Answer to question number: 1

a) Q. Starting the basic production performance criteria, justify that ‘Quality

Management ‘subject is a necessary in industrial and production engineering.
Write the key points in a convincing manner.
Ans:
In the world of industrial and production engineering, quality management is like
the master chef that ensures every product is a culinary masterpiece. It's an
essential ingredient for success, ensuring that your products meet the highest
standards and consistently satisfy your customers.
Here's why quality management is a must-have in industrial and production
engineering:
1. Skilled Workforce: Quality management trains your employees to be experts in
their field, preventing mistakes and ensuring top-notch craftsmanship.
2. Reliable Equipment: Quality management ensures your machinery and tools
are in top condition, preventing production hiccups and ensuring consistent
output.
3. Superior Materials: Quality management sets high standards for raw materials,
ensuring your products start with the best possible ingredients.
4. Standardized Processes: Quality management establishes consistent
production methods, minimizing errors and maximizing efficiency.
5. Continuous Improvement: Quality management constantly monitors and
measures performance, identifying areas for improvement and driving ongoing
excellence.
In essence, quality management is the secret recipe for success in industrial and
production engineering. It's the difference between ordinary products and
exceptional ones, ensuring customer satisfaction and a thriving business.
b) Q. There are several features of quality of an item. Name any engineering
product and point out the types of features that should be satisfied by a product.
Ans:
Here, is an example of an engineering product and the types of features that
should be satisfied by the product:
Product: Electric Vehicle (EV)
Features of quality:
 Performance: The EV should have a long range, a fast charging time, and a
high top speed.

 Reliability: The EV should be reliable and not break down often.

 Safety: The EV should be safe to drive and have features that protect the
driver and passengers in the event of an accident.

 Durability: The EV should be durable and able to withstand wear and tear.

 Efficiency: The EV should be energy efficient and have a low environmental

impact.

 Aesthetics: The EV should be aesthetically pleasing and have a design that

is appealing to consumers.

 Usability: The EV should be easy to use and have controls that are intuitive
for drivers.

 Sustainability: The EV should be made from sustainable materials and be

recyclable.

In addition to these general features of quality, there may be specific features that
are important for a particular EV, such as the type of battery, the range of driving
modes, and the availability of advanced driver assistance systems.
C) Q. A manufacturing company producing motorbike chassis has intended to
improve its quality and productivity simultaneously. Explain the possibility to
improve the both together.
Ans:
Yes, it is possible for a motorbike chassis manufacturer to enhance quality and
productivity simultaneously. In fact, focusing on quality often improves
productivity as well. This is because improving quality often involves reducing
defects, leading to fewer reworks, less scrap, and shorter cycle times.
Here are specific strategies to improve quality and productivity simultaneously:
1. Implement a quality management system (QMS) to ensure products and
services meet customer requirements.

2. Use statistical process control (SPC) to monitor and control processes,

ensuring they produce products meeting specifications.

3. Empower employees to stop production when they see a problem, allowing

early identification and correction of issues.

4. Use standardized work, a set of instructions for performing a task correctly,

to reduce variation and improve quality.

5. Use Poka-Yoke devices, mistake-proofing devices, to prevent defects from

occurring.

6. Continuously improve processes to identify and eliminate waste and

improve efficiency.

By implementing these strategies, a motorbike chassis manufacturer can improve

quality and productivity simultaneously, leading to lower costs, higher customer
satisfaction, and a more competitive advantage.
D) Q. What is the key difference between ‘Quality Assurance’ and ‘Quality
Control’?
Ans:
Quality Assurance:
Quality assurance (QA) is the term used in both manufacturing and service
industries to describe the systematic efforts taken to assure that the product
delivered to customer meet with the contractual and other agreed upon
performance, design, reliability, and maintainability expectations of that customer.
Quality Control:
Quality control (QC) is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors
involved in production. ISO 9000 defines quality control as "a part of quality
management focused on fulfilling quality requirements".
Difference between ‘Quality Assurance’ and ‘Quality Control’are as follows:
 Answer to Question number: 2
a) The seven basic quality control tools are essential for any corporate citizen aiming to improve
quality and decision-making. These tools are often referred to as "magnificent" because they
help organizations enhance their processes and make more informed choices, leading to better
outcomes.
The basic quality control tools are:
1. Check sheet:
The check sheet is used for collecting, recording, and analyzing the data.
2. Histogram:
Histograms display data in a graphical format, making it easier to understand and analyze data
distributions.
3. Pareto analysis:
A Pareto chart is a special type of histogram that can easily be apply to find and prioritize quality
problems, conditions, or their causes of in the organization.
4. Process flow chart:
Flowcharts provide a visual representation of a process, making it easy to identify steps,
decisions, and potential areas for improvement. They are called "magnificent" because they
simplify complex processes.
5. Cause-effect diagram:
These diagrams are named after their creator, Kaoru Ishikawa. They help identify and visualize
the potential causes of a problem, making it easier to find solutions.
6. Scatter diagram:
Scatter diagrams show relationships between two variables, allowing organizations to assess
correlations and trends.
7. Control Chart:
Control charts monitor processes over time to detect variations and deviations from the
expected standard, ensuring consistent quality.
Example on how to prepare a flow chart:
Let us say a company wants to create a flowchart for their order processing system:
Define the Process: Begin by defining the scope of the process you want to flowchart. In this
case, it is the order processing system.
Identify the Start and End Points: Determine where the process begins (e.g., when an order is
received) and where it ends (e.g., when the order is shipped).
Identify Key Steps: List the main steps involved in order processing, such as order entry,
payment verification, order fulfillment, and shipping.
Add Decision Points: If there are decision points (e.g., verifying payment), include these as
diamonds in the flowchart.
Connect Steps and Decisions: Use arrows to connect the steps and decisions in the order they
occur.
Include Inputs/Outputs: If necessary, indicate what inputs are required at each step and what
outputs are produced.
Document Flow Lines: Add descriptions to the arrows to clarify the process or decisions being
made.
Test the Flowchart: Review the flowchart to ensure it accurately represents the process.
b) PDCA cycle to design a water bottle for fabrication in a pilot production setting:
Plan (P):

