Basic Writing Skills (Enla1012)

Module

Edited by
Teshome Gemechu Tesso
(MA in TEFL)

November, 2022.
Burayu, Ethiopia.
Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 1
 UNIT ONE: WRITING EFFECTIVE SENTENCES

It is obvious that people usually communicate verbally through two media. These are speaking
and writing. When they communicate through writing formally, mostly the basic unit of idea is a
sentence. For constructing a meaningful and complete sentence, understanding the nature of a
sentence is compulsory.
1.1. Definition of sentence
A sentence is a group of words that are arranged appropriately to express an idea through a
logically related subject and predicate.
1.2. Sentence Parts
In English sentences, there are two basic elements. They are subject and predicate.
Subject: a subject is noun/pronoun the sentence is about. It is the basic element of a sentence
that normally appears at the beginning of a sentence. Subject can be simple or compound.
Example:
1. The rain will stop.
2. The President of America will attend the meeting.
3. She was elected the president of the union.
4. An intelligent and industrious boy surely achieves even the most difficult goal.
Activity 1: Underline the subjects in each of the sentences below
1. A group of explorers in a remote region of France made a starting discovery in 1994.
2. The first simple microscopes were built in the middle of the fifteenth century.
3. The entire business district was destroyed.
4. Impurities in the glass greatly distorted microscope images.
Predicate: A predicate is a part of a sentence that says something about the subject. It consists
of at least one word- a verb. When it is extended, it may consist of other modifiers.
Example:
• The man died.
• The man died yesterday.
• The man died in the hospital yesterday

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 In the above sentences, you can easily identify that the words and word groups written in bold
are predicates. Like a subject, a predicate can be simple or complete predicate.
Simple predicate: Complete predicate:
Example: The old man is praying. Example: The old man prayed for peace.
The rain stopped. The girl is dancing with her sister.
Activity 2: Underline the predicate in each of the following sentences and identify
whether it is a simple or a complete predicate.
1. Many fires erupted.
2. The entire business district and many homes were destroyed.
3. Impurities in the glass greatly distorted microscope images.
4. A group of explorers in remote region of France made a startling discovery in 1994.
1.3. Sentence Classification
Generally, sentences could be put into two major categories. If sentences are seen in terms of
their purposes or functions, they are classified into four types as declarative, interrogative,
imperative, and exclamatory sentence. If they are considered in terms of their structure, they are
classified into simple, compound, complex and compound- complex sentences.
1.3.1. Sentence Classification based on Function

Sentences are means by which we communicate with others and express our thought and feeling
to others. As ideas, thoughts or feelings are different in kind and type, the purpose of
communicating them also varies. If the purpose of communicating with people varies, the type
of sentence we use for communication will also vary. So, based up on purpose sentences are
classified into four types: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences.
1.3.1.1. Declarative Sentence/ Statement

A declarative sentence is a statement which is used to give information. It is a kind of sentence

which usually demands a true or false response. It is also a sentence that is used more frequently
than any other sentence types. This sentence normally ends with a period or a full stop. It can be
manifested in different forms. It can be either affirmative of negative.
Examples:
1. Time is running short. (Affirmative)

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 3

2. She does not respect her elder brother. (Negative)
3. Stories entertain. (Affirmative)
4. The instructors do not allow cheating in exam. (Negative)
1.3.1.2. Interrogative Sentence

An interrogative sentence asks a question, or seeks information. It ends with question mark
(interrogation)
Example: 1. What is your favorite football team?
2. Can you get away today?
3. Have you ever seen any park in Ethiopia?
4. Is Abe being your friend?
1.3.1.3. Imperative Sentence
This is a type of sentence that expresses a command, a request, an order, an advice, etc. The
order of the subject and the predicate is like that of a declarative sentence, except that subject is
rarely expressed. The end mark for an imperative sentence is a period, but sometimes an
exclamation mark is used for emphasis.
Example:
1. Shut the door. (command)
2. Be good to your colleagues. (advice)
3. Have a cup of coffee, please. (invitation)
4. Please, have a seat. (invitation)
5. Show me your Id card, please. (request)
1.3.1.4. Exclamatory Sentence

This is a sentence that expresses strong emotion, excitement or sudden feeling. The feeling could
be of different types. It could be a feeling of happiness, sorrow, wonder, surprise etc. In
exclamatory sentence, there are words and phrases that are commonly used with the main
sentence. These include words like ‘what;’ ‘how ‘,’perhaps;’ ‘oh’, ‘oh god’, etc. The punctuation
mark in this type of sentence is an exclamatory mark. It is placed at the end of either the
exclamatory word or sentence.
Example:

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 4

1. Wow! We have won the match.
2. How late the doctor is!
3. What a brave boy he is!
4. How beautiful flowers they are!
Activity 3: Identify whether the following sentences are declarative, interrogative,
imperative, and exclamatory. Then put appropriate end marks.
1. Who is your best friend?
2. What a wonderful adventure it is!
3. Don’t ever get out of your car to take the pictures of the elephants.
4. The human backbone has thirty bones.
5. Which one is the best exercise?
1.3.2. Sentence Classification based on Grammatical Structure

In terms of their structure, sentences could be classified into four types. Structure of a sentence
refers to the constituent parts from which the sentence is formed. Thus, based on these
constituent parts, we can categorize sentences into simple, compound, complex and compound–
complex sentences.
1.3.2.1. Simple Sentence
A simple sentence is a sentence with one main clause or a sentence with one subject and one
predicate. Both the subject and the predicate could be simple or compound.
Examples:
1. The students played tennis. (Simple subject and predicate)
2. The students and their teachers played tennis. (Compound subject and simple predicate)
3. The students played tennis and took shower. (simple subject and compound predicate)
4. The student and their teachers played tennis and took shower. (compound subject and
compound Predicate)
1.3.2.2. Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is made up of two independent/ main clauses. Each main clause of a
compound sentence has its own subject and predicate. The clauses are usually joined by:
1. a coordinating conjunction: and, or, but, for, so, yet, nor preceded by a comma, or

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 5

2. semicolon (;), or
3. Semicolon (;), conjunctive adverbs or independent markers (however, moreover, therefore, thus,
consequently, also) followed by comma.
Examples:
1. My wallet had disappeared, and I had no way to pay my fee.
2. The park was crowded, for Monday was a holiday
3. The sky is cloudy; it is to rain.
4. I am an Ethiopian; however, he is a European.
1.3.2.3. Complex Sentence

This is a type of sentence made up of one independent clause and one or more than one
dependent/subordinate clauses. Common examples of dependent markers are: because, before,
since, as, while, although, if, until, when, after, as if etc.
Example:
1. Because I had lost my wallet, I had no way to pay my fee.
2. I had no way to pay my fee because I had lost my wallet.
In the first sentence, the clause because I had lost my wallet is a subordinate (dependent)
clause. It is dependent because it cannot give a complete meaning on its own. It needs to be
attached to the main clause to give a complete meaning. The other clause I had no way to pay
my fee is an independent (main) clause. In brief, when a dependent clause and an independent
clause are combined into one sentence to express an idea, the sentence is called a complex
sentence. The order of the main clause and the subordinate clause may be exchanged. Either
the main clause or the subordinate clause can come first. When the subordinate clause comes
first, the comma splits the two clauses as in the above example. If the main clause precedes the
subordinate clause, no need of using a comma in between.
1.3.2.4. Compound-Complex Sentence
A compound –complex sentence is a sentence with two main clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses. In other words, as the name indicates, compound –complex sentence has a
compound sentence and a complex sentence. The following example illustrates the idea.
Examples:

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1. Because I had been careless, my wallet had disappeared, and I had no way to pay my fee.
2. The class is inconvenient; however, we should cover the course since it is compulsory.
Activity 4: Identify whether the following sentences are simple, compound, complex or
compound-complex sentences.
1. Have you ever been to the exhibition, or are you going just now?
2. What is the main objective of Basic Writing Skills course?
3. When you go to Harar, you have to visit the historical place there.
4. Windows rattled, and doors shook.
5. Because out fuel pump failed, we were stranded on the way, and we couldn’t attend the meeting.
6. The United States is depleting its none-renewable energy source: coal, oil, and gas.
7. As the storm blew, windows rattled and doors shook
8. Sun, wind, and water are renewable energy sources, and they do not cause pollution.
9. Although the rain fell for three days, the city’s reservoirs were not filled.
10. You will pass the exam if you work hard.
11. If you heat ice, it melts.
12. How old are you?
1.4. Common Sentence Errors
The most common sentence errors are sentence fragments, run-on sentences, comma splices,
misplaced, dangling modifiers and agreement errors. Thus, this section discusses those sentence
errors and ways of correcting them.
1.4.1. Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete idea. It looks like a
sentence, but is not. It may begin with a capital letter and end with a period, but its construction
fails to satisfy the reader’s expectation of a meaningful statement. It may lack a subject, or a verb,
or the dependent clause unattached to the independent clause.
Examples:
a) Genealogy, the study of family history. (Lacks verb)
b) Although several large rivers have been cleaned up. (Lacks independence)
c) When you come to school. (Lacks independence)

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 7

d) Shouted with delight. (Lacks subject)
e) I always stay at library up to 6: pm. attempting to score 4.0. (Dependent clause
unattached to the Independent one)
Sentence fragments can be corrected in the following ways:
Adding a subject and /or a predicate to make the sentence complete.
Attaching the fragment to an adjacent sentence and making it an integral part of the
sentence. Omitting some elements and making a separate sentence.
a) Fragment: In many families, both parents work. Need two incomes. (Lacks a complete
predicate)
Sentence: In many families, both parents work because the family needs two incomes.
In many families both parents’ work. The family needs two incomes.
b) Fragment: Sometimes two or three generations of one family living together. (lacks a complete
verb)
Sentence: Sometimes two or three generations of one live together.
c) Fragment: The simplest family group is the nuclear family. This consists of parents and children.
(subordinate Clause unattached to the main clause)
Sentence: The simplest family group is nuclear family, which consist of parents and children.
d) Fragment: She wins an award every winter. For looking after many helpless street children.
(subordinate clause unattached to the main clause)
Sentence: She wins an award every winter for looking after many helpless street children.
e) Fragments: Although she works hard. (has subordinate clause only)
Sentence: She works hard.
Activity5: Read the following text and then state whether each of the numbered word
group is a complete sentence or a sentence fragment.
1. When he entered elementary school as a child in California knew only about fifty words of
English.
2. Because he was afraid, he would be mocked, Richard was reluctant to speak in class.
3. (The priest who taught him asked his parents, who had been born in Mexico, to speak to the
child in English rather than in Spanish.
4. Richards developed a deep love of reading.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 8

5. Which became the basis of his later academic success?
1.4.2. Run- on Sentences (fused sentences):

Run-on sentence is a construction where two or more independent sentences are written and
punctuated as if they were one sentence. Usually it is the absence of punctuation marks.
Example:

He drove the car fast it was a beautiful day. (Run-on) This can be corrected as follows:
He drove the car fast; it was a beautiful day. /He drove the car fast, and it was a beautiful day.
Methods of correcting run-on sentences:
1. Place period between the two clauses, making two complete sentences
Example: It was raining heavily. I did not take an umbrella.
2. Place semi-colon between the two clauses.
Example: It was raining heavily; I did not take an umbrella.
3. Use comma and adverbial conjunctions with semi-colon.
Example: It was raining heavily; however, I did not take an umbrella.
4. Use comma and the coordinating conjunctions between the two clauses.
Example: It was raining heavily, but I did not take an umbrella.
5. Add the subordinate conjunctions and make one clause dependent and then join to the
independent clause.
Example: Although it was raining heavily, I did not take an umbrella.
The most common run-on sentence errors are of three kinds:
a) When there is comma splice. It occurs when two main clauses are punctuated by a comma
rather than a semi colon or a period since comma cannot separate sentences.
Example:
Human nature is not as simple as it appears, hasty judgments are often wrong. (Run-on)
b) When no punctuation separates two independent clauses.
Example:
My father is the chairman of the committee on foreign relations. He also heads the warrant
commission. (Run-on)

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 9

c) When there is no comma before a coordinating conjunction joining two main clauses.

