Chapter 4 HOW IMPORTANT WAS THE WORK OF SIR SYED AHMED

KHAN TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PAKISTAN MOVEMENT IN THE

19TH CENTURY?
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898)
Early Biographical Details
i) Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, born in 1817 in Delhi, was raised by a respected and wealthy
family. His father prioritized his education.

ii) Sir Syed, by 18 years old, was proficient in Arabic, Persian, Mathematics, Medicine,
and Literature, having been introduced to several renowned Indian writers.

iii) Sir Syed, a prominent legal figure, rose to prominence after his father's death in
1838. He became a judge in Delhi in 1846 and wrote a renowned book, Athar-al-
Sanadeed, on archaeology.

iv) Sir Syed, was a chief judge in Bijnaur during the 1857 War of Independence, saved
many lives and was offered a large income in return for his loyalty but he refused.

v) Despite his unpopularity with some Muslims due to his belief in the futility of
armed uprising against the British, he continued to work towards reconciliation after
the war.

vi) He served as Chief Justice in Muradabad, Ghazipore, and Aligarh, where he played
a crucial role in establishing a new college in 1864.

vii) In 1876, he retired from law to run Aligarh college, focusing on improving Muslim
status through education, leading to a 'Muslim renaissance'. He died in 1898.

Beliefs

i) Sir Syed was unhappy with the Muslim subcontinent's decline since the Mughal
Empire and their role in the War of Independence, as British took measures to make
their control free from further challenges.

ii) Sir Syed criticized British and Hindu treatment of Muslims, recognizing their
responsibility for their situation, while some Muslims rejected British rule, viewing
them as invaders.

iii) He was with the view that Muslims must embrace British ideas and utilize British
education to enhance their position. If they didn't, Hindus would continue to prosper
due to their cooperative approach.

iv) Sir Syed aimed for Muslim unity, prosperity, and economic, social, political, and
religious improvements, founding 'The Aligarh Movement' to promote a 'Muslim
renaissance' in Aligarh.

Aims of Aligarh Movement:

• to improve relations between British and Muslims by removing British doubts about
Muslim loyalty and Muslims' about British intentions.

• to enhance the social and economic status of Muslims by promoting Western

education and promoting their participation in civil service and army.

• to raise political awareness among the Muslim community about the potential
threat to their position from Hindus' policy of cooperation with the British.

Work

1. Improving Relations Between the British and Muslim Community

i) Sir Syed emphasized the need for improved relations with the British and higher-
quality education for Muslims in the subcontinent to enhance their position in the
region. There were two obstacles to good relations.

A Syed aimed to correct the British's false view that Muslims held the entire
responsibility for the War of Independence, despite their repression policies against
Muslims.

B The Muslim community, deeply resentful of British rule, rejected Western ideas
that did not align with Islamic beliefs seeing British as 'foreign invaders'. Sir Syed
wanted to ensure that the British rule's benefits, particularly in science and
technology, were embraced by the Muslim community.

Convincing the British

i) In 1860, Sir Syed wrote "The Loyal Muhammadans of India," defending Muslims
from British accusations of disloyalty and highlighting their loyal service and calling
for end of hostility towards the Muslim community.

ii) Sir Syed argued against British blame for 1857 Indian Revolt events, citing main
reasons in his pamphlet, 'Essay on the Causes of the Indian Revolt':
1. The lack of representation for Indians in the government of the country.
2. The forcible conversion of Muslims to Christianity.
3. The poor management of the Indian army.

iii) He also listed many other measures taken by the British creating
dissatisfaction and leading to resentment among the Muslim community.

iv) The pamphlet was distributed free among British officials in India and sent to
members of parliament in England.

v) Sir Syed's writings sparked anger among British officials who perceived him as
blaming them for the uprising, while others accepted his truthfulness.

vi) Sir Syed clarified misunderstandings between British and Muslims about the term
'Nadarath', arguing it was an Arabic word meaning helper, reflecting positive Muslim
perception of the British.

Convincing the Muslims

i) Sir Syed, aware of the British's limited knowledge of Islam, was offended by an
English book on the Prophet's life on his visit to England, and wrote his own work to
correct the errors.

ii) Sir Syed wrote Tabyin-ul-Kalam for Muslims in India highlighting similarities
between Islam and Christianity, but couldn't complete due to limited resources.
However, it demonstrates his commitment to improving relations.

iii) Another example of this is the British Indian Association established by him to
foster cooperation between the two communities.

2. Encouraging the growth of Western Education

i) British education benefited Hindus, who embraced the English language and sought
employment with the British, despite discrimination against Muslims. By 1871, 711
Hindus were in government employment, outperforming only 92 Muslims.

ii) The 'Hindu Movement' grew stronger as more Hindus received education in new
schools, colleges, and universities, increasing their confidence and causing a lack of
respect for Muslims.

iii) Sir Syed influenced Muslim attitudes towards British education, conflicting with
Ulama who believed Western scientific ideas undermined Islamic beliefs. He
emphasized studying and understanding modern scientific beliefs.
iv) He believed that Quran emphasized it and knowing modern scientific ideas helped
reveal the true majesty of God.

• To garner support,Sir Syed established Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq, an Urdu journal, containing

the articles from influential Muslims who agreed on a new approach to education.
The journal, despite being attacked by some ulama, significantly contributed to an
intellectual revolution among Muslim thinkers.

• Sir Syed founded the Scientific Society in 1863 to translate scientific writings from
Arabic, Persian and English into Urdu, later began issuing the journal, the Aligarh
Institute Gazette in 1866.

• He demonstrated his dedication to expanding educational opportunities by opening

schools in Muradabad in 1859 and Ghazipore in 1864.

• In 1869, Sir Syed studied England's university system and envisioned a Muslim
subcontinent university based on Oxford and Cambridge's model. However, he faced
suspicion and decided to start with a school instead.

• On 24 May 1875, a committee was set up to raise funds and established the
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh, following the English public school
system. However, due to British restrictions, it couldn't initially become the Muslim
University envisioned by Sir Syed.

• The college provided both Western and Indian education, and Islamic education as
well. It became a symbol of Muslim unity and educated future Pakistani leaders like
Liaquat Ali Khan and Ayub Khan.

• Sir Syed, after establishing Aligarh College, established the Mohammedan

Educational Conference in 1886 to promote new educational methods among
Muslims. The conference attracted famous speakers and established a political
platform for Muslims before the formation of Muslim League.

• The college became the University of Aligarh in 1920.

3. Increasing Political Awareness

• Sir Syed was determined to enhance the Muslim community's status by promoting
good relations with the British through his essay on the Causes of the Indian Revolt
and The Loyal Mohammadens of India hoping that this would lead to greater
opportunities for Muslims.
• Sir Syed, despite being perceived as too moderate and British, realized that the
British were too powerful to overthrow and that Muslims would benefit more from
cooperation with them.

• He emphasized the importance of maintaining good relations between Muslims

and Hindus, as they shared a common goal of restoring local authority in their
respective communities. In a speech to the Indian Association he said:

We, Hindus and Muslims, live together on the same soil under the same government.
Our interests and problems are common and, therefore I consider the two factions as
one nation.

• Sir Syed recognized Hindus' reluctance to collaborate with Muslims, leading him to
view them as distinct subcontinent groups.

Indian National Congress

• The Indian National Congress was established in 1885 by the British to gather the
opinions of the educated elite in Indian society.

• The Congress, despite its promise to represent all Indian communities, quickly
revealed itself as a Hindu-dominated body aiming to establish Hindu supremacy over
Muslims.

Political Representation

• Congress proposed introducing a democratic system similar to Britain's, but with

four times as many Hindus as Muslims, it raised concerns that Hindus would always
win, leaving Muslims without representation in this democracy.

Syed spoke out angrily against any such plans saying:

'I am convinced that the introduction of the principle of election would be attended
with evils of greater significance. The larger community would totally override the
interests of the smaller community'

Competitive Examinations

• Congress proposed a competitive examination for government service

appointments, citing the disadvantage Muslims face due to their lack of comparable
education to Hindus.
• Sir Syed emphasized that the success of such an idea would only be possible if
equal educational opportunities were provided.

Language

• Sir Syed was concerned about the 'Hindi-Urdu Controversy'. In 1867, Hindus
demanded Hindi as the next official language, replacing Urdu, which became official
in 1825.

• Hindi became the second language after Sir Syed's death, influenced by Hindu
opposition to Urdu and his 'Two Nation Theory'.

• Urdu held special significance in Muslim community, with many writings in that
language. Sir Syed opposed attack on Urdu, shocked Hindu Scientific Society
members wanted journal published in Hindi.

• Sir Syed opposed Congress's Hindu interests which was to work only for Hindus,
believing it was harmful to the Muslim community, and instead formed the United
Patriotic Alliance which became the Mohammedan Defence Alliance in 1893.

• Rivalry between Hindu and Muslim communities escalated, with Hindus

disrespecting Muslims and extremists playing loud music outside mosques, making
peaceful co-existence increasingly challenging in some areas.

Importance

•Sir Syed Ahmad Khan significantly improved the Muslim community's status in the
subcontinent by working tirelessly to restore relations with the British, challenging
their perception of Muslims as disloyal and untrustworthy.

• Sir Syed significantly influenced a Muslim revival through the Aligarh Movement,
promoting education as a means for self-improvement and better employment,
fostering a greater sense of self-worth.

• The Muslim revival led to increased political awareness among Hindus, who
exploited poor relations between Muslims and the British, with Sir Syed promoting
the 'Two Nation Theory'.

• Once Muslims came to accept the wisdom of this theory, it was only a small step to
call for partition. For this reason Sir Syed Ahmad Khan can rightly be called 'The
Father of the Pakistan Movement'.

Chapter 5 TO WHAT EXTENT HAVE URDU AND REGIONAL

LANGUAGES CONTRIBUTED TO THE CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF
PAKISTAN?

Introduction
▪ Language plays a crucial role in the development of a state or national culture,
promoting uniformity and cultural identity by uniting a people.

▪ Urdu, the national language of Pakistan, is a relatively new language, despite the
diverse languages spoken by Muslims in the subcontinent over time.

History
▪ Since Islam's arrival, various languages have been used in the subcontinent by the
rulers, including Arabic and Turkish, to promote understanding of arts and literature.

▪ Persian, the official language in Delhi's court during the Mughal period, significantly
influenced literature and was adopted by poets and scholars like Amir Khusrau.

▪ Shah Waliullah translated the Quran into Persian, making it accessible to a wider
audience. Many Sanskrit book were also translated into Persian. Its use became so
widespread in daily communication that even Hindus started to use it.

Urdu
When the state of Pakistan was set up, its constitution stated that Urdu was the
national language. It was to be the symbol of unity between the different regions of
the new country. Why was Urdu chosen?

▪ Urdu, a language of the Indian subcontinent, emerged from the blend of Persian,
Turkish, and Punjabi with local dialects in Delhi. It gained prominence during the
Mughal period, but its roots go back to the era of the Delhi Sultans.

▪ In the late 13th century, Muslim armies used a common language to facilitate
communication among people from diverse regions and languages. This language
evolved over time into Urdu, which became widely spoken and understood across the
subcontinent. Muslim travellers also spread this language to other regions.

▪ Urdu language developed a rich literary tradition, especially in poetry. Amir

Khusrau(1253-1325) was important in its early development. Emperors Muhammad
Shah and Bahadur Shah Zafar also supported and promoted Urdu, with Zafar being a
famous poet.

▪ During this period, poets like Mir, Sauda, Dard, and Ghalib were prominent. Aligarh
Muslim University nurtured writers like Hasrat Mohani, Majaz, and Jazbi. In the early
20th century, figures like Dr. Allama Iqbal, Dr. Nazir Ahmad, and others greatly
enriched Urdu literature.

▪ Urdu's widespread use owes much to poets and writers. Its link to Islam, including
the translation of the Quran by Shah Abdul Qadir, and the writing of religious books
in Urdu, has promoted unity among Muslims.

▪ In the 20th century, Urdu played a crucial role in the independence struggle. The
Muslim League, established in 1906, aimed to safeguard Muslim rights and Urdu
language. While English was the official language, institutions like Fort William
College supported and promoted Urdu alongside it.

▪ After 1857, the British shifted their focus to gaining Hindu support and lost interest
in promoting Urdu. In 1867, influential Hindus advocated for Hindi as the primary
language, causing tension with Muslims who saw it as a threat to their rights. Sir Syed
Ahmad Khan formed a society to support Urdu, leading to strained relations between
Hindus and Muslims in the 'Urdu-Hindi Controversy.'

▪ Urdu lacked support from non-Muslims, and not all Muslims endorsed it either. In
Bengal, which was a significant part of Pakistan until 1971, there was discontent over
Bengali not being recognized as the national language. Protests in 1948 in Dhaka
resulted in arrests, and in 1952, tear gas was used to disperse students protesting
against Urdu.

▪ The language dispute played a significant role in the 1971 civil war and the creation
of Bangladesh.

▪ Urdu is the state language today, but Punjabi is the most widely spoken among
Pakistan's 72 first languages.

Urdu as a National Language

▪ Urdu survived opposition and became Pakistan's national language after
independence. Quaid-e-Azam believed it would unify the country, serving as a
common language for all provinces, fostering cultural and educational needs, and
promoting unity.

▪ The government promotes Urdu by using it as the medium of instruction in schools

and for administration. Urdu is also used in radio, TV, popular plays, and films. People
widely read Urdu novels, poetry, magazines, and newspapers written in Urdu.

Sindhi

(i) Sindhi, spoken in Sindh, has remained largely the same since the 12th century,
older than Urdu.

(ii) Before Muslims came to Sindh, Sindhi was written in Marwari and ArzNagari
scripts. With Arab influence, it adopted Arabic words and the Arabic script.

(iii) In 8th century Sindh when Muslims first settled there, Arabic was used for
administration, but Sindhi was the people's language. Later, Persian from Central Asia
also influenced Sindhi, making it a blend of Arabic and Persian.

(iv)Sindhi has notable poets like Makhdum Nuh and Qazi Qazan of Thatta who
contributed to its development.

(v)Sindhi literature flourished during the Somroo period from 1050-1300 and reached
its peak between 1685-1783. Sachal Sarmast and Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai are
renowned poets from this era.

(vi) Sindhi language grew with the emergence of 19th-century journals, starting with
Ta'alim Alkhashaf-o-Tauheed.

In modern times, efforts have been made to promote the Sindhi language:

▪ In 1948, the Sindhi Literary Board was established, publishing numerous Sindhi
books and magazines. Notable Sindhi authors include Pir Ali Muhammad Rashdi,
Fagir Nabi Bux, and G. Allana.

▪ Several significant books focus on Sindhi folk literature. In 1954, Bazm-e-Talib-ul-

Muala was established to support Sindhi literature.

▪ An academy in memory of Sachal Sarmast has been founded.

▪ Sindh University Jamshoro now has a Sindhiology department.

Balochi

(i) Balochi is the primary language in Balochistan, Pakistan's largest province, but
Persian and Brohi are also spoken. Balochi has two main variants: Sulemanki and
Mekrani.

(ii) Balochi came to Balochistan through migrating tribes from North-West Iran,
known for their nomadic lifestyle.

(iii) Balochi literature is underdeveloped due to its oral tradition. Early Balochi poetry
mainly consists of folk songs, with Jam Darang being a notable poet.