 Identify the Purpose and Objectives: Determine the purpose of the water bottle (e.g.,
hydration, sports, or general use) and set specific objectives, such as size, capacity, and
material.

 Gather Requirements: Understand customer requirements and industry standards for

water bottles, including materials, size, shape, and safety regulations.

 Conceptual Design: Create initial design concepts for the water bottle, considering
ergonomics, aesthetics, and functionality.

 Select Materials: Choose materials for the bottle based on factors like durability, safety,
and cost-effectiveness.
Do (D):

 Create Prototypes: Develop prototypes of the water bottle designs to test feasibility and
functionality.

 Pilot Production: In a small-scale pilot production run, manufacture a limited number of

water bottles based on the chosen prototype design. This phase is crucial for evaluating
manufacturing processes.
Check (C):

 Quality Inspection: Inspect the pilot production water bottles for defects, deviations
from design, or any quality issues. Compare them against design specifications and
industry standards.

 Gather Feedback: Collect feedback from the production team, quality control, and
potential users to identify any problems or opportunities for improvement.

 Analyze Data: Analyze data from the pilot production to determine if the production
process meets quality and efficiency targets.
Act (A):

 Refine Design: Use feedback and data analysis to make design adjustments and
refinements, addressing any identified issues or areas for improvement.

 Optimize Production Process: Modify the manufacturing process based on lessons

learned during pilot production. Implement improvements to enhance efficiency and
quality.

 Scale Up Production: If the pilot production was successful, plan for full-scale production
based on the refined design and optimized manufacturing process.

 Continuous Improvement: Continuously monitor and improve the production process

and product quality by applying the PDCA cycle at regular intervals.
c)
Solder defects Frequency percentage
Pinholes 4 4%
Unwetted 11 11%
Blowholes 13 13%
Shorts 8 8%
Unsoldered 11 11%
Insufficient solder 53 53%
So, Insufficient solder should be removed first.

Answer to question number: 3

Ans no: 3(a)

Motorola's concept of Six Sigma quality places a strong emphasis on reducing defects to this
exceptionally low level, ensuring products and processes meet or exceed customer expectations and
regulatory requirements. It's a systematic and data-driven approach to quality management,
emphasizing continuous improvement and minimizing variability in processes.

Motorola's Six Sigma Quality:

Motorola's Six Sigma quality is a rigorous methodology for achieving near-perfect products and
processes. The term "Six Sigma" refers to a statistical measure of process variation, where the goal is to
reduce defects and errors to an extremely low level. Motorola introduced this concept in the 1980s, and
it has since become a widely adopted quality management approach across various industries.

Six Sigma is characterized by several key principles:

Data-Driven Decision-Making: It emphasizes collecting and analyzing data to identify and address the
root causes of defects and variations in processes.

Process Improvement: The focus is on process optimization to minimize errors and defects, resulting in
increased quality and customer satisfaction.

DMAIC Methodology: Six Sigma typically follows a structured problem-solving approach known as
DMAIC, which stands for Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control.

Black Belts and Green Belts: Trained professionals known as Black Belts and Green Belts lead Six Sigma
projects, guiding teams in implementing improvements.

Striving for Near-Perfection: The ultimate goal of Six Sigma is to achieve a level of quality where defects
occur at a rate of fewer than 3.4 per million opportunities.

Expected Level of Non-Conforming Product:

In Six Sigma, the level of non-conforming products is often quantified in terms of defects per million
opportunities (DPMO). The aim is to reach a DPMO rate of 3.4 or fewer, which translates to a nearly
error-free process. To calculate DPMO, you need to know both the number of defects and the number of
opportunities for defects in a process.

For example, if a process had 50 defects in a million opportunities, the DPMO would be 50. In the
context of Six Sigma, this would be considered a relatively high defect rate, indicating significant room
for improvement. The ultimate goal is to bring the DPMO down to 3.4 or lower, which is equivalent to
achieving a quality level of 99.9997%.

