Road Safety Rules and Regulations:

Road safety is of prime importance as road accidents are among the biggest causes of deaths in
the country. With the number of vehicles on our roads increasing with every passing hour, it’s of
vital importance for everyone to have traffic awareness and understand and respect all the road
safety rules in India.
Road Safety Rules and Regulations:
 Keep To Your Left – Always drive or ride on the left side of the road and let other vehicles
overtake you from the right side.
 Stay Left When You Turn Left – When turning towards left, start with approaching the
curb from the left-most lane and ensure there’s enough distance for oncoming vehicles to
pass.
 Turn Right – Come to the centre of the road before you start turning right but when going
around the curb, try to stay towards the left-most part of your lane to avoid contact with
oncoming traffic.
 Always Overtake from the right side.
 When being overtaken by another vehicle, never increase your speed to prevent the other
driver from overtaking you.
 Be extra careful on intersections. Also, when passing through them, ensure your vehicle
doesn’t cause inconvenience to other road users.
 Right of Way- Always give a right of way to vehicles on intersections by letting them
continue without stopping in that particular direction in which you are about to proceed.
 Emergency Vehicles – It is your responsibility to give way to emergency services vehicles
such as fire engines and ambulances.
 Pedestrians have the right of way at pedestrian crossings or zebra crossings.
 “U” Turns- U-turns can only be taken when there is no warning sign nearby you give a
proper indication to other vehicle drivers that you are going to take a U turn
 Indicators – Always use indicators to let other road users know about the planned change
in the direction of travel. If your vehicle indicators get damaged without any warning, use
hand signals
 Parking – Make sure you don’t park your vehicle in a way it causes any hurdle or
disturbance to any other road users.
 Registration – Your vehicle’s registration plate should be visible at all times. In case it is
broken or damaged, you need to get it replaced at the earliest. Driving a vehicle with its
registration number not being visible is a serious offence.
 One way Roads – Always drive only in the permissible direction on a one-way road. Also,
never park your vehicle in reverse on a one way street.
 Stop Lines – Always stop your vehicle behind the stop lines. On roads with no stop lines,
make sure your vehicle comes to a halt before the Zebra-crossing.
 Towing – No vehicles should be towed closer to other vehicles on the road. However,
vehicles that are mechanically disabled and those confiscated by the police are exceptions
to this rule.
 Noise – Drivers should not horn needlessly or excessively or use them in no-honking zones
like hospital zones and school zones, etc. Also, one should not drive with non-OEM-spec
silencers
 Traffic Lights and Signs should be always obeyed. One should respect instructions given by
a traffic cop when there are no traffic lights available.
 Following Distance – Always keep a safe distance from the vehicle in front of you as this
will give you enough time to come to a stop in case the vehicle in front brakes suddenly.
 Right of way on Steep Roads – When going up on an incline, you have the right of way as
it might be difficult for you to stop and regain momentum. The vice versa holds true when
you’re driving downhill.

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  Obstruction of View – You should always have a clear view of the road ahead. Therefore,
your car’s windshield shouldn’t have stickers that might obstruct your view.
 Passing Pedestrians Do not drive at more than 25 km/hr, when you passing a procession,
meeting, strike, or a march.
 Tractor and Goods Carriages – It is prohibited to carry passengers on a tractor or a goods
carrier
 Loading – Overloading a vehicle is not only dangerous but even illegal. Therefore, one
should not carry more than a permissible number of passengers or excessive luggage that
the vehicle isn’t designed to carry.
 Dangerous Materials – One should not carry explosives, inflammable or harmful
substances as they are a fire hazard.
 Driving in Reverse – When driving in reverse, you should make sure you do not cause
annoyance to any other people on the road.
 Essential Documents – Always carry the following documents – Driving
license, Registration certificate of the vehicle, Insurance certificate, fitness certificate (in
case of commercial vehicle), tourist permit (in case of commercial vehicle) and PUC
certificate.
 Additional Regulations – In addition to the above, the drivers should be aware of al the
road safety rules, such as those of speed limit, one-way streets, etc.

Road Safety Rules for Kids / Children

Know your Safety Signals: Your kid should know about basic traffic signals, such as vehicles
have to stop at the ‘red’ light and ‘green’ means the vehicle should resume driving, etc. Doing so
will help them understand that they can cross a road once the vehicles come to a stop.
Safety Rules while crossing the road: Stop, Look, And Cross- At times, your child may have
to walk on a public road alone, He should know that when crossing a street, he should first stop
and look for any approaching vehicle and start crossing the street only if there’s no vehicle in sight.
Of course, at traffic signals, he should cross the road only when the light goes red.
Always Pay Attention – Listen to Warnings: Pay Attention – Ask your kids to pay attention to
horns and even to sounds of the vehicle so that they can judge if there is some car or motorcycle
driving towards them from a bend or from behind.
Never Run On Busy Roads and Crossing Time: Don’t Run On Roads – Children should never
run on roads as that might not only cause them to lose balance and fall on a busy street but also
because it might confuse other road-users, who might end up colliding with the kid.
Always Use Sidewalk: Kids should use a footpath (Sidewalk) when walking on the road. Set an
example for them by using the walking paths yourself.
Crossroads and Pedestrian Crossing – Kids tend to start running or walking across a street,
anywhere they wish to. This is dangerous and kids should be to tell to cross a road only on a
pedestrian crossing and when the vehicular movement is suspended during a red light.
Never Stick Hands Outside The Vehicle: Kids often put their hands out of the school bus or at
times, even put their heads out but this is very dangerous and kids should be told to not do this at
any cost.
Avoiding Blind Spots: never Cross Road at Bends – There are blind spots for many motorists
on a bend and they might not be able to see your child crossing a road on the bend. Hence, kids
should avoid crossing the road at bends.
Staying Safe On A Bicycle – In case your child uses a bicycle, he should avoid riding it fast and
always wear a helmet. Also, he should ensure the bicycle is in good condition and always ride it in
a bicycle lane. In case the bicycle lane isn’t present, he should ride it in the left-most lane.
Staying Safe Inside A Moving Vehicle – In a moving vehicle, a kid should be always belted up,
never stand or disturb the driver.

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Being Safe When getting in and out of Vehicles: Always Get Out At The Curb Side – Always
get off the bus from the curbside so that there’s no danger of colliding with a moving vehicle.
Never open the car door suddenly as there might be a vehicle coming from behind and sudden
opening of the door might cause the vehicle to collide with it.
Never do the Multitask While Walking on Roads: Be Seen, Stay Safe – Never dress in dark
clothes when going out at night. It is important that vehicle drivers notice you from a reasonable
distance.
Also, be focused on the road and stay aware of the surroundings. Do not multitask.
Crossing the Road Only at Zebra Crossings: Children should remember that pedestrians have
the right of way at pedestrian crossings or zebra crossings and should use them to cross a road
when vehicles have stopped at a red light. Never play or run at bus stops or on the road

Road Safety Rules for Cars: Following are the road safety rules for cars but these should not
only be followed by the drivers but even other occupants of a car or an SUV.
 Always wear your seat-belt – Make sure you’re belted up at all times, even if you’re in the
rear seat. This will not only save you from fines but will even keep you protected.
 Avoid distractions – Distracted driving is among the major causes of accidents. Hence,
one should avoid taking phone calls while driving. Basically, a driver should stay fully
focussed on road at all times.
 Never ever drive under the influence of alcohol or any sort of intoxicating substance. Doing
so can lead you to lose control while driving and end up in a mishap. It’s also illegal to drive
drunk or in an intoxicated state.
 Always respect the speed limits as driving at higher speeds can land you with a challan and
worst, still, cause an accident.
 Maintain your car – One should always maintain his car to ensure high road safety as
driving an ill-maintained vehicle can cause an accident, thereby causing injury to you as
well as other road users.

Road Safety Rules for Bikes: While most of the tips mentioned above can be applied to all
motorcycle users, here two additional road safety rules in India a two-wheeler user should always
remember –
 Wear a helmet – While wearing a helmet for a long period can be uncomfortable for some,
it keeps you protected not only from collisions at the time of a fall but even from wind blasts
when riding at high speeds.
 Avoid swerving between lanes – Many 2-wheeler users love to ride across lanes and
squeeze in tiny gaps but it’s advisable to avoid all this to avoid accidents. One should follow
lane discipline and avoid sudden manoeuvring.

Traffic and Road Safety Issues: It is true that both the authorities and the road users are totally
informed about the need for enhanced road safety and traffic awareness. Still, there are many
traffic safety issues in India.
 Negligence of Civilians: It’s true that the civilians make the most hue and cry about the
road safety issues. Still, however, the same people can be often seen not respecting the
traffic rules. This is something that is quite worrying as they take rules lightly even after
knowing that breaking the road safety rules is dangerous.
 Poor Condition of roads: Another huge road safety issue that we face is that of poor
infrastructure. Poor road designs and badly maintained roads often lead to mishaps. They
also take a toll on the vehicles.
 Unsafe Vehicle Design: It is not uncommon to see Indian manufacturers not paying as
much importance to the safety quotient of their vehicles as they do on vehicles they sell in
the west. It’s important to look into this urgently and come up with a solution.
 Under-implementation of Road Safety Standards: At times, the required road signs or
markings are missing, which is something that should be corrected at the earliest.
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  Indifferent Government: Lack of proper planning by the government often leads to
motorists suffering from poor road safety standards. It has also been seen that the
contractors who offer at least 10 years of warranty on their projects abroad make sub-
standard roads in India that get washed away in monsoon.
 Lack of proper law enforcement’s: Having laws is one thing and their enforcement is
something other. While proper laws are already in place, the need of the hour is to
implement them to the fullest.
 Lack of Emergency Services: Often, some of our roads lack emergency services and in
case of an accident, a quick response team is simply not available. Often, the victim
succumbs to his injuries by the time he is taken to a hospital.

What steps can be taken to improve Road Safety in India?

Different sectors of society should join hands in this direction to ensure high traffic awareness and
that road safety rules in India are followed. Here is all that the government and public need to work
on –
 Launch and proper implementation of road safety policies.
 Effective use of resources to ensure high road safety.
 Allocate higher funds for road safety programmes.
 Local government can play a leading role in proper implementation of road safety rules in
India by proper planning of road facilities in residential areas
 Curb the menace of drunk driving
 Provide support and leadership for road safety campaigns and initiatives.
 Persuade local communities to participate in workshops on an understanding of road safety
rules in India.
 Promote road safety education in schools so that the required knowledge can be provided
at an early age
 Assist in the life-long education of road users.
 Media can help improve community awareness by getting an understanding of factors that
cause road accidents and then spreading awareness on the same.
 Media can also support road safety initiatives through
 Police and Enforcement Agencies can behaviour and temperament of road user behaviour
and vehicle standards through a balance of education, encouragement and effective
enforcement strategies.
 Maximise the effectiveness of enforcement through the use of proven techniques and
technology.
 Police can also use crash data to identify sensitive areas and then work on mitigating the
mishap-causing factors.
 Health Agencies can ensure the development of effective emergency services
 Advise patients of the effects of drugs and medication on road user performance.
 Provide feedback from injury assessment to improve vehicle occupant protection and road
safety policy.
 The authorities should adopt effective and safe traffic management measures in planning
transport and land-use developments.
 Pay particular attention to the safety requirements of people with disabilities, older people,
children, pedestrians, bicycle riders and other non-motorised road users in the planning
task.
 Road Engineers and Highway Authorities can Improve the safety performance of the road
network by ensuring proper planning, construction and maintenance
 Apply crash reduction and crash prevention techniques to create safer roads
 Alcohol and Hospitality Entertainment Industry can adopt responsible standards of alcohol
serving and host responsibility programmes for drivers
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  Usage of better labelling of the alcoholic content of beverages.
 Promote the consumption of low-alcohol beverages in preference to higher ones
 Car companies can improve the crashworthiness of their vehicles.
 Introduce in-vehicle crash avoidance technology.
 Use advertisements and CSR activities to promote road safety rules in India.
 Only less than 5-year-old to be imported
 Use more modern vehicles, particularly in the Heavy Commercial Vehicle segment
 Advertisers can stop advertising products which glamorize unsafe driving practices
 Advertisers can also encourage safer practices and products.
 Universities can ensure there is equal importance given to basic and applied topics.
 Universities can also ensure that road safety research is of high quality and that its
implication takes place properly
 Provide reliable research results and knowledge against which policy decisions can be
made.
 All Organization can promote safe practices in fleet operation.
 Larger fleet operators can encourage staff to participate in defensive driving courses
 Individual Road Users can commit to oneself to improve road safety by respecting the traffic
safety rules

Road Safety Initiatives taken by Indian Government

The Ministry of Road Transportation and Highways (M.O.R.T.H.) has taken a number of steps to
promote high traffic awareness and proper implementation of road safety. This is being done
through –
 Important Schemes administered by Road Safety cell are:
 Publicity Programs
 Grants-in-aid to Voluntary Organizations for organizing road safety programs
 National Highway Accident Relief Service Scheme
 Refresher Training to Heavy Vehicle Drivers in Unorganized Sector
 Setting up of Model Driving Training school
As per the huge road sector program undertaken by M.O.R.T.H., the government of India has
been working closely with World Bank and Asian Development Bank to improve road safety. The
steps that are taken for this include-
 The most important project undertaken by the Indian Government has been the “National
Highway Development Program”, “Rural Roads Project” under the leadership of Mr Atal
Bihari Vajpayee.
 “NGOs” have come up in many cities to deal with this problem at their levels.
 “Police Departments” hold road safety weeks, painting competitions.
 “Road Safety Cell” of the ministry has also been working closely to strengthen institutions
and organizations. They have come up with an awards scheme for awarding
organizations/individuals making outstanding contribution in the fields.

