HOTS

Theories Related to Learning and Higher Order Thinking Skills

To far, no one has provided a more comprehensive explanation of the thought process than
Dewey (1933), who characterised it as a carefully ordered series of occurrences. Dewey
claims that this fruitful process progresses from introspection to questioning and ultimately to
critical thinking processes that result in a "conclusion that can be substantiated" (p. 5) by
means other than subjective opinions and mental pictures. Straightening out entanglements,
dispelling shadows, resolving confusion, bringing discrepancies together, answering queries,
defining issues, resolving issues, achieving objectives, directing deductions, forming
judgments, assisting in decision-making, and putting an end to disputes are all possible with
the use of thought.

Thinking must be "evoked," in Dewey's words, by "problems and questions" or "some

perplexity, confusion, or doubt." Thinking does not just happen on its own. "The data at hand
cannot supply the solution; they can only suggest it," according to the observations (p. 15).
Moreover, the entire process of reflective thinking is stabilized and directed by this "demand
for the solution" (p. 14); as the saying goes, "the nature of the problem fixes the end of
thought, and the end controls the process of thinking" (p. 15). Dewey's theory is in accordance
with the debate and research that is now taking place on problem solving, metacognitive
techniques, and the value of training students to reflect on their own thought processes
(Kauchak & Eggen, 1998). Students learn how their personal characteristics might influence
their decision-making and interpretation of events as they become more conscious of their
thought processes (Jacobs, 1994; Tversky & Kahneman referenced in Ohio State University,
n.d.; Kahneman, Slovic, & Tversky, 1982). The way that people make decisions may be
completely changed by a variety of factors, including culture, experience, preferences, wants,
interests, and passions (Kahneman et al., 1982). However, as time and more systematic
thinking experience develop, people and organizations can establish the guiding principles to
ensure that "a certain manner of interpretation gets weight, authority" as long as "the
interpretation settled upon is not contradicted by subsequent events" (p. 126).
 Key learning theorists, practitioners, and researchers in the field of thinking and learning are
explained in the section that follows. A wide range of learning frameworks are available for
selection by researchers and educators, with each framework addressing learning from
simpler to more complicated phases. The frameworks, however, are artificial; their purpose is
just to define the thinking/learning process; they are unable to fully capture the complexities
of thought. According to Crowl et al. (1997), p. 170, "the boundaries separating the forms of
complex thinking are sometimes unclear and somewhat artificial, often reflecting the
particular interest of individual investigators."

Piaget
The phases of development are crucial for cognitive growth, according to Piaget.
Children in school age and adolescence learn to manipulate symbols logically and
methodically, as well as to think operationally. Adolescents acquire abilities like scientific
thinking, hypothesis testing, and the logical application of symbols linked to abstract concepts
as they mature into adulthood.
According to Crowl et al. (1997) and Miles (1992), these abilities serve as the foundation for
critical thinking, self-reflection, and problem resolution. According to recent studies, children
tend to stay in transition longer than during the phases of cognitive development, complete
some tasks sooner than Piaget suggested, and differ in how quickly they grow cognitively
(Crowl et al., 1997). However, studies also indicate that the rate at which students go from
one learning stage to the next is influenced by both biological development and instructional
strategies.

Bruner
Inductive reasoning, intrinsic motivation, and active inquiry and discovery are all components
of the learning process, according to Bruner. Cognitive development stages can happen
concurrently; they are not always linear. Bruner developed the "spiral curriculum," in which
students revisit subjects they have already studied in light of newly acquired knowledge.
Piaget and Bruner have a common focus on active learning, inductive reasoning, intrinsic
motivation, active inquiry and discovery, and connecting previously learned concepts and
information to new learning. According to Crowl et al. (1997), there are three stages: iconic
(visual representations), symbolic (symbols, including math and science symbols), and active
(hands-on engagement).
 Bloom
Higher levels of learning are built upon lower levels in each of Bloom's three taxonomies
(cognitive, affective, and psychomotor) (Bloom, 1956; Kauchak & Eggen, 1998).
Higher order skills are correlated with comprehension and application; in these instances, the
learner applies significant knowledge, such as abstractions, formulae, equations, or
algorithms, in new contexts. Analysis, synthesis, and evaluation are examples of higher order
abilities that call on mastery of earlier levels, such as applying normal rules to known or
unfamiliar issues (McDavitt, 1993). Higher order thinking involves breaking down
complicated information into its basic parts, looking for connections, creatively mixing
known and new knowledge within context-bound constraints, and synthesizing and applying
all prior levels in assessing or making decisions.
Additionally, there seems to be some cross-taxonomy interaction. The highest level of the
psychomotor taxonomy, for instance, deals with using our bodies' psychomotor, affective, and
cognitive abilities to communicate ideas or feelings, such as when organizing and carrying out
a song or dance performance intended to make a certain point.