Ans no: 3(b)

An international logistics company, focusing on prevention and early detection of quality issues
is critical to minimizing appraisal, internal, and external failure costs. Proper training, supplier
quality assurance, and process improvement can help prevent quality issues, reduce inspection
and rework costs, and maintain customer satisfaction. Additionally, maintaining a robust quality
management system and compliance with international quality and safety standards is essential
for efficient and cost-effective logistics operations.

Prevention Costs:

Training and Development: Ensuring that staff are well-trained in handling goods and using
equipment to prevent errors and accidents.
Quality Planning: Developing and maintaining quality standards, procedures, and guidelines for
logistics operations.
Supplier Quality Assurance: Investing in processes to monitor and improve the quality of goods
received from suppliers to prevent defects in incoming materials.
Process Improvement: Implementing continuous improvement initiatives to optimize logistics
processes and reduce the risk of errors.

Appraisal Costs:

Quality Inspections: Conduct inspections of goods before shipment to verify their quality and
compliance with standards.
Testing and Measurement: Performing quality testing and measurements on goods to ensure they
meet specifications.
Audits and Compliance Checks: Carrying out internal and external audits to confirm that
operations adhere to quality and safety regulations.
Quality Documentation: Maintaining records and documentation of quality checks and
inspections for compliance and accountability.

Internal Failure Costs:

Rework and Rehandling: Costs associated with fixing errors or defects in goods and materials,
including repackaging, re-labeling, or re-routing.
Inventory Holding Costs: If goods are held in storage due to quality issues, there are costs related
to warehousing and inventory management.
Production Delays: Delays in logistics operations due to internal failures can lead to increased
operational costs and missed delivery deadlines.
Waste Disposal: Costs associated with disposing of defective or unusable goods or materials.

External Failure Costs:

Customer Returns and Replacements: Costs associated with returning defective goods to the
company and replacing them with quality products, including shipping and handling.
Customer Claims and Compensation:

Costs linked to addressing customer complaints, providing compensation, and managing legal
issues, if applicable.
Lost Business Opportunities: Loss of customers and revenue due to poor service or quality
issues, which can harm the company's reputation and market position.
Recalls and Product Liability: Costs associated with recalls of goods that pose safety or quality
risks to customers, including legal and regulatory expenses.

Ans no: 3(c)

TQM(total quality management) is an approach that centers on enhancing product and service quality by
continuously improving processes, engaging employees, and prioritizing customer needs. It relies on
data, standardization, and strong leadership commitment to foster a culture of quality within an
organization. TQM seeks to minimize defects, streamline operations, and exceed customer expectations.

1. Leadership and Commitment: When leadership, especially top management, doesn't wholeheartedly
support TQM, it can be challenging to get everyone on board. Without strong commitment from leaders,
it's tough to create a culture where quality is a top priority. Employees may be less motivated to
embrace TQM practices.

2. Resistance to Change: People often resist change, and TQM involves significant changes in how work is
done. In the context of Bangladesh, where traditional practices and routines can be deeply ingrained,
employees may be hesitant to embrace these changes. Overcoming this resistance requires effective
change management strategies.

3. Lack of Training: TQM introduces new tools and approaches that employees may not be familiar with.
Without proper training and education, employees can feel lost and struggle to implement TQM
practices effectively. Training is essential to bridge the knowledge gap.

4. Cultural Challenges: Bangladesh has its own cultural dynamics, which may not always align with TQM
principles. Traditional hierarchies and communication patterns can be at odds with the open and
collaborative nature of TQM. Adapting TQM to respect and integrate these cultural values is vital for
success.
5. Resource Shortage: TQM often demands investments in technology, employee training, and process
improvements. In cases where organizations don't allocate the necessary resources, it becomes
challenging to implement TQM effectively. Adequate resources are needed to support quality
improvement initiatives.

6. Inconsistent Application: TQM should be applied consistently across all departments and processes.
Inconsistencies can lead to confusion and a lack of alignment in quality improvement efforts. To make
TQM work, it must be integrated and applied uniformly throughout the organization.

7. Metrics Overload: While measurement is crucial in TQM, overemphasizing metrics can lead to a
narrow focus on numbers, rather than the broader quality improvement goals. It's essential to strike a
balance between data-driven decision-making and the broader principles of quality improvement.

8. Forgetting Customers: TQM is all about ensuring that products and services meet and exceed
customer expectations. Losing sight of this customer-centric focus can lead to TQM initiatives that are
disconnected from their primary purpose. It's vital to keep customers at the center of quality
improvement efforts.

9. Communication Problems: Open and transparent communication is fundamental to TQM's success.

When communication channels break down or are ineffective, it hinders the sharing of ideas, feedback,
and information essential for continuous improvement. Effective communication is a cornerstone of
TQM.

10. Short-Term Thinking: TQM is a long-term strategy for quality improvement. Focusing on quick fixes or
short-term gains instead of the larger, sustained improvements that TQM aims to achieve can lead to
failure. Patience and a commitment to the long-term vision of quality improvement are key.

