UNIT-I

Mechatronics systems – elements & levels of mechatronics system, Mechatronics design

process, system, measurement systems, control systems, microprocessor-based controllers,
advantages and disadvantages of mechatronics systems. Sensors and transducers, types,
displacement, position, proximity, velocity, motion, force, acceleration, torque, fluid pressure,
liquid flow, liquid level, temperature and light sensors.

Introduction
The word mechatronics was first used in Japan in the late 1960s, spread through Europe and
is now commonly used in all other parts of the world. In the 1980s, there was a veritable explosion
in microprocessor- based products. This is self-evident in the ever-increasing performance and
reduction of costs of electronic products. The microprocessor has been incorporated into every
aspect of traditional mechanical systems. The utility of the microcomputer and other similar
microprocessor-based devices have been employed in countless applications — for system
monitoring, data handling, data presentation and control. The modern mechanical engineer must,
therefore, be competent in the application of microprocessor-based systems. Mechatronics is a
rapidly developing inter-disciplinary field of engineering. The field of mechatronics deals with the
synergistic integration of mechanical engineering, electronic engineering, computer technology
and control engineering in the development of electromechanical products, through an integrated
design approach. Therefore, a mechatronics system requires a multi-disciplinary approach for the
design, development and implementation of its product and the entire mechatronics system is
treated concurrently in an integrated manner.

Elements of Mechatronics System

A typical mechatronics system consists of mechanical systems, electrical systems and
information technology. The domain of mechatronics is shown in Figure 1.1 and it is the next
generation of machines and mechanisms required for carrying out work in various
environments. A typical mechatronics system such as servo motor and humanoid robot consists
of mechanical elements, actuators, sensors, controllers, signal conditioning devices, computer and
software, interfacing and power devices.
The concept of mechatronics is to bring together the areas of technology involving sensors and
measurement systems, drive and actuation systems and analyze the behavior of systems,
microprocessor systems and control systems. Figure 1.2 depicts the various engineering
disciplines involved in the mechatronics system. A servo motor is a typical example of the
mechatronics system. It is a motor with sensory feedback and is used for obtaining very complex
and precise motions. The main mechanical components in the servo motor are the rotor and the
stator. The electrical components consist of field windings and rotor windings, circuitry for
power transmission. Electronic components include sensors such as optical encoder and controller's
circuit elements. Other examples of mechatronics systems include digital cameras, washing
machines, automobile electronic fuel injection and antilock brake systems, automatic teller
machines (ATMs), microwave ovens, aircraft flight control systems, video recorder systems,
CNC machine tools, robots, room air conditioning system, calculators, photocopiers, sewing
machines and even toys. The level of the technology incorporated into these kinds of devices
continues to increase.

Examples of mechatronics product development involving microprocessor-based

controllers include the design of a road-speed limiter for heavy goods vehicles, the design of an
automatic assembly machine for handles of woven polymer sacks and the control system of
automated banking system. Mechatronics is also used in large-scale applications such as flexible
manufacturing systems (FMSs), involving computer-controlled machines, robots, material
conveyance methods and overall supervisory coordination.

Fig.1.1 Domain of Mechatronics.

Fig.1.2 Constituents of Mechatronics.

The key elements of mechatronics systems can be classified under following categories:

1. information systems;
2. mechanical systems;
3. electrical systems;
4. computer systems;
5. sensors and actuators;
6. real-time interfacing.

Figure 1.3 shows all the elements in a typical mechatronics system. The actuators and sensors
form a mechanical system. The actuators produce motion or cause some action whereas the sensors
detect the state of the system parameters, inputs and outputs. The input signal conditioning and
interfacing systems provide connections between the control circuits and input/output (I/O) devices.
The overall control of the system is carried out by digital controls. The graphical display of devices
provides visual feedback to the users.

Fig.1.3 Key elements of a typical mechatronics system.

Levels of Mechatronics System

Modern mechatronics systems can be categorized in the following broad categories:
1. Stand-alone systems, for example, washing machine, compact disk player, auto focus
camera, boat auto pilot, etc.
2.Systems with high level of distributed sensor-microcontroller-actuator relationships, for example,
wire aircraft.
3.A large factory system that is also a distributed system but which links a number of major
subsystems such as machining centers, robots for parts handling, automated inspection
stations, etc. _
4.A system that incorporates intelligent control or artificial intelligence, for example, humanoid
robot.

Mechatronics Design Process

Any mechatronics system consists of many types of interconnected subsystems and
components. The energy conversion and transfer from one element to another element are important
and will be the key concepts in the analysis and design of mechatronics system, specifically the
interaction between electrical and mechanical dynamics. A traditional approach is to design the
electrical components and the mechanical system separately and interconnect these systems together.
This approach can result in many problems such as (a) the original characteristics and operating
conditions of the two will change due to actual loading and dynamic interactions and (b) perfect
impedance matching of the two independently designed systems will be almost impossible.
 Fig.1.4 Design concept: (a) conventional procedure and (b) mechatronics system design.

Therefore, the philosophy here is to follow an integrated approach to engineering design

that supports the concepts of concurrent engineering. It is the integration of engineering across
traditional boundaries. Figure 1.4 shows the design methodology integrating mechanical and
electrical systems in relation to conventional methods.
The mechatronics design process essentially consists of three aspects as illustrated in Figure 1.5:

Fig.1.5 Phases of Mechatronics design process.

1. Modeling and simulation: Here physical systems are represented by a suitable model for
describing the behavior characteristics such as block diagrams. Numerical or computer
simulation methods are used for solving models. Modeling and design can be done by
understanding the system and its intended function and objectives. However, the models can
be analyzed with computer simulations for obtaining useful information that will guide the
design process.
2. Prototyping: It is the process of replacing non-computer subsystems with actual hardware.
Sensors and actuators are interfaced with input and output signals and connected with the
models, resulting in partial mathematical and real models. Of the two parts, the mathematical
part provides simulated time-based response and the real part provides real-time analysis. These
two parts are synchronized to understand and validate the design.
3. Deployment: This is associated with the final product, embedded software deployment and
lifecycle.
Figure 1.6 provides more information on integrated design approach for developing mechatronics
system.
 Fig.1.6 Integrated design approach

System
A "System" is a group of physical components combined to perform a specific function. All
mechatronics devices consist of systems. A system can be considered as a box that has an input and
an output. We are mainly concerned with the relationship between the input and the output rather
than what is going on inside the box. For example, an electric generator may be thought of as a
system which has mechanical rotation as its input and electric power as its output (Figure 1.7).

Fig.1.7 System.
A measurement system can be considered as a system that is used to measure the required
parameter. The quantity being measured is given as the input and the value of that quantity is obtained
as the output. For example, a rotational speed measurement system, that is a digital tachometer, has
the rotation of shaft as its input and gives an output of a number on the LED display. Figure 1.8
shows such a system for measuring the rotational speed.

Fig.1.8 An example of a Measurement System.

A control system can be considered as a device that is used to control the output of the system
to a desired value. For example, a domestic air-conditioning system has the temperature required in
the house as its input and the room temperature as its output, that is we can set the required
temperature on the thermostat or controller and the compressor adjusts itself to pump the refrigerant
through the evaporator so as to produce the required temperature in the house (Figure 1.9).
 Fig.1.9 An Example of a Control System.

Measurement Systems
A fundamental part of many mechatronics systems is a measurement system used for making measure-
ments. This system comprises four basic parts as shown in Figure 1.10. The transducer or sensor
is a sensing device that is used to convert a physical input into an output, usually a voltage. The
signal processor performs functions such as filtering, amplification or other signal conditioning on
the output of the transducer. The growth of micromachining that has led to low-cost high-
performing sensors with built-in intelligence has enabled sensor level of signal processing and
the ability to communicate with other sensors and sub systems.

Fig.1.10 Elements of a Measurement System.

A display device is used for online monitoring or subsequent processing of data. It may be
a computer, a hardcopy device or simply a display device. As an example, consider a thermocouple-
based digital temperature measurement system shown in Figure 1.11. A thermocouple is a
transducer that converts temperature to a small voltage. The amplifier increases the magnitude of
the voltage and the analog-to-digital (A/D) converter changes the analog signal to a coded digital
signal. The light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are used as display devices that display the value of the
temperature.

Fig.1.11 Measurement System.

A generalized measurement system consists of the following common elements:

1. primary sensing element;
2. variable conversion element;
3. variable manipulation element;
4. data transmission element;
5. data processing element;
6. data presentation element.
Figure 1.12 indicates the functional elements of an instrument by various blocks.
 Fig.1.12 Functional Elements of a Measurement System.
1. Primary sensing element: It is the first element that receives energy from the measured
medium and produces an output depending on the measurand. This output is then
converted into an analogous electrical signal by a transducer.
2. Variable conversion element: It converts the output electrical signal of the primary sensing
element (which may be a voltage, frequency or some other electrical parameter) into a
more suitable form without changing the information content of the input signal. In some
instruments, there is no need to use a variable conversion element, while some other
instruments require a variable conversion element.
3. Variable manipulation element: This element is used to manipulate the signal presented to it
and preserves the original nature of the signal. In other words, it amplifies the input signal to
the required magnification. For example, an electronic voltage amplifier receives a small
voltage as input and produces a greater magnitude of voltage as output. A variable
manipulation element does not necessarily follow a variable conversion element, it may
precede it.
4. Data transmission element: It transmits the data from one element to the other. It may be
as simple as shaft and gear assembly systems, or as complicated as a telemetry system that
is used to transmit a signal from one plate to another.
5. Data processing element: It is used to modify the data before the data are displayed or finally
recorded. It may be used for the following purposes:
 to convert data into a useful form;
 to separate the signal hidden in noise;
 to provide corrections to the measured physical variables to compensate for zero offset,
temperature error, scaling, etc.
6. Data presentation element: These are the elements that finally communicate the
information of measured variable to a human observer for monitoring, control or analysis
purposes. The value of the measured variable may be indicated by an analog indicator (a
pointer and a scale), digital indicator (ammeter, voltmeter, etc.) or by a recorder [magnetic
tapes, camera, TV equipment, storage-type cathode ray tubes (CRT), etc.].

As an example of a measurement system, consider a filled thermal system used for process
temperature measurement as shown in Figure 1.1.3. The liquid- or gas-filled temperature bulb acts
as a primary sensing element and a variable conversion element. It senses the input quantity
(i.e., temperature) and converts it into a pressure built up within the bulb. This pressure is
transmitted through the capillary tube (which acts as a data transmission element) to a spiral
Bourdon-type pressure gauge. The gauge acts as a variable conversion element that converts
pressure into displacement. The displacement is manipulated by the linkage and gearing
arrangement to give a larger pointer deflection. This arrangement acts as a variable manipulation
element. Gearing elements act also as a data processing element by converting linear motion
into rotary motion. The pointer and scale indicate the temperature, thus serving as data
presentation elements.
 Fig.1.13 Measurement System of a filled thermal system.
Control Systems
In a control system there is an interconnection between the constituent components.
These individual components may be electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal
or chemical in nature. A well-designed control system will provide the best response for the
complete system to external, time-dependent disturbances operating on the system. The basic
functions of the control systems are:
1. to minimize the error between the actual and the desired output;
2. to minimize the time response to load changes in the system.
A simple example of a control system is a water-level control system in a tank (Figure 1.14).
In this pump is switched ON for an interval that would allow enough discharge of liquid into the
tank to fill it. Once the tank is filled to the required level, the pump will switch OFF.

The system has an input from the water-level sensor that notifies it what the liquid level is,
then compares this data with what the level should have been and provides the appropriate
response in order to obtain the required water level in the tank. This is an example of feedback
control in which the sensor signals are given feedback from the output in order to modify the
reaction of the pump to switch ON or OFF. Feedback control is exercised by the control
system, which compares the actual output of the system with what is required and adjusts the
output accordingly.

Fig.1.14 Water level Control System.

RequirementsofaControlSystem
The three important requirements of a control system are:
 1.Stability: For any change in the input signal, the output of the system reads or makes its
response at a reasonable value.
2.Accuracy: The closeness of the measured value to the true value is known as accuracy. In
practice, the measured value differs from the true value.
3.Response: The quickness with which an instrument responds to a change in the output
signal is known as response.
An ideal system has perfect stability, 100% accuracy and immediate or instantaneous response.
Practically, this is not possible but a slight compromise can be made in these above-mentioned
requirements.
Types of Control Systems
The two types of control systems are:
1.open-loop control systems or non-feedback control systems;
2.closed-loop control systems or feedback control systems.
Open-loop Control Systems
A good example of an open-loop control system is shown in Figure 1.15. The input signal or
command signal is given to the machine tool to perform the required machining operations. The
tool moves with respect to a command signal given by the operator. There is no return signal to
verify whether the tool has moved to the correct position or not (this is why it is called non-feedback
or open-loop system). Thus, the error is not found and therefore, not corrected.

Fig.1.15 Open-loop Systems.

According to the input signal, the stepping motor rotates to actuate slides. At the same time,
when the gears rotate, the lead screw is turned. Thus, the slide moves. Owing to the absence of a
feedback signal, the required distance moved by the slide is not correctly known. Generally, the accuracy
is affected by inaccurate positioning of tools, backlash in gears and lead screw.
The above physical system can be represented in a symbolic way as in Figure 1.16. The
controller here is the drive adjustment of a stepping motor which takes the reference input called set
point. The gears and lead screw act as a plant or process.

Fig.1.16 Block diagram representing an Open-loop System.

Advantages: The open-loop system has the following advantages:
1.is more suitable where accurate positioning of the tools is not required;
2.is very simple;
3.has better reliability and stability;
4.is less costly.
Disadvantages: Open-loop system has the following disadvantages:
1.It is not suitable for rough works.
2.The error cannot be corrected.
3.The control action depends upon input command.
4.The presence of nonlinearities can result in malfunctioning.
Closed-loop Control Systems
Closed-loop systems differ from open-loop systems by having a feedback device and an error
detector as shown in Figure 1.17. The input signal is given to the machine and the table moves. The
feedback device (transducer) is connected to the table, which senses the movement and positions the
table. After sensing, the transducer converts this mechanical movement into an electrical signal. This
electrical signal is then fed to the error detector device for comparison with set value or reference
value called an error signal (error is the .difference between the measured output to the set value).
Then, this error signal is sent to the controller for rectifying the error by operating the servo motor.

Fig.1.17 Closed-loop System.

In this example, if the error signal is zero, the servo motor will stop. This indicates that the
required position of the table is obtained. If the error signal is either positive or negative, the required
position of the table will not be exactly obtained. So, the error signal is fed to the servo motor to correct
the error signal. The process continues until the error becomes zero. The block diagram for the above
system is given in Figure 1.18.

Fig.1.18 Block diagram representing Closed-loop control System.

Advantages: The closed-loop system has the following advantages.
1.The feedback signal controls the table position-accurately:
2.The system is mostly used almost in all automation processes.
3.Change in the system is automatically taken care of.
4.Control action basically depends upon feedback.
Disadvantages: The closed-loop system has the following disadvantages.
1.The system is complicated and expensive.
2.The system may become unstable.
Feedback Principle
The required level of control in open-loop systems depends only on human judgment.
So, the performance of a control system can be improved by upgrading the skill of the operator
and the nature of the measurement. Only with experience is one able to predict the results
obtained.
Example: Consider an iron box. In this box, the temperature should be controlled by the
system to maintain uniform heating throughout the ironing process. However, in an open-loop
system, switching OFF and switching ON of the iron box are done manually after reaching the
required temperature. Therefore, we are not able to predict the required temperature exactly at
each and every instant during switching OFF and switching ON. If the temperature exceeds the
desired value, it will damage the cloth during ironing. These difficulties are overcome by using a
closed-loop system. Here, a temperature sensor is used in the box to sense the temperature. The
feedback unit in the closed-loop system senses the temperature at each and every instant when the
temperature falls below the required value. Owing to this, the feedback unit will automatically
turn ON the supply. Similarly, it will cut the supply OFF when the temperature rises above the
desired value. The feedback unit sends the output signal to the error detector unit to give error
signal after comparing with the reference value/set value. This error signal takes necessary
control action when it is applied to the controller.
BasicElementsofaFeedbackSystem
Referring to Figure 1.19, the basic elements of a good feedback system are
1. Forward path: The forward path consists of
Error-detecting device: It is a device that receives the output signal and compares it
with a standard value. It also gives the command output signal at each and every instant.
Amplifier: It amplifies the output signal to a suitable/required scale.
Compensating network: It improves the overall performance of the system.
2. Feedback system: This is the path that sends the information about the output signal at
each and every instant to the error-detecting device.

