Adama Science and Technology University

School of Mechanical, Chemical, and Materials Engineering

Department of Chemical Engineering

ChE 4206: Process Dynamics

and Control

1
 Objectives
• to define what we mean by chemical
process control,
• to describe the needs and the incentives
for controlling a chemical process,
• to analyze the characteristics of a control
system and to formulate the problems that
must be solved during the design of a
control system

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1.1.1 Importance of process control
• To Reduce variability/maintain product
quality
• To help processes operate efficiently
• To ensure the safe operation of
processes
• To meet environmental regulations
• To meet operational constraints
inherent to the operation of equipments
used in a chemical plant
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•How does a control
system fulfill the
above needs?

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• A control system can meet the above
mentioned process operation needs
by any combination of the following:
i. Suppressing the influence of external
disturbances,
ii. Ensuring the stability of a chemical
process, and
iii. Optimizing the performance of a
chemical process.

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Suppressing the effect Consider the tank
of disturbances heater system below.
• Fi is flowrate in(ft3/min)
• Ti is its inlet temperature (OF),
• Fs is the steam mass flowrate in lb/min used to
heat the liquid
• F is the flowrate of the outgoing liquid and
• T is the temperature of the stream leaving the
tank.
• The tank is well stirred, (temperature of liquid in
the tank is uniform and is equal to the
temperature of the effluent)
• Possible disturbances include:
• Changes in the feed flowrate, Fi
• Changes in feed temperature Ti
• Changes in ambient temperature
• The objectives of the stirred tank heater are to:
• Keep the effluent temperature T at a desired
value Ts and
• Keep the volume of the liquid in the tank at a
desired value Vs.
=> Control action is needed to keep T and V at the
desired values.

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 A possible control configuration
• The desired value Ts is called the Set
Point (decided or set based on process
requirement).
• The temperature of the liquid, T, is
measured
• T is compared with the desired value Ts
• The difference called the error (=Ts –T)
is sent to a controller
• The controller takes a corrective action
based on the error

This control system is called Feedback control because:

•the variable of direct importance (T in this case) is measured
•corrective action is taken after the effect of the disturbance has been felt by the
system
Discuss the following cases:


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
 Alternative configuration for the
temperature control

Feedforward control

In feedforward control:

• The disturbance is measured

before it affects the system
• The controller takes action
anticipating what its effect will
be

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Another control configuration

•h is controlled output
•F is manipulated variable
•Fi and Ti are disturbance inputs

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 Ensure the stability of a chemical process
Consider the behavior of
the variable x shown:

• At time t = to the constant value of x is disturbed by some external

factors,
• As the time progresses the value of x returns to its initial value and
stays there. This means:
– the process is stable or self-regulating
– needs no external intervention for its stabilization
– no control mechanism is needed to force x to return to its initial value.

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• Consider the figure:

• The variable y does not return to its initial value after it is disturbed
by external influences.
• Processes like this are called unstable processes
• They require external control for the stabilization of their behavior.
• Examples:
– The explosion of a hydrocarbon fuel with air is such an unstable system.
– Riding a bicycle is an attempt to stabilize an unstable system and we attain that
by pedaling, steering and leaning our body right or left.

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 Example:
Controlling the Operation of an Unstable Reactor
• Consider a continuous
stirred tank reactor (CSTR)
where an irreversible
exothermic reaction A->B
takes place.

• The reaction mixture is

cooled by a coolant
medium that flows through
a jacket around the
reactor.

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• the heat removed by the
coolant is a linear function of
the temperature T (curve B).
• at steady state, the heat
produced by the reaction
should be equal to the heat
removed by the coolant, thus
yielding the steady states Pl,
P2, P3 at the intersection of
the curves A and B.
• The steady states p1 and P3
are called stable while the P2
is unstable.
• To understand the concept of
stability let us consider the
steady state P2.