Example:
I listened to the football game all afternoon but my wife went to the movies. (Run-on)
1.4.3. Comma Splices
Comma splice or comma fault occurs when a comma is used between two independent clauses
without a coordinating conjunction.
Example:
• The examination is approaching, you should study day and night. (Incorrect)
The examination is approaching; you should study day and night. (Correct)
The examination is approaching; therefore, you should study day and night. (Correct)
The examination is approaching, and you should study day and night. (Correct)
• It was raining heavily, I would not take an umbrella. (Incorrect)
It was raining heavily; however, I would not take an umbrella. (Correct)
1.4.4. Misplaced Modifiers
Misplaced modifier occurs when it is unclear what a modifying phrase or clause modifies. So, it is
important to make sure that the modifier clearly refers to the element you want it to modify.
Logically, modifiers should be placed with words, phrases or clauses they modify because they
make the sentence ambiguous. To correct a sentence with misplaced modifier, put the modifier as
close as possible to the word it modifies.
Example:
The council advises physicians at regular intervals to administer the drug.
Is the meaning clear to you?
What does the modifying phrase “at regular intervals” modify?
The council’s advice or administering the drug?
To avoid this ambiguity, it can be revised as:
1. The council advises physicians to administer the drug at regular intervals. (administering
the drug at regular intervals)
2. At regular intervals, the council advises physicians to administer the drug. (the council
advising physicians at regular intervals)
Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 10
 Activity 6: Correct the following misplaced modifier and make unambiguous sentences.
1. The bread sat on the table that Seble had backed.
2. The man walked towards the car carrying the stick.
3. I saw a jacket in a shop that cost 1000 birr.
4. Leaves floated gently down on to the lawn with dazzling autumn colors.
5. Cleaned and polished, Azeb proudly viewed her car.
1.4.5. Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier modifies a word which has been left out of the sentence or that is not clearly
stated in the sentence. It does not modify any word in the sentence in which it appears.
Example:
1. Following the guidelines carefully, the soup was made.
What does the sentence mean? Who followed the guidelines carefully? The participial phrase
following the guidelines is not modifying any word in the sentence. The word or phrase that
needs to be modified is left out of the sentence. By supplying a word that can be modified by
the dangling modifier, you can correct the sentence.
Following the guidelines carefully, the woman made the soup.
• Notice how the phrase the woman is used to correct the sentence.
2. After trying several times, the lock finally opened. (Dangling)
After trying several times, the officer finally opened the lock. (Correct)
Activity 8: Correct the following dangling modifier and write the correct version.
1. Walking on the beach, the water touched my feet.
2. Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.
3. Watching horror film, the bread burned.
Possible ways of correcting dangling modifiers:
• Name the doer of the action
Example: Having arrived late for practice, excuse letter was written. (Dangled)
Having arrived late for practice, the team captain wrote excuse letter. (Corrected)
• Change the phrase that dangles to a subordinate clause by naming the doer of the action in
the clause.

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 Example: Playing tennis, the first class was lost. (Dangled)
While I was playing tennis, the first class was lost. (Corrected)
• Combine the phrase and the main clause.
Example: To improve his results, the trial was done. (Dangled)
Tola improved his results by doing the trial again. (Corrected)
1.4.6. Agreement Errors
Activity 9: Before you go to the discussion, can you comment whether the following
sentences have errors or not. Where there is an error, rewrite the sentence, correcting the
error.
a. Recent discoveries about the weather reveal that several cycles are involved.
b. The media was biased in its reporting of the event.
c. A student is free to express their opinion
d. Once one has decided to take the course, you must keep certain policies in mind.
e. Eating huge meals, snacking between meals, and too little exercise can lead to obesity.
There are some agreement problems which most writers commonly face. Among these are:
subject and verb agreement, pronoun and antecedent agreement and tense compatibility
problems.
1.4.6.1. Subject-Verb Agreement
The subject of a sentence should always agree with the verb in such a way that when the subject
is singular, the verb must also be singular and when the subject is plural, the verb must also be
plural.
Examples:
• The group of bizarrely dressed youths are taking over the cafeteria (the subject is singular
but the verb is plural)
• Either the girls or the boy is capable of solving the problem.
• My favorite thing to buy is compact discs.
• A letter with many mistakes does not make a good impression.
• Everyone wants to see that movie.
1.4.6.2. Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 12

 A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number (singular or plural), in person (first, second
or third person) and in gender (masculine, feminine, or neutral). An antecedent is the word or
group of words to which a pronoun refers to or that a pronoun replaces.
Examples:
1. A student is an important member of a society, and you should express your opinion freely.
A student is an important member of a society, and he/she should express his/her opinion
freely.
2. The doctor is driving a car, but it is not their own car.
The doctor is driving a car, but it is not his own car.
1.4.6.3. Vague Pronoun Reference
Examples:
John and James are good friends, which began when they were in elementary school. (What did
begin when John and James were in Elementary school? This is a vague pronoun reference. It
was their friendship).
John and James have a lasting friendship, which began when they were elementary school.
(Correct)
1.4.6.4. Compatibility of Tenses
Tense compatibility refers to the harmony that should exist between/among tenses of two or
more events occurring at the same time. Do not shift or change tenses when two or more
events occur at the same time. Tenses can shift to show that one event precedes or follows
another.
Examples:
1: The rain has poured down endlessly, and the roads will have flooded. (Incorrect)
The rain has poured down endlessly, and the roads have flooded. (Correct)
2: The students cheered when the principal announces a holiday.
The students cheered when the principal announced a holiday.
(Two events took place at the same time).
1.4.7. Faulty Parallelism
This occurs when there are non-parallel structures in a sentence.
Example:

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1. Martha likes walking, mountaineering, swimming and she likes reading. (Non-parallel)
Martha likes walking, mountaineering, swimming and reading. (Parallel)
2. The students attended classes did their homework and they were going back home. (Non
parallel)
The students attended classes, did their homework and they went back home. (Parallel)
1.4.8. Wordiness
It refers to excessive use of words in a sentence. Look at the following example.
1. Writing allows us to further our knowledge of the world around us and become aware of our
social surroundings and physical surroundings. This can be rewritten as:
E.g. Writing furthers our knowledge and awareness of physical and social surroundings.
2. Students will often write required writings that fulfil a grade requirement towards graduation.
(Wordy)
E.g. For many students, writing is a graduation requirement.
1.4.9. Diction
It refers to choose and use of words both in speech and written texts. To avoid improper use of
words, use the following guidelines.
✓ Choose understandable and clear words.
✓ Avoid ambiguity.
✓ Use specific/precise words.
✓ Choose and emphasize strong words.
✓ Avoid over use of words.
Practice Exercises
Identify the following sentence fragments and correct them.
1. The best hope for peace lies in education. That teaches us how to live together.
2. The steam engine was a beautiful thing at night; sparks climbing high in to the sky and the
fire
3. box glowing in the darkness.
4. A British diver finally got down to the wreckage. Measuring the size of the rivets to
determine its identify.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 14

 5. For my eighteenth birthday my grandfather gave me his own watch. One that I shall always
treasure.
6. He was often teased by the other boys at school. Because he spoke with alight lip.
7. From the darkened room came a flickering light. The television set.
8. We expect to make the playoffs this year. The team winning most of its games.
Correct the following run-ons (fused sentences) using one of the ways you have learned.
1. His encouragement produced good results. For many people took his advice and became
more useful citizens
2. They bought large amount of food but nothing was left.
3. Almaz and her friend went on a picnic yesterday they had a wonderful time until it began
to rain.
4. The Savannah was launched in 1958, it was the first ship to be propelled by nuclear
power.
5. The magnitudes of earthquakes are measured by instruments Seismographs, they record
movements in the earth’s crust
6. All over the city, new buildings springing up, the sky line is rapidly changing.
7. Lighthouses are fascinating, many people travel around the country to visit them.
Indicate whether the modifiers in the following sentences are misplaced, dangling or
correct. Rewrite the sentences by correcting all misplaced and dangling modifiers.
1. Rebuilding the motor, the tool box fell on the mechanic’s legs
2. Driving into the gas station, the advertisements for lower gas prices influenced the
customers.
3. Pumping the gasoline, the dog in the car licked the attendants
4. Shining through the window, John could see the sun
5. In order to be understood, proper articulation and pronunciation are necessary.
6. By reading this letter, I hope that you will be convinced
7. Morning tea is always served here while still in bed
8. Changing the tires, the customer chatted with the mechanic.
9. Visiting Egypt, the pyramids are impressive
10. He admitted that he was the anonymous donor in the letter.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 15

Correct the following agreement problems.
1. His temperament and his wide experience make him more patient than most people.
2. George is one of those boys who never thinks of anything but sport.
3. Our greatest problem are mosquitoes, which swarm out of the woods in great numbers as
soon as evening comes.
4. More news of the disasters are coming in hourly.
5. Bread and milk were our usual Sunday night supper on the farm.
6. Bad luck can be very effective in making a person change their minds.
7. My room has a bed, a desk, a dresser, and a wardrobe in which you can hang your clothes.
8. My family was poor but always ready to help their neighbors.
9. It is necessary to accept each tale as truth no matter how fantastic they may seem.
10. Ato Belayneh visited the man before he went to the party.
11. There was a rumor going around those worms constituted part of the hamburger meat, and
it was nasty.
12. The professor did not push his point further with the student because he was embarrassed.
13. On the night of July 14, the patriots stormed the doors of the prison, and they were
smashed.
14. My mother and my sister went to the dentist to get her teeth fixed.
1.5. Punctuation and Capitalization
1.5.1. Punctuation
What do you think is punctuation? List down the punctuation marks you know in English along
with their functions. Punctuation is the use of punctuation marks to indicate the pauses and
gestures that we use in speech to clarify and emphasize meaning. In English, the most
frequently used punctuation marks are: period (full stop), comma, question mark, exclamation
point, semi colon, colon, quotation marks, ellipsis and others.
1.5.1.1. Period (Full stop) (.):
A period is a punctuation mark that is used to end a declarative or an imperative sentence.
Example:
Money is necessary, but you need not sell your soul for it. (Declarative)
Send me your address as soon as possible. (Imperative)

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It is also used after abbreviations like Mr., Ms., Dr., St. as in Mr. Ones, Mrs. Smith, Ms.
Evans, Dr. Peter and St. Louis.
1.5.1.2. Comma (,):
A comma is a punctuation mark that is used more frequently in a piece of writing than any
other punctuation marks. It has different functions. Its main role in a given sentence or groups
of words or phrases is to indicate to readers a slightest pause.
1.5.1.3. Question Mark (?):
The question mark closes an interrogative sentence or other sentences with interrogative
meaning. It is used for different purposes.
✓ To indicate direct question.
Example: Can you go with me to the movies tonight?
✓ Used at the end of a statement that has an interrogative meaning.
Example: You think you will be able to get away?
✓ Used after a title that is interrogative phrase or sentence.
Example: After Graduation –what?
1.5.1.4. The Semi-colon (;):
A semi-colon is a punctuation mark which is used to join two closely related independent (main)
clauses that are not connected by coordinating conjunctions. Though it is not always, a semi-
colon can replace a full stop (a period) in separating two independent clauses. The distinct
feature of a semi-colon is that it appears only between equals (clauses of the same rank or items
in a coordinate series).
Example:
1. The project began slowly; additional staffs were assigned to it.
2. Right means straight; wrong means twisted.
A semicolon is also used to separate elements in a series when some of the elements already
contain commas.
Example:
Chala wishes us to attend the first, third, and fifth sessions on Wednesday; the second, fourth
and sixth sessions on Thursday; and the first only on Friday.