Fig.1.19 Feedback System

ClassificationofFeedbackControlSystems
Feedback control systems can be classified into:
1.Regulatory systems: This feedback control system is used when the input signal is
constant, for example, refrigerator, iron box.
2.Follow-up systems: This feedback control system is used when the input signal changes at
each and every instant and where the output follows the input signal closely, for example,
cam and follower mechanism.
3.Servo-mechanism systems: This feedback control system is used where the mechanical
quantity output with time derivatives is used.
4.Continuous data feedback control systems: This is a feedback control system where the
input signal has functions of the continuous time variable, for example, potentiometers.
5.Sampled or discrete data control systems: This feedback control system is mainly used in
input signals that have pulses or have numerical codes, for example, A/D converter and
digital-to-analog (D/A) converter.
Examples of Automatic Control Systems
Furnace Pressure Control System
The pressure inside the furnace is automatically controlled by an actuator. This control
system consists of a pressure gauge, actuator and damper. Figure 1.20 shows the arrangement of
a pressure control system. If the pressure inside the furnace decreases from the desired pressure,
first the pressure sensor senses this change and sends the corresponding signal to an error
detector. The error detector compares the measured value with the set value or reference pressure
to find the error signal. Then, this error signal is applied to a controller for making corrections in
the furnace pressure. The controller gives corresponding controlling action to the actuator for
actuating the damper in such a way so as to decrease the furnace pressure. Similarly, the damper
is actuated in such a way so as to increase the furnace pressure when the measured furnace
pressure decreases from the set pressure or reference pressure.

Fig. 1.20 Furnace Pressure Control System

Temperature Control in a Metal-melting Furnace

After melting the metal in the furnace, the molten model is tapped out using ladles for producing
castings in the foundry shop (Figure 1.21). The temperature of the molten metal should be the
same until the entire molten metal is tapped out. However, the entire molten metal cannot be
tapped out at a stretch. The temperature of the molten metal decreases with time. If the
temperature decreases further, some solidification of the molten metal will start before tapping
out the molten metal fully from the furnace. The uniform temperature of the molten metal should
be maintained throughout the mixture during the tapping process.
The temperature sensor senses the temperature of molten metal inside the furnace. Then this
temperature is applied on the error detector for finding an error by comparing the measured
temperature with the reference temperature. After finding this, the error signal goes to the
controller. The controller gives its control action to the actuator according to the error signal. The
actuator actuates the supplementary heating circuit with respect to the error signal. If the
temperature is less than the reference temperature, the actuator acts to turn ON the
supplementary heating circuit. The supplementary heating circuit is turned OFF when the
temperature of the molten metal reaches the reference temperature.

Fig. 1.21 Temperature control in a metal melting furnace

Water-level Control System in a Water Tank
Figure 1.22 shows an automatic control system for maintaining the level of water. When the
fluid level decreases from the set level or reference level, the object floating on the water senses
this situation due to a change in resistance. Then this measured level is compared with the set
level or reference level to find an error signal. This error signal is applied to the controller. The
controller gives the corresponding controlling action to the pneumatic valve to turn ON, allowing
water inside the water tank to flow through a flow valve by actuating an electrical motor.
Similarly, when the water-level increases to the reference level the corresponding error signal is
applied to the controller to turn OFF the inflow valve by switching OFF the electrical motor.

Fig. 1.22 Water-level control system

Temperature Control on Refrigeration System
Another example is the temperature control system shown in Figure 1.23. The temperature
coming out of an evaporator is sensed by the temperature sensor. Then this temperature is fed to
the error detector to find an error signal, which is equal to the difference between the measured
temperature and the reference temperature. This error signal is called a trimming signal that is
applied to the controller for adjusting the temperature inside the evaporator. According to the
error signal, the controller sends its control action to the actuator. The actuator is either switched
ON or switched OFF for the motor to run the compressor. If the measured temperature exceeds
the reference temperature, the motor is tripped ON to run the compressor for providing a cooling
effect in the evaporator. If the measured temperature reaches the reference temperature, the
motor is tripped OFF to stop the compressor and to maintain the uniform cooling effect. The
condenser allows the high temperature refrigerant coming from the compressor to reduce the
temperature and change the phase to liquid at the same pressure. Note that the solenoid operated
valve allows the expansion of refrigerant to reduce the pressure.

Fig. 1.23 Temperature control on refrigeration system

Thrust and Flight Control
The pilot gives the input signal, called a set value or reference value, to the controller. The actual
input is given to the controller through a gyroscope. This input is used to change the direction of
the flight. Then, the controller compares the set value with the actual value and produces an error
signal. According to the error signal, the flight is turned in the required direction (Figure 1.24).
The required velocity of the flight is set on the controller by the pilot. The velocity sensor senses
the velocity of flight. Then, the controller compares the flight velocity with the set velocity to
produce an error signal. This error signal is used to control air thrust. Thus, the speed of the
flight is controlled to the required value.

Fig. 1.24 Thrust and flight control

Photoelectric Controls
In a photoelectric control (Figure 1.25), the illumination intensity is controlled by the controller.
Bidirectional triode thyristor (TRIAC) is switched ON or OFF according to the action of the
controller. On the basis of the electricity requirements, this control system actuates. The
electricity requirement is set before starting the process. If any change occurs in the electric
current, the corresponding signal is sent to the error detector. Then the error detector compares
the measured value with the set value to find the error signal. The error signal is fed to the
controller. The controller sends the corresponding information to the TRIAC with respect to the
type of controller used. Therefore, the TRIAC is either switched ON or OFF according to the
action of the controller.

Fig. 1.25 Photo electric controls

Shaft Speed Control System
Figure 1.26 shows a simple automatic control system used to control rotational speed (rpm) of a
rotating shaft. The potentiometer is used to set the voltage to be supplied to the power
operational amplifier (op-amp). The differential amplifier is used to amplify and compare the
feedback value and the reference value. The amplified error signal is fed to the motor to adjust
the speed of the rotating shaft. The tachometer is used to measure the speed of the rotating shaft
and the speed is fed back to the amplifier.

Fig. 1.26 Shaft speed control system

Sequential Control
A system operating with sequential control is one where a number of prescribed operations are
performed in sequence. The control may be implemented as event based, where the next action
cannot be performed until the previous action is completed. Another mode of sequential control
is termed "time-based", where the operations are sequenced with respect to time. Among these
two modes, event-based control is intrinsically more reliable than time-based control.
An example of time-based sequential control system is shown in Figure 1.27. The pump is
switched ON for a particular time to discharge enough water into the tank to fill it to
approximately the correct level. Following this, the pump is switched OFF and the heater is
switched ON. Heating is similarly allowed to continue for a preset time, after which the liquid
temperature would have approximately reached the desired value. Here, the control function is
inexact and there are no fail-safe features. Even though the pump fails to rotate, the heater will
still be switched ON at the prescribed time, irrespective of whether there is liquid in the tank or
not.

Fig. 1.27 Water heating system

An example of an event-based sequential control system is a washing machine. In this system,
a number of operations or events have to be carried out in the correct sequence. The various
events of the washing machine are given in the Figure 1.28.

Fig. 1.28 Various events of a washing machine

Each event of the washing machine may consist of a number of sub-events or steps. For
example, a prey-wash cycle involves various steps such as opening an inlet valve to-fill water
into the drum to the required level, closing the valve, switching ON the motor to rotate the drum
to a number of revolutions or a particular time and operating the pump to empty the water from
the drum.
Figure 1.29 depicts the block diagram of a basic washing machine and its operation.
 Fig. 1.29 Washing machine system

Modern washing machine design uses a microcontroller. All the control functionalities of the
system are built around this. Single-phase motors or brushless DC motors are used in the design
of washing machines. Controlling the motor is a very crucial part of the design. The pulse width
modulation (PWM) feature of the microcontroller controls the motor speed. PWM output is fed
to the driver circuit and then to the motor: To rotate the motor in two different directions,
"forward" and "reverse" direction control blocks are used. A motor speed sensor is interfaced to
a microcontroller. The microcontroller reads the speed of the motor and appropriately controls
the speed of the motor in different phases of washing using PWM output. Door sensor, pressure
sensor, keypad are also interfaced to the microcontroller

The various sequences of operation of the microprocessor-controlled washing machine

system are explained next. During a pre-wash operation, the inlet valve is opened when the
machine is switched ON _ and the valve is closed when the required level of water is filled in
the drum. A water-level indicator sensor is used to give the feedback to the microprocessor unit
regarding the water level in the drum. After completing this operation, the microprocessor
operates the motor to rotate the drum. The outlet valve is opened and a pump is operated to
drain the water from the drum after completing the pre-wash operation.
The main wash cycle is then started by the microprocessor by operating the inlet valve to
allow the water into the drum. The water-level sensor senses the water level in the drum and it
closes the inlet valve after reaching a certain level. Now, the microprocessor switches ON the
heating coil in the drum to heat the water. The temperature sensor sends the feedback of
temperature of water in the drum and switches OFF the heating coil when the water temperature
reaches the preset value. Then the microprocessor operates the motor to rotate the drum. The
motor rotates for a preset time or a number of revolutions and the microprocessor switches OFF
the motor. The microprocessor then operates the pump to drain the water from the drum.
The rinse cycle is started now, which has similar operations as explained above. This cycle is
repeated two to three times. The spinning cycle follows the rinse cycle. In this cycle, the
microprocessor switches ON just the motor, which rotates at a higher speed than the other
cycles to drain the water from the clothes.
Requisite important design features of a washing machine include the following:
 1.Fully automatic mode: Here user intervention should be zero. Once the system is started in
this mode it should perform its work independently, and after the completion of work it
should notify the user that the work is finished.
2.Semi-automatic mode: Here also user intervention should be nil. But the user has to
choose any one of the semi-automatic modes in which washing conditions are pre-
defined.
3.Manual mode: Here continuous intervention of the user is required. The user has to specify
which operation is to be performed and has to provide related information to the control
system.
4.When the lid is open the system should not work. If the door is accidentally opened in
between the wash operations, the system should stop working in minimum possible time.
5.The system should provide all basic features of a washing machine such as washing,
rinsing, spinning, drying, cold wash, hot wash, etc.
6.The system should have a feature of protecting itself from power supply voltage variations.
7.In the event of power failure, the washing machine should automatically start its cycle from
the point of interruption when power is resumed.
Microprocessor-Based Controllers
Mechanical cam operated controllers are nowadays replaced by microprocessor-based controllers
for carrying out the control functions in modern systems. The major advantage of using
microprocessor-based controllers is the possibility of a great variety of programming for various
functions. In many systems, microprocessors are incorporated. These microcontrollers include a
microprocessor with memory and I/O interface facilities onto one device. The microcontrollers
are generally programmed to do specific task in the system.
Another form of microprocessor-based controller is the programmable logic controller (PLC). A
PLC is a designed for use in an industrial environment that uses a programmable memory for
the internal storage of user-oriented instructions. These instructions are used for implementing
ecific functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to control various
types of machines or processes. It offers a simple, flexible and low-cost means of implementing
a sequence control strategy where outputs for switching devices ON and OFF are set according
to the input conditions, as read from a digital sensor. The basic structure of a PLC is shown in
Figure 1.30.

Fig. 1.30 Structure of a PLC

Its basic principle of operation during the execution of a program is: The program is scanned
very fast to record all input states. The outputs are then set according to the logic specified in the
program. Almost all control systems nowadays use either microprocessor-based microcontrollers
or PLCs. The following example illustrates how microprocessor-based systems are used to
control the processes in the system and replace the mechanical controllers.
Automatic Camera
In a modern camera using film, we can see automatic focusing and exposure facilities. The basic
elements of the control system used in an automatic camera are body, lenses and flash. Figure
1.31 depicts an automatic camera system. Depending upon the mode selected, the required
combination of aperture and shutter speed and focus are automatically taken care of by the
camera. A typical camera system comprises drives and sensors, interfaces for lenses, flash and
user. Drives are required for film advance, rewind, shutter movement, focusing, zoom, etc. The
sensors are essentially used for sensing film speed, counters, focus, exposure, zoom, etc.

Fig. 1.31 Automatic Camera

Microprocessor systems for lenses, user and flash are incorporated for controlling various
operations. The user is expected to feed information for achieving the desired composition.
When the switch is ON, it activates the system and the object is photographed. The
microprocessor takes the input from the range sensor and sends the output to the lens. The lens
position is fed back to the microprocessor and it modifies the same. The light sensor gives an
input to the microprocessor, and the microprocessor gives an output to be determined. When the
photographer selects the shutter controller, the shutter opens up for the photograph and the
photograph is taken, the microprocessor gives an output to the motor drive to advance the film
for the next photograph.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechatronics Systems
The versatility of mechatronics systems using microcontroller units (MCUs) and its I/O
subsystems allows us to do many things. There seems no area in the present-day life that has not
witnessed the impact of such an integration of electronics, microcontroller technology and
mechanical systems to ultimately run the real-life systems. Computer peripherals such as video
graphic cards, disk drive controllers, etc. use specialized embedded controllers. The
mechatronics systems have many advantages such as
1. high levels of integration;
2. increased functionality and better design;
3. more use of electronics and software instead of mechanical function;
4. assumes responsibility for process and operation with little interference of operators;
5. uses artificial intelligence and intelligent process control;
6. multisensory and programs environment;
7. high reliability and safety;
8. improved and less expensive controls.
The mechatronics systems have the following disadvantages:
1.The initial cost is very high.
2.The complicated design and system.
3.The repair and maintenance is complex.
4.Its replacement is difficult, that is it is difficult-to change old system to new system.
 Sensors and transducers
Introduction
A sensor is an element in a measurement system that acquires a physical parameter and
changes it into a signal. The sensing element is in contact with the object or process and provides
the output, which depends upon the variation in the process, or experiences a change, which
relates to the process variable being monitored. The sensor is used to measure physical quantities
such as position, force, distance, strain, vibration, temperature and acceleration. Most sensors
work by converting some physical parameter into an electrical signal.
Example: A thermocouple senses the change in temperature.
The word transducer is related to the conversion of energy from one form to another and
hence, a transducer provides the means of conversion between two physical variables, which is
representative of a given process. The process variables such as temperature, strains, etc. are not
electrical in nature. However, in most instrumentations the information is normally processed
electronically. Therefore, some method of conversion is required so as to enable the control
system to work effectively. A transducer makes such conversions.
Example: An accelerometer provides output voltage that is proportional to the
mechanical motion of an object.
A strain resistance depends upon the mechanical deformation. The sensing element is the first
element in the measurement system; it is in contact with, and draws energy from, the process or
system being measured. There are many sensing elements classified according to the type of
output signal, whether it is electrical or mechanical, or on the basis of whether electrical outputs
are passive or active.
Many electrical transducers operate on the basis of one of the three passive quantities,
namely, resistance, capacitance or inductance, requiring an external power supply to give a
voltage or current output. Active devices normally fall under the category of electromagnetic and
thermoelectric systems requiring no external power supply.
Types of Transducers
There are mainly two types of transducers, namely,
1.Passive transducers: It is a measurement system whose output energy is supplied entirely
or almost entirely by its input signal. Passive transducers are also known as externally
powered transducers. Some examples are resistive, inductive, capacitive transducers.
2.Active transducers: In active transducers, auxiliary sources of power supply are a major
part of the output power while input signal supplies only an insignificant portion. They are
also known as self-generating transducers. Some examples are tachogenerators,
thermocouples, photovoltaic cells.
Displacement Sensors
Displacement sensors are used to measure the amount by which some object has been moved. In
continuous processes, the displacement sensors are used to measure the thickness of a sheet, the
diameter of a rod, the separation of rollers or some other dimension of the product. The various
sensors used for displacement measurement are
1.potentiometer;
2.resistance strain gauge;
3.linear variable differential transformers (LVDT);
4.push—pull displacement sensor.
 The displacement and position sensors are grouped into
1. Contact sensors: The measured object is in mechanical contact with the sensor. In the
contact sensors, there is a sensing shaft which is in contact indirectly with the object being
monitored. The movement of the shaft may be used to make changes in electrical voltage,
capacitance or resistance.
2. Non-contact sensors: In the non-contact sensors, there is no physical contact between the
measured object and the sensor. The measured object causes a change in the air pressure
in the sensor, or a change in inductance or capacitance.
The factors to be considered while selecting sensors for displacement are
1.The accuracy required.
2.The resolution required.
3.The size of the displacement.
4.Displacement type (linear or angular)
5.The cost and material made.
Potentiometer Sensor
A potentiometer can be used to convert rotary or linear displacement into a voltage. The
potentiometers can be classified into following two types:
1.linear potentiometer;
2.rotary potentiometer.