Road Safety Tips: Few important Road Safety Tips are mentioned below :
 Never use the mobile phone while driving
 Always use seatbelt even when occupying the rear seat
 Don’t drink and drive
 Adhere to speed limits
 Take special care of children, senior citizens and pedestrians.
 Don’t drive under fatigue
 Walk cautiously on public roads
 Always observe other road users and try to ensure your safety from their vehicles
 Keep your distances

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  Always wear helmets and seat belts

International Best Practices for traffic and road safety: Looking at some of the international
best practices can be of great use to improve the safety standards of Indian roads. Some of the
best road safety measures that can be adopted from other parts of the globe are-
Sustainable Safe Road System in Netherland aims to prevent accidents and in case it happens,
the consequences can be minimized. This has been done through an increase in the size of zones
to 30km/hr in, built-up areas and 60km/hr outside built-up areas.

Road Safety Audits: Basically, it’s a formal procedure for an assessment of the crash potential
and safety performance of road design by a non-government body. This practice was first started
in Great Britain and was then adopted by many other counties.
Safety Inspection: Designates a periodic review by a trained expert of the safety aspect. It
involves safety inspections by trained experts.
Mandatory Bicycle Helmet Use: In India, it’s mandatory for motorcycle users to wear a helmet
but not for bicycle users. In many countries, it’s required by even bicycle users to wear a helmet
and the same should be done in India.
Bicycle Side Reflections: To increase their visibility during night and twilight on the front and rear
side of the bicycle is reflected to reduce accidents.
Placement of Intelligent Speed Assistance devices in the vehicle can help in comparison of
speeds at which a car is being driven and a warning can be issued to its drivers.
Alcohol Ignition Interlock: This is a device that prevents engines of vehicles from starting in
case the driver is too drunk. Alcolocks are currently being used in the the US, Canada and
Australia.
In France, there is a compulsory curriculum on road safety right from Kindergarten till driving
license age of the students.

How do you teach road safety?

When teaching about road safety to someone, you can start with focussing on the core steps –
1. Always wear a seatbelt when travelling in a car
2. Always wear a helmet when travelling on a 2-wheeler
3. Never drive or ride in an intoxicated condition
4. Never use a cellphone when operating a motor vehicle
5. Cross a road only on a zebra/pedestrian crossing
6. Pay attention to horns to be aware of a vehicle near you
7. Follow all traffic rules while driving

What is the importance of road safety rules

It should be well-known that road traffic injuries are one of the highest public health hazards and in
order to bring down the mishaps, one should be well aware of the road safety rules.

What are the important traffic rules

Here are some of the most important traffic rules –
1. Never Drink & Drive
2. Always Wear Seat Belt
3. Keep a Safe Distance from the vehicle ahead
4. Always Avoid Distractions
5. Never Break Red Signal
6. Always Drive Within Speed Limit
7. Avoid the Drowsiness While Driving
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8. Watch Out For Drivers On the Road
9. Be Extra Careful in Bad Weather or Poor Driving Conditions
10. Maintain Your Vehicle in a good shape

What are the 3 types of traffic signs

There are 3 different types of traffic signs – Regulatory, Warning and Guide

What are road safety rules

Here are some basic road safety rules –
1. Understand Traffic Signals. …
2. Stop, Look, And Cross the road
3. Pay Attention to vehicular movement around you
4. Don’t Run On Roads
5. Always Use Sidewalks/Footpaths
6. Use Pedestrian Crossing for walking across road
7. Never Stick Hands Outside The Vehicle
8. Never Cross Road At Bends

What are the rules for crossing the road

Here are some rules you should follow while crossing the road
1. Walk straight across the road – don’t jay-walk.
2. Keep checking in both directions to make sure the way is clear.
3. Try not to cross the road from between parked cars or near trees and bushes as drivers may
not see you.
4. Avoid crossing near a bend or crest in the road.

What rules should be followed while crossing the road

Following rules should be followed while crossing the road
1. Don’t run but don’t walk too slowly either. Also, walk straight and don’t jay-walk.
2. Look in both directions to ensure there is no chance of collision with a vehicle.
3. Do not cross the road from between parked vehicles or near trees and bushes as drivers may
not be able to see you.
4. Avoid crossing a road near a bend as the drivers might not be able to see you

How to teach children road safety

Regardless of the age of your child, road safety is something that you need to tell him or her
about. You can focus on the following core steps-
1. Cross the road only on zebra crossing and when the traffic is at standstill. In narrow roads with
no zebra strip, cross only when no vehicle is approaching.
2. While walking, use sidewalk/footpath and approach a kerb slowly
3. When crossing a road, look right, look left and if road is clear, cross it. Don’t run.
4. Stay alert and pay attention to horns to know about the vehicles in your surroundings.

What is Rotary Intersection of Roads

The rotary intersection of roads is also called as traffic rotary which is nothing but enlarged
intersection of roads where vehicles cross roads or change their direction without stopping. All
vehicles coming from different roads move in single direction around the central island and
diverges into required exit. Design Factors for Rotary Intersection of Roads
There are many factors to be considered while designing traffic rotary as follows:
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1. Design speed
2. Shape of central island
3. Radius of rotary roadway
4. Weaving angle and weaving distance
5. Width of carriageway at entry and exit
6. Width of rotary roadway
7. Curves at entrance and exit
8. Capacity of rotary
9. Channelizing islands
10. Camber and super elevation
11. Sight distance
12. Lighting
13. Traffic signs
14. Pedestrian ways
Design Speed of Rotary Intersections: At rotary intersections, the vehicle can be moved
without any breaking. So, there is no chance to stop the vehicle while other vehicles can
change their direction or cross each other without stopping. But, the speed of vehicular
movement should be reduced. Standard highway speed is not applicable at rotary intersection.
It should be passed with low speed which will results the safe carrying towards one’s direction
without any collision. Speed restriction board should be provided on the road towards rotary
intersection.
Shape of Central Island: The shape of Central Island provided for rotary intersection should
not contain any corners. It should be formed by curves to allow the comfortable rotations
around it. The shape is particularly dependent upon number of roads meeting at that particular
junction. The shapes generally provided are circular, elliptical, turbine and tangential. Circular
shape island is shown below:
Radius of Rotary Roadway: The radius of roadway or pavement around the central island is
dependent of shape of Central Island. If it is circular shape, radii are similar at all points and if it
is elliptical or tangent radii is different at different points. The radius of rotary roadway should
be designed by just considering the friction force and super elevation should be neglected.
Normal radius of roadway in curves
But super elevation (e) is neglected i.e., e = 0 Hence, radius of rotary
Where f = coefficient of friction = 0.43 to 0.47
Weaving Angle and Weaving Distance of Rotary Intersections: Weaving angle is the angle
formed by paths of vehicle entering the rotary and other vehicle leaving the rotary at adjacent
road. The exits of two vehicles may be different but they travel in same way for some short
distance in the rotary section which is nothing but merging of vehicles and when the required
exit is come two of the vehicles diverged into different directions. The length of which the two
vehicles travel in same way is called as weave length. The weaving angle should be small but
minimum of 15o is maintained. The weave length should be at least four times the width of
weaving section.
Width of Carriageway at Entry and Exit: The width of carriage way at entrance and exits is
dependent of volume of traffic in that particular region or area. But, the minimum width of 5.0
meters should be maintained for rotary intersections.
Width of Rotary Roadway: Vehicles coming from all directions may meet at a time at least for
shorter distance at rotary intersections. The width should be equal to the effective width of
weaving section. So, the width provided for rotary roadway should be as follows
Where e1 = width at entrance e2 = width of non-weaving section

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 Curves at Entrance and Exit: Entrance and exit curve is nothing but a curve traced by the rear
inner wheel of vehicle. Generally, at entrance the vehicle will slow down to design speed of rotary
intersection so, at the entrance curve radius can be provided as same as radius of central island.
Coming to exit curves, the vehicle accelerates at exits hence the radius of curve at exit should be
greater than the radius of curve at entrance.
Capacity of Rotary Intersections: The capacity of rotary is derived from the below formula and it
is mainly dependent upon capacity of individual weaving section.
Where W = width of weaving section e = average width of entry and width of non-weaving section
for the range of e/W L = weaving length for the range of W/L Where p = proportion of weaving
traffic = (b+c)/(a+b+c+d) = (0.4 < p < 1.0) a = left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane b =
weaving traffic turning toward right while entering the rotary c = weaving traffic turning toward left
while leaving the rotary d = right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane
Channelizing Islands: Channelizing islands are provided at entrance or exit of road way to
prevent the vehicle from undesirable weaving.
Camber and Super Elevation
We already discussed that the super elevation for rotary roadways is neglected. But, here if the
vehicle is changing its direction to its opposite side it will travel around the central island and
changes the direction. While changing, the vehicle may over turn or slip, to overcome this,
minimum cross slope is provided which is nothing but camber. This camber acts as super
elevation in case of rotary roadways.
Sight Distance: The sight distance provided at rotary intersections should be as higher as
possible and in no case the value must be less than the stopping sight distance.
Lighting of Rotary Intersections: The edge of Central Island should be installed with lights which
is mandatory. Additional lights may also be provided at the kerbs if the diameter of Central Island
is more than 60 m. sometimes, entrance and exit curves can also be provided with lights.
Traffic Signs at Rotary Intersections: Traffic signs should be installed on approaching roads to
indicate the presence of rotary intersection ahead to the roadway users. Kerbs at rotary
intersections should be coated with black and white strips to improve visibility. Traffic signals
should be placed 1 meter above road level to indicate the direction of exit.
Pedestrian Ways at Rotary Intersections: At rotary intersections, the vehicles will move
consistently and will not stop. So, the footpath is provided guard rails which will block the entrance
of pedestrian into roadway. If crossing of road is important and pedestrian traffic is higher, then
construction of subways, over bridges is good solution.

Traffic Rotary and Their Advantages and Disadvantages

Traffic Rotary: A traffic rotary or rotary intersection or say a roundabout is a specialized form of
road intersection at grade, where all converging vehicles are forced to move around a large central
island (Rotary Island) in one direction (clockwise direction) before they can weave out of traffic
flow into their desired direction.
The main objects of providing a rotary are to eliminate the necessity of stopping for crossing
streams of vehicles and to reduce the area of conflict.
Advantages of Traffic Rotary; The advantages of providing a traffic rotary(Roundabout) are
as follows:
1. Orderly and disciplined traffic flow is provided by the one-way movement.
2. Frequent stopping and starting of vehicles are avoided.
3. Direct conflict is eliminated.
4. All turns can be made with ease.
5. A rotary is especially suited for intersection legs ranging from 4 to 7.
6. For moderate traffic, rotaries are self-governing and need no control by police or traffic signals.
7. The capacity of rotary intersection is the highest of all other intersections at grade.

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Disadvantages of Traffic Rotary: The disadvantages of providing traffic rotary(Roundabout)
are as follows:
1. Rotary requires comparatively large of land. So where space is limited and costly, the
total cost may be high.
2. Where the pedestrian traffic is large, the rotary by itself cannot control the traffic and
needs control by traffic police. If the vehicular traffic has to stop to allow the pedestrian to cross,
the main purpose of rotary has defected.
3. At the places of mixed traffic, the design of rotary becomes too elaborate and the operation
and control of traffic become complex.
4. Where the angle of intersection of two roads is too acute or when there are more than seven
intersecting roads, rotaries are unsuitable.
5. When the distance between the intersections on important highways is less, a rotary becomes
troublesome.
6. At the places of mixed traffic, there is a tendency to violate the traffic regulation of clockwise
movement.
7. Where the traffic volume is very low, construction of a rotary cannot be justified.

Transport System in India: Meaning, Advantages and Types

Meaning of Transportation: It has been aptly remarked by Dr. Marshall, “Most effective
economic fact of our times is not the development of manufacturing industries but that of
the transport services.”
It is clear that the property of a country does not depend on the development of agriculture,
industry and mines alone but also on the development of means of transport.
Transport system of a country refers to the different means which carry men and material from one
place to the other.
Transportation is the foundation stone of economic infrastructure. It helps in the development of
trade, commerce and industry. Transportation removes the hindrance of place and facilitates the
movement of goods from producers to consumers. It also helps in removing regional inequalities.
Transportation has assumed much importance in developing economy like ours for rapid
economic growth. If agriculture and industries are supposed to be the body of the country,
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transportation may be said to be the nerves and veins of the economy. These days transportation
is known as the symbol of civilization.
Advantages of Transport: The advantages of transport can be realised from the social and
economic progress of the nation which have been generated by this sector in India during the plan
periods.
However, following points highlights its significance:

A. Economic Benefits:
(i) Better Production in both Agriculture and Industrial Sectors: Transport system has helped
in the growth in industrial and agricultural production. It has been transporting raw materials and
labour to the places of production and by carrying the products produced by these sectors to
different parts of the country and other countries of the world.
(ii) Reduction in Cost of Production: The transportation network reduces the cost of
manufactured goods and lowers the price in the markets.
(iii) Reduction in Scarcity: It helps in solving the problem of scarcity of goods and factors in
different regions of the country.
(iv) Growth in Foreign Trade: It helps in promoting foreign trade of the country. A country’s
exports/imports cannot develop without good parts, shipping and cargo facilities. Thus,
transportation system makes a network for transactions among different regions as well as with
other countries.
(v) Specialization of Labour and Mobilization of Resources: By the efficient and effective
transportation system, the benefits of specialization of labour and proper mobilization can be
achieved. Thus, an economic system makes the best use of resources through good transport
system.
(vi) Promotion of Tourism: An ideal transportation promotes tourism system or services all over
the country.
(vii) Expands the Market: Markets for both industrial and agricultural produce expand both on the
domestic and international front with the expansion of transport network. For example, through the
expansion of road, rail and water transport, it got good success making links between different
parts of the country and with other countries of the world.