In the context of Bangladesh, addressing these challenges may require a deep understanding of local
culture, clear communication, and a focus on long-term benefits to ensure the successful
implementation of TQM initiatives.
 Answer to question number: 4

4) (a)

Overall Equipment Efficiency (OEE) is a measure of how well a piece of equipment is performing
relative to its full potential. It is calculated by multiplying three factors:

Availability: The percentage of time the equipment is running as planned.

Performance: The percentage of time the equipment is running at its ideal speed.

Quality: The percentage of good output produced.

OEE can be calculated using the following equation:

OEE = Availability * Performance * Quality

where:

Availability = Run Time / Planned Production Time

Performance = (Ideal Cycle Time * Total Count) / Run Time

Quality = Good Count / Total Count

(b)

ii) Kaizen: Kaizen is a Japanese hybrid word. “kai” means change and “zen” means good (for the better).
Kaizen is for small incremental improvements but carried out on a continual basis and involve all people
in the organization.

Kaizen policy and goal:

1) Zero losses
2) Cost reduction
3) Equipment effectiveness
4) Extensive use of PM analysis as a tool eliminating losses.

iii) Office TPM: Office TPM, or Total Productive Maintenance, is a methodology that focuses on
improving productivity, efficiency, and quality while reducing costs and waste in office processes. It is
based on the same principles as TPM in manufacturing, but it is adapted to the unique needs of the office
environment. Office TPM is important because it can help businesses to improve their bottom line.
There are a number of different ways to implement Office TPM, such as-
5s, Kanban, Autonomous maintenance, Planned maintenance, Quality control.

(c)
Distinguish between Average Outgoing Quality and Acceptance Quality Levels:

AOQ AQL
Average quality level of outgoing product after it The worst quality level that is acceptable for a
has been inspected and sorted. product.
calculated by averaging the quality levels of the usually represented as a percentage or ratio of the
lots that were approved and those that were total amount to the number of flaws.
rejected.
To evaluate the real output product's quality. To determine the lowest acceptable quality level
for a product.

Average outgoing quality level (AOQ) is the expected average quality level of an outgoing product after
it has been inspected and sorted. It is calculated by taking the weighted average of the quality level of the
accepted lots and the quality level of the rejected lots.

Importance of average outgoing quality level:

1)Quality Assurance
2)Customer Satisfaction
3)Compliance
4)Cost reduction
5)Process Improvement
6)Risk Mitigation

Answer to question number: 5

a)State and explain each rule for determining out-of-control points with necessary diagram
answer

In statistical process control (SPC), the identification of out-of-control points is crucial for
monitoring and maintaining the quality of a process. There are several rules, often referred to as
control charts or Shewhart rules, for detecting out-of-control points in a control chart. These
rules help identify when a process is exhibiting variation that is not purely due to common
causes, indicating a potential issue that requires investigation and corrective action.

Here are the most common rules for determining out-of-control points in control charts, along
with explanations and diagrams for each:

Rule 1 – One point beyond the 3 σ control limit

Rule 1, one point beyond the 3 σ control limits, seeks to identify points that are random or
outliers, as shown here in red

Rule 2 – Eight or more points on one side of the centerline without crossing

Rule 2, eight or more points on one side of the centerline without crossing, is considered a
prominent shift (the shift can be on either side of the centerline). The points circled in red are
considered a prominent shift.

Rule 3 – Four out of five points in zone B or beyond

Rule 3, four out of five points in zone B or beyond, is considered a small shift (the shift can be
on either side of the centerline). The points circled in red are considered small shifts.

ule 4 – Six points or more in a row steadily increasing or decreasing

Rule 4, six points or more in a row steadily increasing or decreasing, is considered a trend (the
trend can be rising or falling). The points circled in red are considered a trend.

Rule 5 – Two out of three points in zone A

Rule 5, two out of three points in zone A, is considered a large shift. (the shift can be on either
side of the centerline). The points circled in red are considered large shifts.

Rule 6 – 14 points in a row alternating up and down

Rule 6, 14 points in a row alternating up and down, is generally considered to be overcontrol.
The points enclosed in red are considered out of control.

ule 7 – Any noticeable/predictable pattern, cycle, or trend

Rule 7 is any noticeable/predictable pattern, cycle, or trend. The points circled in red are
considered out of control.

b)
The length of industrial filters is a quality characteristic of interest. Thirty samples,each of size 5,
are chosen from the process. The data yields an average length of110 mm, with the process
standard deviation estimated to be 4 mm.

(i) Find the 3sigma control limits. What is the probability of a type I error?

(ii) If the process mean shifts to 112 mm, what is the probability of no detecting this shift

on the first sample?

