22IT-406 Operating Systems

Unit-I Introduction to Operating System

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition, Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Topics
! Definition
! What Operating Systems Do
! Computer-System Organization
! Computer-System Architecture
! Operating-System Structure
! Operating-System Operations
! Process Management
! Memory Management
! Storage Management
! Protection and Security
! Distributed Systems
! Special-Purpose Systems
! Computing Environments
! Open-Source Operating Systems

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 What is an Operating System?

! A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer

and the computer hardware and manages the OS resources (CPU,
Main Memory, I/O Devices, Secondary storage).
! Operating system goals:
! Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
! Make the computer system convenient to use
! Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Computer System Structure
! Computer system can be divided into four components
! Hardware – provides basic computing resources
4 CPU, memory, I/O devices
! Operating system
4 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
! System and Application programs
! Users
4 People, machines, other computers

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Four Components of a Computer System

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Operating System Definition

! OS is a resource allocator
! Manages all resources
! Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair
resource use
! OS is a control program
! Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper
use of the computer

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Operating System Definition (Cont)

! No universally accepted definition

! “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is good
approximation
! But varies wildly
! “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel.
Everything else is either a system program (ships with the operating
system) or an application program

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 OS Definition

! Operating System is a program that acts as in

interface between user and the hardware and
also acts as a manager of resources of the
computer system.
! It controls execution of programs to prevent
errors and improper use of the computer
system resources.

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Computer Startup
! bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
! Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware
! Initializes all aspects of system
! Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Computer System Organization
! Computer-system operation
! One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus
providing access to shared memory
! Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Device Driver

! Typically, Operating Systems have a device

driver(a piece of software) for each device
controller
! This driver understands the device controller
and presents a uniform interface of the device
to the rest of the operating system

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Device controller
! A general purpose computer system consists of CPUs and multiple device
controllers that are connected through a common bus.
! I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
! Each device controller is in charge of specific type of device(s).
! A device controller maintains some local buffer storage and a set of special
purpose registers.
! The device controller is responsible for data movement between the
peripheral devices it controls and its local buffer storage
! I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
! Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing
an interrupt
! Two ways to accomplish I/O
! Interrupt driven (for movement of small amount of data)
4 For example data movement between keyboard and CPU
! Direct Memory Access or DMA (for bulk data movement )
4 For example disk I/O

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Interrupt Handling
• An interrupt is a signal sent from a hardware device or software process to the
processor, indicating that it needs attention.
• When an interrupt occurs, the processor suspends its current activities, saves its
state, and begins executing Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) or interrupt handler.
• Interrupts are essential for managing asynchronous events in a computer system,
such as input/output operations, timer events, or hardware errors,

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Common Functions of Interrupts
! Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,
through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all
the service routines
! Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted
instruction
! Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being
processed to prevent a lost interrupt
! A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or
a user request
! An operating system is interrupt driven

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Interrupt Handling and Polling
! Interrupt and Polling are the two ways to handle the events generated by
the devices that can happen at any moment while CPU is busy in executing
another process.
! in polling, CPU keeps on checking I/O devices at regular interval whether it
needs CPU service whereas,
! in interrupt, the I/O device interrupts the CPU and tell CPU that it need CPU
service.
! Separate segments of code, (ISR) determine what action should be taken
for each type of interrupt
! When an interrupt occurs, the operating system preserves the state of the
CPU by storing registers and the program counter, and then switches to
ISR.
! On completion, it resumes with what it was doing earlier.

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Direct Memory Access Structure

! Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close

to memory speeds
! Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly
to main memory without CPU intervention
! Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one
interrupt per byte

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 How a Modern Computer Works

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Storage Hierarchy
! Storage systems organized in hierarchy
! Speed
! Cost
! Volatility
! Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory
can be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Storage-Device Hierarchy

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Caching

! The key to managing the operation of the memory hierarchy is to

bring the instructions and data that will be used in the near future
as close to the processor as possible.
! Cache memory is a technique for decreasing the effective access
time of the memory
! Information in use is copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
! Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is
there
! If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
! If not, data copied to cache and used there
! Cache smaller than storage being cached
! Cache management important design problem
! Cache size and replacement policy

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Simple Structure
! MS-DOS – written to provide the most functionality in the least space
! Not divided into modules
! Although MS-DOS has some structure, its interfaces and levels of
functionality are not well separated