B. Social Benefits:
(i) More Employment Opportunities: Transport helps to create employment opportunities and
thus, it provides employment through helping mobility of workers. About 18 lakhs people are
employed in Indian railways. In the same way, lakhs of people are employed in roadways,
shipping and air transport.
(ii) Education Expansion: Developed means of transport helps in the expansion of education
even in remote areas of the country. It provides mobility to teachers, students and teaching aids.
Means of transport are the source of advertisement also. In this way, they also help in expanding
education.
(iii) Social and Cultural Spirit: Means of transport brings together persons living at different
corners of the country. They exchange their views. They have the common problems, because of
their living together. Consequently social and cultural unity emerges. Thus, developed means of
transportation are also responsible for international brotherhood.
(iv) Higher Standard of Living: Transportation has reduced distance. As a result, we enjoy the
position to use various varieties of things produced in different corners of the world. These
standard commodities increase our standard living which depends upon goods and services, we
consume.
(v) Relationship between Villages and Cities: Means of transport has reduced distance
between villages and cities. Men and materials move from villages to cities and from cities to
villages. Villagers can now avail of the employment opportunities available in cities. Villages, in
close contact of cities develop faster.

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 Types of Transport

The various means of transport are discussed below:

A. Rail Transport:

In India, railway is the most important form of transport system. The first railway line was laid
between Bombay and Thane in 1853. After that, rail services have developed a lot. At the time of
independence, the total route length was 53,596 km with 8,209 engines, 19,536 passenger bogies
and 2, 06,000 goods wagons.
The Britishers had built up an extensive network of railways to exercise and maintain a tight
control over the vast Indian Territory and to open to the country as a source of food and raw
materials for their industries.
Indian railway at present is the country’s single largest undertaking with a total capital investment
of around Rs. 20,000 crores. It is the largest in Asia and ranks fourth in the world. It provides direct
employment to nearly 18 lakh persons.
Advantages or Importance of Railway Transport: Following are the main advantages of
Railway transport:
1. Development of Agriculture: Spread of Railways in India has contributed a great deal to the
development of agriculture. Before the development of Railways, agriculture was largely
subsistence-oriented. Railways have commercialised it. Our farmers do not produce for self
consumption only but also for sale in the market.
2. New Sources and New Areas of Production: Railways have installed new sources and new
areas of production. They have not only provided knowledge of the new areas, but also helped in
reaching the inaccessible areas.
3. Growth of Markets and Specialization: Railways have extended the size of market and thus
stimulated the process of specialization. Bulky goods can easily be transported by Railways.
4. Help in the Internal Trade: By joining together different areas of the country, railways have
made internal trade convenient. They carry goods and passengers to distant places easily.
5. Mobility of Labour and Capital: Railways have increased the mobility of labour and capital
which in its turn has contributed to the rapid industrialisation of the country.
6. Check on the Fluctuations of Prices: Railways have checked those fluctuations in prices that
were detrimental to the economic, political and social stability of the country. Price fluctuations
cause misery, disturb trade and give rise to many problems.
7. Elimination of Famines: Railways have helped in diluting the intensity of famines by carrying
the food-grains from surplus to famine-stricken areas.
8. Employment: Railways are an important source of employment in India. Lakhs of skilled and
unskilled people are employed in operating the railways. In addition, this means of transport
creates so many opportunities of employment. Railways provide employment to 17 lakh people in
the country.
9. Encouragement to Tourism: Tourist traffic has also been encouraged. Railways sell circular
tickets to the tourists and thereby promote tourism.
10. Strategic Importance: Strategic importance of the railways cannot be ignored. They are
instrumental in providing internal security and in making goods and efficient arrangements of
defence of the country against any external threat.
11. Social Importance: Railways have made possible a basic change in the social attitude of the
people. They are no longer tied to old customs and traditions, nor to fatalism and orthodoxy.

Disadvantages or Problems of Railways: Although the development of railways in our country

took place rapidly, still there are numberless problems in the path of steady growth.
The main problems are stated as under:

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1. Old Track and Poor State of Rolling Stock: The major problem faced by Indian railways is
that the tracks are old and out-dated. These old tracks cause many serious railway accidents. This
has also resulted in speed restrictions. Virtually, every new timetable, running time of all trains has
been increased while railways in other advanced countries are reducing it drastically.
2. Travel without Tickets: Another problem that is being faced in India is that a large number of
passengers travel without purchasing tickets. Indian railways have to bear extra loss of about Rs.
5 crore every year on account of travelling without tickets.
3. Railway Accidents: The incidence of railway accidents in our country is greater as compared
to other countries of the world. Accidents occur due to the errors and negligence of the
employees.
4. Attack on Railways: The Indian railways had to suffer a heavy loss of crores of rupees. The
railways are attacked during the time of disturbances and violences that arise in any part of the
country. For instance, there was heavy loss of railways in the movements of West Bengal,
Telegana and Assam etc.
5. Lack of Modern Management: There is a lack of modern management as railway failed to
attract adequate incentives and suitable talent. In addition to it, it could not make economic
analysis for perspective planning tariff.
6. Outmoded Technology: The rolling stock technology is absolutely outmoded. The system is
beset with excessive man-power and manpower development has not kept pace with technology
up-gradation. This has made railways incapable of coping with increasing transport demand and of
raising and improving the traffic volume and flows at lower unit cost of operation.
7. Problem of Replacement: The problem of replacement of old and obsolete railways engines,
wagons and other equipment’s has created a serious problem in India.
8. Problem of Laying Double Lines: Most of the railway lines are single lines which create great
inconvenience to the railway organisation and passengers.
9. Inadequate Investment: The railway transport has lagged behind the requirement due to
inadequate investment. The shortcoming has been highlighted by different committees. The
National Transport Policy Committee. The Rail Tariff Enquiry Committee and The Railway
Reforms Committee.
10. Competition with Road Transport: The competition with road transport is growing in
intensity, both in passenger and in goods transport. The lack of co-ordination between railways
and road transport has lowered the earning capacity of the railways. This has further caused delay
in traffic movement and inconvenience to passengers.

B. Road Transport:

Next to railways, road transport plays a pivot role in the country’s transport system. Besides the
fact-that social and economic progress of the country depends on the development of road, there
is also a significant link of bringing about the sentimental integration of the common masses.
In the words of Benthan “roads are the veins and arteries of a country through whose
channels every improvement takes circulation.” Infact, roads reaches the door steps.
Classification of Roads: Roads in India have been classified into following:
1. National Highways: These refer to the main roads which connect the state, capitals, ports and
big cities. Constructions and maintenance of these roads are the responsibility of Centre Govt.
2. State Highways: These are the main roads of the state. These connect the capital and the
cities of the state. State Govts., are responsible for their maintenance.
3. District Roads: These roads connect district man-dies and production areas. These are
maintained by District Boards.
4. Village Roads: These roads connect the villages with district roads. Panchayats construct
these roads.
5. Border Roads: These roads are constructed with the help of Border Road Organisation. This
organisation has constructed 18,500 kms long border roads.
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Means of Road Transport: Two main means of Road Transport in India are:
1. Bullock Carts: It is the main mode of transport of Indian villages. According to F.P. Bhatia there
are about 1 crore bullock carts in India. They provide work to 1 crore persons. 2 crore bullocks are
there in India and there is one bullock cart per 68 persons.
2. Motor Transport: It was after 1913 that motor transport commenced in India. To keep proper
control over it, Motor Vehicles Act 1939 was passed. It has now been replaced by Motor Vehicles
Act 1988. It has been amended in 1994. At present, there are 303 lakh motor vehicles whereas in
1947 their number was about 2 lakhs.

Advantages of Road Transport:

1. Extension of Agriculture is Possible: There are many areas in the country lacking efficient
means of transport. But these are fit for growing all types of crops including cash crops. According
to “Indian Road and Transport Development Institute”, by extending roads to the rural areas, it
is possible to increase cultivable area by 25 percent.
2. Production of Perishable Goods: According to Road Reorganisation Committee’s Report,
road-system encourages the sale of such perishable goods as vegetable, fruits, milk, butter, etc. in
the wide markets where from the farmer returns with the knowledge of fertilisers, implements and
improved methods of agricultural production.
3. Advantage of Industries: Industries are also benefitted from the development of roads. It is
through roads that raw materials reach the factories and finished products of the consumers.
4. Employment: Road transport provides employment to large number of people. According to
Road Transport Development Committee, an outlay of Rs. 3,500 crore on roads can generate
employment for 170 lakh persons.
5. Less Capital: Roads need less capital than the railways. Countries facing shortage of capital
have added importance of road development.
6. Flexibility: It is a most flexible means of transport. Motor vehicles can run not only between two
places but also from one door to the other.
7. Saving of Time and Cost: Goods in small quantity can be transported daily through quick
means of road transport whereas, the railway department waits till they book full-wagon load of
goods.
8. Small Units: As against railways, road transport service is performed through small units, like
trucks, tempos etc. Thus not much capital is needed to buy these vehicles.
9. Personal Service: Personal service is another special feature of road transport which is made
possible because of small units.
10. Multi-purpose Tendency: Roads are not built for specific vehicles. Different types of vehicles
can be pressed into service. Roads can be used by bullock-cart, tongas, rickshaws, cycles, motors
etc., whereas rail-tracks are meant only for railway trains. Similarly, water and air-transport are
also meant for special type of vehicles.

Problems of Road Transport:

1. Inadequate Roads: Roads are bad and inadequate in India. There are 34 km long roads per
100 sq. km area in India while in Japan 270 km and in West Germany 167 km long roads per 100
sq. km area are there. Government should spend more on the development of roads.
2. Heavy Taxes: There is heavy tax burden on motor transport in India. Tax burden per motor
vehicle in India is Rs. 3500 while in America it is Rs. 860 and in Britain Rs. 470. This tax burden
should be lowered.
3. No proper Maintenance: Roads are not maintained properly in India. Less than 0.1 percent of
the national income is spent on the maintenance of roads in India, while in Japan it is 3 percent of
the national income.
4. Lack of Co-ordination: There is little co-operation and coordination among different states with
regard to motor transport. As such, motor transport faces lot of difficulties. The states should
pursue a coordinated policy in this matter.

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5. Less Roads in Rural Areas: Sixty percent of villages are without roads in India. It adversely
affects our agriculture and rural economy. Government should develop roads speedily in rural
areas.
6. Lack of Guest Houses: There is lack of great houses and hotels along the roadside in India.
More guest houses should be built along the roads sides, so that people may undertake long road
journeys easily.
7. Inefficient Management and Services: According to ‘Road Transport Re-organisation
Committee’, 90 percent of the operators are small operators owning five vehicles or less. Owing to
this small number, satisfactory and efficient service is not being provided to the people.
8. Rising Prices of Petrol/Diesel: Due to high prices of petroleum products and diesel
operational costs of road transport are rising and making the mode of transport more costlier.
9. Undisciplined Driving and Accidents: Most of the drivers on the roads are unskilled and
untrained. They also drink alcohol while driving. As such, road accidents are more frequent in
India.
10. Bad Conditions of Road: In India, roads are not well-maintained as there are no timely
repairs. It causes discomfort and quick depreciation of vehicles.

The road network comprises of national highways, state highways, district roads, rural roads and
special purpose roads for military and ports etc. National highways are the prime arterial routes
throughout the country. It caters the need of about 45 percent of total road transport demand.
Recently, a key innovation has been created of major new source of funding for National, State
and rural roads. It has been named Central Road Fund (CRF). Moreover, National Highway
Development Project (NHDP) has been set up for the expansion of roads.

C. Water Transport:

Water transport is the cheapest mode of traffic for both long and short distance. It does not use the
costliest resources as in the case of air transport. However, in ancient period, shipping was one of
the big industry of India, perhaps known as the Queen of Eastern Seas.

Indians were much skilled in the building of ships and used to go to different distant countries like
Persia, East Africa, Malaya and Eastern Island on their ships. In this context, Shri S.L. Haja has
rightly stated that ‘Indian Naval power was undoubtedly a great achievement of Indian civilization.
During 1860 to 1925, there were 102 Indian Shipping Industries but gradually all of them were
destroyed by the British. Scindia Team Navigation Company was established in 1919. The history
of Indian Shipping Companies from 1925 to 1945 is in-fact the history of Scindia Shipping
company.
In 1945, Government of India constituted a “Reorganisation Policy Sub Committee” under the
chairmanship of Shri C.P. Ramaswami Aiyyar who suggested that all the coastal trade of India
should be reserved for Indian ships and suitable opportunity should be given to the Indian ships in
foreign trade.
In 1947, the Shipping Act was enacted. It was compulsory for the ships to obtain licences. Eastern
Shipping Corporation was established with a capital of Rs. 10 crores in March, 1950. In June,
1956, Western Shipping Corporation was set up. Similarly, in 1961 two corporations were merged
into Indian Shipping Corporation. New Shipping Corporation of India and Mogul Lines are
operating under public sector and 33 companies under private sector.