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Besides, semi-colon separates main clauses joined by transitional devices like furthermore,
therefore, nevertheless, however, for instance, for example etc.
Example:
1. Money is necessary; nevertheless, you shouldn’t sell your life for it.
2. Most Ethiopian farmers use compost; however, modern farmers use commercial fertilizers.
1.5.1.5. The Colon (:):
This is a punctuation mark usually used to introduce and prepare the reader for something to
follow.
Example:
To write an essay, follow these steps: think of the topic you write about, plan how you write,
write the first draft, and then read to edit.
It is also used to introduce formal quotations and long explanations.
Example:
He began his speech with these words: “My fellow countrymen, I want you to hear me.”
1.5.1.6. The Exclamation Point (!):
The exclamation mark is used to show strong feeling. It also indicates a forceful command. It is
used after any statement, command or question to which a writer wants to add emotional force.
Example:
1. Help me!
2. What do you know about that!
3. What a beautiful sunset it is!
4. What a pretty dress you bought!
5. Oh! The man I was talking about is coming.
1.5.1.7. The Quotation Marks (“ ”):
The quotation mark is used to enclose any word, phrase, sentence or text of other body’s less
than four lines, and to enclose unfamiliar slang and other unusual or original expressions. The
expressions can be technical words in general writing or slang in formal writing
Examples:
Gabriel Garica Marquez once said, “It is much more important to write than to be written
about.” I am the “baby” in my family

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 18

 1.5.1.8. Ellipsis (…):
Ellipsis are three dots used to indicate omission of materials from a quotation. They could be
used anywhere in a given text (quotation) where the omission is made. They can appear at the
beginning, in the middle or at the end of a quotation. When they are used at the end, the
number of dots will be four. The last (fourth) dot is a full stop (period) that closes the sentence.
Example:
A split infinitive has a word or several words between the ‘to’ and the ‘verb’ following it.
Splitting an infinitive is generally considered incorrect…
Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences, using appropriate punctuation marks.
1. She will attend the meeting later today
2. Gandhi the father of the Nation lived and died for the poor.
3. The manager said I wish you good luck.
4. The Indian put a fish in each hill of corn however, modern farmers use commercial
fertilizers
5. His direction was as follows go out of the town north to the main road. When you come
to the T-junction, turn left and go five hundred meters. The hotel is in front of you.
6. He asked will you study with me tonight
7. Oh, what a beautiful morning it is
8. I wonder what he is doing right now
9. Closing the book with a sign, my friend exclaimed I love that poem
1.5.2. Capitalization:
Capitalization is the use of capital letters to make special emphasis on particular letters to
set them off from lower case letters. A letter is capitalized:
✓ when it is the first letter of the opening word of any sentence,
✓ when it is the first letter of the opening word of a direct quotation that is a complete
sentence,
✓ when it begins the first word of a sentence with in a parenthesis or a dash that can stand
on its own,
✓ if it is the first letter of proper nouns,
✓ provided that it is the initial letter of titles used along with proper nouns

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 19

Examples:
• He came home after his last examination.
• Will you please send me your latest catalogue?
• Help me please!
• The king said, “Show me a wise man and I’ll show you an old one.”
• The singer I like most is Aster Awoke. (Proper name)
• My sister left for Japan last week
• In England there are two dominant political parties–the Conservative Party and the
Labor Party.
• I pray to God! He is Almighty.
• Introduction to Ethiopian Literature (title initials of content words)
1.6. Joining Sentences
One of the mechanisms to keep the interest of our readers is by varying the length of our
sentences.
To do this, we should combine two or more short sentences using coordination and
subordination.
1.6.1. Coordinating Conjunctions-
Coordinating Conjunctions is a method of joining two independent sentences by using
coordinators. In a coordination, when sentences are combined, they still remain independent
clauses. Coordinating Conjunctions are conjunctions that are used with comma to join two or
more complete sentences. The most commonly used coordinating conjunctions are:
For: it shows a result-cause relationship between two independent clauses. It shows logical
consequence; it has the same meaning as because, the reason why.
And: shows the addition of two positive ideas. It has the same meaning as in addition, along
with, moreover, further more.
Nor: shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an addition a negative point. (Note: you
must reverse the normal subject-verb positions in the second clause when using nor).
But: shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It has the same meaning as however,
except on the other hand

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 20

Or: shows alternatives or choices.
Yet: shows oppositions, also shows emphasis (a stronger but)
So: shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same meaning as therefore, as a result.
Example:
• Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.
• You must come early, or you will miss the bus.
• She studied hard, but she failed the exam.
Exercise: Combine the following pairs of sentences by using coordinating conjunctions.
1. A. The dog ate the food very fast.
B. The dog was very hungry.
2. A. The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian Idol.
B. The judges didn’t allow him to pass to next stage.
3. A. The farmer worked all day and night.
B. The farmer harvested a lot of crops.
1.6.2. Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions are coordinating words that work in pairs to join words, phrases
and sentences. The most common correlatives are:
Correlative Conjunctions Meaning
Either…. or one of the two
Neither…nor none of the two
Both….and Both
Whether…. or dilemma/hesitation/confusion
Not only…. but also Both

Example:
• Both my sister and my brother work with computers.
• She wanted neither cake nor ice cream.
• Teachers should be not only intelligent but also friendly.
Exercise: Combine the following pairs of sentences by using correlative conjunctions.
1. A. To go to Gondar, you can use a bus.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 21

 B. To go to Gondar, you can use a plane.
2. A. Azeb is beautiful.
B. Azeb is honest.
3. A. I want to go to class.
B. I want to go to my appointment. (I am in confusion)
1.6.3. Adverb Conjunctions:
Adverb Conjunctions are adverbs used to relate and connect main clauses in a sentence.
The common ones are: also, still, consequently, however, indeed, hence, then, otherwise, thus,
instead, furthermore, moreover, likewise, therefore, nevertheless, etc.
Example:

• Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.

• I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn’t have to stand in line.
Exercise: Join the following pairs of sentences using the appropriate conjunctive adverbs.
1. A. Tell him to carry out his duties properly.
B. We will fire him.
2. A. He worked hard.
B. He became rich.
3. A. Computer manufacturing plant is opening in Cairo.
B. There will be thousands of new jobs available next year.
1.6.4. Subordinating Conjunction

Subordinating Conjunction is the joining of an independent clause and a dependent clause in

the same sentence by using subordinators. In subordination, the status of one of the sentences
to be combined is reduced to a subordinate clause. The subordinators we use in Subordinating
Conjunctions are kinds of conjunctions that join subordinate clauses with
independent clauses. When subordinating conjunctions are added at the beginning of
independent clause, the independent clause becomes dependent.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Cause Because since, as

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 22

 Since, as, after, as soon as, before, when, while, once, whenever,
Time
as long as
Condition If, as if, as long as, provided that, unless, as though
Contrast Although, even though, though, even if, whereas, while
Result That, so that, in order that
Place Where, wherever
Comparison As, than, as……as
Example:

• I arrived late to work because the train was late.

• After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies.
• If I were a bird, I would fly.
1.6.5. Relative Pronouns:

Like the other subordinating conjunctions relative pronouns are used to join subordinate
clauses with independent clauses. They also introduce relative clauses. What makes the
subordinate clause in relative clause different from the other type of subordinate clauses
is that it is an adjective clause. In relative clauses, the adjective clauses which are dependent
clauses and modify a noun or pronoun in the main clause usually begin with relative pronoun
are who, whom, whose, which or that. The adjective clauses may be restrictive (essential) or
nonrestrictive (non- defining) clauses. In the following sentence the underlined parts are
adjective clauses.
Example:

• The movie that I saw yesterday won a Grammy Award. (Restrictive adjective)
• New York, which is America’s populous city, is one of the world’s leading commercial
centers. (Non- restrictive)
• The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the harbor. (Restrictive)
Exercise: Join the following sentences using the most appropriate relative pronouns.
1. A. The woman has been arrested.
B. Her child was accused of theft.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 23

 2. A. the thief has been caught.
B. The police were looking for the thief.
3. A. Roberto is sure to win an art scholarship.
B. Roberto is a talented portrait artist.
4. A. The medicine is very expensive.
B. Helen needs the medicine.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 24

UNIT TWO: WRITING EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHS

2.1. Definition of paragraph

We have tried to familiarize you with structure of English sentences. However, being able to
write correct sentences does not necessarily mean being able to write a correct paragraph. To
write at a paragraph level, you need to be able to write a coherent and unified series of sentences
that can convey a single idea.
Brainstorming activities: Try to answer the following questions before we are going to
deal with each of them.
a. What is a paragraph?
b. How many sentences can a paragraph have?
c. How many topics should a paragraph talk about?
d. What is a topic sentence?
e. Where do you usually find a topic sentence of a paragraph?
f. What are supporting details?
Now, check your ideas with the description of a good paragraph given below.
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that present and develop one main idea. A paragraph can
stand alone, or it can be part of a longer piece of writing. Just as words are the building blocks of sentence,
sentences are the building blocks of longer forms of writing. Thus, a paragraph is a unit of writing beyond
a sentence level containing one main idea or topic and sentences that develop the main idea. It is termed as
unified because it has one central idea and all the sentences in the paragraph should only talk about this
central idea. A good paragraph is well organized, is fully developed, has properly linked points and contains
sentences developing one idea.