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• Assume that we are able to
start the reactor at the
temperature T2, and the
concentration CA that
corresponds to this
temperature.
• Consider that the
temperature of the feed Ti
increases.
• This will cause an increase
in the temperature of the
reacting mixture, say T2’

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• At T2’, the heat released by
the reaction (Q2’) is more
than the heat removed by
the coolant, Q2”.
• Thus leading to higher
temperatures in the reactor
and consequently to
increased rates of reaction.
• Increased rates of reaction
produce larger amounts of
heat released by the
exothermic reaction which in
turn lead to higher
temperatures and so on.
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• Therefore, we see that an increase in Ti takes the
reactor temperature away from the steady state P2 and
that the temperature will eventually reach the value of
the steady state P3.

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• Sometimes we would like to operate the CSTR at the
middle unstable steady state for the following
reasons:

– (i) the low temperature steady state P1 causes very low

yields because the temperature Tl is very low.
– (ii) the high temperature steady state P3 may be very high
causing unsafe conditions, destroying the catalyst for a
catalytic reactor, or degrading the product B, etc.
• In such cases we need a controller which will ensure
the stability of the operation at the middle steady
state.
• Question: The reader should suggest a control mechanism to stabilize the
operation of the reactor at the unstable steady state P2.

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 Optimize the performance of a
chemical process
• Follows after safety and the production
specifications are satisfied

• Focuses on how to make the operation of

the plant more profitable.
• Maximize economic objective (profit)

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 Classification of the variables in a
chemical process
• The variables (flowrates, temperatures,
pressures, concentrations, etc.)
associated with a chemical process are
classified into:
– Input variables, which denote the effect of the
surroundings on a chemical process, and
– output variables, which denote the effect of
the process on the surroundings.

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• For the CSTR reactor:

• We have:
– input variables: CAi , Ti, Fi, Tci , Fc, F
– output variables: CA, T, F, Tco , V

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• F can be considered either as input or
output.

• If there is a control valve on the effluent

stream the variable F is an input.

• Otherwise, F is an output variable.

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• The input variables can be further
classified into the following categories:

– Manipulated (or adjustable) variables, if their values

can be adjusted freely by the human operator or a
control mechanism and

– Disturbances, if their values are not the result of

adjustment by an operator or a control system.

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• The output variables are also classified
into the following categories:

– Measured output variables, if their values are known

by directly measuring them, and

– unmeasured output variables, if they are not or

cannot be measured directly.

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Example:
• Suppose that the inlet stream in the CSTR
system comes from an upstream unit over
which we have no control.
• Then, CAi , Fi, Ti are disturbances.
• If the coolant flow-rate is controlled by a
control valve, then
• Fc is a manipulated variable, while
• Tci is a disturbance.
• If the flowrate of the effluent stream is
controlled by a valve, then F is a manipulated
variable, otherwise it is an output variable.
• With respect to the output variables we have
the following: T, F, Tco, and V are measured
outputs
• The concentration CA can be measured
variable if an analyzer (gas chromatograph,
infrared spectrometer, etc.) is attached to the
effluent stream.

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Example:
• For the tank heater system:

• Disturbance inputs: Fi and Ti

– Manipulated inputs can be: Fst, F
– Measured outputs can be: V, T

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• Disturbances, based on their direct
measurability or not, can be further
classified into two categories:

– measured and
– unmeasured disturbances.

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• measured disturbances:
– e.g. the disturbances Fi and Ti of the stirred tank
heater

• unmeasured disturbances:
– e.g. the feed composition for a distillation column,
extraction unit, reactors and the like.

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1.1.2. Design steps & Process Control Strategies

Design steps:
• A broad categorization of the steps followed
during the design of a control system
includes:
1. Defining the Control Objectives
2. Selecting the Measurements
3. Selecting the Manipulated Variables
4. Selecting the Control Configuration
5. Designing the Controller

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Example:
For the tank heater:

We have:
– input variables: Fi, Ti, Fst (F)
– output variables: F, V, T
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a) Define Control Objectives

• the process that we want to control is

always the central element in any control
configuration.
• at the beginning, control objectives are
defined only qualitatively and only later on
that they are known quantitatively (usually
in terms of the output variables).

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Question 1:

– "What are the operational objectives that a

control system is called to achieve?"

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The answer to this question can be one or
a combination of the following:

• Ensuring the stability of the process,

• suppressing the influence of external disturbances,
• optimizing the economic performance of a plant

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For the CSTR system

• The qualitative control objective is:

to ensure the stability of the middle,
unstable steady state.