Kinds of Water Transport: It is of three kinds:

1. Inland Water Transport
2. Coastal Transport (coastal shipping).
3. Oceanic Transport (overseas shipping).

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1. Inland Water Transport: It has played a very important role in Indian Transport System since
ancient times. Its length is 14544 Kms. Ganges, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna rivers are
navigable. Transportation of goods in an organised form is confined to West Bengal, Assam and in
some parts of North Eastern Region and Goa.
In 1945, Central Irrigation and Power Commission was set up to develop inland water transport.
Later on Central Inland Water Transport Corporation was set up in 1967 and finally Inland
Waterway Authority of India was set up in 1986 which is a step forward and should help in
accelerating development. We have 5200 kms navigable but only 1700 kms are without.
2. Coastal Transport: India has a long coastline of 7516 kms. with 11 major and 139 minor
working ports and a vast hinter-land. Inspite of its importance (being cheapest and energy efficient
mode of transport) there has been a sharp decline in coastal shipping operations. Number of ships
declined from 97 in 1961 to 56 in 1980 and GRT (Gross Registered Tonnage) reduced from 3.1
lakh to 2.5 lakh over the same period. It went up to 6.3 lakh in 1995-96.
We have large overseas trade and 5560 kms coastline. We have also navigational aids such as
lighthouses and lightships indicating submerged rocks and other dangers to the shipping. In 1950-
51 we had 5 major ports at Mumbai, Chennai, Cochin, Kolkata and Vishakhapatnam.
After independence seven major ports at Kandla in Gujarat, Haldia near Kolkata, Nhava Sheva in
Mumbai, Paradip in Orissa, Tulicam Mangaldi in Karnataka, and Marmugas in Goa were built.
Major ports are being modernised, expanded and re-equipped. We have at present 450 vessels
containing of tankers, liners and cargo carriers.
3. Oceanic Transport: India has developed merchant fleet from scratch. In 1951 there were 24
Indian ships of 0.17 million GRT engaged in overseas trade. The fleet strength at the end of
December 1994 was 438 vessels of 6.3 million GRT. Overseas trade was 122.3 million tones
during 1993-94, which formed 34 percent of the total sea borne cargo.
The Government of India is taking a lot of interest in the development of shipping sector by
establishing a ship building industry in public sector, granting subsidy on the acquisition of ships
from domestic shipyards to offset highest cost, supporting the public sector Shipping Corporation
of India to expand its fleet and building up adequate facilities for the training of officers and men
for the merchant fleet.
Eighth Plan aimed to achieve the objective of acquisition of a modern diversified fleet. It may help
in achieving the objective of export promotion and improved balance of payments.

Advantages of Water Transport: Importance of water transport is evident from the

following:
1. Important for Foreign Trade: Current volume of India’s trade is quite large and it is likely to
further expand for the sake of economic development of the country. So, its importance cannot be
under-rated.
2. Foreign Exchange: Shipping has also enabled the country to save enough of foreign
exchange. Foreign exchange is of utmost importance for country’s economic development. India
has already been facing acute foreign exchange shortage.
3. Defence: Development of shipping is essential for the defence of the country also. It is
regarded as second line of defence.
4. Cheap Means of Transport: Water transport is the cheapest means of transport. Oceans and
rivers are the free gifts of nature. No cost is involved in their construction unlike that of railways
and roads.
5. Transport of Heavy Goods: Heavy and bulky goods can be transported at little cost through
water transport.
6. Useful during Natural Calamities: During natural calamities like floods, heavy downpour etc.
when rail or road transport is disrupted, water transport alone is possible.
7. Less Maintenance Cost: Compared to other means of transport, maintenance cost of water
transport is very little.

Disadvantages of Water Transport: Main disadvantages of water transport are as under:

16
1. Limited Area: Area of water transport is restricted. Rivers and oceans are free gifts of nature.
Accordingly the operational area remains fixed. Unlike railways and roads, man cannot construct
waterways.
2. Slow Speed: It is a slow means of transport. Failure of monsoon results into fall in the water-
level of rivers making navigation difficult.
3. Less Safety: As against other means of transport, it is less safe. Danger of sinking of boats and
ships always looms large.

D. Air Transport:

Fastest means of transport is Air Transport. There are several favourable circumstances for the
development of Air Transport in India. Credit goes to India for inaugurating the first Air Service
Asia in 1914 by Post and Telegraph Department by carrying mail from Allahabad to Naini across
the Ganga River. But the real progress was made during World War II.
In 1947, we had 27 airways companies in India and these covered a distance of about 22 crore
kilometers on their scheduled flights and carried about 3 lakh passengers. Now they cover a
distance of about 10 crore kilometers and carry more than 72 lakh passengers per year.
The number of aerodromes/airports increased to 91 by 1990-91. It includes 5 international airports
at Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi and Trivandrum. International Airport Authority of India was
established in 1972 in the public sector. National Airport Authority of India was formed in June
1986.
Vayudoot and Pawan Hans are the two airlines added to civil aviation recently. Previously Air India
International for international services and Indian Airlines for domestic services were established
in 1953. Vayudoot operates to inaccessible remote stations not touched by Indian Airlines.
Pawan Hans provides helicopter services to remote places. Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Urban
Academy (GRUA) has been set up to train commercial pilots. In 1950, Air Transport Enquiry
Committee was appointed. On the recommendations of this committee, in 1953 air transport was
nationalized and three corporations were set up.
(i) Air India International Corporation
(ii) Indian Airline Corporation
(iii) Private Airline

Advantages of Air Transport: Main advantages of air transport are:

1. High Speed: It is a high speed means of transport. Passengers and goods can be transported
speedily from one place to the other.
2. Transport of Costly and Light Goods: It is convenient to send costly, light and perishable
goods through air transport.
3. Minimum Cost: Unlike railways and road transport there is no need to spend any money on the
construction of any track or road. One has only to construct air-ports.
4. Free from Geographical Constraints: Mountains oceans and rivers create no obstruction to
air transport.
6. Strategic Importance: It has great strategic significance. Soldier, arms and ammunition can be
airlifted to the troubled spots.

Disadvantages or Problems of Air Transport: Air transport faced undernoted problems:

1. High Costs: Air transport in India is becoming very costly day by day with rising operational
costs.
2. Non co-operation of Staff: Indian airlines are facing problems due to non-co-operation of the
staff, such as, strikes by pilots, etc.
3. Out-dated Planes: Aviation technology is changing very fast. But our planes are out-dated and
not very safe. Consequently Indian airlines find it difficult to compete with the world airlines.

17
4. Huge Investments: Creation of aviation facilities requires huge investments. The Government
is least capable of increasing the number of planes and airports in the country. The private sector
has its own limitations.
5. Inadequate Training Facilities: There are no adequate facilities to train a large number of
pilots in the country. On privatization of airlines we are again facing the problem of sufficient
trained staff.
6. Maximization of Risks: In air transport, risks are increasing day by day due to crime and
terrorism, violence, hijacking, etc. all over the world.

E. Pipe Line Transport:

This is a special type of transport system, suitable only for certain commodities. Its inherent
advantages are low energy consumption, lower transit and low running cost. A number of pipe line
systems have been built in India for transport of crude petroleum, petroleum products and natural
gas.
Important pipe lines for transporting crude petroleum are:
(i) From Assam oil fields to Guwahati and Barauni.
(ii) Imported crude from West Coast to Koyali (near Vadodara in Gujarat) and to Mathura (from
Salaya port). A pipe line under construction will transport crude oil from Viramgram (Gujarat) to
Karnal refinery (Haryana).
The petroleum products from refineries are carried by pipe lines from:
(i) Barauni to Kanpur,
(ii) Mathura to Delhi, Ambala and Jalandhar and
(iii) Bombay to Pune.
The Indian Oil Corporation has constructed an extensive system of pipelines for crude oil and
petroleum products. A 950 km long pipe line, from Hazira via Bijapur to Jagadishpur (BHJ) carries
natural gas to gas-based nitrogenous fertilizer plants located in M.P., U.P. and Rajasthan. The
natural gas is also utilized for generation of power.
This project is being attended to by the Gas Authority of India which was set up in August 1984.
There are plans for several other pipelines for transporting natural gas utilizing it at other places.
A pipeline system based on fluidization has been constructed to transport iron-ore in slurry form
(mixture of five iron ore suspended in water) from Kudremukh ore mines (Karnataka) to Mangalore
port. In near future, there is every possibility of transporting coal pieces in slurry form but its
economics of operation is to be worked out in detail. This may open new avenues in pipe transport
systems.

Mass Transit System – Impacts, Advantages & Disadvantages

Mass transit system refers to public shared transportation, such as trains, buses, ferries etc that
can commute a larger number of passengers from origin to destination on a no-reserved basis and
in lesser time. It can also be termed as Public Transport.
Rapid transit is an important form of mass transit such as subways and surface light rail systems,
designed for commuting inter-city or intra-city. Mass transit may be based on fixed route system
such as subway trains, metros or non-fixed route system such as buses. It is potentially more
economical, eco-friendly and less time consuming. In addition it is the most competent way of
reducing the ever growing traffic congestion of the developing city. Mass transit has the advantage
of smaller rights of way and developing lesser amount of infrastructure required for highways and
roads.
The drawback of the system is the necessity to travel on a fixed rather than an individually
selected schedule and to enter and disembark from the system only at certain designated
locations.

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Mass transit can be of two types: heavy rail or light rail. Heavy rails are one of the better forms of
mass transit as:
 They are fast
 They will not interfere with the other traffic as they require separate underground
infrastructure
But the initial cost of heavy rail is very high. It works best at places where a larger number of
people will ride them such as in the center of big and densely populated cities.

Impacts – Advantages of Mass Transit:

Environmental Impacts: Mass transit is believed to be more environmental friendly than other
public transport facilities. Private vehicles emit about twice as much carbon monoxide and other
volatile organic compounds than public vehicles. Mass transit reduces the number of cars on the
road which in turn reduces the pollution caused by individual cars.

Social Impacts of Mass Transit: All members of the society irrespective of their financial status,
religion or cast are able to travel which enhances the social integrity of the country. The necessity
of a driving license is also eliminated. It is a blessing for those individuals who are unable to drive.

Economic Impacts of Mass Transit: Mass transit development can both improve the usefulness
and efficiency of the public transit system as well as result in increased business for commercial
developments and thus serves to improve the economy of the country. Transit systems also have
an indirect positive effect on other businesses. Mass transit systems offer considerable savings in
labor, materials, and energy over private transit systems. Also mass transit allows a higher amount
of load to be transported to far away destinations in lesser time because of its reasonable capacity
than private vehicles. Because of their larger capacity offering them to carry high efficient engines
they also help in saving fuels.

Other Positive Impacts:

Reduces congestion: The main idea behind mass transit is to reduce the number of vehicles on
the road by providing a larger facility which carries higher number of passengers thus eliminating
congestion.

Saves Time: Mass transit reduces the travel time to a great extent as it moves at high speeds and
stops only at specific spots.

Cost Effective: Mass transit is comparably cheaper than other modes of public transport. Being
among the twelve mega cities of the world one thing is for sure that Karachi badly needs a mass
transit system of a vast network else the pollution and congestion will continue increasing in the
city no matter how many signal free corridors are built. Apart from the political differences talks
with Japan are under way for building an underground mass-transit train service in Karachi along
with the betterment of our existing railways, it is hoped that the project is approved and carried out
successfully.

How to solve the parking space problem

In this digital era, everybody is in a hurry. Time is valuable, and everyone is trying to make the
most of it. Saving time means travelling faster, and to travel fast, people rely on their private
vehicles. This is the main reason behind the rapid increase in the number of vehicles. With more
and more vehicles hitting the roads, there are two big challenges in front of us, traffic
congestion and lack of parking space.
Imagine that you have booked tickets to watch your favourite movie on a weekend. You are
waiting for the day with excitement and drive to the mall to watch the movie. But for your bad luck,
19
the parking space is full, and you miss the opening scene of the movie. This is just one example of
how the lack of parking space is causing inconvenience.
Traffic congestion is a problem, which we are well aware of, as the situation is getting worse in
metro cities. One more challenge we are facing is the lack of parking space. Yes, in India. only the
vehicles have increased, and the parking spaces in cities have remained the same. Now, the
rising demand for parking space has turned out to be the next big problem after traffic congestion.
With the rapid growth of the economy, owning a car is not a big deal, but finding a parking spot
has become a treasure hunt. Everybody wants to drive their car, and it is this mindset that has
caused the parking space crisis. So, what is the solution to the parking space crisis? In this blog,
we throw some light on how to manage the worsening parking space problem.
Proper planning: The authorities responsible for planning the cities should look into this matter
and find some way to smartly solve the parking space problem. Authorities need to set up new
policies to tackle the problem. For example, determine the parking charges as per the value of that
particular place and limit the number of cars in tourist places and popular shopping areas. We
agree that it is not that easy to lay down such strict rules as we are used to free-parking spaces all
over the city. But something has to be done to put an end to parking woes.

Renewed policies: The government should come up with strict policies to buy a car. The rules
should be such that a person buying a car should have a parking space to purchase a new car.
Such strict policies will curb the increase in the number of vehicles. We know that it might sound a
bit absurd, but such steps should be taken to stop the menace.

Improved infrastructure: Planning and new policies alone cannot solve the parking space problem.
There should be proper infrastructure to park the vehicles. The authorities should come up with
new ways to create new parking spaces around the cities. For example, construction of multi-level
parking spaces, it might be conventional or automated. The conventional method will be suitable
for Indian conditions as it is economical and easy to manage.

Efficient public transportation: To solve the issue of lack of parking space, first, we have to
reduce the number of vehicles on the road. An efficient and flawless public transport system will
play a key role in reducing the vehicles on the roads. If the public transport of a city is good, then
automatically people will ditch the private vehicles. Public transport is economical, and it plays a
huge role in reducing traffic congestion and carbon emissions.

Carpooling: The lack of parking space in major Indian cities is caused due to an increase in the
number of cars. Ride-sharing will be a fitting solution to solve this problem. Carpooling makes
commuting easy and fast, and also helps in decongesting roads. Carpooling is a very simple
concept, but the impact is significant when it comes to reducing cars on the roads. Less number of
cars on the road means fewer cars to park, which eventually solves the parking space problem.
Carpooling also helps to reduce travel expenses and carbon emissions.