In a paragraph, every word, every point and every sentence have a useful role to play in fulfilling
the purpose of the paragraph. The sentences in a paragraph should follow each other. It is not a
paragraph if every sentence begins on a new line. The length of a paragraph varies according to
the complexity of the main idea or theme to be developed. However, a well-supported paragraph
has about five to ten sentences or about 100 to 150 words.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 25

2.2. Structure of a Paragraph
• Structure of a paragraph refers to the components of a paragraph. A paragraph contains
three major parts: a topic sentence (introduction), supporting sentences (body) and a
concluding sentence. Topic sentence: a sentence which expresses the main idea of a
paragraph that tells the readers what the paragraph is about. The topic sentence usually
begins the paragraph. It can also appear in the middle or at the end of a paragraph.
• Supporting sentences: are a group of sentences which develop/ expand the topic
sentence (general idea) with specific information. They can be developed by:
✓ Explaining or restating ideas
✓ Providing facts /evidences
✓ Giving specific examples and /or illustrations
✓ Adding specific details, etc.
• Concluding sentence: the sentence that ends a paragraph by summarizing the main
points or restating the crucial point, or by giving a final thought or comment on the issue
under consideration.
Activity: Examine the following paragraphs and answer the questions that follow.
Paragraph 1: Barefoot Boy
I had a scary experience when I was a young boy. One evening, while my parents were eating dinner, I
was playing barefoot in the yard with my toys. While I was sitting on the grass and playing with a truck,
I looked up at the sky, and my attention was distracted by the beauty of the stars. Then I felt something
cold and smooth slide over my feet. I stayed perfectly still, but I looked down at my feet. Then I saw a
snake slowly slithering over my toes. I felt terrible and afraid, so my heart beats very fast. After the
snake moved away, I screamed to my parents for help, and they captured the snake and took it away.
The experience frightened me, and I never went outside barefoot again.
1. What is the topic sentence? Where is it? At the beginning, in the middle or at the end of
the paragraph?
2. How many supporting sentences are there?
3. In your opinion, do the supporting sentences explain the topic sentence?
4. Write the concluding sentence below.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 26

 Paragraph 2:
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First Canada has an
excellent healthcare system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second
Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are
encouraged to continue studying at universities. Finally, Canada’s cities are clean and efficiently
managed. They have many parks and lots of spaces for people to leave. As a result, Canada is a
desirable place to live.
1. What could be the topic of the paragraph?
2. What is the topic sentence?
3. How many supporting sentences are there?
4. In your opinion, do the supporting sentences explain the topic sentence?
5. Write the concluding sentence below.
As stated so far, a paragraph contains only one main idea or topic. Topics should be neither
narrow nor wide but should be moderate enough to be fully developed. Look at the following
examples of broad topics which have been gradually narrowed down to specific ones.
Example 1
1. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia
2. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopian Higher Institutions
3. HIV/AIDS in Ethiopian University
4. Anti-HIV/AIDS campaign Program in Ethiopian Universities
5. Anti-HIV/AIDS campaign Program in Oromia State University
Here, the last topic (topic No 5) is the most specific and appropriate for adequate development.
Example 2
1. The Problem of University Students
2. The Academic Problem of University Students
3. The Language Problem of University Students
4. The Language Problem of Oromia State University Students
5. The Language Problem of First Year Oromia State University Students
6. The Writing Problem First Year Oromia State University Students

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 27

 7. The Problem of Taking Notes of First Year English Department of Oromia State
University Students
8. My Problems in Taking Notes
The title in number 8 is narrowed down to a specific one ‘My problems in taking notes’.
My Problems in Taking Notes
I have hard time while taking notes during my Nursing class. The instructor talks so fast that I cannot
keep up with him. He has a soft voice and I miss lots of things. He never writes on the blackboard like
other instructors. He also talks everything in the same tone and never emphasizes the important points.
Because of this, I have trouble in separating the important points from the rest. Thus, I have decided to
listen and write my notes from reference materials.
Activity: Comment on the following topics of a paragraph
1. A surprise party is a kind of party
2. There were 14 guests at my surprise birthday party
3. My classmates gave me an unforgettable surprise party for my 18th birthday
2.3. Essentials/Characteristics of a Good Paragraph
A good paragraph has the following characteristics: unity, coherence and completeness.
2.3.1. Unity
Brainstorming activity:
1. What do you think is unity in a paragraph?
2. How can unity be achieved in a paragraph?
Unity refers to the idea that all points and the sentences in a paragraph are related to and aimed
at developing the topic sentence of the paragraph. Unity is achieved by advancing a single point
and sticking to that point with examples, details, steps or definitions.
Example 1:
Topic sentence: My friend Meaza is generous.
Supporting sentences: She often lets travelers stay in her home. She has hosted many students temporarily.
She sends money to her family in Jimma every month to help them with their bills. She always brings food or items
to her friends when they are sick or have a need.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 28

Concluding sentence: Generally, Meaza is one of the most generous people I know. Notice that all sentences
are about Meaza’s generosity. A sentence about the way she looks or about her job will not support the unity of the
paragraph unless it somehow relates to her generosity.
Activity
A. Read the following topic sentences and circle the sentence that is deviating from the controlling
idea. Write your reasons in the blank spaces.
1. There are several reasons why online courses are increasing in popularity.
a. Online courses are flexible in terms of time.
b. Online courses have been available since 1990s.
c. Online courses are more convenient for students who live far away from the campus.
2. Train stations are interesting places to visit
a. The architecture of each train station is often connected to the history of a city.
b. The passengers are frequently more interested to watch than other types of travelers.
c. Using trains is a good alternative for people who are afraid of flying.
Examine the organization of the following paragraphs and answer the questions below it.
1. Native Americans cultivated and developed many plants. Among them were white potatoes, sweet potatoes,
corn, beans tobacco, chocolate, peanuts, cotton, rubber and gum. Native Americans were also expert builders
and tanners. Some of the plants were used for dyes, medicines, soap, clothes, shelter and baskets.
2. My composition class is in the old building. The classroom walls are white and the desks and chairs are
brown. There are large windows in one wall. The chalkboard is in the front of the room near the door. My
composition class is difficult and I do not like to write compositions. The classroom is cool in warm weather
and warm in winter. I like my classroom.
1. Underline the topic sentence.
2. One sentence in the paragraph is irrelevant. Identify.
3. Why is the sentence irrelevant?
2.3.2. Coherence
Brainstorming Activities: Try to answer the following questions before you read the notes.
a) What is coherence, and how can we achieve coherence in a paragraph?
b) What are the functions of cohesive devices?
c) List the linking devices you know with their functions.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 29

Coherence refers to the logical flow/ proper linkage of ideas in a paragraph, and this can be
maintained by appropriate use of linking devices.
Note: Cohesion can be achieved by the using linking devices such as transitional expressions,
pronouns, synonyms and repeated words. Cohesive devices have different functions. But
generally, they help to make writing clear, natural and easy to read. They are used to link parts of
a sentence or separate sentences and in showing the relationship between the ideas or facts the
writer is expressing.
A paragraph must have coherence. This means that the supporting details are organized so that
information that goes together appears together. A true paragraph is not just a set of sentences
put together, but sentences which are interlinked with each other. These interlinked sentences
provide coherence to the paragraph.
Example 1:
(1) When I was a freshman in high school, I enjoyed most of my courses. (2) Physical education, to be
sure, I didn’t like, probably because I was small for my age then, and rather frail. (3) But English was
easy for me, as I had always been a great reader. (4) I found algebra mostly fun, even, as I am naturally
good at figures and logically relationships. (5) It was biology, however, that I enjoyed most of all; this
study of animals and plants opened a whole new world to me. (6) Generally speaking, I performed well in
most of the subject.

As you can notice in the example paragraph, the phrase to be sure in sentence 2 indicates that
the writer’s attitude towards physical education is the exception to the general claim of enjoyment
in the topic sentence. The word but at the beginning of sentence 3 shows that the attitude towards
English is in contrast to that expressed about physical education in sentence 2. The word even in
the middle of sentence 4 stresses the fact that algebra is pleasurable too, despite what many
students feel about it. In sentence 5, however indicates that the feeling toward biology is again in
contrast to that expressed in the preceding sentence, and most of all tells us that this subject is
held in the highest regard.
Note: These devices are not needed in every sentence, but they should be used frequently.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 30

There are four significant ways of achieving paragraph coherence.
2.3.2.1. Using connectives
Connectives are words and phrases that writers use to make smooth transition from one idea to
another within a paragraph. They are also called transitional devices or cohesive devices. Some of
them are mentioned below with their functions.
1. Addition: and, furthermore, moreover, besides, again, likewise, similarly, also, in addition,
what is more, what is worse, next, the other reason
2. Contrast: but, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, though, even
though, although Result/conclusion: therefore, hence, thus, consequently, as a result, in
summary,
3. Enumeration: firstly, second, (ly)
4. Sequence: first, second, third, last, then finally, next
5. Time: in the meantime, then, later, soon, next, after, before, as, while, now, during, finally
6. Space: above, below, besides, behind, in front of, next, across, the opposite side, to the
left, nearby
7. Illustration: Namely, that is, for instance, for example, specifically, such as Transitional
words signal the direction of a writers thought. They are like the road signs that guide
travelers. Writers often use time, space or order of importance to present the supporting
information in a paragraph coherently. The following example is organized by space.
When you drive into the airport, you will see many signs for the different terminals. After you
pass the signs, you drive over a hill. On your right you will see the international terminal. This
terminal is two stories tall. The front is all glass. On the left, you will see the domestic terminals.
Activities
A. Read the paragraph below. Then circle the word that best describes the way the
paragraph is organized.
My favorite restaurant is in an old house. My husband and I enjoy eating there on summer evenings. We
usually walk from our house so we can enjoy our neighbor’s gardens and get a little bit of exercise. The
afternoon sun shines through the trees, but it is not too bright. We arrive at dusk, and if we are lucky, we
can sit outside. The waiter brings a basket of warm bread and a cold drink. We have an appetizer or a

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 31

 salad while the sun goes down. Then the waiter lights the candles while we enjoy the main course. By the
time we finish desert it is right time. We walk home slowly, feeling full but happy in the moonlight.
Time: ____________________
Space: __________________________
Order: _________________________________
B. Underline the cohesive devices in the following paragraphs and then state the direction
they give to readers.
Paragraph 1
After you’ve snagged the job of TV sports reporter, you have to begin working on the details of your image.
First invest in two or three truly loud sports jackets. Look for gigantic plaid patterns in odd colour
combinations like purple and green or orange and blue. These should become familiar enough to viewers so
that they will associate that crazy jacket with that dynamic sports caster. Next, try to cultivate a distinctive
voice that will be just annoying enough to be memorable. Be sure to speak only in tough, punchy sentences
that seem to be punctuated with imaginary exclamation points. Finally, you must share lots of pompous,
obnoxious opinions with your viewers. You tone of voice must covey the hidden message “I dare anyone to
disagree with me.”
Paragraph 2
Supermarkets also use psychology to encourage you to buy. For example, in most supermarkets, the milk
and the bread are either at opposite ends of the store or located far away from the first aisle. Even if you
have stopped at the market only for staples like these, you must pass hundreds of items in order to reach
them. The odds are that instead of leaving with just a quart of milk, you will leave with additional purchases
as well. Special displays such as a pyramid of canned green beans in an aisle and a large end display of
cartons of paper towels, also increase sales. Because you assume that these items are a good buy, you may
pick them up. However, they may not even be on sale! Store managers know that the customer is
automatically attracted to a display like this and they will use it to move an overstocked product.
2.3.2.2. Repeating words
You might have been taught not to repeat words in writing. However, repeating key words helps
you tie together the flow of thought in your writing.
Example:
Capital can build irrigation canals in India, supply pumps and tube-wells to tap the fresh water under the

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 32

 saline marshes of the Indus river basin in West Pakistan. Capital can supply tools, machinery, pesticides,
and fertilizers and provide training in modern methods. Most important of all, foreign capital can create
an atmosphere that is conducive to self-help. In the countless analysis of the subject, one fact stands out: the
lack of incentive in the poverty stricken, potentially rich, farm lands of the third world. Capital generates
incentive by producing goods and creating demand and it widest the distribution of the fruits of labor. As
you can see the key word “capital” is repeated to achieve coherence of the paragraph.
2.3.2.3. Using pronouns
Pronouns (he, she, it, they and others) are other ways to connect ideas in a paragraph. Pronouns
have transitional values by referring to their antecedents. Also using pronouns in place of other
words can help you avoid needless repetition.

