complementary types, hybrid
arrangement of these two resources will improve the overall power fluctuations to some extent. vii.
Demand Response: Flexibility at demand-side is a good option to reduce the impacts of fast ramps.
Demand response can be used to supply reserves and ancillary services as well as peak reduction.
The use of demand response to balance the system during infrequent events in which there is
substantial under- or oversupply of renewable generation can lead to cost savings compared to
continually maintaining additional reserves.

4 Electric Vehicles.
4.1Introduction:Growing concern about climate change intensifies the trend towards
decarbonization and interest in clean technology. As a substitute for internal combustion engine
vehicles (ICEVs), EVs powered by renewable electricity, can reduce petroleum usage and
greenhouse emission . Besides, new technologies on the powertrain of EVs, e.g., wide-band-gap
component based motor drive that improves battery-to-wheel efficiency, make EVs more
competitive on energy saving. The convenience of EV recharging significantly influences EV
adoption and utilization. The charging power level is generally categorized into two classes - the
slow charging and the FC.
4.2 Batteries: The most common type of electric vehicle battery is made of lithium-ion. This is
due to their specific energy (Wh/kg), cycle life and high efficiency. The battery is made up of two
electrodes in an electrolyte.The electrolyte is where the exchange of ions takes place to produce
electricity. The lithium ions act as the charge carrier, allowing for the simultaneous exchange of
positive and negative ions in the electrolyte. There are many options for the materials of the
electrodes and electrolytes, hence there are different possible battery chemistries, each with their
own advantages and disadvantages.
These Include:
• Cobalt Oxide (LCO)
• Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO)
• Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP)
• Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC)
• Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide (NCA)
• Lithium Titanate (LTO).
4.3 Impacts of EV charging on the electric grid: EV integration into the electricity grid
comes with many positive effects, such as power management and V/f regulation. Electric charging
stations must supply the load with continuous power at the desired time and in the dispersed
locations; therefore, they are not favorable for utility companies as utilities try to have a homogenous
load profile, and otherwise, they will face future issues implied on the grid, such as local power
shortages.Also Due to EV’s dynamic characteristics, they have a natural effect on the grid’s e power quality,
such as harmonics, sag, swell, voltage, and phase imbalance. However, companies follow power quality
standards while manufacturing EVs to prevent devastating impacts on the grid. As power electronics devices
are sources of harmonics and other power quality issues in the grid. Therefore, since EV chargers use power
electronics devices that include switching semiconductor-based elements, harmonics are produced when
converting power is carried out. Harmful sequence components in the load currents are also produced in EV
charging stations, impacting the converter’s performance. These harmful sequence components produce a
second-order harmonic ripple in the DC link voltage, which results distortions in the grid’s currents.
Therefore, proper economical solutions must be found to deal with this growth. While there are software-
based and hardware-based solutions, utilities usually install new electric energy storage systems at different
locations to get charged in off-peak hours and charge the EVs in peak hours, or PVs to cover the peak demand,
invest in new infrastructures such as new charging stations, parallel lines, new transformers, etc. They can
also concentrate on smart charging solutions that rely mostly on regulating of the charging of EVs, dynamic
pricing, offering different charging patterns.

5 Micro & Mini Hydro

5.1 Introduction: Small hydro is the development of hydroelectric power on a scale suitable for
local community and industry, or to contribute to distributed generation in a regional electricity grid.
Small hydro can be further subdivided into mini hydro, usually defined as 100 to
1,000 kilowatts (kW), and micro hydro which is 5 to 100 kW. Micro hydro is usually the application
of hydroelectric power sized for smaller communities, single families or small enterprise. The
smallest installations are pico hydro, below 5 kW.
5.2 . Some Recent Trends In The Mini And Micro Hydro Power Plant:
1. Advancements in Turbine Technology:There have been continuous improvements in turbine
technology, with a focus on enhancing efficiency, durability, and adaptability to varying flow rates
and head conditions. Innovations such as new blade designs, materials, and controls have led to
higher performance levels.
2. Smart Grid Integration:Mini and micro hydro power plants are increasingly being integrated
into smart grids, enabling better coordination with other renewable energy sources, demand
response mechanisms, and energy storage systems. This integration allows for optimized operation
and improved grid stability.
3.Digitalization and Remote Monitoring:The implementation of digital technologies, such as
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems, IoT sensors, and predictive
maintenance algorithms, has enabled remote monitoring, control, and condition-based maintenance
of mini and micro hydro power plants. This digitization enhances operational efficiency and reduces
downtime.
4. Modular and Scalable Systems: The trend towards modular and scalable systems allows for
easier customization and deployment of mini and micro hydro power plants in various settings.
Modular components, such as prefabricated turbines and control s
ystems, simplify installation and expansion, making these systems more accessible and cost-
effective.
5.Environmental Impact Mitigation:Design and operational practices aim to minimize the
environmental impact of mini and micro hydro power plants. Techniques such as fish-friendly
turbines, sediment management, and habitat restoration help preserve local ecosystems and
biodiversity.
6.Hybrid Systems: Integration of mini and micro hydro power plants with other renewable energy
sources, such as solar and wind, in hybrid systems is gaining traction. Hybrid systems leverage the
complementary nature of different energy sources to increase overall energy production and
reliability.
These technical advancements and trends collectively contribute to the ongoing evolution of mini
and micro hydro power plants as sustainable, efficient, and versatile sources of renewable energy.

6 Challenges Among Utilities

1. Disruptive events: As we’ve seen in the last few years, no area of the world is safe from the
chaos caused by both natural events and human behaviour. The energy sector is also facing myriad
other disruptions in the form of political and economic events that have massive impacts on supply,
demand, and pricing. Additionally, the cost of preparing for disruptions continues to rise. Utility
companies must have predictive and compensatory solutions in place to ensure that they are agile
and resilient enough to guarantee continued service.
2. Increased complexity: As more renewable and distributed energy sources are incorporated
into the power network, it makes existing grids more complex to operate. Renewable energy sources
are typically prone to variability and intermittency, meaning that they need to be managed with
particular care.
3. Urgent need for digital transformation: In order to manage complex networks and distribution
systems, digital transformation is an essential priority. AI-powered utilities technologies will assist
in supporting consumer demands for smart metering, offer a greater degree of protection from
cybercrime, and help meet compliance standards across a vast array of generation points.
4. Changing customer expectations and behaviours: As prosumers become increasingly capable
of generating and distributing their own power, they are becoming less reliant on traditional,
centralised utilities providers.
5. Less control over power sources: A shift to renewables means a shift away from human-
controlled carbon-based power generation, and a shift toward nature-controlled power generation
like solar or wind. This variability creates cost and complexity in supply and demand forecasting
models. Additionally, increased prosumer power generation and the proliferation of smaller energy
companies also requires utilities companies to develop more complex analytical and strategic
systems to help anticipate and compensate for this loss of centralised control.