(iv) Balochi language gained recognition beyond the region in 1830 when British
traveler W. Leech mentioned Balochi language and literature in the Journal of Asiatic
Society.

(v) Before partition, Balochi literature was on the decline, with few Balochi
publications and even the Balochistan Gazetteer being in English.

However, some steps have been taken after the partition to promote the language:

▪ Radio Pakistan Karachi started broadcasting in Balochi.

▪ The Balochi Literary Association was established, leading to the publication of

weekly and monthly magazines in the language.

▪ Quetta Television Station airs programs in Balochi.

▪ Modern Balochi literature has advanced quickly with notable poets like Atta Shad
and Ishaq Shamin. Writers like Gul Khan Nazir and Azad Jamal Din also promote the
Balochi language.

Punjabi

(i) Punjabi is the main language in Pakistan's most populous province, Punjab. It's
also spoken in places like Azad Kashmir and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. It's had different
names in the past, like 'Masoodi,' 'A-Hindi,' and 'Hindko.'

(ii) In 1080, Hafiz Barkhurdar was the first to use the term 'Punjabi' for the language.
(iii) Punjabi has a rich history. It was written in Gurmukhi script, but later, Arabic
script was used during the Mughal era. The language has been influenced by Persian,
Arabic, Hindi, Turkish, and English. There are various Punjabi dialects, and in Western
Punjab, it has been influenced by Sindhi and Pashto.

(iv) Early Punjabi literature includes folk tales like Heer-Ranjha, Sassi, Punnu, and
Sohni-Mahiwal. There's also a strong tradition of mystic literature dating back to the
twelfth century, with Sufi poets like Baba Farid Ganjshakar and Sultan Bahu writing
famous works in Punjabi. Bullhe Shah composed beautiful mystical poetry that is still
sung today.

(v) In the early 20th century, Punjabi saw the rise of novels, short stories, and
dramas. As the century went on, academic books on subjects like Law, Medicine,
History, and Philosophy were published in Punjabi. Punjabi poetry evolved with new
forms like ghazal and nazm, including blank verse becoming popular.

(vi) A new literary movement saw versified translations of the Holy Quran by
Muhammad Ali Faiq. Ustad Daman, Sharif Kunjahi, Ahmad Rahi, and MunirNiazi,
along with younger writers, are changing traditional Punjabi literature in content and
form. Punjabi literature is now taught up to the MA level at the University of Punjab.

Pashto
(i) Pashto is spoken in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and northern Balochistan, influenced by
Arabic, Persian, and Greek.

Pashto literature has three periods in its history:

♧The first period is from the 2nd to the 13th century. Amir Khan Pehivan and Bayazid
Ansari were notable poets. Bayazid Ansari's "Khair-ul-Bian" was a significant early
book on Sufism in Pashto literature.

♧The second period, starting in the early 13th century, lasted about a century. Pashto
prose and poetry flourished, reflecting nationalistic sentiments and asserting Pashto
freedom, especially during the Mughal invasions. Notable figures include HazratMian
Umar, Saadat Ali Khan, and Amir Muhammad Ansari.

♧The second period, starting in the early 13th century, lasted about a century. Pashto
prose and poetry flourished, reflecting nationalistic sentiments and asserting Pashto
freedom, especially during the Mughal invasions. Notable figures include HazratMian
Umar, Saadat Ali Khan, and Amir Muhammad Ansari.
♧The third period continued until British rule and was a golden era for Pashto
literature with many high-quality works. Notable writers include AkhundDardeeza,
Khushal Khan Khattak, and Sufi poet Rehman Baba.

(ii) Pashto literature played a crucial role in opposing British rule and the
independence movement. Sahibzada Abdul Qayum worked to raise political
awareness, leading to the establishment of Islamia College in Peshawar. The college
promoted unity and became a center for the freedom movement in the North West
Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa).

(iii) Within three years of Independence, Peshawar University was founded, and in
1954, an academy for promoting Pashto literature was established. It created a
widely accepted Pashto dictionary, and postgraduate Pashto literature classes have
been available at university level in KP since then.

SECTION 2 Emergence of Pak 1906 - 1947

Introduction
i) In the early 1900s, the British ruled India, but within 50 years, they had to leave
and split it into India and Pakistan.

ii) One key reason for the path to independence was the rise of religious
organizations. The Indian National Congress was established in the late 1800s, and in
1906, the Muslim League was formed to represent Muslim perspectives.

iii) Initially, Hindus and Muslims joined forces against the British, signing the Lucknow
Pact and participating in the Khilafat movement.

iv) But in the 1920s and 1930s, they often disagreed and even resorted to violence.
When Congress ruled India for two years after the 1937 elections, religious rivalry
grew especially intense.

v) Both Congress and the Muslim League wanted British exit from India, but they
disagreed on the post-British plan.

vi) Inspired by leaders like Allama Muhammad Iqbal, Rahmat Ali, and especially
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Muslims felt they wouldn't get fair treatment in a Hindu-
dominated India.
vii) In 1940, the Pakistan Resolution made partition and a Muslim homeland the
official Muslim League policy.

viii) Before Pakistan's creation, there were efforts to keep India united, with British
and Congress opposing partition.

ix) However, Muhammad Ali Jinnah's determination played a crucial role. On August
14, 1947, Pakistan became independent, largely thanks to his efforts, and he became
its first Governor-General.

Chapter 6 HOW FAR DID THE PAKISTAN MOVEMENT

DEVELOPDURING THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY?

The Indian National Congress

The Beginning of Indian Political Awareness

i) By the late 1800s, both Indians and the British realized the need for an Indian
national political organization to communicate Indian perspectives to the British.

ii) In 1883, the Indian Association proposed this idea, and a British Member of
Parliament suggested the same in a letter to The Times newspaper that year.

iii) A former member of the Indian Civil Service, Allan Octavian Hume, sent a letter to
Calcutta University graduates, urging them to create a national political organization.
He then established the Indian National Union with branches in various cities.

iv) British Viceroy Lord Dufferin supported Hume's efforts, seeing the organization as
a way to manage the growing forces in India.

v) On December 28, 1883, two conferences were held simultaneously, one in Bombay
and another in Calcutta, as part of the Indian National Union's activities.

vi) The conferences held in Bombay and Calcutta were conducted under the name
"Indian National Congress" or "Congress." This marked the start of an organization
that played a significant role in India's independence.

vii) In the beginning, Congress aimed not to upset Britain, expressing loyalty to
Queen Victoria, who ruled the British Empire. Its initial goal was to broaden the basis
of government.

viii) In 1886, during its second meeting, the Congress had 436 elected delegates
representing their provinces. Congress expressed its goal to establish an organization
dedicated to promoting the well-being of both India and Britain.

》 This would be achieved in two ways:

♤ Congress sought to educate the public in India and Britain by publishing resolutions
in newspapers and forming a British Committee.

♤ Congress worked to end unfair practices by advocating for more Indian

representation in the Indian Civil Service (ICS) and provincial legislative councils.

ix) Congress had limited success. They influenced the introduction of the Indian
Councils Act of 1892, which increased Indian representation in councils, but these
bodies had little power and were mostly disregarded by the British.

x) Eventually, the British began to ignore Congress as well. Lord Dufferin called it a
"microscopic minority" of Indian opinion, and in 1900, Lord Curzon expressed a
desire to see Congress fade away peacefully.

xi) Despite challenges, many Congress members believed in the possibility of the
British granting greater roles to Indians in government.

xii) These "Moderates" trusted in British fairness and saw benefits in British rule, like
political stability and modern justice and education.

xiii) They believed peaceful protest and persuasion could lead the British to loosen
their control.

xiv) Some Indians wanted faster progress, and in the late 1800s, a radical form of
nationalism started to emerge.

♤ Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak passionately called for Indian "freedom." In 1897,
he was jailed for writing a provocative newspaper article.
♤ In the late 1870s, numerous secret societies emerged with the goal of removing
the British from India.

♤ In 1897, a British officer and his companion were assassinated, causing concern
among the British. They responded by taking measures to suppress the situation,
including the partition of Bengal.

The Partition of Bengal

i) In the late 19th century, Bengal, the largest Indian province, had 54 million people
in Western Bengal (42M Hindus, 12M Muslims) and 31 million in East Bengal and
Assam (12M Hindus, 18M Muslims).

ii) Governing this vast area was a significant challenge, with Bengal's population
being ten times that of Britain at the time.

iii) The British suggested dividing Bengal into two provinces in 1903, with Viceroy
Curzon proposing West Bengal and East Bengal.

iv) East Bengal would include Assam, Dhaka, Chittagong, and Mymensingh, aiming for
more efficient governance.

v) In 1905, the British divided Bengal as proposed by Curzon. While some thought it
aimed at efficiency, many Hindus suspected 'sinister' reasons. Regardless of British
intentions, the partition sparked conflict between Muslims and Hindus.

The Muslim View

i) The partition brought joy to Muslims, improving their status overnight.

ii) Previously (since 1867) mistrusted by the British, they faced educational
restrictions. Hindus had enjoyed advantages, attempting to replace Urdu with Hindi.

iii) Now, Muslims gained recognition with a majority province, providing relief from
Hindu rule.

The Hindu View

i) Hindus thought the Bengal division was a tactic in the British 'divide and rule'
strategy. With Congress dominance and calls for reform, they believed the British
aimed to weaken Hindu unity by creating Muslim-majority East Bengal, reducing the
perceived 'Hindu threat.'

ii) The Bengal partition angered Hindus, who declared October 16, 1905, a day of
mourning. Numerous protests and petitions followed, and an assassination attempt
on the future Viceroy, Lord Minto, occurred later.

iii) Hindus initiated a boycott of British goods, promoting the 'Swadeshi Movement.'
They rejected British products, burning cloth in bonfires and embracing locally made
items.

iv) Strikes in places like Calcutta further opposed British actions, leading to a
significant drop in the sale of British goods.

The British Reaction to the Hindu Protest

Immediate steps by the British to deal with the Hindu protest:

• Newspaper and public meeting restrictions imposed (1906-1908), leading to editor

prosecutions and imprisonment.

• Press Act of 1908 increased government control over newspapers.

• Tilak arrested in June 1908, sentenced to six years; other radical leaders fled to
avoid arrest.

• Local prisons filled with British-labeled 'revolutionaries'; some suspects deported

without trial.
> British recognized harsh measures alone wouldn't suffice; opted for reform to gain
support from moderate Hindus.

> In 1905, Lord Minto, grandson of a former Governor-General, became Viceroy. He

collaborated with the Secretary of State for India on Morley-Minto Reforms (1905) to
gain Hindu support.

Winning the Suppert of the Muslims

The Simla Deputation
i) Before the Morley-Minto Reforms, Morley aimed to gain Muslim support for British
rule. The Simla Deputation soon presented a favourable chance.

ii) Muslims, witnessing Hindu protests against the Bengal Partition, feared a reversal.
Recognizing their inability to match the level of protest, they worried about the fate
of the Partition.

iii) Muslims feared Hindu control, worried about Hindi becoming the national
language and forced conversions of Muslims to Hinduism.
iv) The 1905 Liberal government's plan for local elections heightened concerns about
Hindu dominance. Time for Muslims to take action.

v) On October 8, 1906, Muslim leaders, led by the Aga Khan, met Viceroy Minto in
Simla. They requested recognition of Muslims' political importance and
contributions, outlining their demands in 'The Simla Deputation.'

vi) The Deputation asked the following:-

♤ Muslims wanted their own representatives in local and provincial elections, elected
solely by Muslim voters.

♤ They requested a higher percentage of seats in councils than their proportion in

the population.

vii) Muslim leaders argued that these measures acknowledged the significance of the
Muslim community in India. With many Muslim landowners and a high percentage of
Muslim soldiers in the British army, they emphasized the need for separate Muslim
representatives to prevent communal violence with Hindus in elections.

viii) Morley found the Muslim proposal undemocratic, but Lord Minto accepted their
arguments, agreeing to separate representation for Muslims.

The Importance of the Simla Deputation

The British acceptance of the Simla Deputation was a crucial moment in Pakistan's
history:

♧ British acceptance signalled success in restoring relations between Muslims and

the British, with the latter now willing to collaborate and make concessions.

♧ The Muslim community aimed to secure its place in the constitution through its
own methods, highlighting the existing Hindu-Muslim rivalry in both daily life and the
constitution.

♧ The Deputation revealed that many Muslims saw themselves as a distinct

community requiring different treatment from Hindus. This paved the way for
breaking away from Congress and forming a Muslim party to represent and protect
Muslim interests.

》 The Simla Deputation marked the initial move on the path that eventually led to
the creation of Pakistan.

The Foundation of the AlI-India Muslim League

Its Aims and Objectives

Aims
After securing separate electorates from Lord Minto, motivated Muslims formed their
own political party due to various reasons.

♧ Despite gaining East Bengal, Muslims felt overshadowed by Hindu influence in

Congress. To counter this, they formed a new organization.

♧The Bengal partition fueled Hindu outrage, deepening the Muslim-Hindu divide. To
ensure Muslim representation, the League aimed to establish its own political
organization, expressing Muslim views to the British.

♧ Despite claims of British involvement, the Muslim League was formed by Muslims
themselves. After separate electorates were accepted and Congress became
predominantly Hindu organisation, Muslim leaders established the party to ensure
their views were heard amid organized Hindu opposition to the Bengal partition.

Formation
In 1906, Muslim leaders convened at the Muhammadan Educational Conference in
Dhaka. Following the conference, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk chaired a meeting to discuss
establishing the All-India Muslim League.

Objectives
At its inaugural meeting in December 1906, the League outlined its objectives:

♧ Safeguard and advance political rights of Indian Muslims.

♧ Represent Muslim needs to the government.

♧ Foster loyalty to the British government.

♧ Clarify government measures to Muslims.

♧ Prevent hostility between Muslims and other Indian communities.

British Support for Muslim League and Emergence of Political Divide
♤ The British welcomed the Muslim League, led by moderate landowners and
princes, to counter growing Hindu protests, especially after the Bengal partition.

♤The stark differences in resolutions between Congress and the League in key policy
areas marked the beginning of a generation-long political opposition.

The Morley-Minto Reforms - British attempts to win Indian Support

Lord Minto and Secretary of State John Morley, recognizing the Indians' justified
demand for more self-governance, collaborated on reforms known as the Morley-
Minto reforms. These were enacted as the Indian Councils Act in 1909:

1. The Imperial Council expanded to 60 members, including more 'non-official'

members. Yet, British control persisted as the majority remained 'official' members
appointed by the British.

2. The Central Executive Council grew by 60 members to discuss and advise on

important matters, including the budget.

3. Provincial Councils expanded to 50 members in larger provinces and 30 in smaller

ones.

4. Muslim representatives were elected by a distinct Muslim-only electorate to the

Councils.

The Importance of the Reforms - A Voice for Indians?

i) The Morley-Minto reforms increased Indian representation on Councils, giving the

impression of local influence, but these councils lacked real power, serving only in an
advisory role.

ii) The British aimed to hear Indian opinions without granting the authority to alter
government policies.

iii) Morley clarified that these reforms didn't signal a move toward establishing an
Indian parliament, emphasizing their limited scope.

iv) The key outcome of the reforms was the introduction of separate electorates for
Muslims. Hindus criticized it as undemocratic, leading Congress to annually call for an
end to this practice for the next 25 years.
v) Congress misunderstood the British intent; the British aimed for stability, not
democracy in India. They made concessions only to the extent needed for stability,
not to establish a democratic system.

vi) Hindus and Muslims advocated for more rights through separate political
organizations.

vii) The British, responding to Hindu demands, reversed the Partition of Bengal,
eroding the goodwill with the Muslim community since 1905.