Pasteur proved that he was right by a very simple and clever experiment. He put some soup in
to some bottles and then he boiled it in order to destroy any germs that might already be in the
soup. After that, he heated and pulled out the neck of each bottle until it formed a long narrow
neck with a big bend in the middle.
2.3.2.4. Using Synonyms
Synonyms are words alike in meaning. Using synonyms can also help you move easily from one
thought to the next. In addition, the use of synonyms increases variety and interest by avoiding
needless repetition. Note how the writer used synonyms to achieve paragraph coherence in the
following example.
There are several methods of fund-raising that work well with small organizations. One
technique is to hold an auction, with everyone either contributing an item from home or
obtaining a donation from a sympathetic local merchant. Because all the merchandise and
the service of the auctioneer have been donated, the entire proceeds can be placed in the
organization’s treasury. A second fund-raising procedure is a car wash. Club members
and their children get together on a Saturday and wash all the cars in the neighborhood
for a few dollars apiece. A third time-tested way to raise money is to hold a bake sale, with
each family contributing homemade cookies, brownies, layer cakes, or cupcakes. Sold by
the piece or by the box, these baked goods will satisfyingly fill both the stomach and the
pocketbook. Generally, coherence in a paragraph means that the ideas have a logical flow:

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 33

 the relationship between the sentences is clear and one idea connects to the next. All the
ideas fit together in a logical flow.
Exercises
A. Underline the sentence(s) that violates unity in the following paragraphs.
Paragraph 1
(1)I live in a flat with my family. (2) We have two bedrooms and a living room. (3) We have a
garden and we have some flowers there. (4) In weekdays I arrive home at five o’clock and I have
lunch. (5) Then I do my homework and go to bed. (6) I had a computer, but now it doesn’t work.
(7) I have a brother and a sister and I think I am very lucky to leave with them in the flat. (8)
Sometimes our relatives visit us and (9) our flat sometimes becomes very crowded. However, I
like it.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
Paragraph 2
(1) I am a Thai girl living in the USA, and there many adjustments that I must make. (2) First of
all, I must get used to a new kind of food. (3) I am learning to eat a lot of hamburgers because
they are not expensive and they are easy to buy. (4) The people are different and I am learning to
meet new foreign friends. (5) For example, two of my new friends are from Pakistan. (6) Pakistan
is also an interesting country to visit. (7) The weather requires another kind of adjustment. (8)
Some days it is hot just as in my country, but on other days it is cold and this is very strange for
me. (9) I came to us to study and I enjoy my classes and my teachers. I am adjusting to the USA
in many ways, but it is not a problem for me because I like to know about different places and
people.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
B. Read the following paragraphs. Then list the transitional devices used to achieve the
coherence. Explain their specific function in the paragraphs.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 34

Paragraph 1
The Hazards of Movie Going
(1) Although I love movies, going to see them derives me slightly crazy. (2) For one thing, getting to the
theatre means that I have a thirty- minute drive down a congested highway. (3) Then with a popular movie,
I usually have to wait in a long line at the ticket booth. (4) Another problem is that the theatre itself is
seldom a pleasant place to be. (5)A nasty smell suggests that there has been no fresh air in the theatre since
it was built. (6) Half of the seats seem to be falling apart. (7) And the floor often has a sticky coating
that gets on your shoes. (8) The problem of all is some of the other moviegoers. (9) Kids run up down the
aisle. (10) Teenagers laugh and shout at the screen. (11) People of all ages loudly drop soda cans and
popcorn tubs, cough and burp, and elbow you out of the armrest on either side of your seat. (12) All in
all, I would rather stay at home and wait for the latest movie hits to appear on TV in the safety and
comfort of my own living room.
A. Transitional devices:
_____________________________________________________
B. Sentence: __________________________________________________
C. Specific Functions: _______________________
Paragraph 2
(1) For people who would like to act in the theatre, there are several important rules to
remember. (2) One rule, often forgotten, is to make sure you face your audience when you
are on stage. (3) If you turn away from the audience, they cannot see your facial expressions.
(4) Next, make sure that you speak loudly enough. (5) If your audience has difficulty hearing
you, they will quickly lose interest. (6) Another important point is to memorize your lines. (7)
Rehearse them often in the taxi, in the mirror while you walk to the class so that you
remember them. (8) Finally, perhaps the most important rule of all is to remain calm on stage
if you forget your lines. (9) Don’t panic and stop speaking because the audience will notice.
(10) Instead make up something to say until you remember your next line. As long as you
continue speaking and appear relaxed, the audience will probably not realize that you have
made a mistake. (12) In conclusion, following these rules will help you ensure a successful
stage performance.
A. Cohesive devices:

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 35

______________________________________________________
B. Sentence:
______________________________________________________
C. Specific Functions:
_____________________________________________________
D. One sentence is missing from each short paragraph below.
Choose the sentence that best completes the paragraph.
1. In many ways the invention of e-mail and computers has motivated many young people to
take up letter writing. E-mail makes it fun and easy to get in touch with far away friends.
_______________________________________________.
For this reason, fewer people are sending letters through the mail.
a. I bought a new computer last week.
b. Furthermore, e-mail is convenient and essentially free.
2. Books on tape have become very popular in our fast-paced society. One of the reasons is
that people do not have the time to sit still and read. ____________________.
Some listens while jogging out doors or exercising in the gym. Therefore, a book on tape
makes for a great gift idea for the active book lover.
a. Stephen king’s latest book is available in this format.
b. In fact, many people listen to these tapes while driving to and from work.
D. The following sentences are from a paragraph. Some of them are out of orders.
Number them from 1-10 so that they can show logical time order.
a) My family hugged me and cried because I had been gone so long.
b) I will never forget one day when I have to travel alone on the subway.
c) I was pregnant, and I had to go to an appointment at the hospital
d) When my appointment ended, I got on the subway to go home.
e) That is why my surrounding looked unfamiliar.
f) My appointment was at 1:00 p.m.
g) Suddenly I looked up and did not know where I was.
h) I was exhausted and fell asleep on my way home.
i) Then I realized that I had fallen asleep.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 36

 j) It took me five more hours to get back to my home.
The logical order is
E. Put the following jumbled sentences in a logical order so that they can make unified
and coherent paragraph.
a. The first year can be a tiring time for parents.
b. Consequently, the child bonds equally with both the mother and the father.
c. Some children suffer from colic, which makes them cry for long hours and refuse to go to
sleep.
d. When the child is older, co parents both participate in the daily routines of care giving:
cooking, feeding, bathing, entertaining, and discipline.
e. Many American couples today have chosen not to follow the traditional way of being
parents, in which the mother serves as the primary care giver.
f. Both father and mother take family leave when the body is born, and both feed and change
the new-born.
g. During its first year, a baby is very demanding.
The logical order is
2.3.3. Completeness
Completeness is related to how explanation an idea requires and it depends on how much the
reader needs. When there is incompleteness, there is an error by giving either too much
explanation or not enough. Giving a reader unnecessary explanation may be boring, but giving
too little may block communication.
2.3.3.1. Organization of a Paragraph
An effective paragraph is the result of carefully selected and properly ordered details. Different
techniques of organizing details create different effects. In writing a paragraph, you may order
details by using one of these orders: spatial order, order of importance, or order of impression.
2.3.3.1.1. Spatial Order
What kind of order is spatial order?
This is a way of organizing a paragraph with respect to spatial relations between ideas.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 37

Example:
My bedroom is very cozy. It is a small room with thick carpeting and light blue walls. Below the north window
is my double bed covered with an imitation leopard skin bed spread. To the left of the bed against the wall is
a walnut night stand with a reading lamp, a clock a radio. At the foot of the bed is a wooden stand holiday
my portable black-and-white TV and stereo. In all four corners of the room, my speakers are mounted just
below the ceiling. Behind the wooden stand and in front of the closet are three red bean bag chairs that are
sagging from years of use. On the east and west walls are posters of rock groups, and a family of stuffed
monkeys sits on the north and south window ledges. My room is small and cluttered and has that “lived in”
feeling I like.
As the paragraph shows, the details of the paragraph are organized in spatial order. The paragraph
also gives detail information about the position of one object in relation to the other in the scene.
2.3.3.1.2. Time (Chronological) Order
What does chronological order in a paragraph organization mean?
It is a way of organizing a paragraph in relating with time. This means that it is presenting ideas
based on their happenings one after the other.
Example:
Sunday was a long day. I had to get up at 5:00 a. m. to attend an Easter sunrise service. Then I had duties
at the church the rest of the morning. In the afternoon I visited the Manor Rest Home and talked to shut-ins
who seldom have visitors. Then I went to my aunt’s for dinner and played cards with Uncle Herman until
about 9:00 p.m. Then I drove up into the hills with my family for a special Easter midnight chapel service
in the pines. We stayed in a mountain cabin with ten other people that night and didn’t get to sleep until after
2:00 a. m. I was exhausted after twenty-one hours of activity.
2.3.3.1.3. Emphatic Order (Order of Importance)
What is emphatic order?
It is a method of organizing details which writers use when they want to show readers that some
details are more significant than others. Details can be written (sequenced) by placing the most
important ones before the least important.
Example:
Our apartment needs a lot of fixing up. First, we’ve got to fix the leaky roof before the September rains come.
Next, need to patch the big holes in the bedroom walls and then strip the peeling paint off the walls. Then we

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 38

 can repaint the apartment. After the walls are painted, we can work on replacing the linoleum squares in the
kitchen that are loose or cracked. Later the living room carpet needs shampooing, and we should replace that
old sway backed sofa. Then we won’t be embarrassed to have company over once in a while.
2.3.3.1.4. Size Order
This is a way of organizing ideas based on the size of objects or things to be developed in a
paragraph.
2.4. Types of Paragraph
There are four basic types of paragraph in English. They are descriptive, narrative, expository and
argumentative (persuasive) paragraph.
2.4. 1. Descriptive Paragraph
Descriptive paragraph is a paragraph which clearly and vividly portrays the image of an object, a
place, a scene, a person or spiritual aspects of a person (feeling, emotion, attitude etc). It uses
details that concentrated on the five senses such as hearing, smell, taste and touch. When writing
a descriptive paragraph, writers use appropriate words which clearly describe the
image and nature of the thing described. The most appropriate and commonly used words and
expressions are describers such as adjectives, adverbs, adverbial phrases etc.
Example:
Hundessa is a well-known local man. He is both wealthy and generous – he is also a very handsome man
and popular with the women of the area. Hundessa lives in a huge, rectangular house on the green banks of
Huluka River. Hundessa works in a nearby Ambo and every morning he drives into town in his expensive,
excellent – new Toyota Amazon. He lives alone. He does not have a wife. He doesn’t have children. He lives
alone with Toto, a beautiful vibrant yellow bird with pink-red eyes black-colored feet and very red beak.
As the above paragraph shows, almost all the describing words and phrases are adjectives. The
adjectives used to describe the man are well-known, wealthy, generous, handsome and
popular. The adjectives employed to modify the house are huge and rectangular. The
describing words used to express the car are expensive, excellent and new. Words and phrases
used to describe the bird are beautiful, vibrant, yellow, pink-red, black-colored and very red.
In descriptive writing, a person, a place or object can be described.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 39

2.4.1.1. Describing a person
When describing a person, it is possible to describe him or her in terms of his or her physical
appearance, behavior, particular characteristics (such as intelligence, wisdom, creativity and social
interaction) etc. It is also possible to describe a person based on the role and responsibilities he
has in the family, society, organization etc.
Example 1:
Christ Morley is one of the original seven British Airways Concorde Pilots. He is central Casting’s idea of
a Senior airline Captain, 47, glamorously grey, firm of jaw, calm of voice, with a lean athletic build and
mien of command and reassurance. He earns more than £ 16,000 a year which still puts him low in the
league in comparison with foreign captains. He has four children, a pretty wife, a spacious house, and an
11-year-old Renault 16, which he now gets in to drive to Heathrow.
2.4.1.2. Describing an Object
In describing objects, you can deal with either the physical appearance or the function, or both.
When you describe an object in terms of the physical appearance, you describe it mentioning its
attributes as size, shape, color, texture, material, type etc. when you describe it in terms of its
function you mention its uses in detail. Look at the examples given below, and notice how the
paragraphs are developed.
Example 2:
Here are the hammock’s vital statistics. It is free standing, easily and quickly assembled and dismantled.
The ‘weather-sealed’ frame may be left out in the open, and the fabric taken indoors after use. The fabric is
of non-fading, red, green, blue and white striped, rot-proof thread. The overall length of the tubular frame is
7ft 10 in. The hammock itself is 6 ft long and 20 in wide at the head, 22 in wide at the foot. The ropes are
of strong rotproof poly propylene. The hammock is 2 ft above the ground and it has been tasted to carry up to
25016 weights. It is easily transportable in a car as the overall length of the dismantled frame is only 3 ft
and the whole pack weighs about 15 ℓb.

