What is an Operating System?

A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the

computer hardware

Operating system goals:

◦ Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
◦ Make the computer system convenient to use
◦ Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
 Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components:
◦ Hardware – provides basic computing resources
◦ CPU, memory, I/O devices
◦ Operating system
◦ Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users
◦ Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are
used to solve the computing problems of the users
◦ Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games
◦ Users
◦ People, machines, other computers
Four Components of a Computer System
What Operating Systems Do
Depends on the point of view
Users want convenience, ease of use
◦ Don’t care about resource utilization

But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep all users
happy
Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated resources but
frequently use shared resources from servers
Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and battery life
Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded computers
in devices and automobiles
 Operating System Definition
OS is a resource allocator
◦ Manages all resources
◦ Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use

OS is a control program
◦ Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the
computer
Operating System Definition
(Cont.)
No universally accepted definition

“Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is

good approximation
◦ But varies wildly

“The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel.
Everything else is either a system program (ships with the operating
system) or an application program.
Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
◦ Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware
◦ Initializes all aspects of system
◦ Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
◦ One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus
providing access to shared memory
◦ Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles
Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type

Each device controller has a local buffer

CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers

I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller

Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing
an interrupt
Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
◦ Random access
◦ Typically volatile

Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large

nonvolatile storage capacity

Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic

recording material
◦ Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
◦ The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and
the computer
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
◦ Speed
◦ Cost
◦ Volatility

Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory

can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage
Storage-Device Hierarchy
Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in
hardware, operating system, software)

Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily

Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is

there
◦ If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
◦ If not, data copied to cache and used there

Cache smaller than storage being cached

◦ Cache management important design problem
◦ Cache size and replacement policy
 Computer-System Architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through
mainframes)
◦ Most systems have special-purpose processors as well

Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance

◦ Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
◦ Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
◦ Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing
 Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
◦ Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
◦ Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute
◦ A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
◦ One job selected and run via job scheduling
◦ When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so

frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive
computing
◦ Response time should be < 1 second
◦ Each user has at least one program executing in memory 🢡process
◦ If several jobs ready to run at the same time 🢡 CPU scheduling
◦ If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
◦ Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware
Software error or request creates exception or trap
◦ Division by zero, request for operating system service

Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each

other or the operating system
Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
◦ User mode and kernel mode
◦ Mode bit provided by hardware
◦ Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel code
◦ Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode
◦ System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
◦ Set interrupt after specific period
◦ Operating system decrements counter
◦ When counter zero generate an interrupt
◦ Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that
exceeds allotted time
 Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task
◦ CPU, memory, I/O, files
◦ Initialization data
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location
of next instruction to execute
◦ Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
◦ Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads
 Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:

Creating and deleting both user and system processes

Suspending and resuming processes
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
Providing mechanisms for process communication
Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
Memory Management
All data in memory before and after processing

All instructions in memory in order to execute

Memory management determines what is in memory when

◦ Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users

Memory management activities

◦ Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by
whom
◦ Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of
memory
◦ Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
Storage Management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
◦ Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
◦ Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
◦ Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer rate, access method (sequential
or random)

File-System management
◦ Files usually organized into directories
◦ Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
◦ OS activities include
◦ Creating and deleting files and directories
◦ Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
◦ Mapping files onto secondary storage
◦ Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
 Mass-Storage Management
Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or
data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
Proper management is of central importance
Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its
algorithms
OS activities
◦ Free-space management
◦ Storage allocation
◦ Disk scheduling

Some storage need not be fast

◦ Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
◦ Still must be managed – by OS or applications
◦ Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)
Protection and Security
Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users
to resources defined by the OS

Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks

◦ Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft of
service

Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do

what
◦ User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated number,
one per user
◦ User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine
access control
◦ Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls
managed, then also associated with each process, file
◦ Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more rights
Distributed Computing
Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems networked together
◦ Network is a communications path
◦ Local Area Network (LAN)
◦ Wide Area Network (WAN)
◦ Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Network Operating System provides features between systems across network

◦ Communication scheme allows systems to exchange messages
◦ Illusion of a single system
Computing Environments
Traditional computer
◦ Blurring over time
◦ Office environment
◦ PCs connected to a network, terminals attached to mainframe or
minicomputers providing batch and timesharing
◦ Now portals allowing networked and remote systems access to same
resources
◦ Home networks
◦ Used to be single system, then modems
◦ Now firewalled, networked
Open-Source Operating Systems
Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than just
binary closed-source

Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management (DRM)

movement

Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft” GNU

Public License (GPL)

Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX (including core of Mac OS

X), and many more