A potentiometer consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact that can be moved from
one end to the other. This sliding contact is called a wiper. The motion of the sliding contact may
be linear or angular. Figure 1.32(a) shows the linear potentiometer and Figure 1.32(b) shows the
rotary potentiometer. A linear wire-wound potentiometer consists of resistance elements with a
number of turns of wire wound around a non-conducting mandrel together with a sliding contact
that travels over the bare wires. The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular wire-wound track
over which a rotatable sliding contact can be rotated. The rotary potentiometer consists of a
circular wire-wound track over which a rotatable sliding contact can be rotated. The linear or
angular displacement of the wiper contact is directly converted into proportional output voltage.
The exciting voltage may be either AC or DC and the output voltage is proportional to the input
motion, provided that the measuring device has a resistance that is greater than the potentiometer
resistance. The wire-wound track may be single turn or helical turn.

Fig. 1.32 Potentiometer sensor: a) Linear Potentiometer b) Rotary potentiometer

The resistance wire produces a uniform drop in the applied voltage, along its length as shown in
Figure 1.33(a). Therefore, for a constant input voltage V 1 between terminals 1 and 3, the output
voltage (Vo) between terminals 2 and 3 is a fraction of the input voltage. This fraction is
dependent on the ratio of the resistance R 23 between terminals 2 and 3 compared with the total
resistance R13 between terminal 1 and 3:

V O R 23
=
V 1 R 13

Fig. 1.33 Circuit: a) for linear potentiometer and b) for rotary potentiometer

With a wire-wound track, the slider moves from one turn to other changing output
voltage in steps. The outputs proportional to the angle through which the slider has rotated. So
the angular displacement can be converted into a potential difference. The important effect to be
considered with a potentiometer is the effect of a load R L connected across the output as shown
in Figure 1.33(b). The VL is only directly proportional to Vo if the RL is infinite. For finite RL the
effect of load is to transform into a non-linear relationship. The R L is in parallel with fraction x of
the potentiometer resistance Rp. This combined resistance is given by (xR LRP)/(RL+ xRp). Thus,
the total resistance across the source voltage is

xR L RP
Total resistance = R P (1−x )+
R L + xR P

where RP is the potentiometer resistance; x is a fraction and RL is the load resistance. This circuit
acts as a potential divider, since the divider or wiper divides the resistance into two parts.
Therefore, the voltage across the load is
xR L RP
V L Cobined Resistance R L + xR P x
= = =
V1 Total Resistance xR L R P RP
R P ( 1−x )+ x (1−x )+ 1
R L + xR P R L
If the load is of infinite resistance then
VL = x V1
Thus the error introduced by the load having a finite resistance is
 xV 1
RP 2
Error = x V1 - VL = x V1 - R P = V1 (x – x3)
x ( 1−x ) +1 RL
RL
Advantages of Resistance Potentiometers
1. They are simple and inexpensive.
2. They are useful for measurement of large amplitudes of displacement.
3. Their electrical efficiency is high.
4. They are simple in operation.
Resistance Strain Gauge

The ratio of change in length to the original length is called strain. Resistance strain gauge is a
transducer that exhibits the change in electrical resistance when it is stretched or strained. When
the strain gauge is subject to strain, the resistance "R" changes and the change in resistance ∆ R /
R is proportional to the strain s. They may be of the bonded or unbonded type, consisting of a
length of resistance wire formed into a zigzag pattern mounted onto a flexible backing sheet. If a
metal conductor is stretched or compressed; its resistance changes on account of the fact that the
resistance of the wire per unit length is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. The
resistance of metal sample is given by:
lo
Ro =ρ
Ao
where ρ , lo and Ao are density, length and cross-sectional area, respectively. When the sample is
stressed by the application of a force F, the material elongates by some amount ∆ l and the
change in resistance is given by
∆l
∆ R=2 R o
lo

Fig. 1.34 Wheatstone bridge

The above relation between strain and resistance change is only approximately true. A
strain gauge specification always indicates the correct relation through gauge factor (GF):
GF × strain
∆ R=
R
For metal, the value of GF is always 2. The change in resistance of the strain gauge is
usually converted into a voltage signal by the use of Wheatstone bridge.
If the bridge circuit shown in Figure 1.34 is used for the measurement of uniaxial strain,
using a single active gauge of resistance (Rg) the unloaded output voltage becomes.

V ∆ Rg
V o= ×
4 Rg
 But

∆ Rg ∆l
=GF ×
Rg l

Therefore,

V ∆l ∆l
V o= GF × ∨V o=a constant ×
4 l l

The output voltage is proportional to mechanical strain for small changes of gauge resistance.
Here GF is the gauge factor.
In typical applications, the change in resistance is very small and hence it may be affected
with the temperature variations. Therefore, it is a common method to provide a "dummy" gauge
into the bridge circuit as shown in. Figure1.35. The dummy gauge is at all times subjected to the
same ambient temperature as the strained element, but it is attached to a separate unstrained
piece of the same material.
Strain gauges are used in two forms, wire and foil. The basic characteristics of each type are
the same in terms of resistance change for a given strain. The length of the strain gauge is very
long in order to give enough nominal resistance. Normally, strain gauges are bonded or
cemented directly onto the surface of the body, or the structure that is being examined (Figure
1.36). In metal wire strain gauges, a wire is stretched between two points in an insulating
medium such as air. The wires may be made of copper nickel, chrome nickel or nickel iron
alloys. They are about 0.003 mm in diameter and have a gauge factor of 2. The length of wire
is 25 mm or less. In a bonded fill strain gauge the foil is usually made up of constantan, and it
is etched in a grid pattern onto a thin plastic backing material, usually polyamide. The foil is
terminated at both ends with large metallic pads. The size of the entire gauge is very small and
has a length of 5-15 mm.

Fig. 1.35 Bridge circuit with dummy gauge

Fig. 1.36 a)Bonded flat grid b) bonded helical wound gauge c) bonded metal foil gauge
Bonded foil and metal wire strain gauges are rigidly attached to the strained members. Figure
1.37 illustrates the cases where the strain gauge is attached to flexible elements in the form of
cantilevers, rings and U shape. When the flexible element is bent due to force applied by a
contact point, the electrical resistance will change. The change in electrical resistance is the
measure of displacement

Fig. 1.37 Strain gauged elements

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

The LVDT is a rugged electromagnetic transducer used to measure linear displacement. LVDT
consists of an iron core which can move freely within a primary or power coil and two secondary
coils as shown in Figure 1.38. A movable magnetic core provides a variable coupling between
windings. The secondary coils are connected in series configuration and are equally positioned
with respect to the primary coil.
When the core is centrally located, the emfs generated in the secondary coils are equal and
opposite and the net output voltage is zero. When the core is moved to one side, the voltage in
the primary coil becomes larger and that in the other secondary coil becomes smaller. The
magnitude of output voltage is proportional to the displacement of the core from the null
position. The phase-sensitive detector converts the AC secondary voltage into a DC voltage, V o.
The magnitude of the DC voltage is proportional to the amplitude of the AC voltage.
At the mid-position of the core, the induced voltage in each coil is of the same amplitude and
180° out of phase, producing a zero or null output. As the core moves from the null position, the
output amplitude increases a proportional amount over a linear range around the null as shown in
Figure 1.39.
Advantages of LVDT
1.It has a high range, upto 1 m.
2.Friction is less and hence less is the wear problem.
3.It has low hysteresis.
4.The power consumption is less.
5.It has infinite resolution.
6.The output is highly linear and accurate
 Fig. 1.38 Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Fig. 1.39 LVDT Output characteristics

Push—Pull Displacement Sensor
The capacitance is directly proportional to both the plate area and the relative permittivity
of the dielectric material and inversely proportional to the distance separating the plates.
Therefore, the capacitance can be altered by changing either of the influencing parameters.
Variable distance capacitive transducers are generally more sensitive than variable area
transducers. A push-pull displacement sensor is a variable distance capacitive transducer. This
can be made using three plates in which a central plate is free to move relative to two fixed outer
plates. Thus, the upper pair forms one capacitor and the lower pair forms another capacitor.
There is a non-linear relationship between the change in capacitance ∆C and the displacement x.
As a result of this, the central plate moves downward to increase the plate separation of the upper
capacitor and decrease the separation of the lower capacitor.
Therefore, the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
εo εt A
C 1=
d+ x
And
εo εt A
C 2=
d−x
where ε t is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates; ε o is the permittivity of
free space constant; x is the displacement of central plate; A is the area of overlap between the
two plates and d is the distance of the plate separation.

Fig. 1.40 Push-pull displacement sensor

Position Sensors
Position sensors are used to determine the position of some object with reference to some
reference point. Position sensors are used in discrete-part manufacturing to measure the presence
of a part, identify a part, determine the position of a part, or measure the size of a part. Various
position sensors commonly used in measurements are:
1.photoelectric sensors;
2.Hall effect sensors;
3.optical encoders.
Position sensors report the position of an object with respect to a reference part. The
information can be an angle as in how many degrees a dish antenna has turned. Now, we discuss
the various position sensors in detail.
Photoelectric Sensors
Most industrial photoelectric sensors use light-emitting diodes (LEDs) for the light source and a
phototransistor is used to detect light radiation. There are two types of photoelectric sensors for
sensing objects:
1. A reflective-type sensor detects the object based on the reflection of light onto a detector
from the target [Figure 1.41(a)].
2. A transmissive-type sensor is used to measure the change in light quantity caused by the
target's crossing the optical axis [Figure 1.41(b)].

Fig. 1.41 a) Reflective type photo electric sensor b) Transmissive type photo electric
sensor
Hall Effect Sensors
When a beam of charged particles passes through a magnetic field, the beam is deflected from its
straight line path due to the forces acting on the particles. A current flowing in a conductor, such
as a beam, is deflected by a magnetic field. This effect is called Hall effect.
 Fig. 1.42 Hall-effect sensor
The working principle of a Hall effect sensor is that if a strip of conducting material carries a
current in the presence of a transverse magnetic field as shown in Figure 1.42, the difference of
potential is produced between the opposite edges of the conductor. The magnitude of the voltage
depends upon the current and the magnetic field. The current is paised through leads 1 and 2 of
the strip and the output leads 3 and 4 are connected with a Hall strip. When a transverse
magnetic field passes through the strip, the voltage difference occurs in the output leads. The
Hall effect sensor has the advantage of being able to operate as a switch and it can operate upto
100 kHz.
Applications of Hall Effect Sensor
1.It is used as a magnetic switch for electric transducer.
2.It is used for the measurement of the position, displacement and proximity.
3.It is used for measurement of current.
4.It is used for measurement of power.
Optical Encoder
An encoder is a device that provides a digital output in response to a linear or angular
displacement. An optical encoder is a suitable transducer for the measurement of angular
position and has the added advantage of having a digital output. An optical encoder has four
main parts: a light source, a code disk, a light detector and a signal conditioner. Most rotary
encoders are composed of a glass or plastic code disk with a photographically deposited radial
pattern organized in tracks. A digital optical encoder is a device that converts motion into a
sequence of digital pulses. By counting or decoding these bits, the pulses can be converted into
relative or absolute position measurements. Optical encoders are in rotary or linear
configurations. The rotary encoders are of two forms: absolute encoder and incremental encoder.
Absolute Encoder
The absolute encoder is designed to produce a unique digital word corresponding to each
rotational position of the shaft that distinguishes "N" distinct positions of the shaft.
 Fig. 1.43 Components of an optical encoder
Figure 1.43 shows the basic form of an absolute encoder. The rotating disk has four
concentric circular slots and four sensors to detect the light pulses. The slots are arranged in such
a way that the output is made in the binary code. The number of bits in the binary number will be
equal to the number of tracks.
The most common types of numerical encoding used in the absolute encoder are gray and
natural binary codes. To illustrate the action of an absolute encoder, gray code and natural binary
code disk track patterns for a simple 4 track (4-bit) encoder are shown in Figures 1.44 and 1.45,
respectively.
Incremental Encoder
An incremental encoder produces equally spaced pulses from one or more concentric tracks on
the code disk. Each track has its own light beam. Thus, an encoder with 3 tracks will have three
light sources and three light sensors.

Fig. 1.44 4 bit gray code absolute encoder disk track patterns
Fig. 1.45 4 bit natural binary absolute encoder disk track patterns a) Schematic and signals
b) actual disk

An example of an optical incremental encoder is shown in Figure 1.46. It essentially consists of a

pair of opaque disks, one fixed and the other rotating and has a pattern of windows. The rotating
disk is attached to a shaft whose angular speed is to be measured. The fixed disk has only one
window and a beam of optical light, perhaps a LED, that passes through all the time. The second
disk has a track of windows cut which are spaced equidistantly around the second disk. When the
disk rotates, a light beam is alternately transmitted and stopped and so a pulsed output is
produced and detected-by photocells and fed to a counter. The number of pulses is proportional
to the angle through which the disk is rotated, the resolution being proportional to the number of
slots on a disk.
The number of windows, which can be machined onto a disk, limits the maximum
measurement resolution obtainable. The optical shaft encoders are popular instruments for
measuring relative angular displacement and are generally reliable in operation.
Example: Consider 60 slots occurring with one revolution. Now, one revolution is equivalent to a
rotation 013600. Therefore, the angular position = 360/60 = 6°.

Fig. 1.46 Basic form of an incremental encoder

Proximity Sensors
Proximity sensors are pilot devices used to detect the presence of an object without making any
physical contact. They are solid-state electronic devices, normally of eddy current type or
inductive, capacitive type.
 Proximity simply tells the central system whether a moving part is at a certain place.
Proximity sensors come under the non-contact type sensors. They are used to determine when an
object has moved to within some particular distance. The various proximity sensors are discussed
next.
Eddy Current Proximity Sensor
When alternating current is supplied to the coil, an alternating magnetic field is produced. If
there is a metal object in close proximity of this alternating magnetic field, the eddy current is
induced in it. This eddy current will produce a magnetic field itself and the impedance of the coil
changes the amplitude of the alternating current. Figure 1.47 shows the basic form of eddy
current proximity sensor and is used for the detection of non-magnetic conductive materials.

Fig. 1.47 Eddy current sensor

Inductive Sensor
An inductive sensor consists of a coil wound around a ferrous metallic core, detector circuit and
solid-state output (Figure 1.48). With the supply voltage, the oscillator operates to produce a
high-frequency field. When a metallic object is plaed near the field, eddy currents are induced
on the surface of the object. Consequently, these currents result M a loss of energy in the
oscillator circuit, which in turn causes a smaller voltage of oscillation. The detector circuit
recognizes a change in the amplitude and generates a signal that will result in the output device
being ON or OFF.

Fig. 1.48 Inductive sensor

Capacitive Sensor
Capacitive proximity sensor is a device actuated by both conductive and non-conductive
materials. The pair of plates of a capacitor is separated by some distance. Depending upon the
separation, the capacitance measured will be changed. Therefore, proximity of the object can be
detected if one of the plates of the capacitor acts as a switch and the other as the metal object
whose proximity is to be detected (Figure 1.49).

Fig. 1.49 Capacitive Proximity switch

Photoelectric Proximity Sensor
Photoelectric proximity sensors use a beam of light to detect the presence of objects that block
or reflect the light beam. A beam of light passes from the light source and a phototransistor
detects the presence or absence of light from the source. Incandescent lamps and/or infrared
LEDs may be used as the light source. Figure 1.50 illustrates the various methods, of using light
to detect the presence of an object.