If you are a metro city dweller, you are well aware of the problems faced in finding a parking spot.
If you think that traffic congestion is the only problem in cities, you are wrong. The lack of parking
space causes a lot of inconveniences. We need to opt for alternative options to commute, to
reduce the number of vehicles. Because with fewer vehicles on the road, the problem of lack of
parking spaces will be automatically solved.

Parking problems and solutions: Every motorised trip ends in a parking situation. Truly, when
one arrives at a destination by any motor vehicle one of the first experiences is of parking. This
gives rise to parking problems and solutions.
There are two kinds of parking in the United Kingdom:
 Public parking (usually on-street)
 Private parking (all sorts on private grounds)

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Particularly in the cities and the big towns there is a problem where the supply-demand ratio
makes parking a problem for parking space providers, the motorists or both.
We are here to give a bare summary on the difficult subject of parking problems and solutions.
These are just some of the many solutions that are available to thinking parking professionals and
their customers/users who are the motoring public.
Increase parking supply: This is the first thing that comes to mind when pondering parking
problems and solutions. Essentially, its gets property managers/developers, businesses and
central/local governments to build more parking facilities. It has the advantage of economies of
scale. The top disadvantage is that it increases overheads and encourages driving as opposed to
public transport.
Establish minimum parking requirements: By raising the requirements for parking spaces the
demand for parking can be reduced. The use of zoning is usual in this context. This method is
easy to implement but can add to the costs of providing parking to developers and public
authorities.
Increase on-street/curbside parking provision: This has the advantage of being relatively
cheap and convenient with parking problems and solutions. It has the disadvantage of having
provision ceilings and parallel parking makes for hazards for cyclists and increases the chances of
motor crashes.
Increasing on-street parking: Town planners can design more on-street parking while local
governments can have fewer parking restrictions and encourage parallel parking. This is easy and
cost-effective but there are limits on how many extra parking spaces can be created.
Subsidizing off-street parking: This has the advantage of making parking cheaper and bringing
it into policy but it amounts to a public subsidy for driving instead of encouraging utilisation of
public transport.
Adding overflow facilities: This amounts to having in reserve extra parking facilities when the
usual nearby parking spaces have been all taken up. This can happen during popular events. It
has the advantage of flexibility and one disadvantage is how remote the secondary parking area
is.
Maximising parking spaces in existing facilities
This can involve utilising unused spaces such as in corners and on the edges of the parking areas
and having specially sized spaces for smaller vehicles. This is relatively inexpensive but there is a
ceiling on how much can be added.
Use of mechanization: Lifts and elevators can do wonders for increasing parking spaces as well
as flexible but these methods are hideously expensive.
This is merely scratching the surface of parking problems and solutions and people involved in this
field can choose from these and other methods.
Parking problems and solutions vary from country to country and from district to district within a
country.

Effective Ways to Solve Company Parking Issues: Company parking issues affect both the
management and employee sides of a business, presenting significant challenges for both.
Managing employee parking needs is costly, as companies must either own or rent enough space
to cover the daily needs of their commuters. In some cases, they must even go to the expense of
building new parking structures.
For employees, competition for limited space creates unsavory situations that can have a long list
of negative impacts in the workplace.

Common Parking Problems: Demand for limited parking is the single most common problem
companies face. Traditional solutions include constructing new parking structures and renting
more parking spots. However, these aren’t feasible from a cost-benefit standpoint, especially in
places like the Bay Area where new parking lots cost about $38,000 per space and rented spots
command upwards of $500 per month. Each. Yikes.

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Three Proven Solutions to Company Parking Issues: In our experience, the best and most
effective solutions to company parking issues stem from a simple concept: behavior change. This
term describes a workplace culture in which people swap out old habits that contribute to problems
for new ones that foster solutions.
Stimulating behavior change on an organizational level is something of an art form, but no matter
how you approach it, the key to success is to offer transportation incentives.
Try these three strategies:
 Encourage carpooling. Promote the cost savings and social benefits of sharing rides.
Participants reduce fuel expenses and vehicle maintenance costs, all while strengthening their
personal and professional networks. Among other benefits, rideshare-based employee
commuting is also known to reduce stress and improve job satisfaction.
 Offer public transportation benefits. People teams don’t need parking when they use public
transportation to get to work. Employers can help employees purchase transit passes with pre-
tax dollars or even offer free or subsidized transit passes. On a monthly basis, they’re much
cheaper than maintaining or renting parking spots, and they also reduce traffic congestion
while inspiring team members to carry over their positive new travel habits beyond their daily
commutes.
 Make it a game. Commuter challenges, points programs, and other gamification
strategies engage team members and encourage them to think about employee transportation
in different, healthier ways.

INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS THAT SOLVE PARKING PROBLEMS: Utilizing personal

automobiles is the established standard of transportation for a great many people in the US.
With the exception of some urban centers, public transportation remains no nexpansive and
less convenient than driving. At the same time, many people who work in cities still use cars
over buses, trains, and alternatives such as biking and walking because they live outside the
city in suburbs or value the control that driving brings. This all comes together to make a
nationwide environment where owning one or more automobiles is the standard and where
lack of parking in urban areas is becoming a larger complication. In this post, we’ll seek to
understand the issues that many cities are facing and the innovative solutions that solve
parking problems in one way or another when executed.
COMMON PROBLEMS

D I F F I C U L T I E S F I N D I N G P A R K I N G : As touched upon, many cities have trouble with

creating adequate parking. If you live in or have visited a major urban area, you are probably
already familiar with the common need to drive around in circles after reaching a destination
just to find an available parking space. When you do locate one, it could be far from your
destination building, meaning that you must walk several blocks from car to building and
back. While many workplaces may have dedicated parking, not all do. Moreover, residents of
certain areas may face difficulties getting back in their homes when the street parking spots
they use fill up after a certain point in the afternoon.

I N E F F E C T I V E S P A C E U T I L I Z A T I O N : Several cities put out laws requiring a minimum

number of parking spots whenever a new structure is built to provide enough for people.
Nonetheless, this was not as efficacious of a solution as they hoped. Despite the seeming
parking shortage that citizens still run into in many places, parking can be excessive from a
city’s perspective as a result of these laws.
This is because it costs a lot of money to develop and maintain parking lots and garages,
raising the amount that needs to be spent when constructing and sustaining a building. Yet,
when parking is reserved for a particular building, it may have a sizeable amount of empty
space at various times during the day. Even when parking is filled, poor design may still
mean that a lot of space is being wasted in a parking area. That land might be better used in
service of other purposes in an urban setting where space is limited already.
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SOLUTIONS : So how can these two sides of the problem be reconciled? People want more
parking spots while city governments recognize that land is precious and would rather save it
for better uses. Several solutions are available to choose from.

M I X E D - U S E / S H A R E D P A R K I N G F A C I L I T I E S : If one of the major concerns is that

current parking areas squander land since they are often left empty, you can consider
changing them into mixed-use or shared parking facilities. This innovative solution that solves
parking problems represents minimal physical change and focuses more on who uses the
spaces at specific times during the day and evening. You are able to attain greater space
efficiency by allowing several surrounding businesses to use the same parking area.
Shared parking alleviates issues with overfilling by moderating who can use the parking at
certain hours. For instance, an office might use up most of the space during the early
morning and early afternoon, while a restaurant or theater has more patrons at night. You
can set the hour ranges at which these different businesses use the parking area based on
their peak hours. There may also be differences in weekday and weekend usage that are
useful to take advantage of. Whichever way you allot the time, land that might once have
been set aside for several separate parking areas can be developed into something else
while the businesses share a central parking lot or garage.

S M A R T P A R K I N G S Y S T E M S : This solution is a newer development that is yet to see

widespread public application. However, it has been put into place effectively in the parking
management of corporations so far and can certainly benefit public urban spaces in the
future. Smart parking systems can vary somewhat from place to place, but generally, their
main goal is to monitor parking space availability in a facility and relay this information to
people through easy-to-understand user interfaces in applications that are accessed through
a smartphone or computer.
Smart parking systems carry out this function with sensors that are installed in the physical
parking spots, which can detect when a vehicle is parked there. These sensors may work
based on a variety of detection methods including ultrasonic waves, electromagnetic fields,
or infrared. The sensors transmit their data to a cloud network, which then communicates
information in real-time to user devices through internet-connected applications.
When such a system is employed over a broad range of parking areas, it can be used to
make finding a parking space easier, since the user has a clear picture of their destination
before arriving. This in turn can reduce street traffic since fewer people are on the road
searching aimlessly for parking. Smart parking systems can also prove useful in allowing for
people to make parking reservations for certain places.

M E C H A N I C A L S T A C K P A R K I N G : It is common practice today to spread parking lots

laterally around a building or to erect a parking structure with multiple levels. Neither of these
designs allocate space in an efficient manner, however. A typical parking lot kills potential for
vertical expansion, and a parking garage still contains a lot of unused space. Since vehicles
and people must be able to traverse the garage, each level must possess empty space
between and around parked vehicles.
Mechanical stack parking can considerably improve space efficiency to different degrees
based on the constraints surrounding a parking renovation or construction project. This
solution utilizes moving platforms to store cars where previously they could not be parked. In
its most basic form, a second automobile can be stacked on top of another with a hydraulic
lift mechanism that raises up a car high enough over a parking space for another car to park
underneath. When many spaces need to be created in a city, though, there are even more
effective types of mechanical stack parking to choose from.
Some systems, namely semiautomatic systems, are able to shuffle around multiple parking
spots so that several additional spots can be created over the typical grounded ones in a
single floor of an existing parking garage. This results in more spots without any expansion in

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 land usage. Whenever a person needs to park, the platforms (represented by a tile) move so
that an empty space is brought to the ground. Other cars that are currently not in use may be
moved up to an elevated position in the meantime. When someone returns and their car is
high up, they can interact with a nearby interface or with a phone application to move the
spaces again and bring their car down.
If creating an entirely new parking area is an option, a design reminiscent of shelving can be
created either above or below ground. This kind of system is designated as automatic, and
users only see the entrance platform where they drop off their car. From there, the system
moves the car on a platform internally to place it into an open shelf that can be many stories
up or down. This system saves spaces because it does not need to account for pedestrians
and vehicles driving within it. It can therefore pack vehicles much more compactly.
For information on mechanical stack parking, contact Harding Steel. We can help you
successfully implement greater space usage with our variety of mechanical parking solutions
that are suited to a wide array of specific needs.

Transport Problems in Urban Transport

 Traffic Movement and Congestion: ...

 Public Transport Crowding: ...
 Off-Peak Inadequacy of Public Transport: ...
 Difficulties for Pedestrians: ...
 Parking Difficulties: ...
 Environmental Impact: ...
 Atmospheric Pollution:

While urban transport has had a tremendous liberating impact, it has also posed a very serious
problem to the urban impact in which it operates. Buchanan gave a warning in 1963 when he
wrote Traffic in Towns, that “the motor vehicle has been responsible for much that adversely
effects our physical surrounding.
There is its direct competition for space with environmental requirements, and it is greatest where
space is limited… the record is one of steady encroachment, often in small instalments, but
cumulative in effect. There are the visual consequences of this intrusion; the crowding out of every
available square yard of space with vehicles, either moving or stationary, so that buildings seem to
rise from a plinth of cars; the destruction of architectural scenes; visual effects from the cutter of
signs, signals, bollards, railings, etc., associated with the use of motor vehicles”.
Michael Thomson’s classic book Great Cities and Their Traffic (1977) provides a useful
breakdown of the ways in which most people are dissatisfied with the transport systems of their
cities.

1. Traffic Movement and Congestion: Traffic congestion occurs when urban transport networks
are no longer capable of accommodating the volume of movements that use them. The location of
congested areas is determined by the physical transport framework and by the patterns of urban
land use and their associated trip-generating activities. Levels of traffic overloading vary in time,
with a very well-marked peak during the daily journey-to-work periods.
Although most congestion can be attributed to overloading, there are other aspects of this basic
problem that also require solutions. In the industrialised countries increasing volumes of private
car, public transport and commercial vehicle traffic have exposed the inadequacies of urban roads,
especially in older city centres where street patterns have survived largely unaltered from the
nineteenth century and earlier.
The intricate nature of these centres makes motorised movements difficult and long-term car
parking almost impossible. In developing countries the problem is particularly acute: Indian and
South-East Asian cities often have cores composed of a mesh of narrow streets often accessible
only to non-motorised traffic.
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The rapid growth in private car ownership and use in western cities in the period since 1950 has
rarely been accompanied by a corresponding upgrading of the road network, and these increases
will probably continue into the twenty-first century, further exacerbating the problem. In less-
developed countries car ownership in urban areas is in at a much lower level but there is evidence
of an increased rate in recent decades, especially in South America and South-East Asia
(Rimmer, 1977).
Satisfactory definitions of the saturation level of car ownership vary but if a ratio of 50 cars to 100
persons is taken then in several US cities the figure is now over 80 per 100, whereas in South-
East Asian cities the level rarely exceeds 10 per 100. One factor contributing to congestion in
developing world cities is the uncontrolled intermixing of motorised and animal-or human-drawn
vehicles. The proliferation of pedal and motorcycles causes particular difficulties (Simon 1996).
2. Public Transport Crowding: The ‘person congestion’ occurring inside public transport vehicles
at such peak times adds insult to injury, sometimes literally. A very high proportion of the day’s
journeys are made under conditions of peak-hour loading, during which there will be lengthy
queues at stops, crowding at terminals, stairways and ticket offices, and excessively long periods
of hot and claustrophobic travel jammed in overcrowded vehicles.
In Japan, ‘packers’ are employed on station platforms to ensure that passengers are forced inside
the metro trains so that the automatic doors can close properly. Throughout the world, conditions
are difficult on good days, intolerable on bad ones and in some cities in developing countries
almost unbelievable every day. Images of passengers hanging on to the outside of trains in India
are familiar enough. Quite what conditions are like inside can only be guessed at?
3. Off-Peak Inadequacy of Public Transport: If public transport operators provide sufficient
vehicles to meet peak-hour demand there will be insufficient patronage off-peak to keep them
economically employed. If on the other hand they tailor fleet size to the off-peak demand, the
vehicles would be so overwhelmed during the peak that the service would most likely break down.