The Bengal Partition reversed

i) In 1911, the British, led by Viceroy Lord Harding, broke trust with Muslims by
reversing the Partition of Bengal, highlighting the importance of Muslims having their
own political organization.

ii) King George V announced this decision during his visit to India on December 12 at
a Durbar in Delhi.

iii) The British claimed the Partition reversal was part of their governance policy, but
it was forced by Bengali Hindu opposition.

iv) Despite this, the British moved the capital to Delhi to downplay their success. The
Muslims, unhappy with the decision, recognized the importance of the Muslim
League for fair treatment in India.

India before the First World War

The undoing of the Bengal Partition strained British-Muslim relations:

♧ Muslims felt betrayed, as the original Partition was promised to be final.

♧Morley-Minto reforms didn't grant Indians real governance influence.

♧Despite past efforts, Muslim trust in British political fairness eroded.

♤ In 1912-13, British support for Balkan states against Turkey in the Balkan Wars
fueled discontent among Indian Muslims.

♤They saw it as evidence that the British cared little for Muslim rights. By January
1913, the Muslim League, expressing distrust in British rule, declared its aim as 'a
form of self-government suitable to India.'

♤ This marked a pivotal moment as it aligned the League with Congress in their
shared demand for self-government, improving relations and dispelling the notion
that the League solely supported the British.

The Impact of the First World War on the Indian Subcontinent

i) During World War I in 1914, Indians had mixed views. Many, part of the British
Empire, supported Britain. Over a million enlisted, and their crucial role was
acknowledged by the British, who credited Indian contributions for shortening the
war.

ii) Indian politicians supporting Britain in World War I hoped that, if victorious, Britain
would reward Indian loyalty with reforms for a larger role in governance.

iii) Many Indians, not sympathetic to the British during World War I, saw Britain's
struggles as India's chance for self-government, viewing it as an opportunity amid
Britain's difficulties.

The 'anti-British' group soon began to take action:

♤ In 1913, Lala Hardayal, exiled in America, formed the Mutiny Party, sending arms to
India for armed opposition against the British. Unfortunately, the party's supporters
in India were betrayed and killed in a battle with Indian police in September 1915.

♤ In 1915, a planned uprising by Indian nationalists in Punjab was swiftly suppressed

by the British.

♤ Indian troops' mutiny in the British army in Singapore was crushed, leading to
dozens being executed or imprisoned.

♤ The 'Silk Letter Conspiracy' involved anti-British Muslims planning a general

uprising to free themselves from British rule, but their efforts were unsuccessful.

》Due to discontent in India, the British enacted the Defence of India Act, granting
them exceptional powers to handle unrest. Many alleged revolutionaries were either
exiled or imprisoned without proper trial.
The Lucknow Pact
Cooperation between the League and Congress

i) British failure to grant more rights to Indians until 1914, along with repressive war
policies, brought Congress and the Muslim League closer.

ii) In 1915, influenced by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, both groups met in Bombay. Joint
councils were established to enhance mutual understanding on key issues.

iii) Realizing the need to prevent political unrest in India during the war, the British, in
October 1916, hinted at considering proposals for change:

▪ Congress and the League agreed that over half of the Executive Council should be
elected, and the Legislative Council should have a majority of elected members. This
common ground brought the parties closer, as they recognized the need for
cooperation to achieve more concessions.

iv) In 1916, in Lucknow, leaders Jinnah (Muslim League) and Mahajan (Congress)
played key roles in creating the Lucknow Pact.

》 This pact revealed Congress's willingness to make concessions to win League

support:

▪ Muslims secured separate electorates in Imperial and Provincial Legislative Councils,

extending to Punjab and Bengal.

▪ Despite comprising a quarter of the population, Muslims were allocated one-third

of the Council seats.

▪ An act couldn't pass without the support of three-quarters of the community's

council members.

v) Congress made significant concessions, indicating a strong desire for League's

support. They had previously opposed separate electorates in Morley-Minto reforms,
marking a shift from their belief in an indivisible India.

vi) The Pact outlined common demands on how India should be governed. According
to it:
▪ Increase elected seats on Councils.

▪ British government should honour motions with large majorities.

▪ Protect minorities in provinces.

▪ Grant autonomy to all provinces.

Importance of the Lucknow Pact

The Lucknow Pact was a key step towards self-rule:

i) The Pact marked the first joint demand by Hindus and Muslims for political reform
from the British. Jinnah emphasized that cooperation and understanding between
the two communities were crucial for India's progress.

ii) It was the first time Hindus acknowledged that some level of partition would be
needed in a self-governing India.

iii) Muslims recognized they had a better chance of safeguarding their rights by
collaborating with Congress against the British.

iv) The Lucknow Pact fueled the belief in India that Home Rule (self-government) was
attainable.
▪ In 1917, Home Rule Leagues, led by Tilak and Annie Besant, campaigned
nationwide. Annie Besant, briefly imprisoned, later became Congress President.
▪ In August, E. S. Montagu declared in the British House of Commons a policy of
increasing Indian involvement in administration until self-governance within the
British Empire was feasible.

v) The Pact represented a peak in Hindu-Muslim unity, but the Amritsar Massacre
and Khilafat Movement later triggered a shift towards more communal politics.

The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms – Diarchy in India

i) In November 1917, Viceroy Lord Chelmsford and Secretary of State Lord Montagu
toured India, leading to the Montagu-Chelmsford Report in July 1919.

ii) Proposed reforms included renaming the Legislative Council to the Legislative
Assembly, with 145 members and 103 elected for 3 years.

iii) Separate electorates for Muslims and Sikhs with 32 reserved seats for Muslims.

iv) The Council of State would have 60 members, with 33 elected.

v) A Council of Princes was established but lacked power.

vi) Viceroy's authority remained strong; Executive Council had three Indian members.

vii) Provinces had a 'diarchy' system, with reserved and transferred subjects.

viii) Local involvement through Legislative Councils, but ministers chosen by the
Viceroy, retaining real power.

ix) British claimed extension of voting rights, but only 5.5 million (or 2%) of India's
250 million population could vote.

The Reaction of the Indian people

i) Montagu-Chelmsford reforms in the Government of India Act of 1919 were not
warmly received by the Indian population.

ii) Despite Indians fighting with the British in the War, expectations for greater
concessions were not met.

iii) Congress and the League, united for self-rule, found the reforms disappointing,
leading to condemnation.

iv) Only Congress moderates supported the measures; others were excluded from
the party.

v) Though locals had more say in governance, British retained power through
Viceroy's control.

vi) Unexpectedly, separate electorates for Muslims led to demands from non-
Brahmins, Sikhs, and Eurasians for concessions.

vii) Granting concessions emphasized divisions within Indian society.

The Rowlatt Act - India's Anger

i) Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms aimed to gain Indian support, but British intended
strong action against opposition.

ii) In December 1917, a committee under Justice Rowlatt investigated revolutionary

activity in India.

iii) Committee recommended retaining some emergency powers permanently,

causing uproar in India.
iv) Controversial proposals included;
▪ arrest without warrant,
▪ detention without bail,
▪ and provincial government ordering people where to live.

v) Indians protested against these proposals, seen as contradicting British justice

principles.

vi) Jinnah resigned in protest, and Gandhi launched a hartal, leading to strikes and
demonstrations in April 1919.

vii) Viceroy ignored opposition, accepted recommendations, and the Rowlatt Act was
passed in 1919.

The Amritsar Massacre - A British Outrage

i) Strikes and demonstrations led to British banning anti-government publications and
public meetings.

ii) In 1919, nationalist leaders Dr. Satyapal and Dr. Kitchlew were deported without
trial.

iii) Riots erupted in Amritsar, prompting General Dyer to ban public meetings.

iv) At Jallianwala Bagh, Dyer's troops fired on an unarmed crowd, killing around 400
and injuring 1200.

v) Dyer claimed it was to ensure obedience to British rule.

vi) Punitive measures included;

▪ public floggings,
▪ crawling punishments,
▪ air bombings, and sentences of death, exile, or imprisonment.

vii) Hunter Committee in England investigated Dyer's actions, resulting in his removal
from active service without further punishment.

viii) Many Europeans saw Dyer as a hero, but Indians were offended by the British
failure to punish him, contributing to Gandhi's dissatisfaction with British rule. He
said; "Cooperation in any shape or form with this satanic government is sinful''.
Non-cooperation Movement (March 1920):
▪ Indians disillusioned with British rulers.

▪ Enthusiastic participation in Gandhi's Non-cooperation Movement.

▪ Massive burning of British cloth; promotion of hand-spun Indian cloth.

▪ Teachers and students left English institutions to establish their own.

▪ Lawyers boycotted the English legal system.

▪ First elections for reformed Councils in 1920 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) largely

ignored.

▪ Congress refused to field candidates.

▪ Jawaharlal Nehru has written about the attitude of the Indian people at this time.
He said:
We were full of excitement and optimism and buoyant enthusiasm. We sensed the
happiness of a person crusading for a cause.

British Response to Opposition:

▪ British imprisoned alleged trouble-makers in response to widespread opposition.

▪ Over 30,000 political prisoners filled the jails.

Non-cooperation Challenges British:

▪ Non-cooperation created a challenging situation for the British.
▪ Jails overflowed with political prisoners.

Gandhi Calls Off Campaign (February 1922):

▪ Non-cooperation turned violent, prompting Gandhi to call off the campaign in
February 1922.

Impact of First Non-cooperation Campaign:

▪ Failed to bring swaraj and save the Khalifa.
▪ Raised Indian expectations and convinced many to work against British rule.
▪ Despite its failure, Gandhi used non-cooperation as a weapon in subsequent
struggles.
The Growth of Communalism
Post-War Unity and Shift in Relations:
▪ After World War I, Hindus and Muslims united against British repression and to save
the Khalifa in Turkey.
▪ Early 1920s saw an increase in suspicion and rivalry between Hindus and Muslims.

End of Non-cooperation and Communal Riots:

▪ Ending non-cooperation led to serious communal riots across India.
▪ Rise of Hindu fundamentalism during this period.

Arya Samaj's Influence (1920s):

▪ Arya Samaj, founded in 1877, aimed to purify Hinduism and reconvert Hindus.
▪ Strongholds in western and northern India, powerful in education and social reform,
especially in Punjab.
▪ Collaborated with Hindu Mahasabha in militant activities in 1924, straining Hindu-
Muslim relations.

Pundit Mohan Malaviya

Hindu Sabhas in Punjab (1890s):
▪ Hindu Sabhas active in Punjab's local politics since the 1890s.

Formation of Hindu Mahasabha (1923):

▪ UP Congressman Pandit Mahan Malaviya formed the Hindu Mahasabha in 1923.
▪ First contested elections in 1926, initially making little progress.

V D Savarkar's Leadership:
▪Charismatic leader V D Savarkar became President, bringing a shift in the party's
progress.

Hindu Mahasabha's Stand on Partition (1947):

▪ In 1947, Hindu Mahasabha condemned the partition as a national disaster, desiring
India to be a Hindu state.
▪ Criticized Gandhi's religious tolerance, viewing it as a threat to Hindu purity.

V D Savarkar and Gandhi's Assassination (1948):

▪ V D Savarkar accused of involvement in Gandhi's assassination in January 1948.
▪ Acquitted by the court despite the accusation.

Growing divisions in the Congress Party

Hindu Congress Party Split (Early 1920s):
▪ Hindu Congress Party split in the early 1920s.
▪ Despite official opposition to 1920 Council elections, a splinter group ('National
Liberals') contested and won some seats.

Limited Influence in Councils:

▪ Members found limited influence on British decisions.

Congress Adopts New Policy (1923):

▪ In 1923, Congress adopted a new policy to enter Councils and obstruct government
policies.
▪ Elections fought under the name 'Swaraj Party,' winning a large number of seats.

Muslim League's Concerns:

▪ Congress growth worried Muslim League.
▪ Fears that Congress prioritized Hindu matters over rights for all Indians.
▪ Congress refusal to support Muslim demands for full provincial autonomy
heightened League's suspicion.
League's Response:
▪ Hindu groups' forcible conversions of Muslims increased tension.
▪ Muslim League decided to fight back against perceived threats.

The Delhi Proposals

Jinnah's Delhi Conference (1927):
▪ Jinnah called a conference in Delhi in 1927 to discuss protecting Muslim interests in
the future.

Delhi Proposals:
▪ Muslims to have one-third of seats in the Central Legislature through joint
electorates.
▪ Sindh to receive full provincial status.
▪ Extend British reforms to Balochistan and the North West Frontier Province.
▪ Proportional Muslim representation in Punjab and Bengal based on population.

Objective:
▪ If accepted, Muslims would abandon the demand for a separate electorate.

Summarised by Abdullah Amin

Chapter 7 HOW SUCCESSFUKL WAS KHILAFAT MOVEMETN IN
ADVANCING THE CAUSE OF THE PAKISTAN MOVEMENT?

The Khalifa or Caliph

Origin of 'Khalifa':
• Derived from Arabic root Khalifa, meaning 'to follow or come after.'

• Used initially for Hazrat Abu Bakr, the successor of Prophet Muhammad (SAW).

Umayyad Dynasty's Shift:

• Umayyad Dynasty in Damascus adopted the term 'Khalifa.'
• Initially to convey legitimacy, linking to Hazrat Abu Bakr.

Evolution of Meaning:
• Umayyads shifted the meaning to signify monarch or ruler.
Religious Development:
• Over time, the Khalifa became a religious figure.
• Ottoman Turks emphasized the Caliph's religious role.

Claim to Loyalty:
• Caliph's religious role used by Ottomans to claim loyalty from Muslims worldwide,
including India.

Introduction
Lucknow Pact Cooperation:
• Muslims and Hindus collaborated for a common aim.

Khilafat Movement Start:

• Initially seemed like another example of Muslim-Hindu cooperation.

Emergence of Challenges:
• Over time, religious differences surfaced.

Communal Fears Emerge:

• Religious divisions made sustained cooperation difficult.
• Harmony undermined by ongoing communal fears.

Reasons for the Formation of the Khilafat Movement

A. Deep-Seated Muslim Fears
Khilafat Movement Origins:
• Rooted in deep-seated mistrust of Western treatment, especially by Britain, toward
Muslim countries.

Rivalry Impact:
• Afghanistan and Persia faced rivalry between Russia and Britain.

• Native Muslim population views were overlooked in the agreed governance.

British Policy Concerns:

• Some Muslims in India believed British policy fueled fear between Hindus and
Muslims to ensure Muslim cooperation.

Military Dilemma:
• Many Muslims in the British army opposed fighting fellow Muslims in Turkey during
World War I, leading to desertions.

MaulviFazl-ul-Huq's Call:
• In 1918, the President of the Muslim League expressed concern about Muslim
powers' collapse globally.

• Urged Muslims to cooperate with Hindus, highlighting the adverse influence on

their political importance.

B. The First World War and Turkey

World War I Dilemma:
• Turks, allies of Germany, fought against Britain, posing a problem for British
recruitment in India.

British Assurances:
• British assured Indian Muslims that they respected the rights of the Khalifa and the
Turkish Empire.

Recruitment Success:
• Thousands of Muslims joined the British army based on this promise.