Fig. 1.50 Various methods used with photo electric sensors: a) Direct scan b) retro-
reflective scan c) diffuse scan d) convergent beam scan e) specular scan
Velocity Sensors
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. It is measured in length per unit time (m/s).
Angular velocity is the rate of change of angular displacement. It is measured in terms of
revolutions per minute.
Velocity sensors or tachogenerators are devices that give an output proportional to angular
velocity. These sensors find wide application in motor speed control systems. The following are
the various velocity sensors.
Electromagnetic Transducers
The most commonly used transducer for measurement of linear velocities is an electromagnetic
transducer. These transducers use the voltage produced in a coil due to the change in flux
linkages resulting from a change in reluctance. The electromagnetic transducers are classified
into the following two categories.
1.Moving magnet type velocity transducer: In this, the sensing element is a rod that is
rigidly coupled to the device whose velocity is being measured. This rod is a permanent
magnet. This permanent magnet is surrounded by a coil. The motion of the magnet induces
a voltage in the coil and the amplitude of the voltage is directly proportional to the
velocity.
The voltage generated when a coil is placed in a magnetic field is given by
Vo = BANv
= Kv
where K = BAN is a constant; B is the flux density (Wb/m 2); A is the area of coil (m 2); N is
the number of turns of coil and v is the relative velocity of magnet with respect to coil. The
polarity of the output voltage determines the direction of motion.
2.Moving coil type velocity transducer: This is operated through the action of a coil moving
in a magnetic field. The voltage generated in the coil is proportional to the velocity of the
coil (Figure 1.52). This is a more satisfactory arrangement due to it forming a closed
magnetic circuit with a constant air gap. The device is contained in an anti-magnetic case
which reduces the effects of a stray magnetic field.

Fig. 1.51 Moving magnet type velocity transducer

 Fig. 1.52 Moving coil type velocity transducer
Transducers with Doppler Effect
An ultrasonic or radio beam is made to fall on the object whose velocity is to be measured. As
the object is moving, frequency of the "sent-back" signals is different from the source frequency.
This difference may be seen as the velocity of the object. If the feedback frequency is more than
the source frequency the object is moving toward the receiver (Figure 1.53).

Fig. 1.53 Doppler effect

Tachogenerators
A sensor that converts speed of rotation directly into an electrical signal is called a
tachogenerator. It is used to convert angular speed into a directly dependent voltage signal.
Toothed Rotor Variable Reluctance Tachogenerator
This is used to measure angular velocity. This tachogenerator consists of a metallic toothed rotor
mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be measured. A magnetic pickup is placed near the
toothed rotor and it consist of housing. The housing contains a small permanent magnet with a
coil wound around it, as shown in Figure 1.54.
When the rotor rotates, the reluctance of the air gap between pickup and the toothed rotor
changes and the rise in emf is induced in the pickup. coil. Finally the output obtained is in the
form of pulses. and wave shapes. The pulses induced are dependent upon the number of teeth in
the rotor and the rotational speed. When the speed is known, the rotational speed is calculated by
measuring the frequency pulses.
Suppose the rotor has "n" teeth and number of pulses per second is "p", then the speed of
rotation "N" rps can be calculated as follows:
Pulses/second
N=
Number of teeth
p
¿ ∈rps
n
p
¿ ×60∈rpm
n
The advantage of toothed rotor variable reluctance tachogenerator is that the information from
this device can be easily transmitted and it is easy to calibrate.
 Fig. 1.54 Toothed rotor tachogenerator
AC Tachogenerator
It consists of a rotor which rotates with the rotating shaft and a coil. When the coil rotates in the
magnetic field, the emf is induced. The magnet may be in the form of a stationary permanent
magnet or an electromagnet. The frequency of this alternating emf is used to measure the angular
velocity. The output voltage is rectified and it is measured with a permanent magnet moving coil
(PMCC) voltmeter (Figure 1.55).

Fig. 1.55 AC Tachogenerator

DC Tachogenerators
These use an armature—magnet combination for measuring speed. The armature is connected to
the device whose speed is to be measured. As the armature rotates inside the magnetic field,
voltage is produced. The polarity of output voltage indicates the direction of rotation. The emf
generated is measured with the help of a moving coil voltmeter with a uniform scale calibrated
directly in terms of speed (Figure 1.56).

Fig. 1.56 DC Tachogenerator

Advantages of DC Tachogenerator
1.Direction of rotation is directly indicated.
2.Conventional-type DC voltmeters are sufficient to use.
Motion Sensors
Stroboscope
The stroboscope consists of a source of variable frequency flashing light that can be controlled
by the operator. A distinctive mark is made on the shaft or on the disk attached to the shaft as
shown in Figure 1.57. The stroboscope is made to flash light directly on the mask. The flashing
frequency is adjusted till the mark appears stationary. The stroboscope dial may be directly
calibrated to the given speed.

Fig. 1.57 Stroboscope

Pyroelectric Sensors
Pyroelectric materials generate electric charge when the heat flows through it. Examples of such
materials are lithium, tantalite, etc. These materials consist of a polarized pyroelectric crystal
with thin metal film electrodes on opposite faces. When pyroelectric materials are heated to
about 600°C in an electric field, the electric dipoles within the material line up and they become
polarized as shown in Figure 1.58(a).
When the crystal is polarized with charged surfaces, the ions are drawn from the surrounding
air and the electrons from any measurement circuit are connected to the sensor to balance the
surface charge, as shown in Figure 1.58(b).
For measurement of a human or heat source motion, the sensing element has to differentiate
between the general background heat radiation and a moving heat source. Therefore, a single
pyroelectric sensor cannot be used and hence dual pyroelectric sensors are used, as shown in
Figure 1.58(c). In this dual pyroelectric sensor, the sensing element has the one front electrode
and two back electrodes. When two sensors are connected, both sensors receive the same heat
signal and their outputs. are cancelled. When a heat source moves from its position, the heat
radiation moves from one of the sensing elements to the other. The current alternates in one
direction first and then reverses to the other direction.

Fig. 1.58 a)Pyroelectric sensors; b) equivalent circuit and c) dual pyroelectric

Force Sensors
Force is a physical quantity that produces or tends to produce a change in the velocity or shape
of an object. All methods of force measurement use some means of producing a measurable
balancing force. The following are examples of sensors that can be used to measure force.
Elastic Loaded Members
They work on the principle of finding deflection or strain produced in a body to measure the
force applied. The strain or deflection can be measured directly or indirectly, using secondary
transducers, by converting displacement into another form of output which is usually electrical
in nature. The various secondary transducers used in conjunction with elastic sensing elements are
strain gauges, piezoelectric transducers and LVDT. The basic relation used in elastic sensing
element is given by
F = kx
where F is the applied force in N; k the stiffness in N/m; x the displacement or deflection in m.
Stiffness of an element can be obtained from the deflection equation of the element.. Elastic
sensing elements should give the maximum output per unit input. For that, it should be as
sensitive as possible. It means that it should have a very large deflection when the load is applied.
For obtaining high sensitivity, the stiffness of the element should be very low. But practically, this
is not possible due to the limitation of the load carrying capacity. Therefore, in many applications,
elastic loaded members are selected in such a manner that they should give small deflection and
hence, low sensitivity and large output. Most common elastic loaded members for the direct
measurement of force are
1. coil springs;
2. proving rings;
3. load cells.
Coil Springs: Spring Balance
Spring balance is a device used for the direct measurement of force by using coil spring
deflection. It consists of a spring fixed at one end and the load is applied on the other end as
shown in Figure 1.60. The displacement at the free end is due to the applied force and is shown
by a pointer moving on a scale.

Fig. 1.59 Spring balance

The deflection of the spring when a force F is applied at the free end is given by the equation
3
8FD n
x= 4
Gd

where F is the applied force; d is the diameter of the spring wire; D is the mean coil diameter of
the spring; n is the number of coils of the spring and G is the modulus of rigidity of the spring
material. From this equation, it is clear that the deflection is a linear function of force and can be
directly used as a measure of force.
Proving Rings
Proving rings are steel rings used for the calibration of material-testing machines in situations
where, due to their bulkness, dead weight standards cannot be used. Proving ring is a circular ring
of rectangular section and may support tensile or compressive force across its diameter as shown
in Figure 1.60. Let δ be the change in radius in the direction of force (F); it is given by

( )
3
k π 4 Fd
δ= −
16 2 π EI
where d is the outer diameter of the ring; E is the modulus of elasticity of the ring material; I is the
second moment of inertia of the cross-section and k is the stiffness.
The deflection of the ring is measured using a precision micrometer. To get precise
measurements, one edge of the micrometer is mounted on a vibrating reed which is plugged to
obtain a vibratory motion. The micrometer contact is then moved forward until a noticeable
damping of the vibration is observed.
The maximum deflection is typically of the order of 1% of the outside diameter of the ring.
Proving rings are normally used for force measurement within the range of 2 kN to 2 MN

Fig. 1.60 Proving ring

Load Cells
Load cells are force transducers intended for weighing purposes. Various types of load cells are used
in practice, which are classified on the basis of an element used for measuring the forces. The load
cells using hydraulic, pneumatic and strain gauge are most common. The hydraulic and pneumatic
load cells work on the following principle: A force is applied to one side of a piston or diaphragm
and pressure (hydraulic or pneumatic) is applied to other side. Some particular value of pressure
is necessary to exactly balance the force. This pressure is the indication of the measure of
unknown force.
Hydraulic Load Cell The cross-sectional view of a hydraulic load cell is shown in Figure 1.61.
The piston is placed on a thin elastic diaphragm or bridge ring made of steel. The piston does
not actually come in contact with the cylinder wall. Mechanical stops are used to prevent
overstrain of the diaphragm when the load exceeds certain limit. The load cell is completely
filled with oil. When the load is applied on the piston, the movement of piston and the diaphragm
arrangement result in an increase of oil pressure which in turn produces a change in the pressure
on a bourdon tube pressure gauge connected with the load cells.
 Fig. 1.61 Hydraulic load cell
Pneumatic Load Cell The cross-sectional view of a pneumatic load cell is shown in Figure 1.62.
The diaphragm of this type of load cell is made of flexible material. The load cell is designed to
automatically regulate the balancing pressure. Air pressure is supplied to one side of the
diaphragm and it escapes through the nozzle placed at the bottom of the load cell. A pressure
gauge is attached with the load cell arrangement to measure the pressure inside the load cell.
When the load is placed on the load plate, the diaphragm will deflect. The deflection of
diaphragm affects the air flow through the nozzle as well as the pressure inside the chamber.
The variation in pressure is measured by the pressure gauge attached to the arrangement.

Fig. 1.62 Pneumatic load cell

Strain Gauge Load Cell A load cell is a transducer that converts load acting on it into an analog
electrical signal. This conversion is achieved by the physical deformation of strain gauges,
which are bonded to the load cell beam and wired into a Wheatstone bridge configuration. The
weight applied to the load cell either through compression or through tension produces a
deflection of the beam, which introduces strain into the gauges. The strain produces an electrical
resistance change proportional to the load.
Figure 1.63(a) shows one such load cell arrangement. Strain gauges may be attached to any
elastic member. If the strain gauge-elastic member combination is used for measuring the force,
it is known as load cell. A bridge using four active gauges is used for obtaining maximum
sensitivity and also for providing complete temperature compensation. Figure 1.63(b) shows the
arrangement of load a cell in a rectangular bar. This arrangement uses four strain gauges each
mounted at 90° to each other. The bridge circuit shown in Figure 1.63(c) connects the strain
gauges.
The output voltage Vo can be expressed in terms of the input voltage and resistances of the four
elements
R1 R4 −R2 R 3
V o= V
( R 1+ R 2 )( R 3+ R 4 ) 1

where R1, R2, R3 and R4 are the resistances of strain gauges 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively; V 1 is the
input voltage and Vo is the output voltage.
Fig. 1.63 Load cells: a) Load cell arrangement in rectangular bar; b) Section X-X of
rectangular bar; c) bridge circuit
The output voltage of bridge using two strain gauges mounted at 90° to each other can be
expressed in terms of strain as follows:
εV1
V o =( 1+ ϑ ) ×GF ×
4
where ϑ is the Poisson's ratio; GF is the gauge or gain factor and ε is the strain.
Shear-type Load Cell It is a special method to measure the load in terms of loads and bending
moments. In this type of load cell, the free ends of the two cantilever beam are butted together.
The strain gauge is placed at 45° in each of the cantilever beam. The strain gauge "T" on the
left-hand side cantilever beam measures the tensile force but the compressive force is measured
by the strain gauge "C" attached on the right-hand side cantilever beam. These strain gauges
measure both tensile and compressive forces corresponding to the load applied at the junction
point of the cantilever beam. At the same time, the amount of both tensile and compressive
forces is equal. The resultant output is measured by a bridge network which linearly varies with
the applied load. This type of load cell is mainly used to measure shock loads (Figure 1.64).
This configuration is also best suited for a torque cell. The main advantage of this load cell is
its capability to withstand high loads, bending moments, impact loads and thermal gradient
error.
Shear load cell is more suitable for tank-bin weighing systems, portable scales, hopper scales
and motion weighing systems.

Fig. 1.64 Shear type load cell

Electromagnetic Balance
An electromagnetic balance is shown in Figure 1.65. The main parts of the electromagnetic
balance are photoelectric transducer, an amplifier and a coil suspended in a magnetic field. The
coil carries a current while producing "an electromagnetic torque". The servo system is used
with the coil to balance the difference between the unknown force and the gravitational force
acting on a standard mass. The photoelectric transducer is used to check the balance of the
unknown force and the standard mass produces the electrical voltage in a resistor. It is taken as
output and the circuit connected to the resistor is used to measure the unknown force. The
output signal can be recorded or used for automatic control applications.

Fig. 1.65 Electromagnetic balance

Pressductor
The pressductor is basically a magneto-elastic type force transducer. In this type of transducer,
the permeability of a magnetic material is-altered by the mechanical stress developed in it. The
device consists of a number of laminated sheets of special magnetic material bonded together to
form a transducer body, on which primary and secondary coils are wound and positioned
perpendicular to each other and at an angle of 45° to the direction of mechanical force, as
shown in Figure 1.66. When the primary coil is excited with an AC input, no magnetic
induction is produced in the secondary coil under no-load condition. When the mechanical force
is applied on the transducer, the permeability in the direction of force is reduced, thereby
resulting in a change in the shape of the magnetic field. Some of the flux lines now cut the
secondary windings, thus inducting voltage in the secondary coil. The output voltage is
proportional to the applied force. Each lamination in the transducer assembly responds linearly
and contributes independently to the total output signal. Therefore, the accuracy is maintained
even though the load is not distributed uniformly on the load cell.

Fig. 1.66 Pressductor: a) Flux contour under no load b) flux contour under load and c)
transducer assembly

Applications
Platform weighing, mobile scales and batch-weighing systems.
Acceleration Sensors
Acceleration can be measured by using accelerometer. Accelerometers are widely used for
measurement of acceleration, velocity and displacement. They are also used to measure
vibrations and shocks.
Basic Principle of Accelerometer
This operation is based on Newton's second law of motion and Hooke's law of elasticity. The
basic structure is shown in Figure 1.67. According to Newton's second law, if mass "m" is
undergoing acceleration " a" , it will exert a force "F" on a mass. Mathematically,
Fa= ma
This force is opposed by the restraining effect of a spring. Let k be the stiffness of spring and δx
the displacement of mass from original position. Then, according to Hooke's law,
F s=kδx
In a steady state, when the acceleration of mass and accelerometer assembly are the same,
then we can write
Fa = F s
ma=kδx
kδx
a=
m
The above equation represents a second-order system. Without damping such systems undergo
non-decaying sustained oscillation. Therefore, it is necessary to provide damper in these system.
The damper will provide damping force Fd proportional to the velocity of mass. The damping
force is given by
Fd = cv
where c is the damping coefficient and v is the velocity of mass.