This disparity of vehicle use is the hub of the urban transport problem for public transport
operators. Many now have to maintain sufficient vehicles, plant and labour merely to provide a
peak-hour service, which is a hopelessly uneconomic use of resources. Often the only way of
cutting costs is by reducing off-peak services, but this in turn drives away remaining patronage
and encourages further car use. This ‘off-peak problem’ does not, however, afflict operators in
developing countries. There, rapidly growing urban populations with low car ownership levels
provide sufficient off-peak demand to keep vehicle occupancy rates high throughout the day.
4. Difficulties for Pedestrians: Pedestrians form the largest category of traffic accident victims.
Attempts to increase their safety have usually failed to deal with the source of the problem (i.e.,
traffic speed and volume) and instead have concentrated on restricting movement on foot.
Needless to say this worsens the pedestrian’s environment, making large areas ‘off-limits’ and
forcing walkers to use footbridges and underpasses, which are inadequately cleaned or policed.
Additionally there is obstruction by parked cars and the increasing pollution of the urban
environment, with traffic noise and exhaust fumes affecting most directly those on feet.
At a larger scale, there is the problem of access to facilities and activities in the city. The
replacement of small-scale and localised facilities such as shops and clinics by large-scale super-
stores and hospitals serving larger catchment areas has put many urban activities beyond the
reach of the pedestrian. These greater distances between residences and needed facilities can
only be covered by those with motorised transport. Whereas the lack of safe facilities may be the
biggest problem for the walker in developing countries, in advanced countries it is the growing
inability to reach ‘anything’ on foot, irrespective of the quality of the walking environment.

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5. Parking Difficulties: Many car drivers stuck in city traffic jams are not actually trying to go
anywhere: they are just looking for a place to park. For them the parking problem is the urban
transport problem: earning enough to buy a car is one thing but being smart enough to find
somewhere to park it is quite another. However, it is not just the motorist that suffers. Cities are
disfigured by ugly multi-storey parking garages and cityscapes are turned into seas of metal, as
vehicles are crammed on to every square metre of ground.
Public transport is slowed by clogged streets and movement on foot in anything like a straight line
becomes impossible. The provision of adequate car parking space within or on the margins of
central business districts (CBDs) for city workers and shoppers is a problem that has serious
implications for land use planning.
A proliferation of costly and visually intrusive multi-storey car-parks can only provide a partial
solution and supplementary on-street parking often compound road congestion. The extension of
pedestrian precincts and retail malls in city centres is intended to provide more acceptable
environments for shoppers and other users of city centres. However, such traffic-free zones in turn
produce problems as they create new patterns of access to commercial centres for car-borne
travellers and users of public transport, while the latter often lose their former advantage of being
conveyed directly to the central shopping area.
6. Environmental Impact: The operation of motor vehicles is a polluting activity. While there are
innumerable other activities which cause environmental pollution as a result of the tremendous
increases in vehicle ownership, society is only now beginning to appreciate the devastating and
dangerous consequences of motor vehicle usage. Pollution is not the only issue.
Traffic noise is a serious problem in the central area of our towns and cities and there are other
environmental drawbacks brought about through trying to accommodate increasing traffic
volumes. The vast divergence between private and social costs is one, which has so far been
allowed to continue without any real check. Perhaps more disturbing is that society is largely
unaware of the longer-term effects of such action, and while the motorcar is by no means the only
culprit, it is a persistently obvious offender.
Traffic Noise: It is generally recognised that traffic noise is the major environment problem
caused by traffic in urban areas. Noise became a pressing problem late in the 1950s and in 1960
the Government set up a committee to look into the whole issue. This committee, headed by Sir
Alan Wilson, pointed out with reference to London that traffic noise “is the predominant source of
annoyance and no other single noise is of comparable importance”.

Traffic noise is both annoying and disturbing. Walking and other activities in urban areas can be
harassing and, perhaps more important, traffic noise penetrates through to the interior of buildings.
Working is therefore more difficult since noise disturbs concentration and conversation. High noise
levels can also disturb domestic life as sleeping and relaxation become affected.
Traffic noise tends to be a continuous sound, which is unwanted by the hearer. It is caused as a
result of fluctuations in air pressure, which are then picked up by the human ear. Whilst other
noise phenomena such as aircraft noise and vibrations from a road drill produce a more intense
sound, traffic noise is a much more continuous and an almost round-the-clock discomfort. Noise is
usually measured on a weighted scale in decibel units, an increase of 10 dB corresponding to a
doubling of loudness.
The Wilson Committee published studies, which showed that a decibel noise level of 84 dB was
much as people found acceptable and they proposed legislation which would make any engine
noise more than 85 dB, illegal. They proposed that there should be a progressive reduction in
acceptable limits, but this has not been achieved. In fact, heavy lorries produce a noise level still
well in excess of the above acceptable level.
The noise from motor vehicles comes from various sources. The engine, exhaust and tyres are the
most important ones but with goods vehicles, additional noise can be given off by the body,
brakes, loose fittings and aerodynamic noise. The level of noise is also influenced by the speed of
the vehicle, the density of the traffic flow and the nature of the road surface on which the vehicle is
operating.

26
 Vehicles, which are accelerating or travelling on an uphill surface, produce more noise than those
moving in a regular flow on an even road. The regulations now in force lay down the limits of 84
dB for cars and 89 dB for Lorries. Buses, particularly when stopping and starting, motorcycles and
sports cars as well as goods vehicles produce higher noise levels than the average private car.
7. Atmospheric Pollution: Fumes from motor vehicles present one of the most unpleasant costs
of living with the motor vehicle. The car is just one of many sources of atmospheric pollution and
although prolonged exposure may constitute a health hazard, it is important to view this particular
problem in perspective. As the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution has stated, “there is
no firm evidence that in Britain the present level of these pollutants is a hazard to health”.
Traffic fumes, especially from poorly maintained diesel engines, can be very offensive and added
to noise contribute to the unpleasantness of walking in urban areas. No urban street is free from
the effects of engine fumes and these almost certainly contribute towards the formation of smog.
As traffic volumes increase, however, atmospheric pollution will also increase. In the United
States, with its much higher levels of vehicle ownership, there is mounting concern over the effects
of vehicle fumes. In large cities such as Mexico City, Los Angeles, New York and Tokyo, fumes
are responsible for the creation of very unpleasant smog.
Ecologists believe that the rapid increase in the number of vehicles on our roads which has taken
place without (as yet) any real restriction is fast developing into an environmental crisis. Exhaust
fumes are the major source of atmospheric pollution by the motor vehicle.
The fumes, which are emitted, contain four main types of pollutant:
(i) Carbon monoxide: This is a poisonous gas caused as a result of incomplete combustion;
(ii) Unburnt hydrocarbons: This caused by the evaporation of petrol and the discharge of only
partially burnt hydrocarbons;
(iii) Other gases and deposits: Nitrogen oxides, tetra-ethyl lead and carbon dust particles;
(iv) Aldehydes: Organic compounds containing the group CHO in their structures.
Hydrocarbon fumes are also emitted from the carburettor and petrol tanks, as well as from the
exhaust system.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Traffic Signals

 Traffic signals help for movement of traffic securely without any collision.
 They can reduce the number of accidents on roads like pedestrian accident and right-angle
collision of two cars.
 Signals can increase the capacity of traffic handling at the intersection

Advantages of traffic control signals on the road

o Traffic control signals provide for an orderly movement of traffic.
o They help in reducing the frequency of an accident of some special nature i.e. of right angles
accidents.
o They intercept heavy traffic to allow other traffic to cross the road intersection safety.
o They provide authority to the drivers to move with confidence.
o They control the speed of vehicles on main as well as on secondary roads.
o They direct traffic on different routes without excessive congestion.
o The provide economy over manual control at the intersection.
The disadvantage of traffic control signals on the road
o Traffic control signals may result in a re-entrant collision of vehicles.
o They may cause a delay in the quick movement of traffic.

Advantages of Traffic Signals - Advantages of traffic signals are as follows:

1. Traffic signals help for movement of traffic securely without any collision.

27
2. They can reduce the number of accidents on roads like pedestrian accident and right-angle
collision of two cars.
3. Signals can increase the capacity of traffic handling at the intersection.
4. The traffic signals help for the safe movement of slow-moving traffic by interrupting heavy traffic
at regular intervals.
5. The indications of the signals can be seen easily in foggy weather or at night time. Without
signalling system, it is very difficult to control traffic by the traffic policeman at night or in foggy
weather or on a rainy day.
6. Traffic control by signals is accurate and economical as compared to traffic police control.
7. Under favourable conditions, they provide for continuous motion of traffic along a specified path.

Disadvantages of Traffic Signals - Disadvantages of traffic signals are as follows:

1. They delay the traffic by stopping the vehicles at the intersection during peak hours.
2. During signals breakdown, there are serious and wide-spread traffic difficulties during peak
hours.

What are the objectives of the traffic survey

Traffic surveys which considers countermeasure for improvement of traffic condition. To solve the
current traffic issues, multiple measures including road development and public transport
improvement are required. The traffic survey method should be decided taking into consideration
of those measures

Traffic survey: Traffic surveys consist of various types of data collection techniques done by
surveying various aspects of traffic flow. These include the following services: pedestrian counts,
turning movement counts, bicycle counts, turning movement counts, link flow traffic counts, rail
and bus punctuality surveys, travel time surveys, roundabout counts, parking survey methodology,
queue length surveys, number plate recognition, illegal movement surveys and traffic saturation
flows.

Turning movement counts: Turning movement count is a traffic count survey method that
enables assessing the movement of vehicles, traffic flow and delay characteristics in greater than
three arms. The data collected from a turning movement count survey is used to develop
improvement plans for critical intersections in the short term.

Link flow traffic counts: Link flow traffic counts are easily obtainable by individual vehicle types.
We use link count tools to accurately collect data that will let us predict traffic flow precisely. Link
counts are effective in providing street-level traffic data.

Bicycle counts: This is a method of traffic flow analysis based on non-motorised traffic including
bicycle traffic and pedestrian traffic. The number of bicycle counts however, is limited over space
and thus is not dependent on the type of road user.

Pedestrian counts: Pedestrian count surveys collect useful data related to pedestrian traffic
behaviour. They enable the identification of traffic volume, the time taken to cross the road, any
obstructions, and the usage frequency of crossing infrastructure. The level or frequency of conflict
between cyclists or pedestrians can also be determined through pedestrian counts.

Queue Length Surveys: Typically this involves queue management techniques by recording the
number of vehicles in a queue before the traffic signal turns green for one or all legs on an
intersection. It also involves the recording of the volume of each lane queue depending on the
length of the queue, and by taking into account the number of lanes that exist.

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Journey Time Surveys: Journey time or travel time surveys are done using portable GPS units
installed in survey vehicles. Data collection is possible through travel time surveys at pre-
determined locations. It depends largely on the number of moving vehicles and can also relay
information relating to queue times at each feature, such as signalled junctions. The GPS data is
downloaded when the precise OSGR location of the back of the queue (determined via a
significant reduction in speed) and the time of passing the agreed timings point are shown.

Roundabout Counts: Roundabout Count Report is a method of traffic data collection which helps
in determining the capacity and performance efficiency of roundabout approaches. It sums up the
turning movement volume (TMV) of a roundabout. It also clearly details the entry, traffic circulation
and exit flow rate for each roundabout leg, from origin to destination.

Rail & Bus Punctuality Surveys: Commuter services like the railways define punctuality as
arrival within 3 minutes of the stipulated time. Punctuality surveys enable passengers to rate the
commute or journey on the basis of various parameters. These include the time taken waiting for
the bus or train, their satisfaction with the overall journey and their view of whether they received
value for money.

Journey Time Surveys: Journey time or travel time surveys are done using portable GPS units
installed in survey vehicles. Data collection is possible through travel time surveys at pre-
determined locations. It depends largely on the number of moving vehicles and can also relay
information relating to queue times at each feature, such as signalled junctions. The GPS data is
downloaded when the precise OSGR location of the back of the queue (determined via a
significant reduction in speed) and the time of passing the agreed timings point are shown.

Parking Survey Methodology: The main objective of the parking survey methodology is to
assess usage levels for on and off-street parking. This type of survey also enables the
identification of key issues and constraints in parking demand and supply characteristics.

Number Plate Recognition: Number plate recognition or the ANPR system is a mass
surveillance method involving the capture of images to enable the manual reading of vehicle
registration plates manually. The images collected through number plate recognition involve large
volumes of data which we arrange, sort and analyse to translate them into meaningful data points
for your business.

Illegal Movement Survey: Tracking illegal movements on the road such as traffic violations,
parking in a no-parking zone, and unloading goods in a non-loading zone and so on is enabled
through illegal movement surveys. These surveys are extremely helpful in traffic management and
collating data on traffic offenders.

Traffic Saturation Flows & Degree of saturations (DoS)

The traffic saturation flow rate at signalized intersection can be measured to determine the
capacity of the current roadways and intersections in handling traffic volumes. It is defined as the
number of vehicles per hour that could cross the line if the signal remained green all of the time. It
enables urban infrastructure planning in terms of whether new roads, flyovers and intersections
need to be built with respect to the traffic flows on existing intersections. It also helps in setting
times for traffic signals to change in order to handle traffic. The data is calculated on the
assumption that there is a continuous queue of vehicles with minimal headways. It is also based
on evaluating the maximum number of vehicles that would pass through the intersection if the lane
was in continuous green signal for that hour.