Answer:

(i)

Given,

Average length = 110 mm

Standard deviation( ) = 4 mm

To give the 3 sigma control limits & the probability of a type I error

UCL = mean + 3*

= 110 + 3*4

= 110 + 12

UCL = 122

LCL = mean - 3*

= 110 - 3*4

= 110 - 12

LCL = 98

Now to give the required probability

P(Type 1 error) = P(X > UCL) + P(X < LCL)

= P(X > 122) + P(X < 98)

= P(z > (112 - 110)/4 ) + P(z < (98 - 110)/4)

= P(z > 0.5) + P(z < - 3)

= 0.3085375 + 0.0013499 [since from z table]

= 0.3098874

P(Type 1 error) = 0.3099

Answer to question number: 6

Answer to the Question Number-06(A)

Six Sigma projects focus on improving processes and reducing defects or variations in order to
achieve higher quality and efficiency. The primary goal of Six Sigma is to deliver products or
services that meet customer requirements and specifications consistently. Six Sigma projects
often start with the goal of improving product or service quality. This can involve reducing
defects, errors, or variations in the manufacturing or service delivery processes. The emphasis is
on ensuring that the end result meets or exceeds customer expectations.

Reputed companies often continue to apply Six Sigma methodology for several reasons, even
when they have a strong reputation for quality and operational excellence:

1. Sustaining Quality: Reputed companies understand the importance of maintaining and

improving the quality of their products or services. Six Sigma provides a systematic
approach to quality management, helping to identify and address any issues that could
compromise quality.
2. Operational Excellence: Six Sigma is not just about quality but also about operational
excellence. It helps companies streamline processes, reduce waste, and increase
efficiency, which can lead to cost savings and improved profitability.
3. Customer Satisfaction: Even well-established companies need to meet or exceed
customer expectations consistently. Six Sigma can help in ensuring that products or
services continue to deliver value and meet customer requirements.
4. Market Competitiveness: The business environment is dynamic. Reputed companies must
stay competitive, and Six Sigma can aid in continuous improvement and innovation to
keep up with changing market demands.
 5. Risk Reduction: Six Sigma emphasizes data-driven decision-making. This approach can
help in early detection and prevention of issues, reducing the risk of costly quality
problems, product recalls, or safety issues.
6. Global Expansion: Many reputed companies operate on a global scale. Six Sigma offers a
common framework for quality management that can be applied across diverse locations,
ensuring consistency in product and service quality.
7. Cost Reduction: Even successful companies are always looking for ways to reduce costs
without compromising quality. Six Sigma's focus on process optimization and waste
reduction can contribute to cost savings.
8. Employee Engagement: Six Sigma often involves training and involving employees in
process improvement. This can boost morale, engagement, and a sense of ownership in
the workforce, which is valuable in any company, regardless of its reputation.
9. Benchmarking: Six Sigma provides metrics and benchmarks for performance.
Even reputed companies can benefit from setting quantifiable targets and
measuring their performance against industry best practices.
10. Corporate Responsibility: Reputed companies may have a strong commitment
to corporate responsibility, which includes sustainability and minimizing
environmental impact. Six Sigma can help identify and address areas where
improvements can be made in this regard.

In summary, even highly reputable companies continue to apply Six Sigma methodology
to maintain and enhance their reputation, sustain quality, drive operational excellence,
remain competitive, and adapt to changing market dynamics. The principles of Six
Sigma are versatile and applicable across various industries and business scenarios,
making it a valuable methodology for continuous improvement.

AnsB
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR):
The Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is a critical concept in the context of quality control and the
Taguchi Loss Function. It is used to quantify the quality or performance of a product or process
by comparing the signal (desired output) to the noise (unwanted variation or deviation from the
desired output). A higher SNR indicates better quality because it implies that the signal is
stronger in relation to the noise.
In the Taguchi Loss Function, the SNR is used to determine how much a product or process
deviates from the target or ideal performance and, consequently, how much loss is incurred due
to this deviation. The goal is to maximize the SNR to minimize the loss function. The formula
for calculating the SNR depends on the type of characteristic you are dealing with in the Taguchi
method:
 1. Smaller-the-better: For characteristics where a smaller value is better (e.g., minimizing
defects), the SNR is calculated as:
SNR = -10 * log10[(1/n) * Σ(yi^2)]
Where:
 n is the number of observations.
 yi represents the measured values.
2. Larger-the-better: For characteristics where a larger value is better (e.g., maximizing
strength), the SNR is calculated as:
SNR = -10 * log10[(1/n) * Σ(1/yi^2)]
3. Nominal-the-best: For characteristics with a target or nominal value that is considered
ideal, a different SNR formula is used. The specific formula depends on the context and
the target value.
Maximizing the SNR is synonymous with minimizing the Taguchi Loss Function, which
quantifies the financial loss or degradation in quality due to deviations from the target. By
optimizing processes and products to achieve higher SNR values, manufacturing organizations
can reduce quality-related losses and improve customer satisfaction.
Adjustment Parameter:
An "adjustment parameter" refers to a variable, setting, or factor that can be modified or fine-
tuned to achieve a desired outcome, optimize a process, or correct a deviation. Adjustment
parameters are used in various fields, including manufacturing, quality control, engineering, and
optimization. These parameters are adjusted to achieve specific goals, such as improving
performance, reducing defects, or optimizing efficiency.
For example, in the context of the Taguchi method and quality control:
 Adjustment parameters could include machine settings, process parameters, or material
specifications that can be adjusted to optimize a manufacturing process and maximize the
SNR.
 In statistical process control (SPC), adjustment parameters might refer to control limits or
tolerances that can be adjusted to maintain a process within desired specifications.
 In optimization problems, adjustment parameters are variables that are iteratively
adjusted to minimize or maximize an objective function. These could be factors like
machine speeds, temperatures, or material compositions.
In general, adjustment parameters are essential for fine-tuning processes, products, and systems
to achieve desired outcomes or to maintain quality control. They are often used in conjunction
with statistical and analytical tools to make data-driven decisions and improvements.
 Ans C
Manufacturing organizations adhere to quality management systems like ISO 9000 for a variety
of important reasons, as these systems provide a structured framework for improving product and
process quality. Here are several reasons, along with examples, for why a manufacturing
organization would choose to adhere to ISO 9000 or similar quality management systems:

1. Consistency and Standardization: Quality management systems, such as ISO 9000,

help standardize processes and procedures. This ensures that products are produced
consistently and meet established quality standards. For example, a manufacturer of
medical devices must adhere to strict quality standards to ensure the safety and efficacy
of its products.
2. Customer Satisfaction: Meeting or exceeding customer expectations is crucial for
manufacturing organizations. Adhering to ISO 9000 principles and customer-centric
quality management practices can lead to higher customer satisfaction. For instance, an
automotive manufacturer that consistently delivers reliable, defect-free vehicles will build
a loyal customer base.
3. Competitive Advantage: In many industries, ISO 9000 certification is seen as a mark of
quality and reliability. Manufacturers with ISO 9000 certification may have a competitive
edge when seeking contracts or customers. For example, a precision machining
company's ISO 9000 certification can attract aerospace and defense industry clients
looking for high-quality components.
4. Risk Mitigation: Quality management systems help identify and address risks related to
product quality and process efficiency. This can prevent costly quality problems and
product recalls. A food manufacturer, for instance, must adhere to strict quality standards
to minimize the risk of foodborne illnesses and recalls.
5. Efficiency and Cost Reduction: ISO 9000 standards encourage efficient resource
management and waste reduction. By optimizing processes, manufacturers can reduce
costs while maintaining or even improving product quality. For example, a steel
manufacturer may implement ISO 9000 principles to reduce energy consumption and
material waste.
6. Legal and Regulatory Compliance: Adherence to ISO 9000 or similar quality
management systems can help manufacturers meet legal and regulatory requirements.
This is especially crucial in industries with strict safety and quality regulations, such as
pharmaceuticals, where compliance with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) is
essential.
7. Process Improvement: ISO 9000 encourages a culture of continuous improvement.
Manufacturers use methodologies like Six Sigma, Lean, and Total Quality Management
to identify and address process inefficiencies, leading to enhanced quality and cost
control. For instance, an electronics manufacturer can use these tools to reduce defect
rates and improve production efficiency.
8. Supplier Relationships: ISO 9000 principles extend to the management of supplier
relationships. Manufacturers can rely on suppliers that also adhere to quality management
systems, ensuring a consistent level of quality across the supply chain. For example, an
 aerospace manufacturer requires its component suppliers to follow ISO 9000 standards to
maintain quality control throughout its products.
9. Employee Engagement: Employees play a critical role in quality management.
Engaging employees in the quality improvement process can lead to better morale,
productivity, and a culture of continuous improvement. For instance, an automotive
assembly plant involves its workers in problem-solving teams to enhance product quality
and employee satisfaction.
10. International Trade: ISO 9000 standards are recognized and respected worldwide.
Adherence to these standards can facilitate international trade by demonstrating a
commitment to quality and consistent manufacturing practices.

In summary, manufacturing organizations adhere to ISO 9000 and other quality management
systems to achieve consistent quality, customer satisfaction, competitiveness, risk mitigation,
cost reduction, and compliance with regulations. The examples provided illustrate how
adherence to such systems can have a tangible impact on various industries and their products.

Answer to question number: 7

a) What are the advantages of having a process spread that is less than the
specification spread? What should the value of Cp be in this situation? Could Cpk be
≤ 1here.
b) What condition must exist prior to calculating the process capability? Discuss
how process capability can be estimated through control charts.
c) The diameter of a forged part has specifications of 120± 5 mm. A sample of 25
parts chosen from the process gives a sample mean of 122 mm with a sample
standard deviation of 2 mm. Find the Cpk indes for the process and comment on its
value. What is the proportion of non-conforming parts assuming normality? If the
target value is 120 mm, find the Cpm index and comment on its value.
Solution :
a. Cp is the ratio of the specification spread to the process spread.

i.e Cp= Specification spread/Process Spread

The specification spread is given by the formula USL-LSL,where USL and LSL
stand for Upper Specification Limit and Lower Specification Limit respectively.
The process spread is calculated by the formula 6σ . This is also known as actual
spread and is 6 times the standard deviation. It contains 99.73% of the data.