Fig. 1.67 Basic structure of accelerometer

Thus the modified equation is
Fs+ Fd = Fa
kδx+ cv=ma
The mass which converts acceleration into the spring displacement is called the seismic mass. The
following are some of the types of accelerometer.
1.displacement seismic accelerometer;
2.strain gauge accelerometer;
3.piezoelectric accelerometer;
4.potentiometric accelerometer;
5.LVDT accelerometer.
Displacement Seismic Accelerometer
In this type accelerometer (Figure 1.68), the displacement of seismic mass is measured by
displacement transducer itself. A spring-mass damper is placed inside the casing by placing the
damper at the top and spring at the bottom of the casing. Again, the seismic is connected with the
displacement transducer by a shaft which is already connected with the casing itself. When the
acceleration or vibration is applied on the casing, the mass is displaced which is sensed by the
sensor. Therefore, the displacement sensed by the transducer is directly proportional to the
acceleration.
The equation of motion can be written as
m ẍ=−c ( ẋ − ẏ )−k ( x− y ) + F o sin ω t
Let z= x-y
m ẍ+ c ż +kz=F o sin ω t
where x is the displacement and F0 = mω 2 y
Therefore, the relative amplitude z provided by the instrument can be evaluated as
2 2
mω y r y
z= =
√ 2
√ 2
( k−mω 2 ) + ( cω )2 ( 1−r 2 ) − ( 2ξr )2

Fig. 1.68 Seismic accelerometer

and the position of the amplitude can be evaluated from
2 ξr
tan ∅ = 2
1−r

ω c
where r = and ξ = Damping ratio ¿
ωn 2m ω n
The steady-state amplitude Z of seismic mass with respect to the frame is the measure of
acceleration, when the natural frequency of the instrument is high compared to that of the
vibration to be measured. This implies
Z 2
=r if r <¿ 1
y
2
2 ω y
Z=r y= 2
ωn

where ω 2 y is the acceleration.

The measured value of Z is proportioned to the acceleration of the motion to be measured.
Strain-Gauge Accelerometer
The seismic mass is placed on a cantilever beam placed inside the housing. The housing is filled
with a fluid to create damping force. Two strain gauges of same type are placed on both the top
and bottom surface of the cantilever beam as shown in Figure 1.69. If any force acts on the
housing frame, the corresponding displacement by the mass will take place inside the housing.
Owing to this, the mass is displaced from the original position, which is sensed by strain gauges
placed over the cantilever beam. Therefore, the change in resistance occurs in strain gauges due to
the mass displacement, according to 'Wheatstone bridge circuit. At the same time, a damping
force is also created in fluid by the mass displacement. Owing to both mass displacement and
damping force of the fluid, the beam bends, which produces strain on the beam. This strain is
directly proportional to the acceleration. But both the displacement of mass and fluid are directly
proportional to the force acting on mass and fluid, respectively.
 Fig. 1.69 Schematic of strain-gauge accelerometer
Piezoelectric Accelerometer
Piezoelectric effect can be effectively used to measure acceleration. It is most commonly used and
simplest transducer employed for measuring acceleration. A typical piezoelectric accelerometer is
shown in Figure 1.70. The sensor consists of a piezoelectric crystal sandwiched between two
electrodes and has a mass placed on it. The unit is fastened to the base whose acceleration
characteristics are to be determined. The frame threaded to the base acts as a spring and
squeezes the mass against the crystal. The mass exerts a force on the crystal and a certain output
voltage is generated.
When the base is now accelerated downward, the internal reaction force on the base acts
upward against the top of the frame. This relieves stress on the crystal and, from Newton's
second law, since the mass is a fixed quantity, the decrease in force is proportional to the
acceleration. The resulting change in the output voltage is recorded and correlated to the
acceleration imposed on the base.
The following are some of the features of piezoelectric accelerometer.
1.The instrument is quite small in size.
2.The natural frequency is very high.
3. A voltage monitoring source of a high input impedance should be used to avoid leading
effect.
4. These are useful for high input frequencies and their response is poor at low input
frequencies.

Fig. 1.70 Piezoelectric accelerometer

Potentiometric Accelerometer
Potentiometric accelerometer (Figure 1.71) is one of the simplest type of accelerometer. In a
springmass—damper system, the mass is connected with the wiper arm of the potentiometer. The
casing is filled with viscous fluid to create damping force. The damper is connected with the
bottom of the casing and the spring end is connected with the top of the casing. If any force or
load is applied on the casing, the mass is displaced either by compressing or pulling (tension) the
spring at that time. The resistance of potentiometer is varied by the movement of the wiper
connected with the mass called seismic mass. The corresponding voltage and current signal can
be obtained by connecting signal conditioning circuits to convert the change in resistance. This
voltage and current are directly proportional to the acceleration. Potentiometric accelerometer is
only applicable for very low frequency vibration under steady-state condition.

Fig. 1.71 Schematic of a potentiometric accelerometer

LVDT Accelerometer
The LVDT accelerometer (Figure 1.72) consists of one primary and two secondary windings
which are placed on either side of a central core. The two ends of the core are connected with
spring steel but these are already placed in a casing. If the core is exactly placed at the center; the
voltage produced between primary and secondary windings will be exactly equal; this voltage is
called static field voltage. Thus this LVDT circuit is nullified. If any vibration occurs on the
casing of the LVDT accelerometer, the core placed between the primary and secondary coil will
either move upward or downward. Owing to this, the voltage is induced in the secondary coil
according to the movement of the core. Now, the difference in voltage arises in the output
terminal. This output voltage is directly proportional to the vibrations or acceleration.
Advantages
1.It has higher natural frequency.
2.No error occurs due to moving contacts.
Applications
1.It is used in steady-state acceleration.
2.It is used in low-frequency measurements.

Fig. 1.72 Schematic of LVDT accelerometer

Torque Sensors
Torque is just a rotational force or a force through a distance. It is represented as the moment
vector of a force. Torque can be defined as a measure of the tendency of a force to rotate the
body on which it acts about an axis. The equation relating power to torque is straight-forward. A
shaft rotating with angular velocity co and carrying power P will undergo a torque T.
Mathematically,
P=T ×ω
The various methods of measurement of torque are explained next.
Proney Brake
It is one of the earliest methods of measuring the torque in a rotating shaft. In this system, all
the power produced is absorbed by friction in a brake.
A rope or belt brake is wrapped around a flywheel carried by the shaft as shown in Figure
1.73. The rope passes once around the flywheel and is attached to a mass, m, at the bottom. The
other end of the rope is connected to a spring balance which measures the tension in the rope,
Fs. The force in the lower end of the rope arises from the weight and is equal to mg. If the
spring balance reading is Fs, the difference in tension between the ends of the rope is (mg— F).
If the effective radius of the flywheel is Re, the torque will be
Torque, T = (mg — Fs) Re
where Re is the effective radius =R + r

Fig. 1.73 Prony Brake

Torque Measurement Using Strain Gauges

Measuring the strain induced in a shaft due to an applied torque has been the most common
method used for torque measurement in recent years. Torque transducers based on strain
measurement are normally made by applying strain gauges to a shaft to measure the shear strain
caused by torsion. The shear stress causes strains to appear at 45° to the longitudinal axis of the
shaft. Therefore, the strain gauges must be placed precisely at 45° to the shaft axis as shown in
Figure 1.74(a) otherwise, the arrangement would be sensitive to bending and axial stresses in
addition to those caused by torsion. The output is increased by using four gauges so that the
adjacent arms have strains of opposite nature. Also this arrangement provides complete thermal
compensation. For taking signals in and out of the rotating shaft, slip rings and brushes are used.
The arrangement of slip rings and brushes is shown in Figure 1.75.
It is easier to measure bending strains rather than strains due to torque at 45° and so an
arrangement using beams may be employed, in which the transmitted torque results in the
bending of beams. This arrangement is shown in Figure 1.76
Fig. 1.74 Strain gauge for shaft torque measurement: a) Arrangement of strain gauges on a
shaft and b) Wheatstone bridge circuit

Fig. 1.75 Slip rings arrangement in torque transducer

Fig. 1.76 Strain gauge transducer with beams in bending

A slip ring arrangement results in noise due to change in contact resistance. Also slip rings
and brushes wear out and hence need to be renewed. A non-contacting type of arrangement as
shown in Figure 1.77 is preferred. Here, the bridge supply and output signals are transmitted
between the rotating and stationary member through transformers. Through AC supply of the
bridge, an amplitude modulated AC voltage proportional to the torque is obtained as the output
of the bridge.
 Fig. 1.77 Non-contacting type strain gauge torque transducer

Torque Measurement Using Torsion Bars

Angular twist θ in a shaft due to torque can be found out using torsion bars. After measurement
of θ , the torque T can be easily calculated from the equation
4
Gθπ d
T=
32 L

where G is the shear modulus; θ is the angular twist; d is the diameter of shaft and L is the
length of the shaft. The various methods used to measure angular twist of torsion bar are
discussed next.

Optical Method
Figure 1.78 shows a typical torsion-bar system using an optical method for deflection
measurement. Owing to the transmission of torque, the two disks 1 and 2 are mounted at a
distance L on the shaft move relative to each other through an angle θ . The angle θ is recorded
by the observer.

Fig. 1.78 Torsion-bar torque sensor

Capacitive Method
A torsion-bar system using capacitive torque sensing is shown in Figure 1.79. A shaft is fitted
with a concentric sleeve of dielectric material. The sleeve is fixed to the shaft at one end, and
rests on a rubbing bearing at the other end. When torque is applied to the shaft it causes relative
motion between the surface of the shaft and the free end of the concentric tube. This motion is
used to vary the capacitance applied on two opposing patterns of conducting strips, one of
which is applied to the shaft and the other one to the tube.
The capacitive torque sensor is connected to an inductor coil (L1) wound around the shaft.
The resulting passive circuit thus has a resonance frequency which depends on the applied
torque. The passive resonant circuit rotates with the drive shaft, and is excited from an adjacent
stationary location by inductive coupling using a second inductor coil (L2) driven by an
oscillator as shown in Figure 1.80. Torque measurement can be done by measuring the
resonance frequency.
When the oscillator frequency is the same as that at which resonance occurs in the passive
circuit, an increased current is drawn. If the frequency at which occurs is measured, it can be
used to indicate the torque. The advantage of this arrangement is that no physical connection
between the rotating shaft and the frame is required.

Fig. 1.79 Capacitive method torsion bar: a) Cross section through shaft and sensor and b)
longitudinal section

Fig. 1.80 Torsion bar using inductive coupling

Laser-optic Method
The system consists of two black-and-white-striped wheels that are mounted at either end of the
rotating shaft. The black strips on the wheels are arranged in-line when no torque is applied to
the shaft. Light from a laser diode light source is directed by a pair of fiber optic cables onto the
wheels. The rotation of the wheels causes pulses of reflected light and these are transmitted
back to a receiver by a second pair of fiber optic cables. When no torque is applied, the two
pulse trains of reflected light are in phase with each other (Figure 1.81).
If torque is now applied to the shaft, the reflected light is modulated. Measurement of
magnitude of torque is calculated by the amount of phase difference between the reflected pulse
trains from the receiver.

Fig. 1.81 Laser optical torque measurement

Proximity Sensor Method
An arrangement using toothed wheels and proximity sensors is shown in Figure 1.82. Two
identical toothed wheels are fixed on the shaft at a certain distance. The two proximity sensors
produce output voltage with the phase difference proportional to the torque. Alternatively, an
arrangement using photocells and a light source may be employed.

Fig. 1.82 Proximity sensors for torque measurement

Stroboscope Method
Figure 1.83 shows an arrangement of two flanges A and B placed at a distance on the shaft.
Flange A carries a scale while flange B carries a pointer. When a torque is applied on the shaft,
it causes angular displacement of pointer relative to the scale due to the angular twist. The
deflection of the shaft may be read off directly when the shaft is stationary. However, this is not
possible if the shaft is rotating. In such cases stroboscope is used. The flashing light of the
stroboscope is applied onto the scale and the flashing frequency is adjusted till a stationary
image is obtained. The scale reading can now be taken for measuring the angular twist. This
method is simple and inexpensive. However, the accuracy of measurement is poor.

Fig. 1.83 Stroboscope for torque measurement

Magnetostrictive Method
Magnetostriction is an effect which occurs in ferromagnetic materials such as steel, where the
magnetic permeability is affected by stress. The maximum shear stress τ occurs at the surface of
the shaft given by
Tr
τ=
J
where T is the torque; r is the radius of the shaft and J is the polar moment of inertia and equals
4
πd
32
The above equation shows that the stress in a shaft is proportional to the applied torque, and it
follows that the torque must change the permeability of the shaft if it is made of a magnetic
material such as steel. The permeability decreases with strain and increases with magnetic
strain. The effect is small but it can be measured by an arrangement as shown in Figure 1.84.
The torque sensor consists of two pairs of stationary coils, one acting as a primary coil (P) and
the other as a secondary coil (S) , wound onto a common armed core. Magnetic coupling
between the primary and the secondary coil is provided by the steel shaft under torsion which
is positioned closer to the sensor. The primary coil is excited by an AC current and produces an
oscillating magnetic field within the shaft. The secondary coils are connected together in a
Wheatstone bridge arrangement and are positioned so that they lie over the lines of principal
stress, which follow a helical path at 45° for a cylinder under torsion. When the shaft is not
under torsion, equal and opposing voltage is induced in the two secondary coils with a supply
in the primary coil. Therefore, there is no out-of-balance voltage, that is, the voltage is zero.
When the torque is applied to the shaft, the permeability in which tension and compression
directions will change by equal amount and output voltage is proportional to the applied torque.
The main problems with this type of torque measuring device are:
1. inhomogeneity of the shaft materials;
2. sensitivity to changes in the sensor/shaft gap;
3. thermal effects;
4. variations in the sensor output due to changes in the shaft rotation speed.
The first of these effects is the most serious. The permeability of the material from which
the shaft is made can vary upto 50% around the circumference of the shaft.
 Fig. 1.84 Magnetostrictive transducer
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Method
Surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices are based on a theory developed by Rayleigh, which
shows that waves can propagate along the surface of an isotropic elastic medium. Surface
acoustic waves can be excited and deflected using piezoelectric transducer etched with a
pattern of integrated electrodes as shown in Figure 1.85. The frequency at which the SAW
device operates is determined by the electrode geometry. For torque measurement, two SAW
devices are attached to the shaft undergoing torsion. The shear strain resulting from torque
changes the geometry of the electrodes, and hence it changes the operating frequency of the
device. The two SAW transducers are positioned on the shaft at 45° as shown in Figure 1.86.
Each transducer forms a part of the feedback loop in an oscillator such that the output
frequency is a function of the SAW geometry.
The two SAW transducers are used in a half-bridge configuration, one is undergoing tension
and the other one is undergoing compression. The resulting two frequencies are added or
subtracted. The difference in frequency gives a measure of torque, and the sum can be used to
estimate temperature. The SAW devices can be driven without need for any electrical
connections if capacitive or inductive pickups are used.

Fig. 1.85 SAW electrode arrangement

Fig. 1.86 SAW transducer for shaft torque measurement

Fluid Pressure Sensors
Pressure is defined as the force, acting per unit area, exerted by a liquid or gas on a surface.
The unit of pressure is N/m 2 or Pa. Industrial processing units require measurement of a wide
range of pressure, from 0.1 Pa to above 100 MPa. Many kinds of primary elements have
been developed to measure pressure. Most primary elements convert the measured pressure
into displacement or force. A signal conditioner then converts the force or displacement into
a voltage, current or air pressure signal suitable for use by a controller.
Pressure measurement is generally made with respect to some reference pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is commonly used as reference. The difference between the measured
pressure and the atmospheric pressure is called the gauge pressure. A pressure less than the
atmospheric is called vacuum pressure. A pressure of zero is called a perfect vacuum. The
difference between measured pressure and a perfect vacuum is called absolute pressure. The
devices which are used to monitor fluid pressure in industrial processes are diaphragms,
bellows, capsules and tubes. Various means for measuring pressure are explained here.
Diaphragm Pressure Gauge
The diaphragm type of pressure sensor consists of a thin disk of metal or plastic secured
around the edges as shown in Figure 1.87. The center of the diaphragm deflects if there is a
pressure difference between the two sides of the diaphragm. The amount of deflection is
related to the pressure difference which can be detected by a strain gauge.