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 Traffic Volume Study - Definition, Methods and Importance
The term traffic volume study can be termed as traffic flow survey or simply the traffic survey.
It is defined as the procedure to determine mainly volume of traffic moving on the roads at a
particular section during a particular time.

Ways of conducting Traffic Survey / Methods of Traffic Volume Study

Following are the means of conducting traffic survey:

1. By Toll Plaza Ticketing
2. Registration offices
3. Statistical Approach
4. By Interviewing
5. By Check posts
6. Modern Global Positioning Systems

Below is the detailed theory of TVS

1. Toll Plaza Ticketing: Toll Plazas are now a day constructed for the collection of revenue from
the road users. This process is very efficient for collection of revenue because many people who
are using the road have to pay that thus playing an important role in the establishment of
economy. Toll Plaza may also be used for conducting the traffic survey. As every vehicle passing
through it have to pay the tax and a receipt is handed over to the persons, thus in this way by
calculating the no of receipts for a particular type of vehicle, it can be know that how much cars,
buses, trucks and other vehicles have left the city and entered.
2. Registration Offices: Every new vehicle has to be registered from the government when it is
bought by its owner. Registration offices are located in every district level and the persons residing
nearby are bound to register their vehicle from the prescribed office. For the purpose of conducting
traffic survey, record from these offices can be taken for a particular year. Thus this record will
enable us to determine the no of new vehicles entered in the roads.

However this method has some draw backs because when an old vehicle sold by a person, after
that the sold vehicle, which was registered in the particular district, may move from that district to a
new place.

3. Statistical Approach: This method is applicable when the records for the past countries are
maintained effectively and efficiently. Thus by using statistical approaches of approximation may
be used to predict future predictions about traffic flow on the road.

4. By Interviewing: Interview is a best method to understand daily routine of a person. Traffic

survey interview requires the knowledge about daily traffic density at different places during
different times of a day. This can be conducted by a group of persons standing at the different
entrance points of a city and inquiring one by one about their routine so that a proper data about
the traffic density at a particular point could be maintained and by using this data, better
management techniques regarding traffic flow could be utilized by respective departments.

This method is quit cumbersome because many of the transporters will not stop to persons for
even a second.

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5. Check Posts: Check posts are provided at the entrance and exit points of a city or a province.
The primary purpose of these is to maintain the legal entry and exit so that thefts & other criminal
cases could be avoided as far as possible. Check posts can also be utilized to conducted traffic
survey. If the proper record regarding the entrance and exit of vehicles is maintained than it is very
easy to determine the no of vehicles entering and leaving the city daily.

In Pakistan, cities like Rawalpindi and Islamabad are now-a-day enjoying some controlled traffic
blockage because the entry of heavy vehicles are not allowed. Thus in this way; traffic problems
can be solved.

6. Global Positioning System: GPS, formally known as the Navstar Global Positioning System,
was initiated in 1973 to aid navigation systems. By creating a system that overcame the limitations
of many existing navigation systems, GPS became attractive to a broad spectrum of users. GPS
has been successful in navigation applications because GPS is accessible using small,
inexpensive equipment. GPS has also played role in many new applications like highway design
etc.

This technique has got a new utilization now a day in traffic surveys in major countries like USA,
China and other developed country. This technique is equipped with a built in chips and navigation
control room. The chip is fitted in the vehicle and that is always in record present in the control
room. Thus record about exact no of vehicles even at a particular road in the city is available at
every instant. This is also called "Automated Surveillance Technique"

Importance of Traffic Volume Study: Traffic survey is very important to be performed

because it can:

1. Increase the efficiency and life of roads

2. Reduces traffic volume at a particular section
3. Provide better means for development of infrastructures
4. Provide better means to utilize other roads in case of special events in the city
5. Provide estimate of no vehicles against no of persons

Thus traffic survey is very important for development of better infrastructure

to the cities and finally to the country.

MASS TRANSPORTATION: Mass transit, also called mass transportation, or public

transportation, the movement of people within urban areas using group travel technologies such
as buses and trains. The essential feature of mass transportation is that many people are carried
in the same vehicle (e.g., buses) or collection of attached vehicles (trains). This makes it possible
to move people in the same travel corridor with greater efficiency, which can lead to lower costs to
carry each person or—because the costs are shared by many people—the opportunity to spend
more money to provide better service, or both.

Mass transit systems may be owned by private, profit-making companies or by governments or

quasi-government agencies that may not operate for profit. Whether public or private, many mass
transportation services are subsidized because they cannot cover all their costs from fares
charged to their riders. Such subsidies assure the availability of mass transit, which contributes to
making cities efficient and desirable places in which to live. The importance of mass transportation
in supporting urban life differs among cities, depending largely on the role played by its chief
competitor, the private automobile.

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People travel to meet their needs for subsistence (to go to work, to acquire food and essential
services), for personal development (to go to school and cultural facilities), and for entertainment
(to participate in or watch sporting events, to visit friends). The need for travel is a derived need,
because people rarely travel for the sake of travel itself; they travel to meet the primary needs of
daily life. Mobility is an essential feature of urban life, for it defines the ability to participate in
modern society. Travelers make rational choices of the modes they use, each choosing the one
that serves him or her best, although best may be viewed differently by each traveler.
Transportation services in a city define the alternatives from which travelers must choose, the
activities available to them, and the places to which they can go. The transportation available to an
individual is the collective result of government policies, the overall demand for travel in the region,
competition among different modes, and the resources available to each individual to buy
services. Urban transportation services directly affect the character and quality of urban life, which
can differ among individuals who have access to different kinds and amounts of transportation
services.
Evolution of urban mass transportation

Growth in the 19th century: The history of urban mass transportation is first a story of the
evolution of technology, from walking, to riding animals, to riding in groups on vehicles pulled by
animals, and eventually to cable cars, larger-capacity steam-powered trains, electric trains, and
motor buses powered by internal-combustion engines. It is a story of gradually increasing speed,
vehicle capacity, and range of travel that has shaped cities and structured the lives of those who
live in them.

The horse-drawn omnibus, first used in France in 1828, allowed as many as 25 or 50 people to
share a ride across muddy urban streets. These were operated by private entrepreneurs who
intended to profit by serving the busiest corridors in town. Starting in New York City in 1832,
operators installed rails in the streets to provide a smooth roadbed both for the benefit of
passengers and to minimize the energy required to pull the vehicles. The cable car, a
rail vehicle dragged by a long cable pulled by steam power from a central station, was invented in
1873 to master the steep hills of San Francisco. This idea spread to Chicago and other cities in
order to avoid the unpleasant side effects of horses in dense urban areas.

The omnibus-on-rails, the cable car, and eventually steam and electric trains were limited to
operations on fixed guideways (rails), and extending the service required installing more rails, a
large and semi-permanent investment. This inflexibility of a rail-based system was balanced by its
low rolling resistance, which permitted the connection of several vehicles into trains where the
demand for travel in the corridor was sufficiently high. Trains were efficient for carrying large
numbers of travelers because a single guideway (track) could carry many trains each day, and the
number of workers did not have to increase in proportion to the number of vehicles: one motorman
or engineer could operate a train with many cars, perhaps with the help of one or two conductors
to collect fares. In the middle of the 19th century, the motive power for urban mass transportation
advanced to independent steam locomotives, which could pull many cars and thus serve busier
routes. Steam locomotives operated over longer distances than cable cars, and they were more
reliable and considerably faster because they did not depend on a single, fragile cable.
Beginning in Berlin in 1879, steam was gradually replaced by electric power, which was cleaner
and quieter and permitted operation in tunnels so that urban rail transit could be placed beneath
streets and buildings. This allowed construction of new rail lines with minimal disruption to existing
buildings, and it permitted mass transportation to operate free and clear of the congested streets
of 19th-century cities, which were often filled with animal-drawn vehicles, pedestrians, and
vendors’ pushcarts. The idea of separating the right-of-way from other transportation modes and
activities of the city was important to the early and continued success of mass transit. Vehicles
operating on exclusive guideways do not face the delays and risks of collisions experienced by
vehicles operating in mixed traffic, and therefore they can provide faster, more reliable
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transportation. This has become a particularly important competitive advantage of rail transit since
the advent of the automobile.

Benefits of Public Transportation

Especially in the early planning phases of new public transit plans or prioritizing needed
improvements, it’s worth considering the benefits of public transportation when determining budget
and design. Here’s a look at eight transportation benefits to consider:

1. Improves Community Health: For decades, urban planners have looked to public
transportation to facilitate improvements in community health and wellbeing. Public transit riders
must walk from their front doors to the nearby transit stop and back, which increases physical
activity to help address the modern obesity epidemic. In fact, it's possible that people can achieve
the 30 minutes of daily physical activity recommended by using public transit.
2. Economic Benefits to the Community: Every dollar invested in public transportation can
yield around $4 in economic gains in the community. This includes supporting a workforce for
needed improvements, fostering business clusters, and attracting tourists for both business and
pleasure.
People can more easily stop for a snack or a cup of coffee when walking to a transit stop as
opposed to driving. This means small businesses can benefit as well. Also, if a homeowner is
looking to sell residential property, they might receive a higher offer if it’s located close to a public
transportation stop, which is good for the seller and the city’s overall tax base.

3. Improves Fuel Efficiency: One of the most technical benefits of public transportation is the
ability to outfit buses and other public transit vehicles with alternative fuel sources. Some systems
are completely electric or utilize renewable resources for fuel.
Even compared to other gas-powered vehicles, public transportation is better in terms of fuel
efficiency. The average miles per gallon multiplied by the number of private cars on the road
versus transit buses or trains shows less fuel is consumed when using public transportation.

4. Public Transportation Reduces Air Pollution: Less fuel burned means better air quality for
cities that integrate public transit. Approximately 85% of the greenhouse gas emissions that come
from transportation are due to day-to-day commutes. By leaving the car at home, a person can
save up to 20 pounds of carbon dioxide emissions every day.

5. Improves Road Congestion: No one likes to be stuck in traffic, but rising populations demand
improvements in road infrastructure that can be costly and take a lot of time. However, road
construction can often make the situation more challenging before it gets better. Another benefit of
public transportation is that more people riding on buses, trains, and other public systems means
there are fewer vehicles on the road to cause traffic.

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6. Improves Community Mobility: Inter-city transit systems help riders move throughout the
area, regardless of the borough or neighborhood they live in. Many people do not have the
capability to drive, so public transportation is sometimes the only option to help them get to their
destination.
7. Provides an Equitable Transportation System: One way to expand the workforce and
improve a city’s economy is by giving more people the ability to get to their job, and public
transport accomplishes this. This reduces the challenge of needing to be able to afford a car and
gasoline — or rely on someone who owns a vehicle — to earn a paycheck.
8. Public Transportation Improves Commuters Productivity: When someone is behind the
wheel, they should only be doing one thing: driving. Many states even have laws against using a
smartphone at all while operating an automobile. This multi-tasking limitation of driving can result
in hours of ineffective time.
Alternatively, riders of public transportation have the ability to be more productive with their time
during their commute. People can sleep, read, and relax on their way to work.

9. Enhances Employment and Labor Force Accessibility: In terms of mobility and

sustainability, public transportation accessibility has become more important in the design and
evaluation of transit systems. Besides the transit system itself, public transportation’s perceived
accessibility has a considerable impact on life happiness. Another economic consequence of
transportation upgrades is the increased number of workers available on the employment market.

10. Increasing the number of productive man-hours: The benefits of taking public transit
extend beyond cost savings on gas, parking, and other car-related expenditures. Mass transit
might save a lot of time for the public. The time saved by more efficient transportation
infrastructure can promote economic growth which directly helps to raise total economic output by
improving employment access and expanding business opportunities and freight movement
efficiency, and lowering growing road congestion restrictions.

11. Reducing Global Warming: Taking public transportation helps the environment by conserving
energy and reducing harmful carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide,
and greenhouse gas emissions. Traveling via public transit consumes less energy and causes
less pollution than traveling by personal vehicles. By increasing public transportation uses, more
fuel is saved which helps to reduce air pollution and the carbon footprint of that region. According
to a recent study, automobile emissions account for 40% of all types of air pollution.

11. Reduces Reliance on Personal Transportation: In urban areas, a significant amount of

money is spent on transportation, either in the form of personal vehicles or rented cars. This is a
waste of money in the long run. If there is a cheap and convenient urban transit system, there will
be no need for personal automobiles. The saved money can be utilized in other kinds of
investments. This investment has the potential to directly contribute to India’s economic growth.

12. Opens New Markets for Businesses: The mass transit system in the city has a significant
influence on economic growth. A well-developed urban mass transportation system will open up
new economic prospects. It should be noted that a company’s capacity to operate in an efficient
and transportation is one of the most vital facilities. Transportation management is critical for
economic development in general. City transportation has a significant impact on per capita
expenditures and revenues, as well as a country’s GDP.

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Conclusion: As a matter of fact, upgrading public transportation to handle large crowds may be
beneficial. Not only will this significantly reduce pollution, but it will also make movement quick,
simple, and efficient. To achieve India’s goal of rapid economic development, we must concentrate
on improving the efficiency and affordability of urban transportation. Economic development has
been linked to personal mobility across nations and decades. Over the last few decades, India has
experienced phenomenal growth. The mobility infrastructure, on the other hand, has not kept up
with the demand. We must prepare for a rapid increase in demand for mobility as India strives to
become the world’s second-largest economy by 2050

Relationship between land use and transportation

Transportation and land use are inexorably connected. When cities are growing slowly, it is easy
for land utilization and traffic planning to match pace. • In times of rapid economic growth, demand
for land use accelerates and development of transportation facilities may be unable to keep up.