Example 3:
A piston pump consists of a cylinder, a piston connected to a handle, an inlet value and an on let check
value. The piston is pushed down wards to force air out through the out let value. Then the piston is pushed
upwards to suck air in through the inlet value. On the return down ward stroke, the inlet check value is

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 40

 forced against the piston wall, thus preventing any air from escaping; while the out let check value opens to
allow the air to flow through the connecting tube. Pumping is continued by moving the position up and down
in the cylinder.
2.4.1.3. Describing a Place
In describing places, the main issues you raise in the description are the location of the place
described, things that are found in the place, the position of the things and the appearance of the
place.
Example 4:
From north to south across the region, there are five major zones. First there is a narrow coastal plain,
immediately behind which there are coastal ranges up to a thousand feet high. Behind these ranges, there is
a wide zone of Intermountain low land, which is intersected by extensive alluvial plains. Finally, there are
the inland ranges, running parallel to the coast, and rising to 12,000 feet at the highest point.
2.4.2. Narrative Paragraph
Narrative paragraph is a type of discourse writing that reports an account of events in the past. It
is a reporting of a series of happenings, incidents, actions and events. Since it is concerned with
time and action, it is presented following chronological order. The most commonly used verb
forms in narrative writing are simple past and past perfect though it is possible to use another
verb form too.
Example 1:
My first step onto the bus was filled with fear. I had never taken the bus alone before, but I was reassured
by an old guy who smiled at me, so I sat next to him. I couldn’t help noticing the many wrinkles on his
face and obviously out-of-style clothes he wore. I took out my cookies and thought that mom would have
wanted me to offer him one. He said no, mentioning not being able to chew well. I couldn’t imagine not
being able to chew sweets. I was feeling a little uncomfortable, but he got off soon. He walked away slowly
as if it hurt to move. It was really sad, and I realized, I was lucky to be young and healthy.
Example 2:
Max boarded the bus and paid the fare. He took a seat next to an elderly man, took off his mittens, and
let his feet swing in the air. Staring down at him, the man could sense Max’s nervousness. Max took out a
bag of cookies his mom had baked for him and offered one to the stranger. The grey-haired fellow pleasantly
said, “No, thank you, but my teeth can’t chew them.” Max was a little upset by the man’s condition and

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 41

 he watched the senior citizen slowly and painfully departs the bus at the next stop. The aged man knew that
he had left an impression on the future.
Activity
Read the following sentences. Then number them in the order you think they occurred.
Use the sequence words and phrases as clues.
a. A few years ago, my two older brothers and I went trekking in the mountains.
b. Finally, I found the muddy trail, and we made it back to our base camp.
c. Soon we were hiking through thick pine forests.
d. After that experience, I realized it is very important to be careful when hiking in the
mountains.
e. We set out from base camp on a bright winter morning.
f. A little while later, we stopped to eat, and my oldest brother said we should turn around
because we were losing the trail in show.
g. Eventually, it began to snow, and visibility became poor.
h. Going back down the mountain was harder because it was icy
The correct order is
_______________________________________________________
2.4.3. Expository Paragraph
This is the other type of paragraph in which facts are presented, information is explained and
concepts or ideas are expressed in detail. As its name implies, expository paragraph exposes and
explains topics, ideas, thoughts or issues. It is the most frequently used type of written discourse.
When students answer essay questions, when they give written instructions, define terms, express
the cause and effect of something, when explaining process; comparing and contrasting things,
and when classifying topics, they often use expository writing. Since it is usually factual, expository
paragraph is free from the emotion of the writer.
Example:
Behavioral scientists have found that a child’s emotional health is strongly affected by the number of brothers
and sisters he or she has. Emotional health means the ability of a person to cope intellectually and emotionally
with everyday stress. Several studies of elementary and high school children have shown that youngsters in
small family get along more happily with their brothers and sisters, as well as their parents, than youngsters

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 42

 in a large family. They are less liable to suffer emotional upsets and much less likely to end up in a mental
hospital. A survey of state hospitals in Maryland revealed that mental illness among children in two-parent
families increases with the number of children in the family.
Activity
Now read the following paragraph and analyses its features based on the questions given
below it.
What children eat can affect their health. Children who do not eat enough foods containing
vitamin A can develop serious nutritional disorders. Of the effects caused by vitamin A deficiency,
those involving eye diseases are the most pronounced and widespread. Several thousand children
became blind each year because of this dietary deficiency, which is most prevalent in poor, non-
industrialized countries. Another result of vitamin A deficiency is skin dryness.
1. What is the topic of the paragraph?
___________________________________________________________
2. Which sentence contains the most important idea in the paragraph?
___________________________________________________________
3. How is the paragraph developed?
___________________________________________________________
2.4.4. Argumentative (Persuasive) Paragraph
Argumentative paragraph is a paragraph in which you try to show that your idea or belief is more
acceptable than another idea. In this kind of paragraph, writers attempt to influence readers to
accept their idea and think or act in certain way. In developing an argumentative paragraph, you
need to employ logical reasoning and concrete evidences by stating facts, giving sound reasons,
using examples or/and quoting experts. When we state evidences, hearsays, personal opinion,
speculations are not effective. Thus, in argumentative paragraph, using reliable evidences which
are relevant, unbiased, up-to-date, complete and verifiable is very important.
Now look at the following two paragraphs about the solution of the growing problem of
trash disposal. Which paragraph is more convincing and why?
Example 1:
Americans have developed a throwaway mind-set. We are too accustomed to throwing away everything. You
name it; we throw it away. Many people think recycling is the answer, but it is not enough. We need to

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 43

 reduce the amount of waste we produce as well. We need to change our disposable lifestyle. And one way to
do that is to discourage the throwaway habit by charging households and businesses for the amount of trash
they create.
Example 2:
We live in a throwaway society. Each day, all day long, we dispose of things – napkins, paper bags, diapers,
juice boxes, and razors - more than three pounds of trash per person per day. Of the approximately 160
million tons of garbage American produce each year, only about 10 percent is recycled. The rest goes into
about 6,000 landfills, one – third of which are nearly full. What’s more, people do not want pollution –
causing landfills started in their communities. More recycling can help, but it won’t be enough. We also need
to produce less trash, and one way to encourage people to reduce the amount of trash they produce is to charge
them for it.
As you can see the above examples, the first paragraph is developed without the use of supporting
evidences. The second paragraph is more specific and uses concrete examples and statistics as
evidences; that is, it is developed by the use of supporting evidences. Thus, it is more convincing
than the paragraph in example one.
2.5. Methods of Paragraph Development
A writer can employ various paragraph developing techniques according to the nature of the
topic. Thus, in this section, we will introduce you with the most common methods of paragraph
development.
2.5.1. The Method of Definition
This method is used when a term in a topic sentence is explained at some length. Mostly the terms
defined at length are abstract, unfamiliar or unknown words. When defining such kinds of words,
a writer describes or explains the unknown term by relating it to something known or concrete.
Example:
Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person’s point of view. It is a great asset in a police
work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid being closed-minded. It will help them to see all sides
of a traffic accident or a criminal incident. Empathy eliminates bias; instead, introduces tolerance,
understanding and sympathetic human relations.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 44

2.5.2. The Method of Illustration
This is a paragraph developing technique which writers employ to help readers understand a more
general idea with something specific. It is a method of developing paragraph by giving examples
to readers to help them understand an idea easily.
Example:
Science has helped us get rid of many sicknesses of the mind and the body. For example, advancement in the
field of psychology have enabled effective cures for many mental elements like claustrophobia, schizophrenia
etc. Similarly, many other discoveries in science have made it possible to cure terrible diseases such as malaria,
small pox, pneumonia and tuberculosis.
As you can see in the paragraph, the writer illustrated the general ideas stated in the topic sentence
by presenting instances that helped to get rid of many sicknesses of the mind and the body. All
the sentences beginning from sentence two are examples used to illustrate the idea in the topic
sentence.
2.5.3. The Method of Comparison
This is a paragraph developing technique which is used to show the similarity between two things.
It compares the similar aspects or qualities of two subjects. Notice how a paragraph and an essay
are compared below.
Example:
Despite their obvious differences in length, the paragraph and the essay are quite similar structurally. For
example, the paragraph is introduced by either a topic introducer followed by topic sentence. In an essay,
the first paragraph provides introductory material and establishes the topic focus. Next, the sentences in the
body of an essay consist of a number of paragraphs that expand and support the idea presented in the
introductory paragraph. Finally, a terminator, whether it is a restatement, conclusion or observation ends
the paragraph. The essay too, has a device which brings its ideas to a logically and psychologically satisfying
completion: the concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to these generalizations may be observed in
modern creative writing, most well written expository paragraphs and essays are comparable in structure.
2.5.4. The Method of Contrast
The method of contrast is a way of developing a paragraph by showing the differences exist
between two subjects.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 45

Example:
Antarctica differs from the Arctic regions, which are better known to us and easier to reach. The North Pole
is crossed daily by commercials airlines, whereas not a single commercial airliner operates over Antarctica.
The Arctic is an ocean with drifting ice and hemmed in by the continents of North America, Asia, and
Europe, The Antarctic, on the other hand, is a continent as large as Europe and the United States put
together, and surrounded entirely by oceans- the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Pacific. More than a million
persons live with 2,000 miles of the North Pole, and the area is rich in forest and industry. There are
animals and birds of many varieties. Within the same distance of the South Pole, there are no settlement a
part from scientific stations, which are entirely dependent on outside supplies for every need. There is not a
single tree and not a single animal. It takes 70 to 80 years to grow an inch of moss.
The writer discussed the differences between the two regions, Antarctica and Arctic, in terms of
their location and what they possess.
2.5.5. The Method of Cause and Effect
This is a method of developing idea that looks for the relationship between two actions or two
events of which one is the reason and the other the result.
Example:
During the past five years, the number of persons killed annually in car accidents has risen to more than
55,000. This needless slaughter on streets and highways can be attributed to general causes. Mechanical
failures, especially, those related to faulty brakes and bald tires, account for a significant number of fatal
accidents. Environmental conditions such as blind corners, narrow streets and heavy roads also contribute to
the grisly accident statistics. But without doubt, the most frequently reported factors in car accidents are errors
of human judgment, all the way from follies such as excessive speed and drunken driving to such momentary
lapses as failure to signal a turn, or a change from one lane to another.
The above paragraph reveals the general and specific causes for car accidents. The writer
developed the paragraph by presenting evidences for the causes of the accidents.
2.5.6. The Method of Classification
This is a method of developing a paragraph by classifying subjects into separate category. It
presents ideas, objects, or issues to be discussed in their respective category. The following sample
paragraph illustrates how the paragraph is developed by classifying illustrations used in science
and technology writing.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 46