Fig. 1.87 Principle of diaphragm pressure gauge

A specially designed strain gauge is also used for measuring pressure. It consists of four
strain gauges with two measuring the strain in a circumferential direction while the remaining
two measuring the strain in a radial direction. The four strain gauges are connected to form the
arms of a Wheatstone bridge as shown in Figure 1.88,

Fig. 1.88 Diaphragm pressure gauge

The deflection at any point is shown in terms of positive and negative signs. The stress
distribution on the diaphragm surface is almost ideal for practical purposes, since both
compressive and tensile stresses exist. This will allow the use of a four-arm Wheatstone bridge
where all the gauges are active and consequently there is a large output.
The maximum shear stress induced in the diaphragm is
2
3D p
σ max= 2
16 t
where D is the mean diameter of the diaphragm; p is the pressure exerted on the diaphragm and
t is the thickness of the diaphragm.
The maximum deflection of the diaphragm under the pressure p is given by the equation,
3 ( 1−γ 2) D 4 p
δ max = 3
256 E t
where γ is the Poisson's ratio of the diaphragm material and E is the modulus of elasticity of
the diaphragm material.
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
Bourdon tube is a simple tube which expands when exposed to pressure. This expansion is
the measure of pressure. A C-type bourdon tube is shown in Figure 1.89. One end is called tip
of the tube which is sealed; it is also known as free end. This is attached by a light link-work to
a mechanism which operates the pointer. The other end of the tube is fixed to a socket where
the pressure is to be measured and applied. The internal pressure tends to change the section of
the tube from oval to circular, and then tends to straighten the tube.
The movement of the tip is ideally proportional to the pressure applied. The tip is connected to a
spring loaded link-work, a geared sector and pinion arrangement which amplifies the
displacement of tip and converts it into the deflection of the pointer.

Fig. 1.89 C-type bourdon tube pressure gauge

Bellows pressure gauge
A metallic bellow is a series of hollow circular parts as shown in Figure 1.90(a). These parts
are joined such that they are expanded or contracted axially by a change in pressure. Figure
1.90(b) shows the use of two bellows to measure a pressure differential.
Two bellows A and B are subjected to pressures P 1 and P2. If the absolute pressure is to be
measured B is evacuated and the resultant pressure P 1 is the absolute pressure. When the gauge
pressure is required, "B" will be opened to atmosphere (i.e., P 2 = atmospheric pressure). The
resulting reading is the gauge pressure. When both P 1 and P2 both are applied, the reading is the
difference of pressures P1 and P2.
 Fig. 1.90 Bellows pressure gauge
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
The LVDT is one of the most widely used transducers for converting a mechanical
displacement to a proportional output voltage. The force-sensing elements that are commonly
used with LVDTs acting as the secondary transducers are bellows and bourdon tubes. During
the measurement of pressure, bellows and bourdon tubes act as primary transducers with LVDT
acting as a secondary transducer [Figures 1.91(a) and (b)] .
The sensitivity of pressure gauges using LVDTs is good and, therefore, stiff primary sensors
with very little movement can be used to reduce the environmental effects. Frequency response
is also good, with commercial gauges able to respond to pulses greater than 0.1 MHz. A high
degree of linearity can be assured in case displacements are small. However, the response is
linear over a small range of displacement. Also, the dynamic response of the transducer is
limited on account of the mass of the core.

Fig. 1.90 a) Measurement of pressure with bellows and LVDT and b) Pressure
measurement with bourdon tube and LVDT
Potentiometric Transducer
This is a type of pressure sensor where a potentiometer is attached to bellows or a diaphragm
(see Figure 1.91). The bellows acts as primary sensor. As pressure increases, bellows expand.
This moves the wiper upward and initiates an increase in the meter reading. Therefore, pressure
can be read from the readings of the meter.
Advantages
1. high range;
2. simplicity;
3. ruggedness.
Limitations
1.poor resolution;
2.large size;
3.poor frequency response.

Fig. 1.91 Potentiometric pressure transducer

Variable Capacitor Pressure Sensor
Figure 1.92 shows an arrangement of capacitive sensor in which the diaphragm act as the one
plate of a capacitor. As a diaphragm moves with respect to the fixed plate, the change in plate
separation causes a change in capacitance.

Fig. 1.92 Variable capacity pressure transducer

Photoelectric Pressure Transducer
The photoelectric transducer makes use of the properties of a photoemissive cell or phototube.
The photoelectric transducer (Figure 1.93) uses a phototube and a light source separated by a
small window, whose aperture is controlled by the force summing member of the pressure
transducer.
 The displacement of the force summing member modulates the quantity of incident light
falling on the phototube (since the applied pressure or force changes the position of the force
summing member which in turn changes the position of the window thus causing a change in
incident light). A change in light intensity varies the photoemissive properties at a rate
approximately linear with displacement. This transducer can use either a stable source of light
or an AC modulated light.
The advantages of photoelectric pressure transducers are high efficiency, suitability for use
in both static and dynamic applications. The disadvantages are poor long-term stability, and the
requirement of a large displacement of the force summing device in order to produce a
detectable output.

Fig. 1.93 Photoelectric transducer for measurement of pressure

Tactile Sensor
Tactile sensor is one form of pressure sensor. It is used to determine the pressure applied in
robotics when the fingertips of robots contact the object. These types of sensors are also used in
"touch display screens" where physical contacts are sensed.
Figure 1.94 shows one form of tactile sensor. It uses piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF) film. Two layers are used and they are separated by a soft film which transmits
vibrations.
The alternating voltage is supplied in the lower PVDF film and it results in mechanical
oscillations of the film. The intermediate film transmits these vibrations to the upper PVDF
film. Owing to the piezoelectric effect the vibrations formed cause an alternating voltage to be
produced across the upper film. So, pressure is applied to the upper PVDF film and its
vibrations affect the output voltage.

Fig. 1.94 PVDF tactile sensor

Pirani Gauge
This operates on the principle of variation of thermal conductivity of gas with pressure. This
effect is more pronounced at pressures below 1 mm of Hg. Thermal conductivity of gas is
measured by measuring the heat loss from an electrically heated wire placed in the gas.
More the thermal conductivity, lesser the wire temperature. Since electrical resistance varies
with temperature, the resistance of heater wire is a measure of pressure. A Wheatstone bridge
(Figure 1.95) may be used to measure the resistance of the heater wire or the milliammeter may
be calibrated to read the pressure directly.
Range: 10-1 to 10-3 mm of Hg.
Advantages: Simple, inexpensive and more accurate than thermocouple gauges.
Limitation: Frequent calibration is necessary.

Fig. 1.95 Pirani gauge

Thermocouple Vacuum Gauge
Principle of operation of this gauge is the dependence of thermal conductivity of a gas on its
pressure at low pressures. This gauge consists of a heater element having a thermocouple in
contact with its center (Figure 1.96). Both are enclosed in an envelope seated into the vacuum
system. The heater element's temperature depends on the amount of heat lost to the
surroundings. At pressure below 10 -3 mm Hg, the temperature of the wire is a function of the
gas. Thus, an output is obtained from the thermocouple that depends on the pressure. The
moving coil instrument may be calibrated directly to read the pressure.
Advantage: Inexpensive.
Limitation: Burn out is possible if exposed to atmospheric pressure when hot and the current is
flowing.

Fig. 1.96 Thermocouple vacuum gauge

Liquid Flow Sensor
Flow measurement instruments are used to determine flow rate by monitoring the amount of
medium passing during a specific time. With most liquid flow measurement instruments, the flow
rate is determined inferentially by measuring the liquid's velocity or the change in kinetic
energy. Velocity depends on the pressure differential that is forcing the liquid through a pipe or
conduit. Because the pipe's cross-sectional area is known and remains constant, the average
velocity is an indication of the flow rate.
The basic relationship for determining the liquid's flow rate in such cases is
Q= VxA
where Q is the liquid flow through the pipe in m3/s; V is the average velocity of the flow in m/s and A
is the cross-sectional area of the pipe m2.
 There are many different types of devices available to measure flow. The measurement of
flow rate in process control covers a range of different transducers, which can be subdivided as:
1.pressure differential devices such as manometers, orifice meter, etc.;
2.rotary devices;
3.vortex shedding devices;
4.magnetic types;
5.turbine type.
Pressure differential devices include venturimeters, orifice plates, flow nozzles, or any similar
device which presents a constriction in the flow path. These devices measure flow by
constricting a stream and are based on Bernoulli equation. The resulting equation is in the form
of:
Flow rate = B √ ∆ P
where B is an experimentally determined constant and tip is the measured pressure differential
across the constriction.
Manometers
Simple U-tube Manometer
A U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube bend in U-shape, one end of which is connected to
a point at where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to the atmosphere as
shown in Figure 1.97. The U-tube contains a liquid of specific gravity greater than that of the
fluid of which the pressure is to be measured.
Case (A): For measuring gauge pressure: Let A be the point at which the pressure is to be
measured and X-X be the datum line.
Let h be the pressure at point A; h 1 be the height of the light liquid above the datum in the
left limb; h2 be the height of heavy liquid above the datum in the right limb; S 1 be the specific
gravity of light liquid; S2 be the specific gravity of heavy liquid.
When the pressure in the tube is same as atmospheric pressure, the pressure above the
horizontal datum line X-X in the left column should be same as in the right column.
Pressure above X-X in the left column = h+ h 1 S1
Pressure above X-X in the right column = h 2S2

Fig. 1.97 Simple U-tube manometer: a) For gauge pressure and b) for vacuum pressure
Equating these two pressures, we get
h+h1S1 = h2S2
h = h 2S 2 - h 1S 1
Case (B): For measuring vacuum pressure: Pressure above X-X in the left column=
h + h 1S 1 + h 2S 2
Pressure above X-X in the right column -= 0
Equating these two pressures, we get
h + h 1S 1 + h 2S 2 = 0
h = -( h1S1 + h2S2)
Differential U-tube Manometer
Case (A): When two pipes are at different levels: Figure 1.98 shows the arrangement of U-tube
manometer for the fore-mentioned case. Two pipes are containing liquids of different specific
gravities.
Let h be the difference of mercury level in the U-tube; h 1 the distance of the center of A
from the mercury level in the left limb; h 2 the distance of the center of B from the mercury
level in the right limb; S 1 the specific gravity of liquid in pipe A; S 2 the specific gravity of
liquid in pipe B; h A the pressure head at A; h B the pressure head at B. Taking datum line as
X-X
Pressure head in the left limb = h A+ (h1 + h) S1
Pressure head in the right limb = h B + h2 x S2 + h x S
Equating the above pressure heads, we get
hA+ (h1 + h) S1= hB + h2 x S2 + h x S
hA - hB = h2 x S2+ h x S (h1 + h)S1
= h2 X S2 +h x S – h1S1 — hS1
Difference of pressure heads at A and B
hA - hB =h(S - S1)+h2S2 - h1S1

Fig. 1.98 Differential U-tube manometer when pipes are at different levels
Case (B): When two pipes are at same level: The arrangement of U-tube differential
manometer connected between two pipes A and B are at same level and containing the liquid of
same specific gravity is illustrated in Figure 1.99.
Pressure head above X-X in left limb = h A +(h1 + h)S1
Pressure head above X-X in right limb = h B + h1S1+hxS
Equating the above two pressure, we get
hA +(h1 + h)S1 = hB + h1S1+hxS
hA - hB = h1S1+hxS - (h1 + h)S1
= h1S1+hxS - h1S1- hS1
Difference of pressure heads at A and B
hA - hB = h (S — S1)

Fig. 1.99 Differential U-tube manometer when pipes are at the same level
Orifice Meter
The orifice meter is the most common type of head flow measuring device for medium
and large pipe sizes. When the orifice plate is placed in pipe flow, the flow rate increases but
the pressure drop decreases. The point at which the velocity is maximum and , the pressure
is minimum is known as vena contracta. So, the flow rate is maximum at vena contracta. The
orifice plate, placed in the pipe flow is generally a thin metal plate which has a circular
opening. Depending on the hole (circular opening) placement, the orifice plates are configured
into three types such as concentric, eccentric and segmented (Figure 1.100). But concentric
types of orifice plates are mainly used to measure the flow rate.
Orifice meter is fitted in the pipe, the flow through which is to be measured (Figure 1.101).
Let a1 be the area at section 1-1; ao be the area of orifice; Cd be the discharge coefficient.
Then flow rate,
C . a .a √ 2 gh
Q= d 1 2 o 2
√a 1−a o

Fig. 1.100 Orifice plate configuration: a) Concentric b) eccentric and c) segmental

Fig. 1.101 Orifice meter

Advantages of Orifice Meter
1.Low initial cost.
2.Ease of installation and replacement.
3.Requires less space as compared with venturimeter.
4.Can be used in wide range of pipe sizes (0.01-1.5 m).
Disadvantages of Orifice Meter
1.Heavy loss of head.
2.Coefficient of discharge has a low value.
3.Susceptible to inaccuracies resulting from erosion, corrosion and scaling.
Venturimeter
A venturi tube, as shown in Figure 1.102, measures flow rate by constricting fluids and
measuring a differential pressure drop. The orifice plate produces large head losses and
venturitubes allow for flow measurement with lower head losses than orifice plates.
Venturitubes of cast iron cones are most commonly used in pipes with diameters of 10-80 cm.
Venturi accuracy is the best for Reynolds numbers between 10 5 and 106.
The inlet cone or convergent cone tapers toward the right from the pipe area to the throat.
Hence, the diameter at inlet is bigger when compared to the outlet diameter of the convergent
cone. Therefore, the flow rate increases slowly from inlet to exit. However, the flow is constant
throughout the throat section due to the uniform diameter of throat. In a divergent cone, the
diameter increases from entry to exit. So, the flow decreases at the end.
A venturi meter is just like an orifice meter. It has three distinct parts, namely convergent cone,
throat, and divergent cone. A manometer measures the pressure difference between two sections
as shown in Figure 1.102.
Let a1 be the area at the inlet (1-1); a 2 the area at the section (2-2); h the pressure head
difference; Cd the discharge coefficient. Then,
C . a .a √ 2 gh
Q= d 1 2 2 2
√a 1−a2
Advantages
1. Loss of head is small and hence high C d value and it may approach unity under favorable
conditions.
2. No wear and tear.
3. Less likelihood of becoming clogged with sediment.
4. Well-established characteristics.
5. Suitable for large flow of water, process fluids, waste gases and suspended solids.

Fig. 1.102 Venturi meter

Disadvantages
1.Long laying length.
2.More space requirement.
3.Quit expensive in installation and replacement
4.Possibility of cavitation.
Flow Nozzle
A flow nozzle is nothing but a venturimeter without its diverging cone. A flow nozzle is
inserted between flanges of a pipe whose flow is to be measured (Figure 1.103).
Let A1 be the area of pipe at inlet and A 2 be the nozzle area, then
C . A . A √ 2 gh
Q= d 1 2 2 2
√ A1 −A 2
 Fig. 1.103 Flow nozzle
Target Flowmeters
A target flowmeter has a small "bulls eye" which is placed inside the pipe and is connected to a
pneumatic transmitter (Figure 1.104). In a target flowmeter, the square of the force exerted on
the target is proportional to the volume or mass flow through the pipe. The force on the target is
expressed as

( )
2
v
F= ρ Cd A
2g
where v is the velocity; ρ is the fluid density; C d is the disk friction coefficient and A is the disk
area.

Fig. 1.104 Target flow meter

Rotometers
Rather than using a constant restriction area, a variable area of aperture is used for measurement
of the flow rate. The aperture area is adjusted owing- to the differential pressure across variable
aperture. The aperture area is then a measure of the flow rate. Typically, rotometers are used to
measure smaller flows and the reading is usually done locally, although transmission of the
readings is possible.
In its simplest form, shown in Figure 1.105, the rotometer consists of a float that moves
vertically through a container. The instrument consists of a tapered tube containing a float
which takes up a stable position depending upon the flow rate. As fluid enters the bottom of the
rotometer, the float is forced upward until the force is balanced by gravitational forces. Most
rotometers are made of glass with markings on the outside so that flow readings can be taken
visually. The advantage of rotometers is the simplicity of the device and a constant pressure
drop. Also, rotometers do not require a straight pipe runs for installation, they can be installed
just about anywhere. The flow rate, Q, of the rotometer is given by the following equation (with
usual notations):

Fig. 1.105 Rotometer

Q=
√)
Cd ( A r− A f )
2g (
v f ρf −ρ
)
√
Af ρ
1−
( A r− A f 2
Ar
where Ar is the area of the rotor; A f is the area of the float and v f the velocity of flow.
Magnetic flowmeter
Magnetic flowmeters cause no head loss and they can easily measure liquids with solids in
suspension. By their design, they produce an electrical signal ideal for plant submission. In a
magnetic flowmeter, the pipe is lined with a non-conducting material and at least two electrodes
are mounted with the non-conducting wall. Electromagnetic coils surround the flow path with a
uniform magnetic field. Figure 1.106 exhibits the principle of a magnetic flowmeter.
Faraday's law dictates that the voltage produced by a conducting fluid flowing through a
magnetic field is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid.
The major disadvantage of a magnetic flowmeter is that it cannot be used for hydrocarbons
due to their low conductivities and is limited to measuring the volume flow rate of
electronically conductive fluids.