INTRODUCTION: There is no doubt that transportation is a form of land usage, with this there is
a vibrant relationship between the two phenomena. Land use on its own is a wide phenomenon if
to be emphasized on to depth, transportation is as well a broad phenomenon if need be to lay
emphasis on it. Nevertheless land use in a simple simplification is the appropriate classified usage
of available open space such that it meets the maximum wants of people either economically,
socially and in terms of aesthetics. Transportation on the other hand is the movement of people,
goods and services from one region to another so as to meet human socio-economic means.
Transportation systems and land use patterns influence each other. Roads, transit, and other
transportation elements shape land development, while the distribution and types of land uses
affect travel patterns and transportation facilities. A dispersed pattern of low-density development
relies almost exclusively on cars as the primary mode for transportation. Alternatively, denser
urban centres can combine different land uses in closer proximity, encouraging:
a.Walking
b.Biking
c.Transit
d.Other forms of travel

Like many planning issues, the link between land use and transportation is extremely complex.
Many options have been proposed for strengthening the transportation and land-use connection.
Incorporating elements of Smart Growth offer a choice of transportation options.
With the little introduction the following explanation explains factors that can influence
transportation in relationship to land use. Traffic volumes and choices of mode of travel are
influenced by the location, density, and mixture of land uses. Land use planning and transportation
infrastructure need to work together. Communities should plan for the future and be aware of how
their land use plans will affect the levels of traffic, appearance, and points of congestion
on highways. Connected sidewalks, attractive walking environments, and pedestrian crosswalks in
compact settlements:
a. Encourage alternative modes of transportation
b. Decrease reliance on existing transportation infrastructure
c. In the long-run, can save money for your community
d. Give residents travel options and improve live ability • Traffic calming devices on
local streets, such as traffic circles or speed humps
e. The addition of on-street parking provides a buffer between moving vehicles and pedestrians,
while moderating traffic speeds
f. Houses built closer to the sidewalk and street. Porches instead of garages in front facilitate
interaction and are pedestrian friendly.

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Furthermore, transportation investments have a significant influence on surrounding land uses.
Land use patterns also affect the utilization of transportation facilities. These interrelated effects
will occur regardless of whether city officials consider land use indetermining their transportation
investments. Governments, developers, and citizens can work together to design integrated land
use and transportation plans that will help achieve a shared vision for the future. Integrating land
use and transportation more effectively can help shape priorities for transportation investments
and ensure that new transportation projects and land use plans support and reinforce each other.
The above statements can be further improved by the design of newer development patterns
displays a different street layout and land use. This alternative includes an integration of different
land uses in closer proximity by promoting higher densities with a mix of land uses. The principles
of this form of development include:
a. The revitalization of cities and older suburbs with new growth in already developed areas
b. The protection of farms, open spaces, and sensitive environments from new development
c. The reduced cost of building and maintaining public infrastructure and services. Compact
communities can be less costly to local governments, allowing communities to spend money on
other services.

USING THE THEORY MODELS IN EXPLAINING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAND USE

AND TRANSPORTATION: A renowned theory implying the idea that computer models of urban
land use and transportation might contribute to more rational urban planning was born in
the 1950s and culminated in the 1960s. The ‘new tools for planning’ (Harris 1965) were thought
to be a major technological breakthrough that would revolutionize the practice of urban
policymaking. However, the diffusion of urban models faltered soon after the pioneering phase, for
a variety of reasons. The most fundamental probably was that these models were linked to the
rational planning paradigm dominant in most Western countries at that time. They were perhaps
the most ambitious expression of the desire to 'understand' as thoroughly as possible the intricate
mechanisms of urban development, and by virtue of this understanding to forecast and control the
future of cities (Lee 1973). Since then the attitude towards planning has departed from the ideal of
synoptic rationalism and turned to a more modest, increment list interpretation of planning; that
has at least co-determined the failure of many ambitious large-scale modelling project. However,
today the urgency of the environmental debate has renewed the interest in integrated models
of urban land use and transport. There is growing consensus that the negative environmental
impacts of transportation cannot be reduced by transportation policies alone but that they have to
be complemented by measures to reduce the need for mobility by promoting higher-density,
mixed-use urban forms more suitable for public transport. For the evaluation of operational urban
models, an idealized urban model will first be sketched out as a benchmark by which the existing
models can be classified and evaluated. Eight types of major urban subsystem are distinguished.
They are ordered by the speed by which they change, from slow to fast processes:
 Very slow change: networks, land use. Urban transportation, communications and utility
networks are the most permanent elements of the physical structure of cities. Large
infrastructure projects require a decade or more, and once in place, they are rarely abandoned.
The land use distribution is equally stable; it changes only incrementally.
 Slow changes: workplaces, housing. Buildings have a life-span of up to one hundred years and
take several years from planning to completion. Workplaces (non-residential buildings) such as
factories, warehouses, shopping centres or offices, theatres or universities exist much longer
than the firms or institutions that occupy them, just as housing exists longer than the
households that live in it.
 Fast change: employment, population. Firms are established or closed down, expanded or
relocated; this creates new jobs or makes workers redundant and so affects employment.
Households are created, grow or decline and eventually are dissolved, and in each stage in
their lifecycle adjust their housing consumption and location to their changing needs; this
determines the distribution of population.

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 Immediate change: goods transport, travel. The location of human activities in space gives rise
to a demand for spatial interaction in the form of goods transport or travel. These interactions
are the most volatile phenomena of spatial urban development; they adjust in minutes or hours
to changes in congestion or fluctuations in demand. There is a ninth subsystem, the urban
environment. Its temporal behavior is more complex. The direct impacts of human activities,
such as transportation noise and air pollution are immediate; other effects such as water or soil
contamination build up incrementally over time, and still others such as long-term climate
effects are so slow that they are hardly observable. The later figure illustrates the main
interactions of the eight subsystems and their multiple links with the urban environment. It can
be seen, for instance, that the location of workplaces, i.e. non-residential buildings such as
factories, warehouses, office buildings and shops depends on the location of other firms and of
clients and workers, on access to goods transportation and travel by customers and
employees, and on the availability of land, utilities and housing. All eight subsystems affect the
environment by energy and space consumption, air pollution and noise emission, where as
location choices of housing investors and households, firms and workers are co-determined by
environmental quality, or lack of it. All nine subsystems are partly market-driven and partly
subject to policy regulation.
Thirteen Urban Models: For the comparison, thirteen models were selected from the work at the
twenty modelling centres described above. The selection does not imply a judgment on the quality
of the models, but was based simply on the availability of information. These are the thirteen
models:
POLIS: the Projective Optimization Land Use Information System developed by Prastacosfor the
Association of Bay Area Governments (Prastacos 1986).
CUFM: the California Urban Futures Model developed at the University of California atBerkeley
(Landis 1992; 1993; 1994).
BOYCE: the combined models of location and travel choice developed by Boyce (Boyce etal.
1983; 1985; Boyce 1986; Boyce et al. 1992).
KIM: the nonlinear version of the urban equilibrium model developed by Kim (1989) andRho and
Kim (1989).
METROSIM: the new microeconomic land-use transportation model by Anas.
ITLUP: the Integrated Transportation and Land Use Package developed by Putman (1983;1991).
HUDS: the Harvard Urban Development Simulation developed by Kain and Apgar (1985).

Types of Roads Classification or road hierarchy in India(Urban & Non-Urban

Road)

Indian roads are classified as rural(non-urban) and urban roads, they are further classified as
national highways, state highways, expressways, village roads, etc. The following 10 types of
roads are described below:
Classification of Rural(Non-Urban) Roads: The road which is located in the non-urban areas
connect cities & towns across the country are called rural roads or non-urban roads. This
classification is also known as the IRC classification of roads. In India, Non-urban roads are
classified into five categories as follows.

1) National Highways (N.H): The national highway is the main road running through the length
and breadth of the country. They connect capitals of states, ports, large towns, industrial centres,
and foreign highways.
Such highways are the main arteries of road transport in the country. These are of national
importance for strategic, administrative and other purposes. Example: N.H-34, N.H-31.

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2) State Highways (S.H): These roads are the main arteries of traffic within a state. They connect
important cities and district headquarters within the state. They are also known as Provincial
Highways. These highways are the main arteries of road transport within a state. Example: S.H-7
3) Major District Roads (M.D.R): The important roads within a district serving area of production
and markets and connecting those with each other or with main highways are known as Major
District Roads.
4) Other District Roads (O.D.R): The roads serving rural areas of production and connecting
them with an outlet to market centres, taluk headquarters, block headquarters or other main roads
are called Other District Roads.
5) Village Roads: The roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each other or with the
nearest road of a higher category are known as village roads.
Classification of Urban Roads: The road systems within urban areas are classified as urban roads.
In India, urban roads are classified into the following categories:
1) Expressways: The portion of the roadway of an urban road reserved for use only by high speed
or power-driven vehicles is called Expressway or motorway or superhighway.
2) Arterial Roads: These are streets primarily for the high traffic on a continuous route. Arterials
have a higher level of traffic mobility.
3) Sub-arterial Roads: These roads serve the same purposes as an arterial roads but have a lower
level of traffic than the arterial roads.
4) Collector Streets: Collector Streets provide access to arterial streets and they collect &
distribute from and to local streets.
5) Local Streets: Local Streets provide access to adjoining property. These streets do not carry a
large volume of traffic.

Classification or Types of Roads

The roads are classified based on many factors as follows.
 Materials
 Location & function
 Traffic volume
 Width
 Economy
 Traffic type
 Rigidity
 Topography

Based on Materials
1. Earthen roads
2. Gravel roads
3. Murrum roads
4. Kankar roads
5. WBM roads
6. Bituminous roads
7. Concrete roads
1. Earthen Roads: Earthen roads are laid with soil. They are cheaper than all types of roads. This
type of road is provided for fewer traffic areas or countryside areas. A good drainage system
should be provided, which reflects excellent performance for a more extended period.
2. Gravel Roads: Gravel roads are also low-quality roads, but they are better when compared
with earthen roads. A compacted mixture of gravel and earth is used as pavement material in this
case.
3. Murrum Roads: Murrum is a matter obtained from the disintegration of igneous rocks by
weathering agencies. This is used to make roads called murrum roads.

38
4. Kankar Roads: Kankar is an impure form of limestone. Kankar roads are provided where lime
is available in a reasonable quantity. The Kankar roads are low quality and performance.
5. WBM Roads: Water Bound Macadam (WBM) roads contain crushed stone aggregate in its
base course. The aggregates are spread on the surface and rolled after sprinkling water. WBM
roads provide better performance compared to earthen, gravel, murrum, and kankar roads.
WBM roads are laid as layers of about 10cm thickness of each layer. They are very rough and
may disintegrate immediately under traffic.
6. Bituminous Roads: Bituminous roads are prevalent roads around the world. They are the most
used roads in the world. This road types are low in cost and suitable for driving conditions. The
thickness of bituminous roads depends upon the subgrade soil conditions.
7. Concrete Roads: Cement concrete is used to construct the pavements in case of concrete
roads. These are very popular and costlier than all other types of roads. They are not flexible, so
they require less maintenance.
Concrete roads are suitable for high traffic areas. They are laid with joints and time of construction
is more.

Based on Location and Function

1. National highways
2. State highways
3. District roads
4. Rural roads or village roads
1. National Highways: National highways are the main roads that connect all major cities to the
capital of the country. They run throughout the length and breadth of the country. A minimum two-
lane road is provided for national highways.
2. State Highways: State highways are the second main roads that connect significant parts of
the state within it. State highway ultimately connects to the national highways.
3. District Roads: District roads are provided within the cities and connect markets and
production places to state and national highways. Two types of district roads are there namely,

 Major district roads

 Minor district roads
Major district roads connect headquarters of the neighboring district with main parts of the area
while minor district roads are laid within the region.
5. Rural Roads or Village Roads: Village roads connect the nearby villages. They lead to a
nearby town or district roads. Usually, low-quality roads are provided as village roads
because of low traffic.
6. Based on Traffic Volume
1. Light traffic roads
2. Medium traffic roads
3. High traffic roads
1. Light Traffic Roads: The roads which are carrying 400 vehicles daily on an average is called
light traffic reoads.
2. Medium Traffic Roads: If a road is carrying 400 to 1000 vehicles per day, then it is said to be a
medium traffic road.
3. High Traffic Roads: If a road is carrying is more than 1000 vehicles per day then it is
considered as high traffic road.

Based on Economy
1. Low-cost roads
2. Medium cost roads
3. High-cost roads
The economy depends upon the location and function of roads and also on the traffic analysis.
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Based on Traffic Type
1. Pedestrian ways
2. Cycle tracks
3. Motorways
1. Pedestrian Ways: Pedestrian ways are exclusively built for pedestrians, and no vehicles are
permitted in this way.
2. Cycle Tracks
Cycle tracks or bicycle tracks are provided on both sides of the pavement for cyclists; hence they
can travel safely.
3. Motorways: Motorways are also known as expressways. Only a few vehicles are accessible to
use this type of road. The cars which can move with high-speed acceleration are permitted in this
way. Motorways makes travel quick and provides comfort for high-speed vehicles.

Based on Rigidity
1. Flexible roads
2. Rigid roads
1. Flexible Roads: Flexible roads consist of a flexible layer as a pavement surface, which requires
proper maintenance; otherwise, it can be disintegrated easily with heavy traffic. All types of roads
except concrete roads fall under this category.
2. Rigid Roads: Rigid pavements are non-flexible and cement concrete roads are fall under this
category.

Based on Topography
1. Plain area road
2. Hilly area roads
1. Plain Area Road: The roads constructed on leveled surface is known as plain area roads.
2. Hilly Area Roads: Roads constructed in hilly regions are called as hill area roads or ghat roads.
Generally these are provided around the hill in a spiral shape.

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