Suppression of Opposition:
• British imprisoned leading Muslims like Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar and
MaulanaShaukat Ali during the war.

Post-War Treaties:
• Treaty of Versailles treated defeated nations harshly, reducing armed forces and
imposing heavy penalties.

Muslim Concerns:
• Indian Muslims worried about similar treatment for Turkey, considering the fate of
Germany and Austria.

British Intentions Revealed:

• British Prime Minister Lloyd George suggested splitting the Turkish Empire like
Germany and Austria, sparking outrage among Indian Muslims.

Organized Opposition:
• Indian Muslims organized against the British plan, expressing strong opposition to
the potential dismantling of the Turkish Empire.

C. The Khalifa
Turkey's Muslim Status:
• Sultan of Turkey considered Khalifa, head of the worldwide Islamic community.
• Ruled over the Khilafat Empire, including Mecca, Jerusalem, and Medina.

British Threat Sparks Outrage:

• British threat to take territory from the Khalifa angered Muslims in India.

Khilafat Movement Formation:

• Outraged Muslims formed the Khilafat Movement to protect the Sultan and their
religion.

Muslim Outrage - Establishment of the Khilafat Movement

A. The All India Khilafat Conference

Delhi Conference (November 1919):

• Called to persuade the British to honor promises about maintaining the Turkish
Empire.

Key Figures:
• MaulanaShaukat Ali, Maulana Muhammed Ali Jauhar, and MaulanaAbulKalam Azad
played leading roles.

Resolution and Delegation:

• Conference passed a resolution to send a delegation to Britain, emphasizing Muslim
support for the Khalifa.
Presence of Mahatma Gandhi:
• Gandhi attended, representing Congress leadership.
• Signified unity against the British, minimizing religious differences between Hindus
and Muslims.

Gandhi's Influence:
• Conference resolutions included boycotting British goods and adopting non-
cooperation.
• Gandhi's advocacy of passive resistance (satyagraha) influenced the movement.

Passive Resistance and Swaraj:

• Gandhi promoted passive resistance as a powerful stance against tyranny.
• Urged Muslims to join Congress in seeking swaraj (self-rule), with most Muslim
leaders supporting the idea.

Jinnah's Perspective:
• Jinnah (RA) had reservations, believing India was not yet ready for self-rule.

The Second Conference

Second Khilafat Conference (December 1919 - Amritsar):
• Held concurrently with Congress and League meetings in Amritsar.
• All three organizations decided to collaborate against plans to dismember the
Turkish Empire.

Collaboration Agreement:
• Agreement to work together to oppose the dismemberment of the Turkish Empire.
• Gandhi chosen to lead efforts in persuading the British against punishing Turkey.

Maulana Muhammad Ali's Efforts:

• Maulana Muhammad Ali, after a visit to Britain, emphasized the importance of
resolving the Turkish problem.
• Despite his efforts, the British were not persuaded by his arguments.

British Prime Minister's Response:

• Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister, sarcastically responded to the insistence
on justice for Turkey.
• Indicated that Turkey would get justice as Austria and Germany had, sarcastically
referring to it as "pretty terrible justice."

B. The Policy of Non-Cooperation

Khilafat Movement Deputations (1920):
• In January, a deputation from the Khilafat Movement met the Viceroy, seeking
fairness in Turkey's treatment.
• In February, another delegation was sent to England to persuade Western powers
against mistreating Turkey.

Treaty of Sevres (Announced During Delegation in England):

• Terms included the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire.
• Arabia made independent, and Turkey's Middle Eastern possessions placed under
the League of Nations.

Allocation to Non-Muslim States:

• League of Nations allocated Turkey's possessions in the Middle East to Britain and
France (non-Muslim states).
• Greek acquisition of Turkish land in Europe, leaving Turkey with only a small area
around Istanbul.
Turkish Rebellion and Treaty of Lausanne (1923):
• Turks rebelled against the Treaty of Sevres.
• Treaty of Lausanne replaced it in 1923, returning some land in Europe, but Turkey
did not regain control of Muslim territories in the Middle East.

Muslims' Warning Message (June 22, 1920):

• Muslims in India warned the Viceroy on June 22, 1920, that imposition of the unfair
Treaty of Sevres would lead to non-cooperation starting on August 1.

Gandhi's Support and Nationwide Tour:

• Gandhi initiated a tour of India to garner support for the Khilafat Movement cause.
• A policy of non-cooperation in India was threatened if the terms of the Treaty of
Sevres were imposed on Turkey.
The Development of the Khilafat Movement
A. As a general anti-British protest
Khilafat Movement as Anti-British Protest:
• Measures taken turned the Khilafat Movement into a broader anti-British protest.
• Nationwide support was garnered, causing embarrassment for the British.

Protests During Royal Visits:

• Visits by British royal princes were met with demonstrations and strikes.
• Prince of Wales' visit to Bombay in 1921 led to a nationwide strike and anti-British
rioting, resulting in 53 deaths.

British Repression and Arrests:

• British responded with a policy of repression, involving widespread arrests.
• By the end of 1921, more than 30,000 political prisoners were held in India's jails.

Communal Unity in the Movement:

• Khilafat Movement attracted support from both Muslims and Hindus.
• Communal rivalry was set aside temporarily during this period of joint opposition to
British rule.

B. To protect and foster Islam - Hijrat

Khilafat Movement's Core Motivation:

• For many Muslims, the Khilafat Movement was not primarily about opposing the
British but protecting and fostering Islam.
Cultural Shifts during Movement's Peak:
• Western dress and hairstyles became less popular among Muslims.
• Particularly notable in the North-West Frontier and Sindh.

Perception of British Rule as Disregard for Islamic Law:

• Growing belief, especially in the North-West Frontier and Sindh, that British
disregard for Islamic law made India a dar-ul-harb (enemy territory).

Hijrat (Migration) to Afghanistan (August 1920):

• Around 18,000 Muslims embarked on a hijrat to Afghanistan in protest.
• Sold their land, set off on a long trek with possessions in carts, hoping for fertile
fields in Afghanistan.

Reality of Afghan Reception:

• Afghan government did not welcome the large influx and refused entry.
• Emigrants were forcibly sent back to what is now part of Pakistan.

Challenges and Consequences:

• Upon return, they faced unemployment and loss of property.
• Many supporters lost enthusiasm for the movement due to these challenges.

The Khilafat Movement in Difficulty

Third and Final Meeting of Khilafat Movement (July 8, 1921):
• Resolutions passed at the meeting offended the British authorities.
• Stated that no Muslim should attend British schools, serve in the police or army, or
offer any cooperation to the British.
Arrest of Khilafat Leaders:
• British authorities arrested Khilafat leaders, the Ali brothers, accusing them of
sedition.

British Concerns and Disturbances:

• British viewed the Khilafat Movement as a threat to law and order.
• Disturbances occurred across India, including the Moplah uprising in South India
(August 1921).

Moplah Uprising:
• Moplahs rebelled against British and Hindu landlords in South India.
• At Tirur, 10,000 Moplahs set the police station on fire, resulting in a British troop
intervention and 4,000 Moplahs killed.

Chauri-Chaura Incident (February 1922):

• In Chauri-Chaura, 21 policemen were killed after firing on a political procession.
• This incident marked a turning point in Gandhi's perspective on the civil
disobedience campaign.

Gandhi's Reservations and Halt to the Movement:

• Gandhi had reservations about the civil disobedience campaign's impact on law and
order.
• Decided India was not ready for a mass campaign and called off the movement,
upsetting many Congress leaders and facing accusations from Muslims.

Gandhi's Arrest and Imprisonment:

• British, observing Gandhi's declining support, arrested him a few weeks after calling
off the civil disobedience campaign.
• Gandhi was sentenced to six years' imprisonment.

The End of the Khilafat Movement

Impact on Hindu-Muslim Unity:
• The decision to call off the civil disobedience campaign weakened Hindu-Muslim
unity.

Muslim Determination for Khilafat Movement:

• Despite the setback, Muslims remained determined to continue the Khilafat
Movement.

Shift in Turkish Leadership (1922-1924):

• In 1922, the Sultan of Turkey was deprived of political power.
• Two years later, Kemal Ataturk emerged as the new leader and abolished the
Khilafat.

Fate of Khalifa Muhammad VI:

• Kemal Ataturk abolished the Khilafat and exiled Khalifa Muhammad VI.

Irrelevance of Indian Muslims' Wishes:

• The fate of the Khilafat was determined by the Turkish leaders, irrespective of
Indian Muslims' or British politicians' desires.

End of Khilafat Movement in India:

• With the abolition of the Khilafat in Turkey, the Khilafat Movement in India also
came to an end.

Reasons for the Failure of the Khilafat Movement

Failure Due to Focus on Khalifa's Fate:
• Members of the Khilafat Movement were more concerned about the Khalifa's fate
than Western powers or the people of Turkey.
• The new government under Kemal Ataturk unilaterally abolished the Khilafat,
regardless of external opinions.

Ideological Flaws and Lack of Support:

• Described by historians as a wrong, romantic, and out-of-touch ideology.
• Seen in the Hijrat to Afghanistan, where Muslims were shocked by the lack of
support from the Afghan government.

Inherent Issues in Hindu-Muslim Unity:

• Although Hindus and Muslims initially worked together, their unity was likely
doomed.
• Hindus aimed for self-rule, not necessarily an objective of Muslims (Jinnah (RA)
spoke against such a policy).
• Hindu support for protecting religious rights of Muslims was conditional on
advancing India towards self-rule.

Decline in Unity Amid Difficulties:

• Communal rioting in 1921-22 and emerging difficulties led to the inevitable decline
of Hindu-Muslim unity.

Strength of Anti-British Sentiment:

• The movement's emphasis on saving the Khilafat created strong anti-British
sentiment.
• Some supporters used Gandhi's policy of non-cooperation to express opposition to
British rule in general.
Gandhi's Concern and Early Halt to the Campaign:
• Gandhi, alarmed by the violence, called off his campaign even before Kemal Ataturk
abolished the Khilafat.

The Impact of the Khilafat Movement

Positive Impact of Khilafat Movement:

Unity Against British Rule:

• Policy of non-cooperation united Hindus and Muslims against British rule.
• Demonstrated Indian people's refusal to accept continued British governance.
• Seen by some historians as the initial step toward India's independence.

Muslim Political Empowerment:

• Muslims realized their political power through the Khilafat Movement.
• Understanding that they could organize and demand their political rights
independently.
• Recognition that reliance on Hindus or British was not essential for asserting their
rights.

British Opposition and Muslim Rights:

• British opposition to the Movement highlighted the selective acceptance of Muslim
rights.
• Muslims felt that British acknowledgment of their rights was conditional and not
consistent.

Negative Consequences of Khilafat Movement:

Economic Setbacks:
• Muslims giving up jobs and students forsaking studies as part of the non-
cooperation policy (established in 1920).
• Unfortunate economic consequences for those who emigrated to Afghanistan,
leading to their return to economic misery.

Communal Discord:
• Failure of the Khilafat Movement and joint efforts between Hindus and Muslims led
to a divide.
• Communal rioting after the non-cooperation campaign's cancellation.
• Increased hostility and suspicion, highlighting challenges in coexistence.

Impact on Hindu-Muslim Relations:

• The wedge driven between Hindus and Muslims indicated challenges in their
relationship.
• Events showed that harmony between the two communities was difficult.
• The failure of the Khilafat Movement contributed to pushing Muslims closer to the
idea of having their own independent state.

MUHAMMAD VI THE LAST SULTAN OF TURKEY

Muhammad VI, Last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire:

• Succeeded his brother Mohammed V after the heir, Yusuf Izzetin, committed
suicide.
• Ascended on July 4, 1918, a few months before the end of World War I.
• Faced troubled years during his four-year reign.

Ottoman Empire and World War I:

• Turkey allied with Germany and Austria during World War I.
• Experienced defeats, with enemy forces occupying Baghdad, Jerusalem, and
Constantinople.

Post-War Dismantling of Ottoman Empire:

• Allies decided to dismember the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I.
• San Remo Conference (April 1920): France mandated to govern Syria, Britain
mandated for Palestine and Mesopotamia.
• Treaty of Sevres (August 1920): Confirmed mandates and severe reduction in
Turkey's size.

Unpopularity and Deposition of Muhammad VI:

• Muhammad VI's representatives consented to the Treaty of Sevres, leading to
increased unpopularity.
• Turkish nationalists, led by Mustafa Kemal (Kemal Ataturk), formed the Turkish
Grand National Assembly, denounced Muhammad VI, and deposed him in 1922.

Exile and Death:

• Concerned for his life, Muhammad VI sought shelter in Britain, but was exiled to
Italy in 1922.
• In 1924, the Turkish government abolished the caliphate, and all members of the
Ottoman house were exiled.
• Muhammad VI died from heart failure on May 15, 1926, and was buried at Sultan
Selim Mosque in Damascus.
Summarised by
Muhammad Abdullah Amin
Chapter 8 Pakistan Movement in 1927 - 1939

The Simon Commission

Communalism in India (1927):
• Communal tensions between Hindus and Muslims posed a threat to cooperation in
India.

Government of India Act (1919):

• Act of 1919 proposed a commission after 10 years to review reforms, leading to the
Simon Commission.

British Conservative Government's Fear:

• Fearing a potential loss of power to the Labour Party sympathetic to Indian
nationalism, the Conservative government accelerated the Commission.

Sir John Simon Committee (1927):

• A seven-member committee, chaired by Sir John Simon, was appointed in 1927 to
assess the situation in India.

Exclusively British Committee:

• The committee consisted entirely of British members, causing widespread
discontent in India.

Perceived Insult and Opposition:

• The committee's composition was viewed as an insult in India, uniting all parties
against it.

Need for Settlement and Cooperation:

• The unfavourable committee spurred the belief that Indian parties must settle
differences and collaborate against the Simon Commission.

Opposition to the Simon Commission

Congress Decision (1927):
• At the Madras session in December 1927, the Congress decided to boycott the
Simon Commission.

Mass Demonstrations Call:

• Congress called for mass demonstrations upon the arrival of Simon Commission
members in India.
First Time Support for Complete Independence:
• Congress, during this period, declared support for complete independence for the
first time.

Protests Against Simon Commission:

• The Commission faced regular protests demanding the return of its
unrepresentative members to England.

All-Party Conference (May 1928):

• Members of Congress, the League, Liberals, Hindu Mahasabha, and Central Sikh
League convened in an All-Party Conference.

Constitution Drafting Committee:

• Pundit Motilal Nehru chaired the committee tasked with drafting the constitution,
leading to the 'Nehru Report.'

Approval of Nehru Report (September 1928):

• The Nehru Report, outlining the envisioned constitution, received overwhelming
approval from the All-Party Conference in September 1928.

The Nehru Report

The report called for:
Dominion Status Proposal:
• Immediate Dominion status for India was proposed, signifying independence within
the Commonwealth with the British monarch as the Head of State.

Federal Structure:
• India to have a federation with a two-chamber parliament.

Universal Suffrage:
• Universal suffrage introduced for electing the lower house and provincial councils.

Minority Rights:
• No separate electorates for any community or weightage for minorities.
• Protection for minorities through reserved seats in the central parliament.

Equal Rights:
• No state religion, emphasizing equal rights for men and women as citizens.