According to Bissel and Lemons (2006), Bloom's Taxonomy is a hierarchy of cognitive

abilities that students must have in order to succeed. Knowledge, understanding, application,
analysis, synthesis, and assessment were the six categories (Bissel and Lemons, 2006) and
were ranked from lowest to highest. Ennis (1985) explained that higher order thinking skills
are the top three levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy: analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Among higher order thinking skills are critical thinking and problem solving (Miri et al.,
2007).

Gagné
Gagné says that the first step in developing intellectual skills is creating a hierarchy based
on the difficulty of the skills. Within this framework, discriminations are necessary before
problem solving, basic rules, complicated higher order rules, and finally well-defined and
tangible notions. According to Gagné (1985), Briggs & Wager (1981), and Gagné, Briggs, &
Wager (1988), cognitive methods might be basic or sophisticated. Related learning types like
attitudes and motor skills can entail both higher-order and lower-order thinking, ranging from
simple manipulation of a tool to the complex study and assessment of complex systems.
Bloom (1956) and Gagné and Briggs (1974) provide more opportunities for teaching
sophisticated skills to younger students and the idea that students may be "young" at any age
by beginning at a lower cognitive level and working their way up to a higher one. This
variation for learning capabilities does not fit as well in Piaget’s and Bruner’s frameworks.

Glaser
The organization and content of "dimensions of thinking" and "dimensions of learning" are
heavily influenced by Glaser's (1941) work in addition to Dewey's (1933) writings. Glaser
reported studies from the 1930s and 1940s and built upon ideas put out by Dewey. Their study
demonstrates the stability of numerous key ideas for higher order thinking, as does current
research Higher Order Thinking Skills Page 26. According to Glaser, the kind of thinking
needed to solve problems stems from a sense of uncertainty, difficulty, or confusion. In order
to identify "the proper challenge to be addressed," one starts with "getting acquainted with the
particular facts that produce a need for definition and generalization" (p. 23), not with
"definitions, rules, general principles, classifications, in addition to it (Dewey, p. 186).
Furthermore, the type of responses that occur to the thinker is limited by how an issue is
"apprehended or defined." Reformulating the problem is necessary to break free from the rut
(Glaser, p. 25). According to this viewpoint, higher order thinking entails more than just a
straightforward hierarchy or continuum. The significance of mental dispositions, such as
attitudes and habits, is also relevant in directing or deflecting the thought process through
aberrations in language comprehension, analysis, selection, association, inference, and
generalization (pp. 26–29). Examples of these aberrations include : unclear or misunderstood
instructions, wording, or language, or a simple lack of information, materials, or statements
that go beyond the person's educational level; thinking patterns, erroneous analogies, and
logical errors; preconceived notions, rigid mind sets, and the propensity to obstruct the right
answer; possibly egocentric relationships, especially in the case of young children; or the
tendency to read one's own beliefs or prejudices into interpretations; and failing to recognize
the problems that need to be solved; to isolate and define the values of a problem; to evaluate
all the information, fallacies of inspection, observation, generalization, and confusion; and the
impact of emotions and transient physiological conditions.

Vygotsky
Major principles of cognitive development appear to have been solidified by Vygotsky
(quoted in Crowl et al., 1997). Children's cognitive development advances with their
education; "elementary processes" like reflexive reactions are explained by biological
maturity. As students acquire a particular talent, they also pick up on the fundamental ideas.
Social connection and social culture are important for learning and cognitive development;
children learn best when they get guidance and support from others, such as parents, teachers,
or peers; A person's development of "higher mental functions" is influenced by important
people in their life; people's cognitive processes differ when working in groups versus alone;
each person has a "zone of proximal development," and specific questions or suggestions will
advance the person toward possibly higher levels; Such assistance, which can take the form of
questions, behavior modeling, prizes, feedback, knowledge sharing, self-talk, or peer tutoring,
assists students in addressing difficulties until they are able to do it on their own (pp. 69–71).

Haladyna

In order to convey the complexity of thinking and learning aspects, Haladyna (1997) divided
mental processes into four levels: comprehension, problem solving, creativity, and critical
thinking. These levels may then be applied to four different categories of content: facts,
concepts, principles, and procedures. The real Higher Order Thinking Skills Page 28 complex,
recursive, and systemic processes of higher order thinking align well with the application of a
set of skills across topic dimensions. Even if other theories' nomenclature is frequently
different from his own, the general area is the same:

Haladyna’s terms Gagné’s terms Bloom’s terms

Facts information knowledge

concepts concepts comprehension

principles, procedures rules application

critical thinking problem solving synthesis and evaluation

creativity no direct match no direct match

Teaching strategies for enhancing HOTs

Teaching strategies, also known as instructional strategies, are methods that teachers use
to deliver course material in ways that keep students engaged and practicing different skill
sets. An instructor may select different teaching strategies according to unit topic, grade level,
class size, and classroom resources. Many kinds of instructional strategies are employed to
achieve teaching and learning goals and support different kinds of students. One of the main
21st century components that teachers want their students to use is higher-order thinking. This
is when students use complex ways to think about what they are learning.Higher-order
thinking takes thinking to a whole new level. Students using it are understanding higher levels
rather than just memorizing facts. They would have to understand the facts, infer them, and
connect them to other concepts. According to a Singh et al. (2018) study, instructors'
understanding of Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive processes was rudimentary at best.