Cp= (USL-LSL)/6σ

A Cp of one is indicative of the fact that the process width and the specification
width are same. A Cp of less than 1 indicates that process width is greation than
specification width, implying some data lies outside the specification. This is
undesirable. Now as far as the given case is concerned where process width is less
than the specification spread implying a Cp value greater than 1, this potentially
means that the process might fit inside the specification limits. This case is
desirable.
While this condition is desirable but it may not be sufficient. A process may have a
Cp value greater than 1 but still some data might lie outside the specification. This
is due to the position of the overall mean with respect to the specification.

To overcome this problem the concept of Cpk is created. The formula for Cpk is
given as follows;
Cpk = min {(USL- x̄̄ )/3 , (x̄̄ -LSL)/3 }
This can be clearly enunciated with the help of a the second diagram. In this
case (USL- x̄̄ )/3 is smaller than (x̄̄ - LSL)/3 and is the Cpk value. We could also
clearly see that it is less than 1. Hence the last part of the question is
answered. Yes, the Cpk value could be less than 1 despite Cp being greater than 1.
In order to completely ensure that all of the data falls within the specification, the
value of Cpk should also be greater than or equal to 1.

b)
Process capability analysis aims to assess how well a process can produce products
or deliver services that meet customer specifications. To conduct a process
capability analysis, you must follow these steps:
1. Ensure Process Stability:
  The first and most critical step is to ensure that the process is stable
and under statistical control. This means that the process is operating
consistently and that the variation in the process is due to common
causes and not special causes. You can assess process stability using
control charts (also known as Shewhart charts or statistical process
control charts).
2. Collect Data:
 Gather a representative set of data from the process. This data should
reflect the normal variation in the process and should cover a
sufficiently large sample size to make meaningful conclusions about
the process's capability.
3. Select Specifications:
 Define the customer's specifications or tolerances for the product or
service you are analyzing. These specifications represent the
acceptable range within which the product or service must fall to meet
customer requirements.
4. Calculate Process Capability Indices:
 There are two common indices used to measure process capability: Cp
and Cpk.
 Cp (Process Capability Index): Cp measures how well the
process spread (variation) fits within the specification limits. It
is calculated as (USL - LSL) / (6 * Standard Deviation), where
USL is the upper specification limit, LSL is the lower
specification limit, and the denominator represents the process
variation.
 Cpk (Process Capability Index with Centering): Cpk takes
into account both the spread of the process and its centering
relative to the specifications. It is calculated as the minimum of
(USL - μ) / (3 * Standard Deviation) and (μ - LSL) / (3 *
Standard Deviation), where μ is the process mean.
5. Interpret the Capability Indices:
 A process is considered capable when both Cp and Cpk are greater
than or equal to 1.0. If Cp is greater than 1.0, it indicates that the
process spread can encompass the specifications. If Cpk is greater
than 1.0, it means the process is centered within the specifications.
The control chart is a powerful tool in assessing process stability. Control charts
allow you to monitor the process over time and identify trends or patterns that may
indicate the presence of special causes of variation. The key steps for estimating
process capability through control charts are as follows:
1. Select the Appropriate Control Chart:
  Choose a control chart based on the type of data (e.g., X-bar and R-
chart for continuous data, p-chart for attribute data).
2. Collect Data:
 Collect a series of data points over time, making sure they represent
the typical variation of the process under normal operating conditions.
3. Create the Control Chart:
 Plot the data on the control chart and calculate control limits. The
control limits are typically set at 3 standard deviations above and
below the process mean.
4. Analyze the Control Chart:
 Monitor the data points on the control chart over time. Look for
patterns, trends, or points that fall outside the control limits. Points
outside the control limits may indicate the presence of special causes
of variation that need investigation.
5. Determine Process Stability:
 If the control chart shows that the process is stable and variation is
primarily due to common causes, then you can proceed with process
capability analysis.
By using control charts to ensure process stability, you can have confidence that
your process capability analysis is based on a process that is operating consistently
and predictably. This is crucial for making informed decisions about process
improvement and meeting customer requirements.

c) Given that,
The diameter of a forged part has 120±5
Sample mean is 120 mm
Sample standard deviation 2 mm.

125−122 122−115
Cpk = min [ , ]
3∗2 3∗2
= min [ 0.5 , 1.167] = 0.5
Since Cpk is less than 1 an undesirable situation exists.
To find the proportion of non-conforming parts assuming normality, you can use
the z-score to calculate the percentage of parts that fall outside the specification
limits. Therefore the standard normal value at specifications are:
(115−122)
Z1 =
2
= - 3.5
 (125−122)
Z2 =
2
= 1.5

Using a standard normal distribution table or calculator, LSL (Lower Specification

Limits) is the proportion of parts below 115 mm is approximately 0.04%
While USL (Upper Specification Limits) is the proportion of parts above 125 mm
is approximately 6.68%.
So, the proportion of non-conforming parts is the sum of these two probabilities:
6.68% + 0.04% = 6.72%
Since target value is 120,
Now, for the Cpm index, which measures how well the process performs relative to
a target value:

(USL−LSL)
Cpm =
6σ
125−115
= 6∗2
=0.83
A Cpm of 0.83 suggests that the process performance is better when considering
only the spread between the specification limits and the target value. It indicates
that the process is closer to meeting the target compared to the full specification
range.