• However, a qualitative description of the

control objectives is not useful for the design
of a control system and must be quantified.

• The quantitative control objective is:

to keep the temperature of the middle
unstable steady state within 5% of its
nominal value.

Note that this temperature is

also the output variable.
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For the tank heater system:
• Qualitative control objective:
to maintain the temperature
of the outlet (T) and the
volume of the fluid in the
tank at desired values. For
this example the
quantification of the control
• Quantitative control
objective:
– T = Ts
– V = Vs
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b) Select Measurements

• For any control objective, it is always

necessary to monitor the performance of the
chemical process that we want to control.
• This can only be done by measuring the
values of relevant processing variables
(temperatures, pressures, concentrations,
flowrates, etc.).
• We always prefer to monitor directly the
variables (making primary measurements)
that represent our control objectives, and
this is what is done whenever possible
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 The answer to the following
question leads to the selection of
the measurement(s):

Question 2:

What variables should we measure in order

to monitor the operational performance of a
plant?

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For the tank heater system:
• Quantitative control objectives
were:
• T = Ts
• V = Vs
• So, we need to monitor T and V
directly.
• This can be done by using:
• a thermocouple (for T) and
• a differential pressure cell (for V).
• Disturbance inputs: Fi and Ti
• Manipulated inputs can be: Fst, F
• Measured outputs can be: V, T

39
• When our control objectives are not measurable
quantities, we will be forced to infer their values from
other measurements.

• In this case, we proceed as follows:

• measure other variables which can be measured easily and reliably
(secondary – measurements)
• develop mathematical relationships between the unmeasured outputs
and the secondary measurements, i.e. express the unmeasured output
as a function of the secondary measurement(s)

unmeasured output f secondary measurements

• The mathematical relationship between measured
and unmeasured outputs results from empirical,
experimental or theoretical considerations.

40
• Consider a simple distillation column separating
a binary mixture of pentane and hexane into two
product streams of pentane (distillate) and
hexane (bottoms).

• Suppose the control objective is to maintain the

production of a distillate stream with 95% by mole
in pentane in the presence of changes in the feed
composition.

41
Our immediate control
configuration proposal
would be to use a
composition analyzer to
measure the concentration
of pentane in the distillate
and then using feedback
control to manipulate the
reflux ratio.

42
• An alternative control system would be to
use a composition analyzer to monitor the
concentration of pentane in the feed.

• Then in a feedforward arrangement we can

change the reflux ratio to achieve our
objective.

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• Both of the above control systems depend
on composition analyzers.

• Composition analyzers are either very

costly or of very low reliability for an
industrial environment (failing quite often
or not providing accurate measurements).

• In such cases we can measure the

temperature at various plates along the
length of the column quite reliably, using
simple thermocouples.

• Then using the material and energy

balances around the plates of the column
and the thermodynamic equilibrium
relationship between liquid and vapor
streams, we can develop a mathematical
relationship that gives us the composition
of the distillate if the temperatures of some
selected trays are known.

44
• Another class of measurements that we can make to
monitor the behavior of a chemical process includes
the direct measurement of the external disturbances.

• Measuring the disturbances before they enter the

process allows us to know a priori what the behavior
of the chemical process will be and thus take
remedial control action to alleviate any undesired
consequences.

• Feedforward control uses direct measurements of

the disturbances.

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c) Select Manipulated Variable
• Once the control objectives have been specified and the various
measurements identified, the next question is how do we effect a
change on the process, i.e.

Question 3:

What are the manipulated variables to be used in order to control a

chemical process?

• Usually in a process we have a number of available input variables

which can be adjusted freely.

• Which ones we select to use as manipulated variables is a crucial

question as the choice will affect the quality of the control actions we
take.

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• To control the level of
liquid in a tank we can
either adjust the flow
rate of the inlet stream or
the flow rate of the outlet
stream .

• Which one is better is an

important question that
we will analyze later.

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d) Select the Control Configuration

• After the control objectives, the possible

measurements, and the available manipulated
variables have been identified, the final problem to
be solved is that of defining the control
configuration.

• Before we define what a control configuration is, let

us look at some control systems with different
control configurations.

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• The two feedback
control systems
shown constitute two
different control
configurations.