Fig. 1.106 Magnetic flowmeter

Turbine Flowmeter
The most common displacement flow-measuring device is the turbine meter. A turbine
flowmeter consists of a multi-bladed wheel placed in a pipe along the flow path as shown in
Figure 1.107. Usually, the rotor is magnetically coupled so that each rotation produces a pulse.
The spin of the rotor is proportional to the velocity of the fluid. The turbine meter is highly
accurate and durable. Turbine meters are restricted only by the fact that they must be used in
clean, non-corrosive services.

Fig. 1.107 Turbine flow meter

Coriolis Flowmeter
Another type of device worth mentioning is the Coriolis meter, which measures flow rates on
the basis of the mass of the fluid. Many applications, such as a reactor feed stream, are often
specified and best measured by mass. In these applications, using a measuring device based on
volume would require corrections for temperature-dependent properties-such as density and
viscosity. The Coriolis meter gives a direct mass flow measurement, independent of temperature
and pressure, and it is remarkably accurate as well (typically 0.2-0.02% of the total flow).
The Coriolis meter shown in Figure 1.108 has a sine wave voltage applied to an
electromagnetic drive which produces an oscillating motion of the tube. The amplitude is
related to the mass flow and the frequency is related to the product density The reason that the
output amplitude changes with flow may be explained by the Coriolis effect. The vibration of
the tube gives a slight angular rotation about its center. As the fluid moves away from the
center, there is a resultant Coriolis force which opposes the rotational motion. The flow
movement toward the center produces a Coriolis force which aids the tube rotation. The
resultant force produces the measured sine wave which is measured and converted to the mass
flow reading.

Fig. 1.108 Coriolis flowmeter

Ultrasonic Flowmeter
Ultrasonic flowmeters use sound frequencies to determine flow rates. They can be either
Doppler-effect meters or time-of-flight meters. Doppler meters measure the frequency shifts
caused by the liquid flow. The frequency shift is proportional to the liquid's velocity, time-of-
flight meters use the speed of the signal, traveling between two transducers that increases or
decreases with the direction of transmission and the velocity of the liquid being measured. They
do not work well with liquids in suspended solids or air gaps. The basis of a good flowmeter
selection is a clear understanding of the requirements of the particular application. Measuring
the flow of liquids is critical in many industrial plants. In some operations, the ability to conduct
accurate flow measurements is so important that it can make the difference between making a
profit and taking a loss.
1.Doppler frequency method: A piezoelectric crystal transducer is connected to a pipe wall to
transmit ultrasonic signals into the flow. The particles in the fluid get vibrated at a
frequency proportional to the velocity, which is measured by an electronic computer.
Therefore, the frequency is found by the thickness of the crystal in the range of 0.2-5
MHz.
2.Transit time method: In this case, the ultrasonic transducer is connected at an angle or
parallel to the pipe wall. Pulsed waves are produced for a short duration and they transmit
across the fluid. So, the velocity of wave increases or decreases with respect to the
direction of flow. Furthermore, in this method also piezoelectric crystal transducer is used
as shown in Figure 1.109. It uses two crystals, one
as transmitter and the other as receiver. These two are a distance apart. The transmitter
emits an ultrasonic pulse which is received by the receiver after, ∆ t time.
The transit time in flow direction is given by
d
∆ t=
c +v
where c is the velocity of sound propagation in medium; d is the distance between two crystals
and v is the flow velocity. Time ∆ t is linearly proportional to velocity v.

Fig. 1.109 Schematic arrangement of ultrasonic flowmeter

Current Flowmeter
A current flowmeter is used to measure the velocity of flow in the channel. It consists of a
wneel or revolving element on which the conical buckets of V-shaped vanes are fixed (Figure
1.110). The current meters are classified on the basis of a revolving element as
1.Cup-type current meter: In this case, a series of conical cups called revolving elements are
mounted on a spindle vertically at rightangle to the direction of flow.
2.Screw or propeller-type current meter: In this, the revolving element has a shaft with its axis
parallel to the direction of flow. It has a number of curved vanes or propeller blades
mounted around the periphery of the shaft. The current meter unit is immersed or
suspended vertically to the required depth in a flowing stream of water by cables. It
means, the revolving element is placed to face toward the upstream direction. Due to the
dynamic thrust exerted on the wheel, it is rotated. So, the number of revolutions of the
wheel per unit time is proportional to the velocity of the flowing water. Then the number
of revolutions of the wheel per unit time is noted. It is further calibrated to obtain the
velocity of flow of water. To count the number of revolutions of the wheel, an electrical
transmission system is adopted.
In this, an electric current is passed to the wheel from a battery above the water through
wires and a commutator is fixed to the spindle of the revolving blades to form and cut-off
the electric circuit during each revolution. Sometimes, an electric bell or a headphone is
connected in series to the electric circuit to represent an audible signal. In some cases, a
revolution counter is also provided to count the number of revolutions. Counting the
 number of revolutions of the wheel is noted by the observer using a stop watch. Then the
speed of the wheel is calculated from the number of revolutions.

Fig. 1.110 Current flowmeter

Floats
A float is a small object that is lighter than water and thus capable of floating on the water
surface. It is usually made of wood or other suitable material. Floats are used to measure the
velocity of flow of water in rivers and channels. It is simple to measure the velocity of flow at
any section using a single float. The time taken by the float to traverse for the known distance is
measured to compute the velocity. Here, the mean velocity of the flow is about 0.8-0.95 times
the surface velocity. The approximate value of the mean velocity of flow is determined from the
known value of the surface velocity (Figure 1.111).
A better method to determine the velocity of flow of water is the double float method. It
consists of a spherical surface float. A hollow metal sphere is fitted with a float. This metal
sphere is heavier than water and suspended from the float by a known length. The depth of the
lower float is completely submerged. Then the velocity is calculated as the time taken by the
float to traverse a known distance. Now, the float measures a velocity equal to the mean of the
velocity of the surface and the velocity of the layer traversed by the lower float.

Fig. 1.111 Float technique

Hot-Wire Anemometer
It is another instrument used for measuring the velocity of flow of a compressible fluid such as
air or gas. The anemometer consists of a platinum, nickel or tungsten wire of dimensions 5 x
10-3 mm to 8 x 10-3 mm diameter and 6 mm length.
When an electrically heated fine wire is placed in a flowing stream of air or gas, there is an
exchange of heat energy between the wire and the surroundings primarily by convection. The
rate of heat transfer will increase with increasing velocity of air. It means that the rate of heat
transfer is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid. So, it is possible to measure the
velocity at a given point. The instrument that works on this principle is called a hot wire.
The constant temperature type hot-wire anemometer is shown in Figure 1.112(b). During the
passing of an electric current through the wire, the temperature of the surrounding air or gas
rises but the wire is cooled when the air or gas flows round the wire. Therefore, the amount of
heat lost from the heated wire to the air or gas flow is a function of the flow velocity. The
amount of heat transfer from the wire to the surrounding air alters the temperature of the wire,
thereby varying the electrical resistance of Wheatstone bridge circuit because the electrical
resistance of the wire is a function of its temperature.
A hot-wire anemometer, needs frequent calibration against a known velocity. The calibration
should be carried out in the same fluid as that whose velocity is to be measured. Heat transfer
also depends on the fluid density. Moreover, it is a delicate device subjected to breakage. Owing
to the rapid fluctuations in indication, it is widely used in conjunction with oscilloscopes.
Therefore, it is the best instrument for measuring rapid fluctuations in velocity (turbulent flows)
at a given point. It has not been possible to use it successfully with liquids because bubbles and
some small solid particles present in the liquid tend to collect on the wire and spoil the
calibration.
Recently, a hot-film anemometer has been developed. In this, a thin platinum film fused to a
glass support is used in place of a hot wire. This instrument has a better mechanical strength,
but has a slightly inferior frequency response when compared to a hot-wire anemometer.

Fig. 1.112 Hot wire anemometers: a) Circuit for constant current type b) Circuit for
constant temperature type c) construction
Liquid-Level Sensors
Industrial processes often require the measurement of liquid or fluid in a tank or a container.
Measurement of liquid level can be made directly by following the liquid surface using floats or
indirectly by measuring some variables related to the liquid level. The direct methods include
sight glasses attached with the container and various floats attached with external indicators.
Indirect methods of measuring liquid level employ some means of measuring the static pressure at
some points in the liquid. Various indirect methods for measuring liquid level are explained next.
Float Level Sensor
In this method the level of liquid is measured by movement of a float. The movement of a float
due to a rise in the liquid level turns the lever about the pivot. Thus, the lever applies a
downward force on the bonded strain gauge load cell. The load cell converts the change in load
into proportional change of resistance. The Wheatstone bridge attached to the output of the load
cell converts the change of resistance into a measurable electrical signal. The output result is
related to the height of the liquid (Figure 1.113).

Fig. 1.113 Float level sensor

Static Pressure Level Sensor
This uses the static pressure at some points in the liquid as a measure of the level. If the top of
the container is opened to the atmosphere, an ordinary pressure gauge may be used to measure
pressure at some points in the liquid. This pressure is a measure of the liquid level. A variety
of methods are used to measure the static pressure. One such method is shown in Figure 1.114
where a pressure cell such as a diaphragm is used as a pressure sensor, the output of which is
connected to the signal conditioner to change into an electrical signal.

Fig. 1.114 Pressure cell for static pressure measurement

Differential Pressure Level Sensor
If the top of the container is not opened to the atmosphere, the static pressure increases due to
the pressure in the container at the liquid surface. The height of the liquid above the point of
measurement is proportional to the difference between the static pressure and the pressure at
the top of container. Therefore, a differential pressure measurement is required. This uses the
same principle as a static pressure level sensor except that the other end of the pressure cell is
connected to the top of the container. Figure 1.115 illustrates the differential pressure level
measurement.

Fig. 1.115 Pressure cell for differential pressure measurement

Variable Capacitance Transducers
The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel plates separated by a dielectric or insulating
material. The capacitance of the plate is given by
εo εt A
C=
d
where ε o is the permittivity of free space; ε tis the relative permittivity of the medium between
the conductors; "A" is the area of the conductors facing or influencing each other and "d" is
the distance between the conductors.
From the above equation, one can see that the capacitance is directly proportional to both
the plate area and the . relative permittivity of the dielectric material and inversely
proportional to the distance separating the plates. Changing either of the influencing
parameters can therefore alter the capacitance.
The most typical application of capacitor is the pressure and level measurement. In
capacitance-level sensor, shown in Figure 1.116, the two concentric cylinders are placed in a
liquid tank. The level of the liquid partially occupies the space between the cylinders with air
in the remaining part. The device acts- like two capacitors in parallel,- one with the dielectric
constant of air and other with that of a liquid. Thus the variation in the liquid level causes
variation in electrical capacity measured between the cylinders.

Fig. 1.116 Level measurement by a capacitance level sensor

Temperature Sensors
Temperature is defined as a measure of velocity of fluid particles. It is a property which is
used to determine the degree of hotness or coldness or the level of heat intensity of a body.
In the exposition of the second law of thermodynamics, temperature is related to heat, it is
known that heat flows only from a higher temperature to lower temperature in the absence of
other effects. Instruments for measuring ordinary temperature are known as thermometers
and those for measuring high temperatures are known as pyrometers.
Since pressure, volume, electrical resistance, expansion coefficient, etc. are all related to
temperature through the fundamental molecular structure, they change with temperature, and
these changes can be used to measure temperature.
 It has been found that at a certain temperature a gas does not occupy any volume. The
temperature measured at absolute zero is called absolute temperature. Absolute temperature
can be obtained from the following equation:
Absolute temperature (K) = Thermometer readings in °C + 273
The instruments which are used to measure temperature are
1.bimetallic strip;
2.electrical resistance thermometer;
3.thermocouples;
4.thermopiles;
5.thermistors;
6.pyrometer:
total radiation pyrometer;
optical pyrometer.
7. Thermo-diodes and thermo-transistors.
Bimetallic Strip
Bimetallic strip is a very widely used method of temperature measurement. This method is
based on the principle of the change in dimension of the metal, that is expand or contract
when there is a change in temperature. Expansion or contraction depends on the thermal
expansion coefficient. These properties change from metal to metal.
Two pieces of metal with different coefficients of thermal expansion are bonded together
to form the bimetallic strip as shown in Figure 1.117. It is in the form of a cantilever beam.
When the strip is subjected to a temperature higher than the bonding temperature, it bends in
one direction.
Suppose it is subjected to a temperature lower than the bonding temperature, it bends in
the other direction. If a rod of length lo at temperature To is raised to a new value T, then the
rod will have new length, l given by the equation
l=l o [ 1+α ∆T ]
where ∆ T = T-To and α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion.
The radius of curvature "r" may be calculated as
t {3 ( 1+m ) + (1+ mn ) [ m + ( 1/mn ) ] }
2 2

r=
6 ( α 2−α 1 ) ( T −T o ( 1+m ) )
2

where t is the combined thickness of the bonded strip in mm; α 1 is the lower coefficient of
expansion per °C; α 2 is the higher coefficient of expansion per °C; m is the ratio of thickness of
low to high expansion materials; n is the ratio of modulus of elasticity of low to high expansion
materials; T is the temperature in °C and T o is the initial bonding temperature in °C.
The bimetallic strip materials should have high coefficient of expansion, high ductility,
high modulus of elasticity and high electrical conductivity. These properties are very important
for selection of bimetallic strip.

Fig. 1.117 Bimetallic strip

Applications
1.Bimetallic strips are frequently used in simple ON—OFF switches.
2.The bimetallic strips are also used in control switches.
Advantages
 1.It is less costly when compared to other temperature measuring instruments.
2.They have negligible maintenance expense.
3.They have stable operation over extended periods of time.
4.The accuracy of this type of instrument is between 2% and 5% of the scale.
Disadvantages
1.They are not suitable for temperatures more than 400°C.
2.Permanent deformation of metallic strip may occur.
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
RTDs are also known as resistance thermometers. They work on the principle that the
resistance of a metal varies with temperature according to the relationship provided in the
following equations. If the change in temperature from T 1 to T2 is considered.
R2=R 1+ R o α ( T 2−T 1 )
( R2−R 1)
T 2=T 1 +
α R0
R=R o ( 1+α 1 T +α 2 T + α 3 T + … α n T ) (if quadratic approximation is considered)
2 3 n

In almost all industrial applications, the equation is inconvenient for measurement purpose
as it is nonlinear. The equation becomes linear by neglecting higher order terms; that is
R=R o ( 1+α 1 T ) will suffice for temperature from 0 oC to 150 oC.

The constant α 1 is called temperature coefficient of resistance. For copper the typical value
is 0.0043 and for platinum it is 0.0039.
The materials used for RTDs are nickel, iron, platinum, copper, lead, tungsten, mercury,
manganin, silver, etc. Platinum is one such metal where the resistance temperature relationship
is linear within 0.4% over the temperature range between - 200°C and 40°C. This can be
effectively used as an RTD and a typical construction is exhibited in Figure 1.118. Thin film
platinum elements are often made by depositing the metal on a suitable substrate wire-wound
elements involving a platinum wire held by a high temperature glass adhesive inside a ceramic
tube.