Differentiating between lower and higher order thinking skills shown to be difficult for
teachers (Singh, 2018). Additionally, it was noted that educators struggle to implement higher
order thinking abilities and are unaware of the most effective ways to teach and learn (Abdul
Halim & Siti Muhibah, 2015). The use of higher order thinking abilities in the classroom
setting is hampered by teachers' incapacity to develop and carry out appropriate tactics,
strategies, and approaches for teaching higher order thinking (Singh, 2017).

1-problem solving

One strategy that might inspire others is the use of problem-solving strategies the
students to acquire knowledge. According to Kolesnik (1976), problem solving is the process
of rearranging ideas in order to get around challenges or achieve an objective. Furthermore, it
has been noted by (Ausubel, 1978, Gagne, 1985, and Gagne 1987) that problem resolution is a
teaching and learning process that requires a great deal of expertise. Furthermore, Aururah et
al. (2014) assert that the ability to solve problems is a crucial component of succeeding
academically in a number of science courses. Next, according to Ngalimun (2014), issue
solving is an endeavor to identify solutions, such as patterns and guidelines. Until they find
the answer, students use problem-solving techniques such as pattern recognition,
investigation, and search strategies to find patterns or rules offered in groups.

In line with the above mentioned concepts, Gick in McIntosh (1995) argues that
information processing for solving problems has three elements: 1) problem approaches, 2) a
logical solution process, and 3) communication. In addition, Marzano et al. (1988) claim that
there are five ideal steps in the issue-solving process: 1) problem identification, 2) problem
definition, 3) strategy exploration, 4) idea action, and 5) effect search. Then, according to
Heine (2010), there are a number of true implicit activities in problem solving that are known.
These activities include: 1) identifying the problem; 2) defining and mentally presenting the
problem; 3) developing a plan for a solution; and 4) organizing one's understanding of the
problem.

The following conclusions may be drawn from the principles presented above: 1) A
problem-solving approach is a teaching and learning strategy that involves rearranging
concepts in order to get past challenges and accomplish a goal. A learning activity that
requires a great deal of knowledge and experience is problem solving. By successfully
bringing concepts together to help students understand rules, problem solving broadens their
mastery of the subject matter and encourages them to take an active role in locating and
utilizing relevant information. It also aims to help them identify potential solutions, such as
patterns and rules. 2) the stages involved in putting problem solving into practice, which are:
(a) articulating the problem; (b) arriving at a solution; and (d) communicating. There are also
other steps, such as (a) identifying the problem, (b) defining the problem, (c) exploring
strategy, (d) acting on ieas, and (e) looking for the effects. Based on the previous findings, the
concept, the processes, and the methods the writer used to develop problem-solving skills are
taken from and exemplified by the experts previously mentioned. Specifically, problem-
solving is the ability to successfully integrate concepts so that students can increase the scope
of their knowledge mastery. This is done by encouraging students to actively seek out and use
information related to the problem at hand, as well as to understand grammar rules and
patterns.

Actually, one has to be aware of issue solving's characteristics in order to completely

comprehend it. According to Kolesnik (1976), issue solving is characterized by deliberate
efforts to ascertain the conclusions, answers, or solutions that a person requires in order to
accomplish a goal. Furthermore, according to Pizzini and Shepardson (1992), problem solving
is an approach that promotes student interaction. A teaching and learning approach that allows
students to engage with one another will support them in changing their mindset about
learning in order to become better performers. Next, according to Kalhotra (2014), issue
solving is the act of identifying a solution for the challenges that students encounter when
they are unable to complete an assignment.
References

Kister, Karen, “Exploring Higher Order Thinking Strategies in Georgia’s Top Performing
Middle Schools” (2019). Ed.D. Dissertations. 5. . (n.d.).

king, Goodson, & Rohani. (n.d.). higher order thinking skils. King, F. J., Goodson, L. &
Rohani, F. (2018). Higher Order Thinking Skills: Definition, Teaching Strategies, &
Assessment. Florida: A Publication of the Educational Services Program, Now Known as the
Center for Advancement of Learning and Assessment, Florida.

Teaching Strategies to Develop Higher Order Thinking Skills in English Literature. (n.d.).
International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change. Www.Ijicc.Net Volume 11, Issue
8, 2020.

THE APPLICATIVE USE OF PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUE IN TEACHING

GRAMMAR . (n.d.). Proceedings of the Fourth International Seminar OnEnglish Language
and Teaching (ISELT-4).