Example:
Illustrations used in science and technology writings can be broadly classified into two categories namely tables
and figures. A table is used for displaying the original numerical data and the derived statistics in a logical,
orderly and compact fashion. There are two subcategories of table, namely, dependent table and independent
table. The former is a part of the text, whereas the letter is self-contained and separated noticeably from the
text. A figure is generally used as a visual to summarize the text and to present the details left out in the
discussion. The sub-categories of the figure are graph, chart, drawing, photograph and map. The choice of the
type to be used depends up on the purpose and the kind of information to be presented.
2.5.7. The Method of Enumeration
This is a method of paragraph development which lists or enumerates details.
Example:
Whatever be our purpose of writing, it is likely to correspond to one of the four types of writing conventionally
classified as discourse. The first type is exposition or explanation, where our main intention is to convey
information. The second is argument or persuasion, in which we persuade our readers to accept or do what
we want. The third is description, in which our aim is to share with our readers those impressions that have
made an impact on our senses. Finally, it is narration where our intention is to enable the reader to perceive
real or imagined events that took place within a particular framework of time.
When using a method of enumeration, writers normally use words or phrases which enable them
to list their points. As used in the example above, words like first, second, third, finally are words
which maintain the coherence and smooth flow of a paragraph.
2.5.8. The Method of Process Description
This is a method which explains how to do something step by step. It is a convenient method to
enable readers to be able to follow the step to get a desired result.
Example:
Imagine that you are on vacation at beach, and open your suitcase to discover that you have forgotten your
swimsuit! This and other disasters and inconveniences can be avoided if you follow certain steps when packing
your suitcase. The first step is to review your travel plans and activities. Make a list and save it so that you
can check your items before you leave. Next, gather the items you will need for your activities. Remove any
item that is not necessary. Try to mix and match fewer pieces of clothing and shoes by choosing a color or colors
that match. Third, you are ready to pack. Start with large items such as books or shoes. Stuff your shoes with

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 47

 extra socks to save space. Then place shoes in plastic bags and fit them into the corners of your suitcase. There
should be plenty of room for the clothes. To avoid wrinkles, layer your clothes and roll them up. Put the rolls
of clothing into the suitcase. Then put in the smaller items. Finally, before you close your suitcase, check your
list. Make sure you have not forgotten your swimsuit!

In developing a paragraph by describing a process, writers employ words or phrases which show
sequence or time order. These words tell readers the sequence of steps in a process. The most
commonly used words are first, second, next, then, later, after that, finally etc. The other feature
of a process description paragraph is the use of imperative sentences. An imperative is used to
give instructions or direction or to tell the reader the steps in the process directly. Apart from this,
modals of advice, necessity and prohibition such as should, must, should not or must not are
common when developing a process description paragraph. Passive sentences can also be used.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 48

UNIT THREE: ESSAY WRITING
3.1 Definition of an Essay
What do you think an essay is?
An essay is a series of paragraphs organized in a well-thought-out manner which attempts to
provide information on a certain topic. It is not just a statement of facts but an effort to reveal
the thought process, ideas and personal feelings of a writer.
Essay may be descriptive, use narration, propose solutions to problems, and elucidate the inner
workings of complicated creations of nature.
Essay has definable beginning, middle and ending. It was built around central ideas, normally
referred to as theses.
Activity 1: Answer the following questions based on your background knowledge
1. Have you ever written an essay?
2. What is your experience on essay writing?
Writing an essay involves little more than applying the principles that we have already discussed
in the process of paragraph writing. What you need to do is expanding the basic pattern of
introduction, body and conclusion.
Essays can have three to five paragraphs or more. A typical essay usually has five paragraphs. It
is known as a five-paragraph essay. Essays with three to four paragraphs are known as short
essays. Like a paragraph, a short essay has three basic patterns: an introduction, a body and a
conclusion.
What do you think is the function of each component?
Introduction:
Body:
Conclusion:
In a paragraph, the statement that states the controlling idea is called a topic sentence. In a short
essay, it is known as a thesis statement.
The supporting sentences of a paragraph support the idea in the topic sentence. Similarly, in the
short essay, the body paragraph(s) support(s) the idea in the thesis statement. Each body
paragraph has a topic sentence. In a paragraph, a concluding sentence summarizes the idea in the

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 49

topic teachers and sentence. Likewise, the concluding paragraph of an essay summarizes the idea
in the thesis statement.

Activity 2. Read the paragraph and the short Essay given below and answer the questions that
follow them
Paragraph
My uncle Patricio is one of the most interesting people in my family. He is old and has a wrinkled brown
face. On his arm, there is a tattoo. Patricio has an intriguing history. He and my mother were born in a
small village in the mountains. When he was seventeen, he left home to explore the world. Now he fixes air
conditioners in Los Angeles, and during the winter months, he sometimes comes to visit us and play the
accordion. I love spending time with my uncle Patricio because he has an interesting look and a mysterious
past. Someday, I hope that he will tell me more about his life.
Short Essay
My family is full of happy, crazy, and talented people. My aunt Margarita has a yard full of orphaned pets.
My brother Jose is an expert tailor, and my mother loves to experiment in the kitchen. However, I think
the most interesting is my mysterious uncle Patricio.
Patricio is an elderly man now, with white hair sticking up all over his head. Beneath his messy hair, he has
a wrinkled brown face and powerful dark eyes that show many emotions. Patricio is tall and skinny, and
he wears baggy pants and a plaid shirt. He has a tattoo of a heart on his arm. The heart has the word Rosa
written across it in red and black letters, but he has never told me who she is.

Patricio has an intriguing history. He and my mother were born in a small village in the mountains. When
he was seventeen, he left home to explore the world. On one trip, he went to Siberia to look for gold. On
another trip, he went to Alaska to work on a fishing boat. Now he fixes air conditioners in Los Angeles,
and during the winter months, he sometimes comes to visit us and play the accordion.

I love spending time with my uncle Patricio. He has an interesting look and a sad and mysterious past. He
is also a talented musician. Someday, I hope that he will tell me about Rosa and how he got the tattoo with
her name.
1. Indicate the introduction, the body and the conclusion of the paragraph.
a. Introduction
b. Body

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 50

 c. Conclusion
2. What information is included in the short essay introduction that is not in the topic
sentence of the paragraph?
3. Write the topic and the controlling idea of body paragraph 1 in your own words.
4. What new details have been added to body paragraph 1 in the essay?
5. Write the topic and the controlling idea of body paragraph 2 in your own words.
6. What additional details have been added to body paragraph 2 in the essay?
7. What information is included in the essay conclusion that is not in the concluding
sentence of the paragraph?
3.2. Structure of an Essay
A five-paragraph essay follows a defined format. It consists of one-paragraph introduction, a
three-paragraph body and a one-paragraph conclusion. The roles of these paragraphs are
described and illustrated below.
3.2.1. The introduction/introductory paragraph
The introduction to a five-paragraph essay must have a hook, background information, and the
thesis statement.
A hook is a statement that begins the introduction. It includes one or two interesting sentences
that engage the reader’s attention and stimulates their curiosity. Look at the following example.
We all dream about our wedding celebration, but when it happens, we do not know what to expect.
The example sentence provides the hook for an essay about a wedding celebration.
The background information in most cases follows the hook. It contains a general statement or
statement that gives a broader picture of the subject matter to be discussed. The sentence below
provides the context (situation) for the essay on a wedding celebration.
I met my husband on a student trip to Langano. After three years of letter writing and visit, we finally announced
our engagement and planned for the event.

A thesis statement usually comes at the end of the introduction. It summarizes what the entire
essay is about. It contains the topic and controlling idea for the whole essay. The topic is the
theme or the subject matter of the essay. The controlling idea defines the purpose of the essay
and sets its direction.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 51

Activity 3. Read the introduction of an essay given below and examine its elements.
One of the Best Moments of My Life
It was a sunny day in the summer of 1998 when my family moved out of the city to the suburbs. I did not like
leaving because I would lose my friends and the places where I had so much fun. It was very sad for me to see my
friends standing in front of the old house as we said our last goodbyes. Little did I know that this move would turn
out to be one of the best moments of my life.

1. Circle and label the hook.

2. Underline the background information.
3. Write the thesis statement.
4. Write the topic of the thesis statement
5. Write the controlling idea of the thesis statement.
3.2.2. Body Paragraphs
The three body paragraphs of a five-paragraph essay contain the supporting details of the essay.
Each paragraph has a topic sentence that states the content of its paragraph. Each paragraph
supports and expands on an aspect of the topic and controlling idea of the thesis statement. The
topic sentences are often the first sentences of the body paragraphs.
Each body paragraph must develop a point presented in the topic statement. All the supporting
details in a body paragraph must clearly relate to each other. They can be descriptions, definitions,
examples, anecdotes, statistics, and so on.
The concluding sentences may either bring the ideas of the paragraphs to a close or suggest the
content of the next paragraph.
3.2.3. The concluding paragraph
The conclusion brings the essay to an end. It is usually two to four sentences in length. It restates
the thesis of the introduction in different words. This restatement connects the conclusion to the
introduction. The conclusion may give advice or warning. It may make a prediction or ask a
question. It can provide new insights and discoveries that the writer has gained through writing
the essay.
Activity 4. Read the following essay and answer questions that follow it:
Becoming an Academic Writer

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Learning how to write an academic essay is essential for students who are planning to attend college. Most professors
require critiques of books and films, research papers, and formal reports related to the content of their courses. When
I first started college, I was excited about facing these challenges and pursuing my major, media and
communications. I was determined to improve my writing. To achieve this goal, I focused on three points: the content
of an essay, correct grammar, and advanced level vocabulary.

As soon as I started to write for college, I realized that college writing was different from the writing I was used to
doing. In high school, most of my writing dealt with my personal experiences. I wrote mainly about my family,
childhood, and friends. In contrast, college writing focused on a variety of issues that I was unfamiliar with, such as
reacting to a piece of literature or writing about the community. Therefore, the most important thing for me was
to understand the assigned topic before attempting my first draft. In some cases, I would have to read and do research
to build a foundation. I wanted to include examples, statistics, and direct quotations whenever possible to support
my opinions. By giving specific examples, I realized that my essays became more detailed, easier to read, and much
more interesting. However, grammatical problems in my writing were still an issue.

I realized that I had to improve my understanding of grammar in order to write for college. Before I came to college,
grammar was not my strong point, for example, I often created run-on sentences or sentence fragments. I was more
concerned with what I wanted to say than with how it was said. In fact, my professors would not accept this type of
writing and made me revise many times. Consequently, I made grammar my second priority. I reviewed the basic
grammatical structures such as subjects and verbs and checked all my work for verb tense consistency and
punctuation. As a result, my sentences became more complex because I included transitional words, gerunds, and
embedded clauses. The more I wrote, the more my writing improved.

Furthermore, because I was accustomed to writing letters and informal essays, I usually wrote the way I spoke with
my family and friends. It was quite common for me to include slang and abbreviated terms, which were appropriate
in social contexts but were unacceptable in formal essays. I soon realized that academic writing required a much
more sophisticated vocabulary. Not surprisingly, improving my vocabulary became my third and final goal. Thus,
I bought a new dictionary and thesaurus to help expand my knowledge. I became more aware of how often I repeated
the same words and phrases throughout my essay. I often searched for synonyms to replace words that I thought were
too simple for a college essay. I also focused more on the rules of spelling and corrected any errors I found
before submitting my assignment to the instructor.