Official Language:
• Proposal to make Hindi the official language of India.
Gandhi's Resolution:
• Gandhi proposed a resolution, suggesting a one-year ultimatum for the British to
accept Nehru Report recommendations.
• If not accepted, a non-cooperation campaign would be initiated.

Resolution Approval:
• The resolution was passed, indicating a united stance for the proposed demands.

The Nehru Report Rejected

Muslims' Discontent:
• Many Muslims were dissatisfied with the Nehru Report, feeling that it ignored their
views and contradicted previous agreements like the Lucknow Pact.

All India Muslim Conference's Rejection:

• On January 21, 1929, the All India Muslim Conference rejected the Nehru Report.

Jinnah's Proposed Changes:

• Jinnah proposed four changes to safeguard Muslim interests:
• One-third representation for Muslims in both houses of the central legislature.
• Reservation of seats in Punjab and Bengal for Muslims based on population, if adult
suffrage wasn't established.
• Residuary powers should be with provinces, not the central legislature.
• Full provincial status for the North-West Frontier Province and Sindh.

Congress' Non-Acceptance:
• Congress did not accept these proposals, leading to a significant turning point
described by Jinnah as the 'parting of the ways.'

Impact on History:
• The failure to reconcile with Congress marked an important step towards the
eventual partition of India.
• Jinnah shifted focus to clearly communicate Muslim League's acceptable terms.

Jinnah (RA)'s Fourteen Points

Jinnah's Fourteen Points (January 1929):
• Jinnah presented the Fourteen Points in January 1929, outlining the basic principles
crucial for any acceptable constitution for the Government of India.

Muslim League's Unity (March 1929):

• Despite divisions in the Muslim community during the 1920s, there was unanimous
agreement that Jinnah's Fourteen Points should guide Muslim demands. These points
were officially accepted in March 1929.

End of Hindu-Muslim Cooperation:

• Rejection of the Nehru Report and the acceptance of Jinnah's Fourteen Points
marked the end of Hindu-Muslim cooperation.

Congress' Lahore Session (December 1929):

• Congress met in Lahore, where Jawaharlal Nehru was elected President.

• Congress rejected dominion status and called for complete independence.

• A historic occasion occurred on December 31, 1929, where Nehru led a procession
to raise the Indian flag at the banks of the River Ravi at midnight.

• Three weeks later, Gandhi's declaration of Indian independence was read across
India.

More non-cooperation
Congress Non-Cooperation Campaign:
• Gandhi led the non-cooperation campaign against unjust Salt Laws.

• The iconic Salt March began on March 12, originating from Ahmedabad to Dandi.

• The march served as a protest against unfair laws and a broader opposition to
British rule.

• Activities included picketing British cloth shops and boycotting schools, colleges,
and services.

British Response:
• British authorities banned salt-making without government license.
• Congress was outlawed, newspapers were censored, and widespread arrests
occurred.

• Both Gandhi and Nehru were among Congress leaders arrested.

Jinnah's Disapproval:
• Jinnah disagreed with the non-cooperation plan, fearing Congress dominance over
Muslims.

• Consequently, most Muslims refrained from participating in the campaign.

The Allahabad Address

Allama Iqbal's Address in 1930:

• Presided over a Muslim League meeting in Allahabad in 1930.

• Called for Muslims to strive for an independent homeland.

• Advocated the idea that Islam unites the Muslims into one nation.

• Emphasized the need for Muslim-majority areas to have equal privileges under a
federal system.

• Proposed the amalgamation of Punjab, NWFP, and Balochistan into a single state.

Significance of Allama Iqbal's Contributions:

Father of Pakistan's Ideology:
• First Muslim leader to propose the partition of the subcontinent based on the Two-
Nation Theory.

Inspiration for Muslims:

• Provided a clear objective for Muslims to defend their religion and culture.

• His ideas motivated uncertain Muslims, giving them a defined goal.

Influence on Other Leaders:

• Inspired Rahmat Ali's Pakistan scheme in 1933.

• Basis for Jinnah's Pakistan Resolution in 1940.

Poetic Inspiration:
• Iqbal's poetry served as a source of inspiration, fostering a sense of nationhood
among Indian Muslims.

• Motivated them to work diligently towards achieving the goal of an independent

Muslim state.

The Round Table Conferences

Simon Commission Report (1930):
Completion Despite Opposition:
• Despite facing opposition, the Simon Commission managed to produce a two-
volume report in 1930.

Concerns for the Muslim Community:

• The report held little encouragement for the Muslim community.

• Supported separate electorates but rejected Muslims having a one-third share of

seats in the Central Assembly.

• Dismissed the idea of separating Sindh from Bombay.

Round Table Conference:

• In response to the Commission's recommendations, the British called a Round Table
Conference.

• The conference aimed to discuss and address the concerns raised by various
communities and stakeholders.

The First Round Table Conference-November 1930

First Round Table Conference (November 1930):

Attendees:
• Muslim League and representatives of Princely States attended the conference.

Congress Non-Cooperation:
• Congress refused to attend without a guarantee of implementation for agreements
made.

• Instead, Congress initiated its non-cooperation program, impacting progress.

Some Progress Despite Congress Absence:

Princely States' Declaration:

• Princes expressed willingness to join a future Indian federation if their rights were
recognized.

Introduction of Representative Government:

• British agreed to introduce representative government at the provincial level.
Muslim Representatives' Sentiments:
• Jinnah (RA), Maulana Muhammad Ali, and the Aga Khan represented Muslims.

• Despite Congress' absence, Muslim representatives left the conference feeling that
some progress had been made.
The Second Round Table Conference
September 1931

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931):

Negotiations Between Gandhi and Lord Irwin:
• Gandhi and Lord Irwin initiated discussions in February 1931 to determine the
terms of future progress.

Content of the Pact:

• Irwin agreed to release most political prisoners and return seized property.

• Gandhi agreed to halt the non-cooperation campaign and attend the next round of
talks.

• Gandhi relinquished the demand for full independence, seeking a promise of

genuine Indian participation in governing a federal India.

Second Round Table Conference (September-December 1931):

Failure Reasons:
• The Labour Party's loss of power in Britain impacted the willingness to compromise
in the new Coalition government.

• Gandhi's firm stance and refusal to address minority issues contributed to the
conference's failure.

Limited Achievements:
• Agreement reached to make NWFP (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) and Sindh
provinces with their own governors.

• Little overall progress made, and the British warned of imposing their own solution
to the 'Indian problem' if an agreement was not reached soon.

The Communal Award 1932

Communal Award (August 16, 1932):

British Prime Minister MacDonald's Initiative:
• Ramsay MacDonald aimed to resolve Indian issues and considered himself a 'friend
of the Indians.'

Content of the Award:

• Granted separate electorates to all minority communities in the country.

• Applied the principle of weightage.

Muslim Reaction:
• Muslims, though unhappy about reduced majority in Punjab and Bengal, accepted
the Award.

• League passed a resolution expressing discontent but accepted it in the best

interest of the country, reserving the right to press for all their demands.

Congress Response:
• Congress rejected the Award and launched a campaign against it.

• Gandhi protested the declaration of Untouchables as a minority and undertook a

fast unto death.

• Gandhi held meetings with Untouchable leadership, asserting they were not
minorities but part of mainstream Hindu society.

The Third Round Table Conference - November 1932

Third Round Table Conference (1932):

Challenges for Success:
• Lord Irwin, who had some willingness to make concessions, was replaced by Lord
Willington, less inclined to compromise.
• Non-cooperation movement resumed in some places, prompting arrests of
Congress leaders, including Gandhi and Nehru.

Congress Non-Cooperation Restart (January 1932):

• In response to the changing political climate, Congress formally restarted the non-
cooperation campaign in January 1932.

Diminished Expectations:
• Given the events of 1932, none of the involved parties anticipated success in the
third Round Table Conference.

• Congress and major princes boycotted the talks, expressing their lack of confidence.

• Jinnah (RA) in voluntary exile due to disillusionment, not even invited to the
conference.
Muslim Representation:
• Aga Khan represented Muslims, but with only 46 delegates, the conference ended
without substantial agreements.

Rahmat Ali and Pakistan National Movement

Rahmat Ali's Role in Advocating Pakistan (1930s):
Educational Background:
• Rahmat Ali, among other Indian Muslims, studied in England during the 1930s.

• Attended conferences in London discussing the position of Hindus and Muslims in

India.

Divergence in Ideas:
• Disagreed with Muslim representatives advocating for a federation in India.

• Proposed partition with the establishment of a separate Muslim homeland.

Advanced Thinking:
• Rahmat Ali's ideas, including partition, were more advanced than those of other
Muslims at the time.

• Even Jinnah (RA) did not initially support the idea of partition in the early 1930s.

Persistence Despite Opposition:

• Despite lacking support for his ideas, Rahmat Ali persisted in advocating for a
separate Muslim homeland.

• In 1933, he authored a pamphlet titled "Now or Never," outlining the concept of a

Muslim homeland named Pakistan.

He wrote:
"I am enclosing herewith an appeal on behalf of the 30 million Muslims of Pakistan
who live in five northern units of lndia - Punjab, North-West Frontier
(Afghan) Province. Kashmir Sindh and Balochistan'. It embodies their demand
for the recognition of their national status...

• Rahmat Ali held unique views, differing from Allama Iqbal. He advocated for
independence for Muslim homelands, emphasizing a separate and independent
Muslim nation.
The Government of India Act 1935
Government of India Act (1935) Summary:

Federation and Parliament:

• India to be a federation, including British India provinces and willing Princely States.

• Two houses at the central government level: Council of State (elected and
nominated members) and Assembly (elected from British India and nominated from
Princely States).

Diarchy and Autonomy:

• Diarchy dropped at provincial level; introduced at the central level.

• Reserved subjects at the central level administered exclusively by the Governor-

General and appointed Councillors.

• Provinces granted autonomy with ministers as heads of administration.

Provincial Changes:
• Eleven provinces created, including NWFP, Orrisa, and Sindh.

• Provincial legislatures mostly bi-cameral, resembling the central government.

Power Dynamics:
• Governor-General headed the Federation with special powers in reserved subjects.
• Provincial Governors had special powers in reserved areas, including the authority
to dismiss ministers and administration.

Rejection by Princes:
• Princes rejected central government arrangements, preventing its implementation.

Limited Franchise:
• Limited voting franchise with a property qualification, allowing only 25% of the
population to vote in provincial elections.

Opposition and Criticism:

• Opposition from princes, Nehru, and Jinnah.

• Nehru termed it a 'Charter of Slavery,' and Jinnah deemed it 'thoroughly rotten and
totally unacceptable.'

Move Towards Independence:

• Despite opposition, the Act played a crucial role in the path to independence.
• Basis for negotiations leading to British departure from India.

• Parliamentary systems set up with increasing representation for the Indian people.

1937 Elections
Government of India Act (1937) Elections and Responses:

Congress and Muslim League Opposition:

• Neither Congress nor the Muslim League approved of the Government of India Act.

• Despite disapproval, both saw advantages in contesting the provincial elections

held in January and February 1937.

Congress Strategy:
• Initially, Nehru considered boycotting the elections to show disapproval of the Act.

• Congress, however, decided to participate, using the campaign to convey its

message and future program.

Muslim League Campaign Principles:

• Muslim League campaigned for self-government and greater provincial autonomy
with safeguards for minority communities.

• Jinnah aimed for cooperation between Hindus, Muslims, and minorities for national
self-government.

Strained Relations:
• Nehru's reluctance to improve relations angered Jinnah, who emphasized the need
for unity.

Election Results and Muslim League Disappointment:

• Congress secured absolute majorities in five provinces and was the largest party in
four others.

• Muslim League's disappointment as it won only 109 of 482 seats reserved for
Muslims, even in Muslim-majority provinces.

Benefits for Muslim League:

• Despite electoral setbacks, the elections brought benefits to the Muslim League.

• Unified the party after internal splits in the early 1930s.

• Provided valuable insights into election strategies, prompting organizational
improvements.

• Revealed that Muslim League's support was stronger in areas where Muslims were
a minority, indicating less perceived threat from Hindu domination.

• Identified an 'image problem'—the leaders seen as aristocrats—prompting a

realization of the need for broader appeal to the poor and illiterate Muslim
population.

The Rule of Congress 1937-39

Congress in Power (1937) and Treatment of Muslim League:

Reluctant Contest:
• Initially reluctant, Nehru and Congress contested provincial elections due to
overwhelming support.

Assurances and Formation of Cabinets:

• Nehru sought assurances from Viceroy Lord Linlithgow that Provincial Governors
wouldn't interfere.

• Congress members took seats and formed cabinets in eight provinces.

Disdain towards Muslim League:

• Post-election, Congress treated Muslim League with disdain.

• Refused cooperation in areas where League was the largest party.

Muslim Majority Provinces:

• Congress allowed Muslims to form governments in Muslim majority provinces but
excluded League members.

Congress Belief and Measures:

• Congress believed it represented all of India, leading to measures threatening
Muslim culture and identity.

• Actions reinforced Jinnah's warnings during the election campaign about the
dangers of Congress rule.

Bande Matram
Nationalist Hindu Song and Muslim Concerns (1937):

Nature of the Song:

• A nationalist Hindu song encouraged Hindus to expel Muslims from 'Hindustan.'

Compulsory Singing:
• Despite not being an official Congress policy, the singing of the song became
compulsory before the start of official business in provincial assemblies.

Muslim Concerns:
• The compulsory singing of the song raised concerns and offended Muslims.

• Muslims worried about the implications and sentiments behind the song, impacting
their sense of belonging and security in 'Hindustan.
The Wardha Scheme
Gandhian Education Scheme (1937) and Muslim Concerns:

Scheme Overview:
• Based on Gandhi's views, the education scheme was implemented in all Congress
education ministries.

Key Components:
• Teaching in Hindi was mandated.

• Hand-spinning cotton introduced into the school curriculum.

• Exclusion of religious education.

• Requirement for all students to bow before a picture of Gandhi in their schools.

Muslim Perceptions:
• Muslims perceived these measures as attempts to undermine love for Islam among
their children.

• Concerns arose about potential conversion to Hinduism, viewing the scheme as

culturally biased and favouring Hindu practices.

The 'Congress Tyranny

Muslim Perceptions of Cultural Threats (1937-39):

Fear of Cultural Erasure:

• Muslims feared that a primary goal of their Hindu rivals, though not official
Congress policy, was to erase Muslim culture.

Appalling Behavior by Hindu Extremists:

• In some areas, Hindu extremists acted in appalling ways:

• Muslims prohibited from eating beef, facing harsh punishments for cow slaughter.

• Azaan (call to prayer) forbidden, mosques attacked, and noisy processions near
mosques during prayer times.

• Instances of pigs being pushed into mosques.

Perceived Biased Authorities:

• Muslims felt authorities were biased against them; complaints often resulted in
decisions unfavorable to Muslims.

Anti-Muslim Riots:
• Anti-Muslim riots occurred, leading to physical attacks, arson on Muslim houses,
and property destruction.

Viceroy's Acknowledgment:
• Viceroy Linlithgow acknowledged instances of "continued oppression in small
ways."

Congress Tyranny Perception:

• Muslims, influenced by these incidents along with the BandeMatram and Wardha
Scheme policies, perceived the period 1937-39 as one of 'Congress Tyranny.'

The Day of Deliverance

India's Involvement in World War II (1939):

Declaration of War and Congress Objection:

• Britain declared war on Germany in 1939, unilaterally announcing India's
involvement without consulting Congress.