• The same information

(measurement of
liquid level) flows to
different manipulated
variables, i.e. F and
Fi.

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• The feedback control
system and the feed
forward control system
for the tank heater
constitute two distinctly
different control
configurations.

• For these two control

systems we use the
same manipulated
variable, i.e. Fst but
different
measurements.

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In the above examples we notice that
two control configurations can differ
either in the:

• manipulated variable where the same information

flows to

• information (measurement) flowing to the same

manipulated variable

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Definition:

• A control configuration is the information

structure which is used to connect the
available measurements to the available
manipulated variables.

Question 4:

What is the best control configuration for a given

chemical process control situation?

52
• Depending on how many controlled outputs and manipulated
inputs we have in a chemical process, we can distinguish the
control configurations into:

– single-input, single-output (SISO) or

– multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) control systems.

• For example, for the tank heater system:

– If the control objective (controlled output) is to keep the liquid level

at a desired value by manipulating the effluent flow rate, then we
have a SISO system.

– On the contrary, if our control objectives are (more than one) to

keep the level and the temperature of the liquid at desired values,
by manipulating (more than one) the steam flow rate and the
effluent flow rate, then we have a MIMO system.

• In the chemical industry most of the processing systems are

multiple input, multiple-output systems.
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 Feedback control configuration
– Uses direct measurements of the controlled variables to adjust the values of the
manipulated variables .
– The objective is to keep the controlled variables at desired levels (set points).

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 Inferential control configuration
Inferential control configuration:

• Uses secondary measurements, because the controlled

variables are not measured, to adjust the values of the
manipulated variables. The objective here is to keep the
(unmeasured) controlled variables at desired levels.

• The estimator uses the values of the available measured

outputs, along with the material and energy balances that
govern the process, to compute mathematically (estimate) the
values of the unmeasured controlled variables.

• These estimates in turn are used by the controller to adjust the

values of the manipulated variables.

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56
 Feedforward control configuration
• Feedforward control configuration uses direct measurements of the
disturbances to adjust the values of the manipulated variables.
• The objective is to keep the values of the controlled output variables at desired
levels.

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e) Design the Controller
• In every control configuration, the controller is the active
element that receives the information from the measurements
and takes appropriate control actions to adjust the values of
the manipulated variables.

• For the design of the controller we may need to make the

following question:

Question 5:
How is the information taken from the measurements used
to adjust the values of the manipulated variables?

• The answer to this question constitutes the control law, which

is implemented automatically by the controller.

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Process control strategies:
• Consider the blending system shown.
• Control objective is to obtain an outlet
stream having the desired composition
• Stream 1 is a mixture of two chemical
species A and B.
• Mass flowrate w1 is constant
• Mass fraction of A (x1) varies
• Stream 2 consists of pure A, i.e. x2 =1
• W2 is the manipulated variable
• X1 is the disturbance
• X is controlled variable

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• How can we keep the outlet
composition at the desired value in
front of changes in x1?

• Let us consider several strategies.

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• Method 1. measure x and adjust w2
w2 (t )  w2  K c [ xsp  x(t )]

• This method is a feedback control strategy

• The distinguishing feature of FB is the controlled variable is
measured and the measurement is used to adjust the manipulated
variable.
• The disturbance variable is not measured.

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• Two types of feedback:
– Negative feedback: corrective action taken by controller
forces output towards set point.
– Positive feedback: controller pushes the controlled variable
away from the desired value
• Corrective action occurs regardless of the source of
disturbance
• Reduces the sensitivity of the controlled variable to
unmeasured disturbances and process changed
• Takes no corrective action until the disturbance
upsets the process.

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• Method 2: measure x1
and adjust w2
• It is a feedforward control
strategy
• Distinguishing feature:
disturbance is measured, but
not the controlled variable
• Control action is taken before
the disturbance upsets the
controlled variable
• Requires measurable
disturbance
• Perfect process model
• Takes no action against
unmeasurable disturbances

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• Method 3: measure x1 and x and adjust w2.

• This is a combination of methods 1 and 2.