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 MS-DOS Layer Structure

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 MS-DOS execution

(a) At system startup (b) running a program

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Layered Approach
! The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels), each built
on top of lower layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is the hardware; the
highest (layer N) is the user interface.
! With modularity, layers are selected such that each uses functions
(operations) and services of only lower-level layers
! Advantages:
! Layered systems are easier to debug and modify, as changes affect only limited
sections of the system
! Information is kept only where it is needed and is accessible only within a defined
and restricted area

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Layered Operating System

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Traditional UNIX System Structure

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 UNIX

! UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX operating

system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS consists of two
separable parts
! Systems programs
! The kernel
4 Consists of everything below the system-call interface and
above the physical hardware
4 Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a large
number of functions for one level

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 FreeBSD Running Multiple Programs

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Computer-System Architecture
! Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through
mainframes)
! Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
! Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
! Also known as parallel systems
! Advantages include
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
! Two types (with references to work assignment to CPUs)
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing
! Two types (with reference to memory organization)
1. Loosely coupled (distributed memory)
2. Tightly coupled (shared memory)

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Symmetric Vs Asymmetric Multiprocessing

! Symmetric MP:
! Any Processor can do any job
! These systems have shared memory and hence called tightly
coupled systems

! Asymmetric MP:
! One Master processor controlling other processors(Slaves)
! That is, there is a master slave relationship among processors
! Asymmetric multiprocessing can be implemented as loosely coupled
as well as tightly coupled systems

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
• Tightly coupled Processors working under same OS
and sharing common memory

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Multi Core Design (Many CPUs on a Single Chip)

A Dual-Core Design

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Extended Diagram

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Loosely Coupled Systems
• Each Processor has its own local memory

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Process Concept
! An operating system executes a variety of programs:
! Batch system – jobs
! Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks
! Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably
! Process – a program in execution; process execution must
progress in sequential fashion
! Program is a static concept, and refers to the code stored on the
secondary storage.
! Process is a dynamic concept and refers to text (code), data and
stack sections in main memory, along with current CPU activity like
contents of PC and other CPU registers.
! A process includes:
! program counter
! stack
! data section

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Process in Memory

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Process State
" As a process executes, it changes state
! new: The process is being created
! running: Instructions are being executed
! waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
! ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor
! terminated: The process has finished execution

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Diagram of Process State

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Features of Modern Operating Systems
! Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
! Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
! Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
execute
! A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
! One job selected and run via job scheduling
! CPU bound and I/O bound jobs
! When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
! When multiple processors are available, the OS is said to be a multiprocessing
system
! Timesharing(multitasking) is logical extension of multiprogramming in which CPU
switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running,
creating interactive computing
! Response time should be < 1 second
! Each user has at least one program executing in memory [process
! If several jobs ready to run at the same time [ CPU scheduling
! If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
! Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Types of Operating Systems
OS Type Primary Goal
Batch It execute similar jobs in batches automatically, without
human intervention, thereby reducing CPU idle time
(Batch processing is one of the earliest forms of
multiprogramming)
Time sharing To minimize response time
Real time To provide quick event response time (soft and hard RTS)

Network to allow sharing of resources like files and printer from

multiple computers in a network
Distributed • to make it easy for users to access remote
resources(including computational resources),
• and to share them with other users in a controlled
manner.
Handheld To optimize battery and screen uses
(Android,
IOS)

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Operating System Services

! Two types:
! services that are helpful to the user
! Services that ensure the efficient operation of
the system itself via resource sharing

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Operating System Services
! One set of operating-system services provides functions that are
helpful to the user:
! User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI)
4 Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface
(GUI), Batch
! Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into
memory and to run that program, end execution, either normally or
abnormally (indicating error)
! I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may involve
a file or an I/O device
! File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.
Obviously, programs need to read and write files and directories, create
and delete them, search them, list file Information, permission
management.

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 A View of Operating System Services

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Operating System Services (Cont)
! Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same
computer or between computers over a network
4 Communications may be via shared memory or through message
passing (packets moved by the OS)
! Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
4 May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user
program
4 For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to
ensure correct and consistent computing
4 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and
programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Operating System Services (Cont)

" Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing
! Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
4 Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main memory,
and file storage) may have special allocation code, others (such as I/O
devices) may have general request and release code
! Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds
of computer resources
! Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser
or networked computer system may want to control use of that information,
concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
4 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled
4 Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication,
extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts
4 If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be
instituted throughout it. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Operating-System Operations
! Interrupt driven by hardware
! Software error or request creates exception or trap
! Division by zero, request for operating system service
! Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each
other or the operating system
! Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
! User mode and kernel mode
! Mode bit provided by hardware
4 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or
kernel code
4 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
4 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Privileged Instructions
! Dual mode of operation provides us with means for protecting the
OS
! For this some of the machine instructions that may cause harm to
the system are designated as privileged instructions
! The hardware allows privileged instructions to be executed only in
monitor mode.
! Examples:
Set value of a timer, Write into monitor memory, Turn off interrupts,
switch from user to monitor mode, all I/O instructions, halt

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Transition from user mode to kernel mode

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Privilege Rings (Hierarchical Protection
Domains) for the X86 family

! Although 4 levels of protection are available in X86, most of the OS

including Windows and Unix uses only two. OS/2 uses 3 rings and
Multics uses 8 rings.
! Specially designated bits in hardware indicates the current privilege
level.
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 System Calls
! Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
! Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++) although certain low-
level tasks (for example, tasks where hardware must be accessed directly),
may need to be written using assembly-language instructions.
! System calls are mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application
Program Interface (API) rather than direct system call use.
! For example, the Win32 function CreateProcess () actually calls the
NTCreateProcess () system call in the Windows kernel.
! Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API for
POSIX-based systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux, and
Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java virtual machine (JVM)
! Why use APIs rather than system calls?
! program portability
! Ease to work with

(Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are generic)
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Example of System Calls
! System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Example of Standard API
" Consider the ReadFile() function in the Win32 API—a function for reading from a file

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Standard C Library Example
! C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 System Call Parameter Passing
! Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired system
call
Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS and call
!
! Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
! Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
4 In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
! Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of block
passed as a parameter in a register
4 Thisapproach taken by Linux and Solaris
! Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program and
popped off the stack by the operating system
! Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of
parameters being passed

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Parameter Passing via Table

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Types of System Calls
! Process control
! File management
! Device management
! Information maintenance
! Communications
! Protection

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 I/O Protection

! All I/O instructions are privileged instructions.

! Must ensure that a user program could never
gain control of the computer in monitor mode.

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 CPU Protection
! Timer – interrupts computer after specified period to ensure
operating system maintains control.
" Timer is decremented every clock tick.
" When timer reaches the value 0, an interrupt occurs.
" Os takes control, may give additional time to a program or may
terminate.
! Timer commonly used to implement time sharing.
! Timer also used to compute the current time.
! Load-timer is a privileged instruction.(You can not simply change the
date/time settings of OS if you do not have admin. Privileges)

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Memory Protection
! Must provide memory protection at least for the interrupt vector and
the interrupt service routines.
! In order to have memory protection, add two registers that
determine the range of legal addresses a program may access:
" Base register – holds the smallest legal physical memory
address.
" Limit register – contains the size of the range
! Memory outside the defined range is protected.

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Process Management

" A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system.

Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
" Process needs resources to accomplish its task
! CPU, memory, I/O, files
! Initialization data
" Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
" Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of
next instruction to execute
! Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
" Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
" Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system
running concurrently on one or more CPUs
! Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.63 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection
with process management:
! Creating and deleting both user and system processes
! Suspending and resuming processes
! Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
! Providing mechanisms for process communication
! Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.64 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Memory Management
! All data in memory before and after processing
! All instructions in memory in order to execute
! Memory management determines what is in memory when
! Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
! Memory management activities
! Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by
whom
! Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and
out of memory
! Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.65 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Storage Management

! OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage

! Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
! Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
4 Varying
properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)
! File-System management
! Files usually organized into directories
! Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
! OS activities include
4 Creating and deleting files and directories
4 Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
4 Mapping files onto secondary storage
4 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.66 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Mass-Storage Management
" Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data that
must be kept for a “long” period of time
" Proper management is of central importance
" Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its algorithms
" OS activities
! Free-space management
! Storage allocation
! Disk scheduling
" Some storage need not be fast
! Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
! Still must be managed
! Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.67 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register

! Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no

matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

! Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware

such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache
! Distributed environment situation even more complex
! Several copies of a datum can exist

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.68 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 I/O Subsystem
! One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the
user
! I/O subsystem responsible for
! Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data temporarily
while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of data in faster
storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of output of one job
with input of other jobs)
! General device-driver interface
! Drivers for specific hardware devices

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.69 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Protection and Security
! Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or
users to resources defined by the OS
! Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
!
theft, theft of service
! Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can
do what
! User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
! User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
! Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
! Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.70 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009