• Congress objected to the lack of consultation, leading to the resignation of all

Congress provincial governments.

Muslim Response to Congress Resignation:

• Muslims, pleased to witness the end of Hindu-led governments, supported Jinnah's
call to celebrate the end of Congress rule on December 22, 1939, termed the 'Day of
Deliverance.'
Context of Celebration:
• The celebration reflected Muslim satisfaction with the departure of Congress and
the perceived end of what they considered unfavorable policies and actions.

The Muslim League under Congress Rule

Jinnah's Efforts to Strengthen Muslim League (1937-1939):

Post-1937 Election Coalition Attempts:

• After the 1937 elections, Jinnah proposed Congress-League coalitions in various
provinces, but no agreement was reached.

Jinnah's Warning and Grassroots Organization:

• Jinnah emphasized the need for Muslims to organize themselves against Congress's
vision of 'Hindustan.'

• Urged Muslim League to build grassroots support, highlighting that victories

occurred where local League branches were established before 1937.

Success in Party Transformation:

• Jinnah's efforts led to notable success as chief ministers of Assam, Bengal, and
Punjab formally joined the Muslim League.

• By mid-1938, dramatic growth in membership numbers demonstrated the

transformation of the party's fortunes.

Recognition by Congress:
• Congress acknowledged the League's importance, leading to organized talks
between Nehru and Jinnah in recognition of shifting political dynamics.

Refusal of Sole Representation:

• Congress, however, refused Jinnah's demand that the Muslim League be recognized
as the sole representative of the Muslim community.

Hindu-Muslim Relations Decline:

• By 1939, Hindu-Muslim relations were strained, reflecting the political tensions and
the struggle for representation.

British Priorities Shift:

• In September 1939, Britain's entry into World War II shifted immediate priorities,
diverting attention from the governance concerns in India.
Summarised by
Muhammad Abdullah Amin

Diarchy System
The Diarchy system introduced by the British in the Government of India Act of 1935
was a form of dual government structure. Under this system, certain provinces in
British India were to be administered by elected Indian ministers responsible for
certain subjects, while the British-appointed Governor retained control over reserved
subjects. This was an attempt to gradually transfer power to Indian representatives
while maintaining British authority. However, the Diarchy system faced criticism and
was eventually abandoned in the post-independence period.

[4 Marks Question]

Chapter 9How important were attempts to find a

solution to the problems facing the subcontinent in
the year 1940 to 1947?

Timeline
1939 Outbreak of Second World War
Congress resigns from government

Dec 1939 Day of Deliverance

1940 Pakistan Resolution
1942 Cripps Mission
1942 Quit India Resolution
1944 Gandhi - Jinnah talks
1945 Simla Conference

The Outbreak of War 1939

September 3, 1939:
• Britain declared war on Nazi Germany.

• Viceroy Linlithgow announced India's participation in the war without consulting

Indian leaders.
Congress' Response:
• Congress objected to India being at war without a promise of full independence.

• Congress demanded a commitment to independence for India's support in the war

effort.

British Response:
• Britain refused full independence but promised Dominion status after the war.

Congress' Stand:
• Congress rejected the offer of Dominion status.

• Called on its members to resign from the government in protest.

Resolution Passed:
• Congress passed a resolution expressing disapproval of Nazism and Fascism.

• Supported the British cause but insisted on independence as a condition for full
support.

Muslim League's Demands:

1. End to anti-Muslim policies by Congress.

2. No law affecting Muslims without two-thirds Muslim member support.

3. Congress to agree to form coalitions in provincial administrations.

Responses to Demands:
• Neither the British nor Congress agreed to the Muslim League's demands.

Muslim League's Position During the War:

• Didn’t provide full support to the British due to unmet demands.

• Disapproved of Nazism and Fascism but didn’t oppose the British like Congress.

Day of Deliverance (22 December 1939):

• Muslim League declared a 'Day of Deliverance' celebrating the end of perceived
tyranny under Congress rule.

• Congress was offended, and Nehru noted a growing disagreement between

Congress and the League.
The Pakistan Resolution
Initial Stance of Jinnah (RA):
• Initially, Jinnah favoured a Muslim presence in a federated India with political
autonomy and safeguarded rights.

Shift in Jinnah's Position:

• Two years of Congress rule and the anticipation of British departure led Jinnah to
consider a separate Muslim state.

Lahore Resolution (22 March 1940):

•The premier of Bengal, Maulvi Fazl-ul-Haq proposed a resolution at the Muslim
League's annual session in Lahore.

• The resolution advocated grouping Muslim-majority regions into independent

states with autonomous and sovereign units.

Adoption of the Lahore Resolution:

• Passed unanimously on 23rd March, now celebrated as Pakistan Day.

• Initially called the 'Lahore Resolution' but later referred to as 'The Pakistan
Resolution' by the Hindu press.

Significance of the Resolution:

• Marked the official call for an independent Muslim state.

• The Muslim League emerged as the leader of 'The Pakistan Movement.'

The Cripps Mission

Cripps Proposals (March 1942):
• Sir Stafford Cripps sent by the British to India for a compromise during the war.

Key Points of Cripps Proposals:

1. Post-war Indian Union with Dominion status.
2. Provinces could opt out of the Union for their independence.
3. Constituent Assembly to frame a new constitution after the war.
4. Immediate elections for the Constituent Assembly after the war.

Muslim League's Response:

• Rejected the plan due to the absence of a reference to the establishment of
Pakistan.
• Jinnah (RA) acknowledged the right to opt out, recognizing the need to protect
minority interests.

Congress' Response:
• Rejected the Cripps proposals, demanding immediate control of India's affairs.

• Gandhi criticized the proposals as a 'post-dated cheque on a failing bank,'

expressing distrust in British promises.

Congress Strategy:
• Congress sensed British desperation and aims to exploit it for immediate gains.

The Quit India Resolution

Gandhi's Opposition and Quit India Movement (August 1942):
• Gandhi expressed dissatisfaction with British behaviour in India during a Congress
meeting in Allahabad.

Gandhi's Argument:
• Believed British departure would eliminate the Japanese invasion threat,
advocating for non-violent protest to persuade the British to leave.

Quit India Resolution (8 August 1942):

• All-India Congress Committee passed the 'Quit India Resolution,' demanding
immediate British withdrawal.

• Called for a mass non-violent struggle on a broad scale to support the campaign.

Arrests and Ban on Congress:

• Two days later, Gandhi, Nehru, and other Congress leaders were arrested.

• The Congress Party was banned.

Consequences of Quit India Movement:

• Widespread rioting ensued, and British control weakened in some areas.

• Harsh measures, including machine guns and aerial bombing, were employed to
restore British rule, resulting in thousands of Indian casualties.

Muslim League's Stance:

• Muslim League disapproved of the Quit India campaign, viewing it as a Hindu
attempt to gain control and promote anti-Muslim interests.
• Jinnah (RA) criticized the campaign as 'blackmail,' accusing Congress of exploiting
Britain's problems for its own advantage.

The Gandhi-Jinnah Talks

Gandhi's Release and Proposal (May 1944):
• Lord Wavell released Gandhi from prison on medical grounds.

• Gandhi proposed a meeting with Jinnah (RA) to discuss India's future after the
anticipated British departure.

Gandhi-Jinnah Talks (September 1944):

• Talks took place at Jinnah's home in Bombay, aiming for a compromise.

Reasons for Talks Breaking Down:

• Gandhi insisted on League's immediate support for Congress against the British
before considering partition, while Jinnah sought to secure partition before British
departure.

• Disagreements on central government control over defence and foreign policy

(Gandhi) versus provincial control (Jinnah).

• Gandhi claimed to speak for all of India, but Jinnah highlighted his role as a
Congress spokesman.

• Gandhi appeared not to support the 'Two Nation Theory,' while it was now official
League policy.

Outcome of Talks:
• Talks ended without agreement, but Jinnah gained some success.

• Congress acknowledged the League's importance and authoritative representation

of Muslims.

Lord Wavell and the Simla Conference

End of World War II and British Intentions:
• By early 1945, it became evident that the Second World War was concluding.

• Lord Wavell consulted with the British government in London on future policy for
India, indicating the British intention to leave.

Wavell's Proposal and Simla Conference (June 1945):

• Wavell proposed an Executive Council to govern India under the current
constitution until a new one was agreed upon.

• The Executive Council would consist of equal numbers of Muslims and Hindus, with
most members being Indian.

Leaders at the Simla Conference:

• Jinnah (RA), Liaquat Ali Khan, and Khwaja Nazimuddin led the Muslim League
delegation.

• Gandhi led the Congress group, with Abul Kalam Azad included to represent
Muslims not aligned with the League.

Conference Progress and Failure:

• Initial agreement on the principle of an Executive Council.

• Disagreement arose on the composition of the Council.

• Jinnah pointed out concerns about a permanent Muslim minority due to Sikh and
Scheduled Caste alignment with Hindus.

• Jinnah rejected Congress' suggestion of nominating Muslims, asserting the League's

undisputed representation of Muslims.

• Lord Wavell closed the conference on 14 July due to the inability to find a solution.

Outcome:
• Another British attempt to find a solution failed, leaving the issue of India's future
unresolved.

The 1945-46 Elections

1945 General Election and Change in British Leadership:
• Winston Churchill and the Conservative Party defeated in the general election.

• Clement Attlee's Labour Party, committed to self-government in India, came to

power.

Wavell's Mandate and Election Results (December 1945):

• Wavell instructed to organize elections for provincial and central assemblies,
forming an Executive Council with the support of Indian parties.

• Congress advocated an undivided and independent India, while the League sought
an independent Muslim homeland.
Results:
• League won 87% of the Muslim vote, all 30 Muslim seats in the Central Legislative
Assembly, and a significant majority in provincial elections.

• Congress won 91% of the non-Muslim vote and controls eight states.

Factors Behind Muslim League's Success:

• Improved communication of its message since 1937, becoming a significant force.

• Effective campaigning to clarify its stance to the Muslim community.

• Muslim realization during Congress rule (1937-39) that standing up for their rights
was crucial.

• Changed dynamics with the passage of the Pakistan Resolution, emphasizing

League's equality with Congress.

Communal Divide and Political Significance:

• The 1945 election results highlighted a significant split in India between Congress
and the League.

• Muslim League's success underscored its importance in any settlement for India.

Conclusion:
• The Muslim League's success in 1945 established that no settlement in India could
occur without its approval, signalling a pivotal role in the country's political
landscape.

The Cabinet Mission Plan

Cabinet Mission (March 1946):
• A three-man delegation, the Cabinet Mission, sent to India in March 1946 to find a
settlement acceptable to all.

Delegation's Approach:
• Representatives included Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A.V.
Alexander.

• Little common ground found between the Muslim League and Congress.

Jinnah's Position:
• Jinnah insisted on the formation of Pakistan with six provinces, considering a
central agency after its establishment.

• Congress opposed partition and rejected Jinnah's ideas.

Interim Government Proposal:

• Cabinet Mission proposed an interim government for ruling India during the British
withdrawal.

• Suggested forming an All-India Commission to decide on the number of states post-

British departure.

Final Cabinet Mission Plan (May 1946):

• Rejected the idea of establishing Pakistan.

• Proposed three parts in post-British India:

i. Hindu majority territories
ii. Western Muslim provinces
iii. Bengal and Assam

• Each part to have local autonomy and draw up its constitution.

• Central Indian Union to manage foreign affairs, defence, and communication.

Response and Rejection:

• Muslim League agreed to nominate members for an interim cabinet based on the
plan.

• Nehru stated that Congress wouldn't feel bound by the plan after the British
departure.

• League felt further discussions were pointless if an agreement might be overturned

later.

• The Cabinet Plan was dropped.

Towards Independence
Nehru's Formation of Interim Executive Council (August 1945):
• British asked Nehru to form an Executive Council as an interim government due to
Congress being the largest party.

• Jinnah refused to nominate members until Congress accepted it cannot nominate

Muslims.
• On September 2, 1945, the Council was sworn in with only Congress members.

Jinnah's Response and Nomination of League Members:

• Jinnah realized the importance of League representation, nominated 5 League
members, including Liaquat Ali Khan.

• Jinnah's masterstroke: Nominated a Hindu to show inclusivity, anticipating a diverse

population in a potential Pakistan.

Constituent Assembly Elections (July-December 1946):

• Elections held for a Constituent Assembly.

League's Refusal to Attend Constituent Assembly (December 9, 1946):

• When the Constituent Assembly first met on December 9, 1946, League members
refused to attend.

Congress' Ultimatum and British Intervention:

• Congress demanded resignation of League members in the Executive Council for
rejecting the Cabinet Mission plan.

• Congress threatened to withdraw its own members.

• British Prime Minister Attlee decided it was time for decisive action.

The 3 June Plan

Attlee's Announcement and Mountbatten's Arrival (February-March 1947):
• Attlee announced British departure from India by June 1948.

• Viscount Mountbatten, the new Viceroy, sent to work out a plan for the transfer of
power.

Riots and Need for a Speedy Settlement (March 1947):

• Riots and killings between Muslims and Hindus in Punjab raised concerns.

• Mountbatten realized the urgency for a quick settlement to prevent civil war.

Announcement of the 3 June Plan (June 3, 1947):

• Two states to be set up, India and Pakistan, with Dominion status.

• Interim constitution based on the 1935 Government of India Act.

• Muslim majority provinces to decide whether to stay in India or join Pakistan.

• Sindh and Balochistan joined Pakistan; Bengal and Punjab decided to join Pakistan
but partition Muslim and non-Muslim areas.

• NWFP joined Pakistan after a referendum, and the Muslim-majority district of

Sylhet in Assam joined the eastern wing of Pakistan.

Transfer of Power Date and Remaining Issues:

• Mountbatten hinted at bringing forward the transfer of power to August 1947 in a
press conference after the 3 June Plan announcement.

• Only 7 weeks left to address issues:

1. Drawing boundaries between Muslim and non-Muslim areas.
2. Resolving the issue of the princes and their decision on joining a country.
3. Undecided division of assets (army, civil service, finance, etc.).
4. Resolving Pakistan's relationship with Britain.

Leadership Roles:
• Mountbatten appointed as the first Governor-General of India.

• Jinnah (RA) to be Pakistan's Governor-General, requiring resolution of Pakistan's

relationship with Britain.

The Radcliffe Award

Boundary Issue and Radcliffe Commission (August 15, 1947):
• Boundary issue, particularly in Bengal and Punjab, remained unresolved by August
15, 1947.

• Mountbatten appointed Sir Cyril Radcliffe to head a Boundary Commission.

Radcliffe Award (August 16, 1947):

• Radcliffe, with two assistants nominated by the League and two by Congress,
decided on the new borders.

• Announcement of the decision, known as the Boundary Award or Radcliffe Award,

on August 16.

Disappointments and Controversies:

• League disappointed as Calcutta was given to India, surrounded by Muslim areas.

• In Punjab, Ferozepur and Gurdaspur given to India, leading to Muslim

disappointment.
• Claimed that Radcliffe had initially awarded Ferozepur to Pakistan but changed it
under Mountbatten's influence.

• Gurdaspur's award to India created a border with Kashmir, leading to future

disputes between India and Pakistan.

Jinnah's Response and Partition Realities:

• Jinnah criticized the awards as wrong, unjust, and perverse.

• Despite objections, partition had already occurred, and there was little that could
be done.