Fig. 1.118 Resistance temperature detector

It is important to ensure that the energizing current used in the measurement of resistance
does not cause heat dissipation sufficient to artificially raise the temperature, the electrical
power dissipated in the RTD for conversion of resistance to voltage or current must be limited
to avoid errors due to power heating of the sensor. A bridge circuit with null detection can be
used for temperature measurement with RTD as shown in Figure 1.119.
Salient Features of RTDs
1. They have a high degree of accuracy.
2. Resistance thermometers are interchangeable in a process without compensation or
recalibration.
3. They are normally designed for fast response as well as accuracy to provide close control
of processes.
 Fig. 1.119 Bridge circuit with null detection for temperature measurement with RTD
Thermistors
Thermistors are temperature-sensitive variable resistors made of a ceramic-like
semiconducting material. They are made of metal oxides, cobalt; copper, nickel, etc. Unlike
metals, thermistors respond negatively to temperature. They behave as resistors with a high
negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Typically, for each 1 °C rise in temperature, the
resistance of a thermistor decreases by about 5%. This high sensitivity to temperature changes
makes the thermistor useful in precision temperature measurements. The resistance of
thermistors varies from 0.5 Ω to 0.75 MΩ. The variation of resistivity with temperature is
shown in Figure 1.120 and the configurations of thermistors are shown in Figure 1.121.

Fig. 1.120 Resistivity versus temperature of thermistors

Fig. 1.121 Configuration of thermistors

Construction
The thermistor has a bridge amplifier circuit which may be employed with resistance
thermometer or thermistor devices. It is shown in Figure 1.122. A metal tube has a thermistor-
sensing element. The combination of a metal tube and sensing element leads is used to measure
the temperature.
Working
Initially, a known constant current is passed through the thermistor-sensing element and the
change in resistance is measured.
 After taking the initial measurement, the thermistor is introduced into the medium whose
temperature is to be measured. Owing to the change in temperature, the thermistor-sensing
element gets heated and a change in resistance occurs. This change in resistance is measured
using the Wheatstone bridge and it is the measure of the medium temperature.
Most of the thermistors are in sizes smaller than the RTDs but have a wide variety of shapes and
sizes with enclosures. Although one can measure the resistance of a thermistor with an ohmmeter
using a bridge circuit, it is often more convenient to convert the resistance into a proportional
voltage. A typical operation amplifier circuit shown in Figure 1.123 can be used for temperature
measurement over a limited range and produces a voltage as given by the equation
V Ref
V o= × RT
RS

Fig. 1.122 Construction of thermistors

Fig. 1.123 Thermistor circuit

Applications
1. It is used for.varying temperatures.
2. It is used in time-delay circuits.
3. Thermistors are used for temperature compensation.
4. It is used to measure pressure and flow of liquids.
5. It is used to measure thermal conductivity.
6. It is used to measure gas composition.
Advantages
1.It has very high accuracy.
2.It can be manufactured for very small sizes.
3.It is used to measure very high temperature.
4.It has the ability to withstand mechanical and electrical stresses.
Limitations
1.In it self-heating may occur.
 2.It has a highly non-linear behavior over its range of operation.
3.It is possible for the thermistor to have an increase of resistance when time lapses.
Thermocouples
The most common method of temperature measurement uses the thermocouples. It is based on the
Seebeck effect. The thermocouple temperature measurement is based on the creation of an emf.
Basic Principle
The basic principle of thermocouple is: when two dissimilar metals are joined together an emf
will exist between the two points A and B, which is primarily a function of the junction
temperature. This principle is known as the Seebeck effect. Figure 1.124 illustrates Seebeck
effect, where two metals A and B are used to close the loop connecting junctions at temperature
T1 and T2. The emf produced is found to be almost linear-in temperature and very repetitive for
constant materials.
The emf produced by the thermocouple loop is approximately given by
emf = α (T2 – T1)
where α is the constant in V/K; T1 and T2 are junction temperatures.
Construction
The thermocouple consists of one hot junction and one cold junction. The hot junction will be
introduced into the place where temperature is measured. The other cold junction is maintained:at
a constant reference temperature. Also one voltage-measuring instrument is connected to the free
end of the thermocouple.
Operation
In a thermocouple, the known temperature is called the reference temperature. The temperature
which is to be measured is introduced in the thermocouple's hot junction. A common arrangement
for establishing the reference temperature is an ice bath. The reference temperature is held
constant at 0 °C.

Fig. 1.124 Seebeck effect

The temperature difference between the ice bath and the hot junction temperature will create
an emf. This emf production is measured in the milli voltmeter. So, this change in emf rate will
give the measure of temperature. The output voltage as emf is equal to
1 2 1 3
E=AT + BT + C T
2 3
where T is the temperature in °C and A, B and C are constants depending upon the thermocouple
material. The construction of thermocouple is shown in Figure 1.125.
Thermocouple Laws
The thermocouple laws are classified into:
1. Law of intermediate metals: If a third metal is introduced into a thermocouple circuit, as
shown in Figure 1.126, the net emf of the circuit is not affected as long as the new
connections are at the same temperature.
2. Law of intermediate temperature: In a thermocouple circuit, an emf E1 will be produced if
the junction temperatures are maintained at T1 and T2 as shown in Figure 1.127(a). An emf
E2 will be produced when junctions are at temperatures T 2 and T3 as shown in Figure
1.117(b). According to law of intermediate temperature, the same circuit will produce an
 emf E3 (i.e. E1 + E2) when operating between temperatures T1 and T3 as shown in Figure
1.127(c).

Fig. 1.125 Construction of thermocouple

Fig. 1.126 Thermocouple circuit to illustrate law of intermediate metals

Fig. 1.127 Thermocouple circuit to illustrate law of intermediate temperature

Composition of Thermocouple Alloys
1.Alumel: 94% nickel, 3% manganese, 2% aluminum, 1% silicon.
2.Constantan: 55% copper, 45% nickel.
3.Chromel: 90% nickel, 10% chromium.
Thermopile
A thermopile is a circuit in which many thermocouples are connected in series or parallel
to measure the temperature shown in Figure 1.128. The thermopile arrangement, as shown in
Figure 1.128, is useful for obtaining a substantial emf for measurement of a small temperature
difference between the two sections.
Series Connection of Thermocouples
When thermocouples are connected in series, it is very important to ensure that the junctions are
electrically insulated from one another. This thermopile arrangement is shown in Figure 1.129.
The four junctions are all maintained at different temperatures connected in series. Assume that
junction "A" will produce a potential drop in the plus to minus direction. Junctions "B" and "D"
will produce a potential drop in the opposite direction.
The junction "C" will generate a potential drop in the same direction as junction A. So, the emf
measured at the potentiometer is: E = EA - EB + EC - ED
The value of E is zero when all the junctions are at the same temperature.
 Fig. 1.128 Construction of thermopile

Fig. 1.129 Series connection of thermocouples

Parallel Connection of Thermocouples
Figure 1.130 shows the parallel connection thermocouple and is used for obtaining the average
temperature of a number of points. Each of the four junctions may be at different temperatures
and will generate a different emf. The average temperature of the junctions is calculated in the
potentiometer.
The total emf in a parallel connection thermocouple is
E 1+ E 2+ E 3 + E 4 E
E= =
4 n
where "n" is the number of junction pairs and "E" is the total reading of the thermopile.
Advantages
1. It can measure the temperature at the last point of electric contract of the dissimilar
materials.
2.The junction size is very small. Therefore, transient response will be high.
3.Its application ranges from measurement of room temperature to that of a metal bath.
4.It is simple to use and cost-effective.
Disadvantages
1. Due to faulty soldering in junctions, the thermocouple does not conform to the standard
emf temperature tables.
2.Thermocouples may be used outside their applicable range.
3.Junction compensation may be required in the reference junction.
4.There may be a chance of using the wrong type of thermocouple for the temperature
measurement.
 Fig. 1.130 Parallel connection of thermocouple
Pyrometers
The pyrometer temperature measurement is based on change in intensity and color of radiation. It
is possible to determine the temperature of a body through a measurement of the thermal radiation
emitted by the body. The pyrometers are of three types:
1.total radiation pyrometers;
2.infrared pyrometers;
3.optical radiation pyrometers.
Total Radiation Pyrometers
Thermal radiation is an electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body as a result of its temperature.
Thermal radiation is in the wavelength region from about 0.1-100 μm. The total radiation emitted
by a blackbody is given as
E b = σ X T4
Where σ is the Stefan Boltzmann constant (5.669 x 10-8 W/m2K); Eb is the emissive power and T
is the absolute temperature in K.
Construction: The total radiation of pyrometer has one housing tube in which an adjustable eye
piece is fixed at one end of the housing tube and the other end is free to receive radiations from
the radiating object whose temperature is to be measured. A rack and pinion attachment is used to
adjust the position of a concave mirror (Figure 1.131). A thermocouple is also provided to receive
the radiation and the thermocouple is connected to the milli voltmeter to measure the temperature.

Fig. 1.131 Total radiation pyrometer

Working: Thermal radiations from the radiating object come inside the housing tube. These
radiations fall on the concave mirror and are reflected to the hot junction of the thermocouple. So,
an emf will be produced in the thermocouple and it is measured by using a millivoltmeter. This
change in emf will give the measure of temperature.
Application: It is used to measure the high temperature ranging from 1200 to 3500°C.
Advantages
1.It has high accuracy.
2.There is no physical contact with the radiating object.
3.The distance between the radiating object and the pyrometer is negligible.
Disadvantages
1.It is not suitable for very low temperature measurement due to poor sensitivity.
2.Dust, smoke, gases in between the radiating object and the instrument will cause error.
Infrared Pyrometer
These pyrometers absorb only infrared (IR) rays and measure temperature. At some high
temperatures, a surface starts emitting IR rays in addition to visible light energy. These IR rays
are used with a detector and electronic circuit to measure the temperature.
Various types of photoelectric transducers are used for IR transducers. One among them is the
photovoltaic cell. This responds to wavelengths in IR region and may be used to measure
temperatures of about 400°C. An IR pyrometer is shown in Figure 1.132.
The IR radiation is focused onto a PV cell. It is to be observed that the cell is not overheated.
The protective window is made of thin glass and serves to protect the cell and filter from physical
damage. The filter is used in the range 1000-1200°C in order to reduce the IR radiation passed to
the photovoltaic cell.
The IR falling on the detector either changes the detector resistance in proportion to the
temperature or generates an emf in the detector. The change in resistance or generated emf is then
indicated on a meter or a digital display and is used to control a process.

Fig. 1.32 IR pyrometer

Optical Pyrometer
This method refers to the identification of the temperature of a surface with the color of the
radiation emitted. The optical pyrometer compares the brightness of the image produced by the
temperature source with that of a reference temperature lamp.
Construction: The optical pyrometer has an eyepiece at one end and an objective lens on the
other end as shown in Figure 1.133. In between the objective lens and standard lamp (reference
temperature lamp), an absorption filter is placed that is used to increase the range of temperature.
A red filter is placed between an eyepiece and the standard lamp which allows only a narrow
band of wavelength. The battery, ammeter and rheostat are connected to a standard lamp.
Working: A source temperature to be measured is focused onto the standard lamp using the
objective lens. An absorption filter at the front of the device reduces the intensity of the incoming
radiation so that the standard lamp may be operated at low level. Now, the color of the filament is
matched with the color of the incoming radiation by an adjustment of the lamp current. It means,
the standard lamp is placed in the optical path of the incoming radiation. The lamp filament is
illustrated in Figure 1.134. There are three conditions: First, the filament is cooler than the
temperature source. Second, the filament is hotter than the temperature source. Third, the filament
is having equal brightness as the source temperature. The red filter is fixed in the eyepiece to
ensure that comparisons are made with monochromatic radiation. Finally, the current flowing
through the lamp is measured by using the ammeter, and it equals the temperature of the source
when it is calibrated with temperature equivalent.
Applications:
1.It is used to measure the furnace temperature.
2.It is widely used in two-radiation temperature method for high temperatures.

Fig. 1.133 Optical pyrometer

Fig. 1.134 Field view of the pyrometer: a) Equal brightness; b) more brightness of filament
and c) more darkness of filament
Advantages
1.It is relatively inexpensive.
2.It does not depend on the surface properties of the material.
3.It is a quite accurate method for the measurement of radiant energy from a surface.
4.If surface emissive properties are accurately known, the temperature measurement will be
very accurate.
Limitations
1.It is not suitable for measurement of low temperature.
2.Since adjustment of standard lamp temperature is done manually. Therefore, there would be
some error in the measurement.
Thermodiodes and Thermotransistors
Thermodiodes
Thermodiode is a widely used temperature-measuring instrument. When the temperature of doped
semiconductors changes, the mobility of their charge carrier's changes and this affects the rate at
which electrons and holes can diffuse across a PN junction.
The difference in voltage and current through the junction is a function of the temperature.
Current, I, can be found out using
I =I o ( e eV / KT −1 )
where T is the temperature on the Kelvin scale; e is the charge on electron; I o is a constant and K
is a constant.
From the above equation the voltage "V" is proportional to the temperature on Kelvin scale
and the potential difference measurement across a diode at constant current is used to measure the
temperature.
Thermotransistor
In a thermotransistor the voltage across the junction between the base and the emitter depends on
the temperature. A common method is the use of two transistors with different collector currents
to find the difference in the base—emitter voltages between them. This difference is the measure
of temperature.
The thermotransistors can be combined with circuit components on a single chip to give a
temperature sensor as shown in Figure 1.135.

Fig. 1.135 Thermotransistor

Light Sensors
Photodiodes
Diodes, for example photodiodes and semiconductor diodes, are connected into a circuit in
reverse bias giving a very high resistance. This is done so that when light falls on the junction, the
resistance of the diode will drop and the current in the circuit will rise.
Figure 1.136 shows the diode characteristics. If the diode is sufficiently reverse biased, it will
break down. So the current passes through the diode only when it is forward biased. If an AC
voltage is applied across a diode, it can be regarded as switched ON when forward biased and
OFF when reverse biased. The photodiodes respond very fast to light and can be used as variable
resistance devices controlled by light.
Photoelectric Transducer
The arrangement of photoelectric transducer is shown in Figure 1.137. Optical radiation, X-rays
and certain corpuscular radiations fall on a semiconductor photoelectric transducer are absorbed.
The process of energy absorption produces movable charges or a change of mobility of the charge
carriers in the semiconductor thereby producing one of the following effects depending upon the
type of transducer used:
1.change in resistance, ∆R;
2.change in current output, ∆I;
3.change in voltage output, ∆ V.
This is called photoelectric effect.

Fig. 1.136 Diode characteristics Fig. 1.137 Photoelectric transducer

Photoconductive Transducer
It consists of a thin layer of material such as selenium, several of the metallic supplies or
germanium coated between electrodes on a glass plate. The cell behaves as a light-controlled
variable resistor whose resistance is reduced when it is exposed to a light source.
 Electric conduction in semiconductor materials occurs when free electrons are available in the
material when an electric field is applied. In certain semiconductors, light energy falling on them
is of the correct order of magnitude to release electrons, which inverse the flow of current
produced by an applied voltage. The increase in current and light intensity with the applied
voltage remain constant. This means that the resistance of semiconductors decreases with an
increase in light intensity. Therefore, these semiconductors are called photoconductive
transducers (Figure 1.138).

Fig. 1.138 Photoconductive transducer

Photovoltaic Cells (PV Cells)
It consists of a sandwich of unlike materials, such as an iron base covered with a thin layer of iron
selenide. When the cell is exposed to light, a voltage will be developed across the section. They
form an important class of photodetectors. They generate a voltage which is proportional to the
electromagnetic radiation intensity. They are called PV cells because of their voltage-generating
characteristics. They, infact, convert the electromagnetic energy into electrical energy. They are
passive transducers, that is, they do not need an external source to power them.
The PV cell is a giant diode constructing a PN junction between approximately dopped
semiconductors as shown in Figure 1.139. Photons striking the cell pass through the thin P-
dopped upper layer and are absorbed by electrons in the N-dopped lower layer, causing formation
of conduction electrons and holes.
The depletion zone potential of the PN junction then separates these conduction holes and
electrons causing a difference of potential to develop across the junction.

Fig. 1.139 Photovoltaic cells

Selection of Sensors
The following factors are considered while selecting sensors:
1.The nature of output required from the sensor, whether digital or analog.
2.The nature of measurement required, that is, range of values required, the variable to be
measured, the speed of measurement required, etc.
3.The accuracy of the sensor.
4.The cost of the sensor.
5.The power requirement of the sensor
6. The speed response of the sensor.
7. The linearity of the sensor.
8. The reliability and maintainability of the sensor.
9. Environmental conditions under which the measurement is to be made.
10. Signal conditioning requirements.