• More practical
• Feedback: corrective action for unmeasured disturbances
• Feedforward: eliminates measured disturbances

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• Method 4: use a larger tank

• Fluctuations in x1 will be damped due to the large liquid

amount present in the tank
• Requires increased capital cost

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Major steps in control system development

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Hierarchy of process control

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 1.1.3 Modeling principles
1. Rational for modeling
a. To improve understanding of the process-computer
aided simulation of dynamic models allow
investigation without disturbing the process
b. To train plant operating personnel to run complex units
and to deal with emergency situations
c. Develop a control strategy for a new process-allows
identification of controlled and manipulated variables
d. When experimental approach is expensive or when
not possible

2. Model classification
a. Theoretical models: obtained based on the principles
of physics, chemistry and biology
b. Empirical models: obtained by fitting experimental
data
c. Semi-empirical models: the numerical values of one or
more of the parameters in the theoretical model are
obtained from experimental data. 68
 Theoretical models
• Are applicable over a wide range of conditions
• Tend to be expensive and time consuming to
develop especially for complex processes
• May contain parameters that are not availble
(that need experimentation)

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 Empirical models
• Do not extrapolate well
• Are applicable in a narrow range of
conditions
• Should be used with care for conditions
not included in the experimentation used
for the curve fitting

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 Semi empirical models
• Incorporate theoretical knowledge
• Can be extrapolated over a wider range of
conditions than empirical models
• Require less development effort than
theoretical models

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Conservation Laws And Constitutive
equations
• The physical relations underlying mathematical models
are of two categories:

– basic laws that consist of the relevant conservation laws,

– Constitutive equations

• Together these two sets of physical laws and

expressions provide us with the tools for establishing a
mathematical model.

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Type of equations that result from the
application of these laws and relations

Equations are generally limited to three types:

• Algebraic equations (AEs),

• Ordinary differential equations (ODEs), and

• Partial differential equations (PDEs)

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Type of information can be derived from
the solution of the model equation
• The information derived from the solution of these
equations generally falls into the following three broad
categories:

1. Distributions in time or distance of the state variables

(i.e., temperature, concentration, etc.),

2. Size of equipment, and

3. Values of system parameters.

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 Conservation Laws
• For systems that involve transport and chemical reactions, the
required conservation laws are:

1. Mass,
2. energy, and
3. momentum.

• Use of these laws is widespread and not confined to chemical

engineering systems.

• Fluid mechanics draws heavily on the law of conservation of mass

(known there as the continuity equation ) and the law of
conservation of momentum which in its most general form leads to
the celebrated Navier-Stokes equations.

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 Constitutive Equations
• Once the basic balances have been established, it is necessary to express
the primary quantities they contain in terms of more convenient secondary
state variables and parameters. Thus, an energy term which originally
appears as an enthalpy H is usually converted to temperature T and specific
heat Cp , reaction rate r to concentration C and rate constant kr , and so on.

• This is done by using what we call auxiliary relations which are drawn from
sub disciplines such as Thermodynamics , kinetics, transport theory, and
fluid mechanics.

• Parameters which these relations contain are often determined

experimentally. Thus, for convective interphase mass transfer NA , such
thermodynamics as evaporation of water into flowing air, we use the
auxiliary relation
NA = kGAΔpA
• Where ΔpA is the partial pressure driving force and kG a measured mass
transfer coefficient. When transport is diffusive, Fick’s law

NA = –DA(dCA/dz) is invoked.

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 Constitutive Equations
• Similar considerations apply to the transport of heat. Individual
coefficients h are usually measured experimentally and can be
super-posed to obtain overall coefficients U, which have their
counterpart in the overall mass transfer coefficient K0 . When
transport is by conduction, Fourier’s law (q = –kA(dT/dz)) is needed.

• Chemical reaction rate constants such as kr (first and second order)

or rMax and Km (Michaelis-Menten kinetics) likewise are determined
experimentally (see Table 1.2). We note that some parameters can
be derived from appropriate theory and are themselves based on
conservation laws. For viscous flow around and in various
geometries, for example, drag coefficients CD , friction factors f and
various transport coefficients can be derived directly from
appropriate balances.

• Among other parameters which have to be obtained by

measurement, we mention in particular those pertaining to physical
equilibria such as Henry’s constants, H and activity coefficients, γ

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