• Many other pressing problems for the newly formed country required attention.

The Independence Act

Indian Independence Act (July 15, 1947):
• Passed on July 15, 1947, the Indian Independence Act stated that from August 15,
British India would be partitioned into two dominion states: India and Pakistan.

Provisions of the Act:

• Each state would have complete freedom to pass any law it wished.

• The Government of India Act would serve as the provisional constitution until the
states devised their own.

Creation of Pakistan (August 14, 1947):

• On August 14, 1947, Pakistan officially came into being.

Independence Declaration (August 15, 1947):

• On August 15, 1947, India declared its independence.

This marks a significant moment in history, symbolizing the end of British rule and the
birth of two independent nations: India and Pakistan.

LORD MOUNTBATTEN, GOVERNOR-GENERAL

Early Life and Name Change:
• Lord Mountbatten, born Louis Battenberg in Windsor, England, in 1900.
• Related to both the British and German royal families.
• Family changes name from Battenberg to Mountbatten during World War I,
considering Battenberg too German.

Naval Career and Name Change:

• Mountbatten's father, First Sea Lord, served in the British navy.
• Louis follows his father into the navy, serving on various warships.

Post-World War I and Marriage:

• After World War I, continues naval career and becomes an advisor to the Prince of
Wales.
• Marries Edwina Ashley in 1922, and their marriage lasts until her death in 1960.

World War II Service:

• During World War II, rises from destroyer captain to flotilla Commander.
• Churchill promotes him to Chief of Combined Operations, responsible for preparing
for an Allied invasion of German-occupied Europe.
• In 1943, promoted to Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in South-East Asia.

Post-War Role as Viceroy:

• After the war, the Labour government appoints Mountbatten as Viceroy to facilitate
the British withdrawal.
• Initially, he hoped to keep India as a single unit but changes his stance after
witnessing Jinnah (RA)'s strong opposition to any plan that doesn't involve a
homeland for Muslims.
• Some people have criticised him for supporting partition, but as one British
historian recently wrote:

After his time in India, Mountbatten returned to the navy and was promoted to First
SeaLord in 1955. His final promotion was to the post of Chief of Defence Staff, from
which he retired in 1965.

Death in 1976:
• In 1976, Lord Mountbatten was on his boat near his holiday home in Ireland.
• His boat was blown up, resulting in his death.

Irish Republican Army (IRA) Attack:

• The Irish Republican Army carried out the attack as part of their campaign to
persuade the British government to relinquish control of Northern Ireland.
• The IRA aimed to use a 'high-profile' victim like Mountbatten to garner publicity for
their cause.

This tragic event reflects the complex political and historical context surrounding
Northern Ireland during that period.
Ch# 10 Contributions of Jinnah, Allama Iqbal and
Rahmat Ali to the success of the Pakistan

Introduction
Influence of Historical Events:
• The study of history reveals that events sometimes transcend human control,
defying planned outcomes.

Role of Political Leaders:

• However, there are instances where political leaders or statesmen, possessing
profound insight, can influence events to achieve successful outcomes.

Example of the Pakistan Movement:

• The history of the Pakistan Movement is cited as an example.

• Muhammad Ali Jinnah (RA), Allama Muhammad Iqbal, and Rahmat Ali played
pivotal roles.

• These great leaders not only created circumstances conducive to the formation of
Pakistan but, in Jinnah's case, also established the new state as a member of the
world community.

This underscores the dynamic interplay between historical forces and the influence of
visionary leaders in shaping the course of significant events.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah (RA) (1876 - 1948)

1876 Birth of Mohammad Ali Jinnah

1892 Travels to England to learn law

1897 Returns to Karachi

1909 Became a member of the Imperial Legislative Council

1913 Joins Muslim League

1916 Helped negotiate Lucknow Pact

1921 Left Congress Party

1929 Issued Fourteen Points

1930 Represented Muslims in the Round Table Talks

1939 Seen as Muslim leader in India

1944 Took part in talks with Gandhi

1945 Took part in Simla Conference

1947 Became Pakistan's first Governor-General

Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Unique Contribution:

• Jinnah played a central role in the agreement with the British that led to the
creation of Pakistan.

• He became the first Governor-General of the new country.

Early Life and Education:

• Born on December 25th, 1876, in Karachi.

• From a family of Gujarati Khoja Muslims.

• Sent to London at 15 to study law, developing an early interest in politics.

Entry into Politics (1909-1921):

• Established a successful law practice in Karachi upon returning in 1897.

• Joined the Imperial Legislative Council in 1909.

• Initially supported cooperation between Muslim League and Indian National

Congress.

• Played a key role in negotiating the Lucknow Pact in 1916.

• Disapproved of Gandhi's radical approach and left Congress in 1921.

Fourteen Points and Shift Towards Independence (1929-1939):

• Issued the Fourteen Points in 1929, calling for federal government, separate
electorates, and Muslim representation.

• The Fourteen Points laid the groundwork for future discussions, marking an
important step toward Pakistan.
• Represented the Muslim community in the Round Table talks in London in 1930.

• Witnessed the Muslim League's defeat in the 1937 elections, leading to a

reorganization for grassroots support by 1938.

• By 1939, acknowledged as the undisputed leader of the Muslim community.

Support for a Separate Homeland (1940s):
• Initially opposed the idea of a separate Muslim homeland, favoring a federation.

• By the Lahore Resolution in 1940, decided that a new country should be

established.

• Stated in 1944 that Muslims and Hindus are two major nations, fighting for Pakistan
as the practical solution to the problem.

Achieving Independence (August 1947):

• Essential part of the process leading to Pakistan's independence.

• Successfully fought for Pakistan, realizing the vision he had championed.

Achievements of Quaid-i-Azam (RA) in the Office

Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Role After Independence:

• Despite living for just one year after Pakistan achieved independence, Jinnah played
a vital role in establishing the new country in the world community.

Challenges at Independence:
• In August 1947, there were low expectations for Pakistan's survival as an
independent nation.

• Some Indian politicians actively worked to make Pakistan's survival more

challenging.

Unflagging Efforts and Success:

• Jinnah's unflagging efforts were crucial.

• Despite the skepticism and challenges, Pakistan not only survived but prospered
under his leadership.

This underscores the resilience and leadership of Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali

Jinnah in navigating the early years of Pakistan's independence and establishing its
presence on the world stage.

As a Leader
Quaid-i-Azam's Active Role as Governor-General:
• Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah took an active role as Governor-General,
functioning beyond the ceremonial duties.

• He chaired Cabinet meetings and served as the President of the Constituent

Assembly, displaying a commitment to ensuring Pakistan's strong foundation.

Building a United Nation:

• Jinnah emphasized national unity, urging people to identify as Pakistanis rather
than being divided by regional or ethnic identities.

• He opposed religious intolerance and championed the protection of religious

minorities, earning the title "Protector-General."

Refugee Rehabilitation and Relief Fund:

• To address the challenges posed by the influx of refugees, Jinnah established a
Relief Fund for their quick rehabilitation, with widespread public support.

International Recognition:
• Jinnah secured Pakistan's membership in the United Nations Organization (UNO) in
September 1947, enhancing its global recognition and support.

Governmental Framework and Administration:

• Liaquat Ali Khan was appointed Prime Minister, and a Cabinet was formed.

• The Constituent Assembly was tasked with framing a constitution for Pakistan.

• Karachi became the capital, and the Central Secretariat was established to govern
the country.

• Civil Service rules were drafted, emphasizing the role of officials as servants of the
people.

Economic Development:
• In 1948, Jinnah established the State Bank of Pakistan to aid economic
development.
• His Industrial Policy Statement emphasized the rapid establishment of industries.

• A compromise with India in the Canal Water Dispute ensured Pakistan's agriculture
received necessary water supplies.

• Jinnah persuaded the Indian government to hand over the agreed share of financial
assets from pre-partition India.

Quaid-i-Azam's multifaceted approach aimed at nation-building, economic

development, and international recognition played a pivotal role in the early years of
Pakistan's existence.

Establishing National Security

Defensive Measures for Pakistan:
• Despite Pakistan's initial challenges with poor military equipment and a lack of
senior cadre officers, Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah (RA) took steps to ensure
the country's defense.

Military Personnel Recruitment and Training:

• Facing a shortage of officers in the Pakistan army, temporary commissions were
offered, and British officers were utilized to fill the gaps.

• Emphasizing the army's role as "the servant of the people," Jinnah warned against
military involvement in making national policy, expressing his commitment to
preventing a military dictatorship.

Kashmir Conflict:
• Despite the army's initial lack of adequate equipment, Jinnah did not hesitate to
employ it, and the Pakistan army engaged in its first action in the Kashmir conflict.

• Despite being outnumbered and having inferior arms and ammunition, the
Pakistani army demonstrated resilience, holding its ground effectively in the conflict.

Quaid-i-Azam's strategic approach ensured that, despite challenges, Pakistan was

prepared to defend itself, and his commitment to civilian control over the military
reflected a vision for a democratic nation.

In his address to the Constituent Assembly in August 1947, he said,

If you will work in cooperation, forgetting the past, burying the hatchet, you are
bound to succeed. If you change your past and work together in a spirit that every
one of you, no matter to what community he belongs, no matter what relations he
had with you in the past, no matter what is his colour, caste or creed, is first, second
and last a citizen of this state with equal rights, privileges and obligations, there will
be no end to the progress you will make... even as regards Muslims you have Pathans,
Punjabis, Shias, Sunnis and so on..

Conclusion
Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Legacy:
• Despite his declining health, Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah (RA) worked
tirelessly to establish Pakistan.

• His efforts resulted in the implementation of a new government and

administration.

• Measures were taken to unite the diverse population into a single 'Pakistani' nation.

• Significant steps were made in developing and addressing the challenges faced by
the nascent nation.

The Times' Reflection on Jinnah's Legacy:

• The English newspaper, The Times, recognized Jinnah's profound impact, describing
him as more than just Quaid-i-Azam (RA) and acknowledging his role as the architect
of the Islamic nation.

• Jinnah was credited with shaping events according to his vision, and he was
considered a legend even during his lifetime.

Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah's legacy remains an enduring symbol of

leadership, vision, and the foundational principles that shaped the birth of Pakistan.
His contributions continue to be celebrated as integral to the nation's history and
identity.

Allama Muhammad lqbal (1877-1938)

1877 Birth of Allamalqbal
1922 Knighted by the British
1926 Elected to the Punjab Assembly
1930 Presided over the All India Muslim League meeting
1938 Death of Allamalqbal

Allama Iqbal's Background:

• Born in 1877 in Sialkot, northern Punjab, Allama Iqbal was a distinguished scholar.
• He earned a Master's degree from Government College in Lahore, studied
philosophy at Cambridge University, and practiced law in England.

• Received a doctorate in philosophy from Munich University in Germany.

Philosopher and Poet:

• Iqbal was both a philosopher and a poet, drawing inspiration from the Holy Quran.

• His poetry aimed to awaken Muslims to the need for social improvement, earning
him the title "the philosopher-poet."

Political Involvement:
• Knighted by the British in 1922 for his poetry, Iqbal opposed British rule in India and
advocated for a separate Muslim nation.

• Involved in politics, he believed in Muslims struggling for a distinct country.

• Described as the "Architect of Pakistan," Iqbal saw Hindus and Muslims as two
nations requiring separate sovereign states.

Political Roles:
• Elected to the Punjab Assembly in 1926, Iqbal impacted legislative matters.

• Appointed General Secretary of the Muslim League's Sir Muhammad Shafi group in
1927.

• Presided over the All India Muslim League meeting in Allahabad in 1930, advocating
for a Muslim federation with political autonomy.

• His idea of a separate Muslim nation preceded the Muslim League's adoption by
ten years.
Legacy and Death:
• Allama Iqbal passed away in 1938 and was buried outside the Badshahi Mosque in
Lahore.

• His tomb attracts numerous devotees, and Jinnah (RA) acknowledged Iqbal's
enduring influence on Muslim leaders, stating, "Iqbal's poetry, immortal as it is, is
always there to guide us and inspire us."

Rahmat Ali (1897-1951)

1897: Birth of Rahmat Ali

1933: Published a pamphlet entitled 'Now or Never
1933: Fomed the Pakistan National Movement
1951: Death of Rahmat Ali
Early Life:
• Rahmat Ali, born in 1897 in Punjab, attended Islamia College in Lahore.

• After completing his degree in 1918, he practiced law in Lahore.

Education at Cambridge:
• After winning a case for the Nawab of Mazari, Rahmat Ali went to Cambridge
University.

• Awarded a Masters Degree, he was in London during the Round Table Conferences,
advocating for a separate Muslim homeland.

'Now or Never' Pamphlet (1933):

• In 1933, Rahmat Ali and three others published the influential pamphlet 'Now or
Never,' proposing the partition of the Indian subcontinent for a Muslim homeland.

• The term 'Pakistan' was introduced in this pamphlet, giving the new nation its
name.

Pakistan National Movement:

• In 1933, Rahmat Ali founded the Pakistan National Movement to promote the idea
of Pakistan.

• Published 'Pakistan, the Fatherland of the Pak nation,' compiling his writings on the
subject.

Advocacy and Disagreements:

• Rahmat Ali passionately supported the Pakistan cause but struggled to gain
widespread support.

• Criticized Muslim leaders, including Jinnah (RA), for not fully endorsing his views.

• While the Muslim League adopted the idea of a separate homeland in 1940,
Rahmat Ali disagreed with the partition's terms in 1947.

Legacy and Death:

• Rahmat Ali passed away in Cambridge in 1951 and is buried in the local cemetery.
• Despite disagreements, he played a crucial role in naming Pakistan and advocating
for its creation.

S#3 Nationhood 1947-1 999

Introduction
Independence (1947):
• On August 14, 1947, Pakistan gained independence, but it faced challenges,
particularly being divided into East and West Pakistan with India in between.

Post-Independence Challenges:
• Political and geographical problems emerged as Pakistan needed to establish
governance, address social issues, and manage finances.

• Jinnah (RA), who lived for a year after partition, laid the foundation for Pakistan but
couldn't establish a long-term governance system.
Political Evolution (1950s - 1990s):
• Over the next fifty years, Pakistan experienced shifts between parliamentary,
presidential, and military governments as leaders grappled with challenges.

International Relations:
• Seeking alliances, Pakistan initially turned to the USA, especially during the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, receiving significant American aid.

• Pakistan played a crucial role in supporting Afghan mujahideen fighters but faced
economic challenges after the Soviet withdrawal.
Loss of East Pakistan (1971):
• In 1971, East Pakistan became independent as Bangladesh, marking a painful
chapter in Pakistan's history.

Changing Dynamics:
• Despite challenges, by 1999, Pakistan had secured its place as a respected member
of the United Nations and the global community.

Conclusion:
• Pakistan's journey, from uncertain beginnings in 1947 to stability and recognition by
1999, reflects its resilience and efforts to overcome various obstacles in the face of
changing geopolitical dynamics.
The Problems of Partition and the Nascent State

Introduction
Quaid-i-Azam's Inauguration (August 14, 1947):
• Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah (RA) took the oath as the Governor-General of
Pakistan, expressing the enduring nature of the new nation.

Challenges at Inception:
• Despite the declaration of permanence, Pakistan encountered significant
challenges.

• Many Indian leaders anticipated Pakistan's failure, expecting regions to return to

the Indian fold.

Leaders' Skepticism:
• Congress leaders, in particular, doubted Pakistan's viability politically, economically,
geographically, and militarily.