Answer to question number: 8

a)
Acceptance sampling is a widely used quality control technique in
manufacturing that involves inspecting a sample of items from a larger
batch or production lot to make decisions about the quality of the
entire batch. It is still relevant and valuable in today's manufacturing for
several reasons:

Cost-Effectiveness: Full inspection of every item in a production lot can

be time-consuming and expensive. Acceptance sampling allows for a
representative sample to be inspected, reducing the time and cost
associated with quality control.
Speed: In modern manufacturing, production cycles are often fast-
paced, and quick decisions are crucial. Acceptance sampling allows for
rapid quality assessment and enables manufacturers to make timely
decisions about whether to accept or reject a batch.
Statistical Approach: Acceptance sampling is grounded in statistical
principles, making it a data-driven method. It provides a quantitative
basis for quality control decisions, allowing manufacturers to make
decisions based on probability and risk assessment.

Producer risk and consumer risk are concepts related to the

performance of quality control and acceptance sampling procedures in
manufacturing and quality assurance. The Operating Characteristic (OC)
curve is a graphical representation of these two types of risks in the
context of acceptance sampling.

Producer Risk (Type I Error):

Definition: Producer risk, also known as Type I error, occurs when a
good-quality product is rejected or a process is declared out of control
when it is, in fact, in control.
Consumer Risk (Type II Error):
Definition: Consumer risk, also known as Type II error, occurs when a
bad-quality product is accepted or a process is declared in control when
it is, in fact, out of control.
The OC curve is used to visualize and analyze the trade-off between
these two types of risks in acceptance sampling. It's a graphical
representation that shows the probability of accepting or rejecting a
batch of products at different levels of quality or defectiveness. The x-
axis of the OC curve typically represents the quality of the batch, while
the y-axis represents the probability of accepting the batch.

This is a graphical tool used in quality control to visualize and analyze

the trade-off between producer and consumer risk. It shows how the
probability of accepting or rejecting a batch of products changes with
different quality levels.
The OC curve is a tool used in quality control to visualize the trade-off
between producer risk (Type I error) and consumer risk (Type II error)
when accepting or rejecting batches of products based on sample
inspection. Decisions regarding sample sizes and acceptance criteria are
made by considering the relative importance of these two types of
errors in a particular quality control scenario.

B)
Type-A operating characteristic curves (OC curves) are used for
attributes sampling plans, which involve "good" or "bad" characteristics
(e.g., pass/fail). These curves show the probability of accepting a lot
with a certain percentage of non-conforming items and are typically
represented as step-function graphs. This Curves are discontinuous.
Type-B operating characteristic curves are for variables sampling plans,
which deal with continuous data (e.g., measurements with a range of
values). Type-B curves reflect the probability of accepting a lot with a
specific mean value and are typically represented as continuous curves,
often based on the normal distribution. This Curves are continuous.
The binomial probability distribution is suitable for developing Type-B
Operating Characteristic (OC) curves in acceptance sampling for several
reasons:
1. It's designed for discrete outcomes, which match the accept/reject
decisions in acceptance sampling.
2. It's ideal for situations with two possible outcomes, such as accepting
non-defective items or rejecting defective ones.
3. It assumes independence between trials, which is often the case in
random sampling.
4. It's well-suited for fixed sample sizes, which are common in
acceptance sampling.
5. Its simple formula makes it easy to calculate the probability of
different outcomes in various sampling scenarios, helping assess the
performance of acceptance sampling plans.

c)
order batch no, N=1000 , sample size, n = 30,
acceptance number , c =2
plot the OC curve for this sampling plan.
Ploting the oC curve requires probability of acceptance (pa) values for
differenr values of fraction nonconforming (p)
for p = 0.01 ,
2

Pa = ∑ 30 Ci (0.01)i(1-0.01)30-i
i=0

= P (O nonconforming) + p (l nonconforming) + P (2
nonconforming)

= 0.7393 + 0.22415 + 0.03283 = 0.99668

Similarly, ,,
For p = 0.03 ,, Po= 0.4010] + 0.37206 + 0.16685 = 0.93991
For p = 0.05 ,, Po= 0.2146331 + 0.3389+ 0.258636 = 0.81217
For p= 0.07 ,,Po= 0.011336 + 0.255991 + 10.27938 = 0.64873

For p = 0.09 ,,po= 0.05905 + 0.1752 + 0.25126 = 0.48551

For p = 0.11 ,, po= 0.030317+ 0.112414 + 0.20146 = 0.34419

For p = 0.15 ,, Po= 0.00763 + 0.04039 + 0.10337 = 0.15139

For p= 0.17,, po = 0.00075+0.0.02295+0.068166 = 0.09485

Fraction nonconforming, p Probability of acceptance , pa

0.01 0.99668
0.03 0.93991
0.05 0.81217
0.07 0.64873
0.09 0.48551
0.11 0.34419
0.15 0.15139
0.17 0.09485
 Probability of acceptance , pa
1.2

1
Fraction nonconforming, p

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.15 0.17
Axis Title