Academic writing requires critical thinking skills, an understanding of the topic, high level vocabulary, and correct
Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 53
grammar. Having these skills is empowering since it has made me a better communicator and student. I have come
a long way since I started college, and I am now proud of the writing that I produce.
1. What is the thesis statement?
Body Para.1
2. Underline the topic sentence. Then, write the topic sentence in your own words.
3. What supporting details are provided? How do they support the topic sentence?
Body paragraph 2
4. Underline the topic sentence. Then, write the topic sentence in your own words
5. What supporting details are provided? How do they support the topic sentence?
Body paragraph 3
6. Underline the topic sentence. Then write the topic sentence in your own words
7. What supporting details are provided? How do they support the topic sentence?
8. Answer the following questions based on the concluding paragraph of the essay.
a. How many sentences appear in the conclusion?
b. Underline the sentence in the conclusion that restates the thesis in the introduction.
c. The conclusion ends with:
1. some advice
2. a prediction
3. a warning
4. an insight
3.3. Unity and Coherence within an Essay
Q. What is unity in the context of essay writing?
3.3.1. Unity
Effective writing must have unity. Unity occurs when all the ideas in an essay support each other.
An essay has unity when all the body paragraphs contain a topic sentence and supporting
sentences that reinforce the thesis of the essay. Without unity, the essay loses its focus and stray
from the topic.
In the example below, both topic sentences 1 and topic sentence 2 support the thesis statement.
However, notice how topic sentence 3 deviates from the thesis statement.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 54

Thesis statement
My wedding day was the most thrilling day of my life.
Topic sentence 1
Having my friends and family together at my weeding was an amazing experience.
Topic sentence 2
The band we hired played music that the guests loved, and we danced for hours.
Topic sentence 3
The preparations for the wedding were so exhausting
3.3.2. Coherence
Q1. What do you think is coherence in the context of essay writing?
Like unity, coherence is a base of an effective essay. All the supporting ideas and sentences in
writing must be organized so that they cohere or stick together. Key techniques for tying together
the material in writing include connectors, repeating words and using pronouns.
3.4. Types of Essay
3.4.1. Descriptive Essay

A description is a verbal picture of a person, place, or thing. When you describe a person, a place
or an object, you have to provide your readers detailed information by employing relevant words
which portray the facts and your impression towards what you describe. In addition, you need to
use words which build image for readers. These images may come from sights, sounds, smells,
tastes or even feelings. This is to mean that what you write should emphasize specific sensory
details. As the main purpose of a descriptive essay is to make readers-see, hear, taste, smell, or
feel what you are writing about, vivid details are the key to this type of essay.

In descriptive essay, writers usually incorporate both objective and subjective description. An
objective description is a description which involves observable details and sensation, and
subjective description is a kind of description which portrays the impression the writer holds in
mind.
The other distinct feature of a descriptive essay or a descriptive writing in general is the use of
figurative language. Figurative languages are languages that are used imaginatively rather than
literally. They help writers to communicate ideas beyond the literal meaning of words. The most

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commonly used figures of speech in descriptive writing (essay) are simile, metaphor and
personification.
Example:
At last the rain came. It was sudden and tremendous. For two or three moons the sun had been gathering strength
till it seemed to breathe a breath of fire on the earth. All the grass had long been scorched brown, and the sands felt
like live coals to the feet. Evergreen trees wore a dusty coat of brown. The birds were silenced in the forests, and the
world lay panting under the live, vibrating heat. And then came the clap of thunder. It was an angry, metallic and
thirsty clap, unlike the deep and liquid rumbling of the rainy season. A mighty wind arose and filled the air with
dust. Palm trees swayed as the wind combed their leaves into flying crests like a strange and fantastic coiffure. As
the above description shows, the writer vividly revealed what the situation of waiting for rain in the described place
looks like. The writer tried to make readers to feel, hear and see what he or she has experienced by reflecting his or
her impression. By using phrases like dusty coat of brown, live coals and the world lay panting, the
writer reflected his impression that the situation was disastrous and he or she was worried.

3.4.2. Narrative Essay

Q. What kind of Essay do you think is a narrative essay?

Narration is telling story. A narrative essay thus is a type of writing that is concerned with telling
a story. A good narrative always tells to make the point. It makes the readers laugh, sympathize,
understand, or change their attitudes.

Like narrative paragraphs, narrative essays are usually arranged in chronological order. The writer
tells what happened first, then what happened next and next until finally he or she gets to the end
of the story.

When writing a narrative essay, the use of colorful details, the nature of the events, and the way
of arranging the details make the essay effective.

In addition to this, a narrative essay is presented either from the first-person point of view or
from the third person point of view. Besides, as mentioned in paragraph writing, the types of
tenses most commonly used are past forms (simple past, past continues and past perfect)
though it is possible to present a narrative through simple present as well. Look at the sample
essay below and notice the nature of the essay.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 56

Example: slip

It was about nine o’clock when Paul’s mother and father drove up to their house. All was still Paul’s mother went
to her room and slipped off her white fur cloak. She had told her old maid not to wait for her…

And then, because of the strange anxiety at her heart, she stole upstairs to her son’s room. Noiselessly she went
along the upper corridor. Was there a faint noise? What was it? She stood with arrested muscles, outside his door,
listening. There was a strange, heavy, and yet not loud noise. Her heart stood still. It was a soundless noise, yet
rushing and powerful, something huge, in violent, hushed motion. What was it? What in God’s name was it? She
ought to know. She felt that she knew the noise. She knew what it was.

Yet she could not place it. She couldn’t say what it was. And on and on it went, like a madness. Softly, frozen
with anxiety and fear, she turned the door-handle.

In this essay, you can see that the story is told from third person point of view. The writer
presented the event in the story in chronological order that (Paul’s mother first came home, then
went to her room, after that slipped of her white fur clock, next stole upstairs and next along the
upper corridor, then stood outside her son’s door, then listened strange noise, next felt afraid,
finally turned the door handle.)

He or she also narrated the essay by employing sensory description of the mother’s thought,
feeling and impression to create suspense. He or she also creates image of the setting by using
relevant descriptive words and phrases.

3.4.3. Expository Essay

An expository essay is a kind of discourse which provides information about and explains a
particular subject. It is a type of writing which informs readers by presenting and explaining
concepts and ideas. It is usually organized by using one of these patterns. The patterns are giving
examples, detailing a process of doing or making something, analyzing causes and effects,
comparing and contrasting etc.

An expository essay is the most commonly used essay. When people write a term paper or answer
essay questions on exam, they often use exposition; when they write about the process of
something, define terms, write about differences between things, they employ expository writing.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 57

Now look at the sample expository essay below. And then notice how it is written and the pattern
employed to develop it.

Example
Why Students are Poor

It is easy to recognize a college student because he or she is carrying books and usually wearing old pants or jeans
and a T-shirt. You will not see a college student driving a new car. Instead, you will see him at a bus stop or a
bicycle. And at mealtimes, a college student is more likely to be eating a slice of pizza than dining in a fine
restaurant. Very few college students have extra money to spend on clothes, cars, or good food. There are two main
reasons why being poor is an unavoidable part of the collage experience.

The first reason college students are poor is that they cannot work full-time. An eighteen-year-old is an adult with
the needs and wants of an adult; however, if that young person is taking courses at a university or a community
college, he or she must spend as much time as possible studying. Therefore, the student has to sacrifice the extra
money that a job would provide in order to have the freedom to concentrate on classes.

A second reason college students have little money is that they have other expenses that working adults do not have.
A college student must pay tuition fees every semester. A full-time student usually takes three or four clashes each
semester and the fees for these classes can cost thousands of dollars per year. Also, students need to buy several
expensive textbooks each semester. A single textbook can cost as much as a hundred dollars. Other necessary
expenses include computers, papers, pens, note books, and other items needed for school projects.

Many students cannot afford to attend college full-time, so they have a job and go to school parttime, but they are
still poor because of the cost of attending college. Fortunately, the causes of student poverty are temporary. Most
students do not mind because they have the hope that a college degree will get them a good job and they will have
good prospects in the future.

Dear learner, as you can see from the above sample essay, the writer explained why college
students are poor. He presented his explanation by mentioning two main reasons. The pattern he
or she employed to write the essay is a method of cause and effect though he/she focused only
on the cause.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 58

3.4.4. Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay is a type of essay in which a writer attempts to support a controversial

point or to defend a position on which there is a difference of opinion. An argumentative essay
takes a firm stand on an issue and then attempts to convince readers to agree with that stand. For
instance, an essay suggesting that drinking alcohol should be banned by law can be an
argument because its purpose could be to convince readers to accept the writer’s point of view.
When you write an argumentation, your main purpose could be either to convince readers that
your opinion is correct or to persuade your audience to take some sort of action. Whatever the
purpose be, in writing an argumentation essay, it is important to provide your reader or audience
with a clear main point and plenty of logical evidences to back it up. Look at the following example
and notice the nature of argumentative essay.

Example
Is it better to go to a single sex school or a co-educational school?

Whether to educate boys and girls together or to separate the two sexes is a controversial issue. There are advantages
to both sides; however, on balance, I believe that the co-educational system is better than single sex schools.

On the one hand, there are many advantages of educating boys and girls in the same classroom. The first advantage
is that children learn to understand the opposite sex and to treat each other as equals. Another point is that this
system reflects society because children are educated in realistic situation. Moreover, it is cheaper to teach boys and
girls in one school, an important consideration in developing countries. Finally, it can be more fun for everyone as
boys and girls can learn to enjoy each other’s company. If children enjoy their education, they will probably be more
motivated to work hard.

On the other hand, segregating the sexes has some distinct advantages. Firstly, the academic results at single sex
schools are often very good as the students are not distracted from their work and can concentrate on their studies.
Secondly, both sexes have the opportunity to express themselves without worrying about what the other sex may
think of their opinions. In male dominated societies this is particularly important. Finally, this system suits some
students, for example shy and nervous children might feel more secure in a single sex environment.

In conclusion, both systems of education have benefits. In my opinion the children studying in a mixed school have
a better experience.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 59

Exercise 2: Read the essay below and answer the questions that follow it.

A Scary Secret

My sister and I made a dangerous mistake one summer. I was thirteen and my sister was fourteen, and our parents
had taken us to the city where they grew up. We felt very grown up as we rode to the hotel in a taxi. The hotel was
very big, and it had a blue tile floor. After we unpacked our suitcases, our parents wanted to go to the market. My
mother told us not to go outside. “We won’t,” my sister promised, but I knew that she was lying. We had already
decided to go out and explore this strange and beautiful city by ourselves.

As soon as my parents were out of sight, we got our things and went downstairs. We walked out of the hotel doors
and down a narrow street. The sun was setting, and the light was very beautiful. We could hear the noises of traffic
nearby, but the little street was quiet. Suddenly, a man with a gun stepped out from a doorway. He said, “Don’t
move!” He was short, and he was wearing a dark green jacket and sunglasses. He came very close and we could
smell cigarettes and something terrible in his breath. We were terrified and couldn’t say anything. He said, “Give
me your shoes.” So, I did. Then he took my sister’s purse and her gold ring and ran away. I remember that I fell
against my sister. I heard her take a deep breath; she was shaking. Afterward, we ran back to the hotel, across the
blue tile floor and up to our room.

The man scared us, but he also taught us something important. Before this experience, we did not always listen to
our parents. We now learned that we should obey them. My sister and I became obedient daughters, and we enjoyed
the rest of our vacation. However, we decided not to tell our parents about our adventure. We knew they would
punish us even though we had learned our lesson. This dangerous adventure is still a secret that I share with my
sister.

1. Which sentence is the hook in the introductory paragraph?

2. What is the function of the hook in this essay?
3. Underline the thesis statement.

Basic Writing Skills (Enla 1012) 60