• The prevailing view was that force of circumstances might compel seceded areas to
rejoin India.

Quaid-i-Azam's Challenge:
• Quaid-i-Azam faced the formidable task of not only establishing Pakistan but also
holding it together amid numerous challenges during the partition.

The initial skepticism and challenges laid the groundwork for Pakistan's early
struggles and the determination needed to overcome them under Quaid-i-Azam's
leadership.

Reactions to the Radcliffe Award Radcliffe's Partition Plan (August 17, 1947):
• Sir Cyril Radcliffe's partition plan was made public on August 17, 1947.

• The announcement triggered numerous objections as millions found themselves on

the 'wrong side' of the new borders.

Emigration and Suffering:

• Since March 1947, emigration had already begun in anticipation of the partition.

• Upon the final announcement of border details, emigration surged, leading to

immense suffering for Sikhs, Muslims, and Hindus.
Loss of Lives:
• More Muslims lost their lives than Hindus and Sikhs combined during this
tumultuous period.

Jinnah's Denouncement:
• Jinnah (RA) denounced the Radcliffe Award as unjust and incomprehensible.

• Key Muslim objections included the allocation of Ferozepur and Gurdaspur to India
despite having Muslim majorities.

Sikh Disappointment:
• Sikhs, a significant population in Punjab, were disappointed as their plea for a
separate Sikh state was not considered.

• Lord Mountbatten acknowledged the challenge but couldn't find a solution.

Hindu Resentment:

• Hindus were discontented, notably with the decision regarding the Chittagong Hill
Tracts.

• Although having a Hindu majority, Radcliffe awarded them to Pakistan due to their
economic ties with East Bengal.

Radcliffe's Award resulted in significant grievances and contributed to the challenges

faced by communities on both sides of the new borders.

1. Geographical problems
Partitioned Pakistan (August 14, 1947):
• Pakistan gained independence on August 14, 1947.

• Immediately faced serious problems due to the unique nature of its split geography.

Two Separate Parts:

East Pakistan:
• Comprised most of Bengal (excluding Calcutta) and the district of Sylhet, which
voted in a referendum to join Pakistan.

West Pakistan:
• Comprised west Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, and the North West Frontier Province.

• Princely states of Dir, Swat, Chitral, Amb, Hunza, Gilgit, and Bahawalpur also joined
Pakistan.
Geographical Challenge:
• The two wings of Pakistan were separated by approximately a thousand miles of
Indian territory.

• This separation and vast distance led to significant differences in outlook between
the people of East and West Pakistan.

Diverse Regions:
• Despite both Bengal and west Punjab being largely Muslim areas, they had little
else in common, highlighting the diversity within the newly formed country.

2. Political Problems

1. Lack of Infrastructure:
• Pakistan faced challenges as it didn't inherit government buildings, furnishings, or
officials from the British, unlike India.

2. Political Inexperience:
• India had officials with political experience from the Indian National Congress,
while Pakistan's Constituent Assembly members were mostly wealthy landowners
with limited political experience.

• The Muslim League's support was mainly rural, lacking significant urban support.

3. Geographical Distance:
• The separation between East and West Pakistan made unified governance
challenging, with most leaders coming from West Pakistan.

4. Administrative Machinery:
• Pakistan lacked the administrative and governmental machinery to efficiently run
the affairs of the new country.

5. Leadership Health Concerns:

• Quaid-i-Azam (RA) suffered from tuberculosis, aware of his limited time to live, but
his ceaseless work and leadership skills ensured Pakistan's survival and flourishing.

3. Economic Problems
Economic Challenges Faced by Pakistan in 1947:

1. Underdeveloped States:
• Pakistan comprised mostly underdeveloped states with limited industry, especially
in regions like the North West Frontier Province.

2. Limited Industrialization:
• Karachi stood out as a modern port with trading and business activities, but many
regions had not experienced the industrialization seen in central India.
3. Rural Population Dominance:
• Around 90% of the population lived in rural areas, with only a few towns having
significant populations.

4. Wealth Disparities:
• Pakistan's major industry, agriculture, lacked the surplus needed for substantial
wealth creation and industrialization.

• Limited urbanization and industrial infrastructure were challenges.

5. Jute Industry Imbalance:

• While East Pakistan produced nearly 70% of the world's jute crop, Pakistan lacked a
single jute mill in 1947. All jute mills were in new India.

6. Partition Impact on Assets:

• Pakistan faced challenges in the division of assets during partition, and the table on
the next page illustrates the unfavorable outcomes for Pakistan.

The percentage of economic assets in Pakistan after partition

Industrial enterprises 10%
Industrial workers 6.5%
Electrical capacity 5%
Mineral deposits 10%

4. Social Problems
Diversity in Pakistan's Population:

1. Five Different Regions and Populations:

• Pakistan was primarily composed of five distinct regions, each with its unique
characteristics, leading some historians to suggest the presence of five different
nations.

2. Diverse Population Groupings:

• The Pakhtuns in the north.

• The Balochs in the west.

• The Sindhis in the south.

• The Punjabis in the north-east.

• The Bengalis in the east.

3. Differences in Traditions, Cultures, and Languages:

• These population groups exhibited variations in traditions, cultures, languages, and
lifestyles.

4. Limited Participation in British Government:

• The British colonial system provided minimal opportunities for these diverse groups
to participate meaningfully in government affairs.

5. Concerns and Allegiance:

• In 1947, some regions, notably Balochistan and Bengal, were uncertain about
transferring their allegiance to the new Pakistan.

• The imposition of Urdu as the official language raised concerns among those whose
native languages differed.

6. Challenge of Unity:
• Pakistan was not a homogenous nation but rather a collection of diverse people,
necessitating efforts to convince everyone to embrace the new state.
As a prominent member of the Constituent Assembly said in 1951:
'Pakistan is a unique country having two wings which are separated by more than
one thousand miles. The two wings differ in all matters except two things: namely
that they have a common religion, barring a section of the people in East Pakistan,
and we have achieved independence by a common struggle. All other factors, the
language, the tradition, the culture, the customs, the dietary habits, the calendar, the
standard time - practicaly everything, is different.'

5. The Accession of the Princely States

• Princely States at Partition:

1. Lord Mountbatten's Stipulation:

• At the time of Partition, Lord Mountbatten communicated to the leaders of the 462
princely states that they would not be granted independent status.

• The concern was that independence might lead to uncertainty and potential
conflict.
2. Choice Between India and Pakistan:
• The princely states were given the option to choose between joining India or
Pakistan.

• The decision was influenced by factors such as location and religion.

3. Northern States Joining Pakistan:

• Northern states like Dir, Swat, Chitral, Amb, and Hunza chose to join Pakistan.

• Gilgit and Kalat in Balochistan also became part of Pakistan, despite some internal
challenges.

4. Bahawalpur's Inclusion:
• Bahawalpur, with a population of 1.5 million, joined Pakistan.

5. Sylhet's Referendum:
• In the East, Sylhet held a referendum, leading its people to choose to join Pakistan.

6. Varied Decision Difficulty:

• While some states made straightforward choices based on location or religion,
others faced more challenging decisions.

Hyderabad
Hyderabad: A Princely State:

1. Significance of Hyderabad:
• Hyderabad was the largest princely state in the subcontinent with a population
exceeding 16 million and substantial wealth.

• Annual revenue exceeded 160 million rupees.

2. Nizam's Aspiration for Dominion Status:

• The Nizam of Hyderabad desired dominion status for his state.

• Lord Mountbatten, however, communicated that this was not feasible.

3. Religious Composition and Preference:

• Despite having a non-Muslim majority, the Nizam, being Muslim, favored joining
Pakistan.
4. Indian Government's Opposition:
• The Indian government strongly opposed Hyderabad's inclusion in Pakistan.
• Pressuring the Nizam, they sought Hyderabad's integration into India.

5. Treaty and UN Complaint:

• Reluctant, the Nizam eventually entered into a treaty covering defense, foreign
affairs, and communications.

• Hyderabad filed a complaint with the United Nations in August 1948.

6. Indian Troops' Entry and Annexation:

• Before the UN could address the matter, Indian troops entered Hyderabad.
• The state was dismantled and absorbed into different provinces of India.

Junagadh
Junagadh: A Disputed State:

1. Geographical Location:
• Junagadh was a small state located on the coast, situated 300 miles south of
Karachi.

2. Religious Composition:
• Despite having a predominantly non-Muslim population, the ruling prince of
Junagadh was Muslim.

3. Announcement to Join Pakistan:

• In 1947, Junagadh declared its intention to accede to Pakistan.

4. Indian Opposition and Military Action:

• Lord Mountbatten labeled Junagadh's accession as an encroachment on Indian
sovereignty.

• Indian troops were dispatched to surround the state, imposing a blockade that led
to food shortages.

• In November 1947, Indian forces invaded and took control of Junagadh.

5. Pakistan's Protest to the UN:

• Pakistan protested the illegal occupation to the United Nations, seeking resolution.

6. Unresolved Matter:
• The issue of Junagadh's status remained unsettled, forming a lingering dispute.
The Kashmir Issue
Jammu and Kashmir Dispute:

1. Strategic Importance:
• Jammu and Kashmir, the largest state in the subcontinent, held strategic
significance with borders touching Tibet, China, Afghanistan, and the USSR.

2. Religious Composition and Ruler:

• While most of Kashmir's 4 million inhabitants were Muslim, the ruler, Maharaja
Hari Singh, was Hindu.

• The Maharaja initially delayed deciding between joining Pakistan or India, creating
uncertainty.

3. Tensions and Muslim Exodus:

• In 1947, tensions rose as the Maharaja mistreated the Muslim population, leading
to over 200,000 Muslims fleeing to Pakistan.

• Facing rebellion, the Maharaja sought Indian assistance, agreeing to accede to India
in return.

4. Conflict and UNO Involvement:

• Pakistan, objecting to Kashmir's accession to India, sent troops to assist the Muslim
population.

• The matter was referred to the United Nations in January 1948, leading to a
ceasefire.

5. Unfulfilled Referendum Promise:

• Despite initial agreement for a referendum to determine the wishes of the people,
it has not been held to date.

• The unresolved Kashmir issue remains a significant source of discontent between

India and Pakistan.

6. Failed UNO Resolution Attempts:

• Pakistan has repeatedly called for UNO intervention to resolve the dispute, but an
agreement has proven elusive.

6. The Division of Financial and Military Assets

Asset Division and Financial Dispute:

1. Ratio Agreement:
• Assets of old British India were divided between India and Pakistan at a ratio of 17
to India and 5 to Pakistan, reflecting population differences.

2. Payment Dispute:
• In June 1947, it was agreed that Pakistan would receive 750 million rupees from the
4 billion rupees in the Reserve Bank.

• India initially paid 200 million rupees, but the rest was withheld due to the
outbreak of war over Kashmir.

3. Gandhi's Intervention:
• Gandhi objected to India's withholding of funds, advocating for fair asset division.

• Using non-violent methods, including the threat of a hunger strike, Gandhi

successfully persuaded the Indian government to pay an additional 500 million
rupees.

4. Military Division:
• Initially hesitant to divide the armed forces, it was eventually agreed to split them
36% to Pakistan and 44% to India.

• Armed forces personnel were given the choice to opt for the country of their
preference, leading to a division along religious lines.

• Muslim regiments opted for Pakistan, while non-Muslim regiments went to India.
Religious lines were a key factor in the army split.

Pakistan India
Armoured 6 14
Artillery division 8 40
Infantry division 8 21

Military Challenges for Pakistan:

1. Officer Shortage:

• Pakistan's army of 150,000 men faced a severe shortage of officers, requiring 4,000
officers.
• Only 2,500 trained Muslim officers were available, as the British Indian army had
favored Hindu officers.

• Jinnah (RA) had to enlist 500 British officers temporarily, mostly at the highest ranks
due to the lack of Muslim officers in those positions.

2. Immediate Need for Trained Army:

• Despite challenges, Pakistan faced immediate conflict with India over Kashmir,
necessitating the formation of the best possible army.

3. Indian Non-Compliance:
• India failed to adhere to agreements, particularly in military matters.

• All 16 ordinance factories were located in India, and they refused to hand over any
to Pakistan.

4. Resource Challenges:
• Lack of military factories in Pakistan forced the country to negotiate for the
construction of an ordinance factory at Wah, using 60 million rupees provided by
India.

• Military supplies from India were often delayed, damaged, or obsolete, leaving
Pakistan with a seriously under-resourced military force.
7. The Canal Water Dispute
Canal Water Dispute: Origins and Challenges:

1. Partition Impact on Water Resources:

• The partition of Punjab in 1947 disrupted the natural flow of rivers and canals that
were vital for irrigation in West Pakistan.

• West Pakistan, despite its fertility, faced a hot and dry climate, relying heavily on
irrigation from the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab rivers.

2. Control at Headworks:
• Many headworks, controlling the flow of water, ended up in Indian Punjab.

• The control of these headworks became a source of contention between India and
Pakistan.

3. Dispute Over Bari-Doab Canal:

• A significant point of contention was the Bari-Doab canal, where India claimed
complete rights to control the water due to the location of headworks.
• Pakistan argued for its right to water, emphasizing its economic dependence on
irrigation.

4. International Court of Justice Call:

• Pakistan sought resolution through the International Court of Justice, but India
rejected this proposal.

5. Temporary Agreement (May 1948):

• In May 1948, a temporary agreement was reached. India allowed water flow from
East Punjab to West Punjab but conditioned it on Pakistan finding alternative water
sources.

6. Urgent Need for Solutions:

• The "water problem" became an urgent matter for the new country, requiring swift
attention and resolution.

8. Refugees and the Accommodation

Crisis

Violence and Mass Migration During Partition:

1. Pre-Partition Tensions:
• Widespread violence between Muslim and non-Muslim communities occurred in
the years leading up to partition.

• Despite calls for calm from Congress and the Muslim League, the summer of 1947
witnessed rioting and numerous deaths.

2. Chaos After Boundary Award:

• The announcement of the boundary award in August 1947 exacerbated the
situation, leading to communal attacks.

• Millions found themselves in the 'wrong' country, triggering the largest migration in
history.

3. Religious Lines and Communal Violence:

• Partition along religious lines aimed to ease tensions but ended up worsening
communal violence.

• Over 10 million people moved between India and Pakistan by January 1948, with
varying degrees of willingness and possessions.

4. Organized Violence:
• Violence was sometimes orchestrated by local authorities.

• Muslims believe that Hindus and Sikhs had an organized program for the massacre
of Muslim refugees.

• In non-Muslim princely states, state troops were used to support attacks on

Muslims.

• Atrocities were carried out by Muslims as well amid communal hatred.

5. Human Cost and Displacement:
• Estimates suggest as many as a million people died due to violence or the hardships
of migration.

• Nearly 20 million were left homeless, creating enormous problems for both India
and Pakistan.

6. Challenges for Pakistan:

• Pakistan, as a new and not wealthy country, struggled to accommodate millions of
refugees.

7. Refugee Turned Violence:

• Some distressed refugees turned on the local population of different religions.

• In September 1947, martial law was declared in Delhi due to violence initiated by
non-Muslim refugees against local Muslims.

8. Cooperation Amid Communal Violence:

• By the end of 1947, India and Pakistan began cooperating to control communal
violence.

• Cooperation led to a more orderly evacuation of refugees but did not completely
end the violence.