Environment - EMC/EMI

Contents:
Introduction Key Concepts Sources of EMI Receptors of EMI EMC Design Considerations Environmental Reliability Testing Standards Compliance Available tools, techniques, and metrics Conclusions

Introduction
Embedded systems exist in a wide variety of environments. Because of this, special care must be taken in developing embedded systems that they can operate functionally in their intended environment. Many embedded systems exist in very harsh and noisy environments, which can lead to potential problems with electromagnetic interference (EMI). EMI consists of any unwanted, spurious, conducted, or radiated signals of electrical origin that can cause unacceptable degradation in system or equipment performance. Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is the ability of systems to function as designed, without malfunction or unacceptable degradation of performance due to EMI within their operational environment. Any electrical, electromechanical, or electronic equipment must not adversely affect the performance of any other equipment or system as a result of EMI and vice versa. Examples of EMC problems include a computer interfering with FM radio reception, an operating vacuum cleaner causing "snow" on TV, a car radio buzzing when you drive under a power line, an airport radar interfering with laptop computer display, and a telephone being damaged by lightninginduced surges on phone line. [emclab99] While the effects of EMI are sometimes minor, like momentary interference on television, other times the effect may be more catastrophic. For example, a serious consequence can occur if a signal interferes with the operation of a medical equipment that was being used to monitor a patient in intensive care. The origins of EMI are electrical, with the unwanted emissions being either conducted (voltages or currents) or radiated (electric or magnetic fields). For EMI to occur, 3 essential elements must exist:

Electrical noise (EMI) source, Coupling path, Victim receptor.

The coupling path from a source to a receptor can be in 1 of 4 categories: conducted (electric current), inductively coupled (magnetic field), capacitively coupled (electric field), and radiated (electromagnetic field). [emclab99] More details will be given below about the sources and receptors. EMI can occur in 2 different situations: intersystem EMI and intrasystem EMI. Intersystem EMI occurs between 2 or more discrete systems while intrasystem EMI occurs between elements in the same system. [Violette87]

Sources of EMI
An EMI source can be any device that transmits, distributes, processes, or utilizes any form of electrical energy where some aspect of its operation generates conducted or radiated signals that can cause equipment performance degradation. Figure 1 shows a taxonomy of the different sources of electromagnetic interference.

Figure 1: Taxonomy of EMI Sources [Violette87]

Natural EMI sources - Sources that are associated with natural phenomena. They include atmospheric charge/discharge phenomena such as lightening and preciptitation static, and extraterrestrial souces including radiation from the sum and galactic sources such as radio stars, galaxies, and other cosmic sources. As

shown in the above diagram, all natural sources are classified as broadband, incoherent, radiated, and unintentional. Man-made EMI sources - Sources associated with man-made devices such as power lines, auto ignition, fluorescent lights, etc. Broadband EMI - Electromagnetic conducted and radiated signals whose amplitude variation as a function of frequency extends over a frequency range greater than the bandwidth of the receptor. Narrowband EMI - Electromagnetic conducted and radiated signals whose amplitude variation as a function of frequency extends over a frequency range narrower than the bandwidth of the receptor. Coherent broadband signals - Neighboring components of the signal (in the frequency domain) has a well-defined amplitude, frequency, and phase relationship. Incoherent broadband signals - Neighboring components of the signal (in the frequency domain) are random or pseudo-random (bandwidth limited) in phase or amplitude. Conducted EMI - Noise signals transmitted via electrical conduction paths (i.e. wires, ground planes, etc.). Radiated EMI - Electric and magnetic fields transmitted through space from source to receptor. Intentional radiating emitters - Emitters whose primary function depends on radiated emitters. Examples include electronic licensed communication systems. These include communication, navigation, and radar systems. Unintentional (incidential) radiating devices - Devices that radiate radio frequencies but is not considered their primary function. Restricted radiating devices - Devices that intentionally use electromagnetic radiation for purposes other than communication or data transfer. (i.e. garage door operating systems, wireless microphones, etc.) [Violette87]

Receptors of EMI
Any EMI situation requires not only an emission source but also a receptor. A receptor is also called a "victim" source because it consists of any device, when exposed to conducted or radiated electromagnetic energy from emitting sources, will degrade or malfunction in performance. Many devices can be emission sources and receptors simultaneously. For example, most communication electronic systems can be emission and receptor sources because they contain transmitters and receivers. Figure 2 shows a taxonomy of different receptors that are susceptible to EMI. Similar to the emission source taxonomy, receptors can be divided into natural and man-made receptors.

Figure 2: Taxonomy of EMI receptors [Violette87]

Natural EMI receptors - Natural receptors include humans, animals, and plants. Man-made EMI receptors - Man-made receptors can be categorized into 4 categories: communication electronic receivers, amplifiers, industrial and comsumer devices, and RADHAZ. Communication electronic receivers - These receivers include broadcast receivers, communication receivers, relay communication receivers, and radar receivers. Amplifiers - Amplifiers include IF, video, and audio amplifiers. Industrial and consumer receptors - Industrial receptors include digital computers, industrial process controls, electronic test equipments, biomedical instruments, and public address systems and intercoms. Consumer receptors include radio and TV receivers, hi-fi stereo equipment, electronic musical instruments, and climate control systems. RADHAZ - This category includes radiation hazards to electro-explosive devices and fuels. RADHAZ is an acronym for RADiation HAZards, the name given by the U. S. Department of Defense to the program that is determining the extent of radiation hazards and methods for controlling them. [Violette87]

EMC Design Considerations

During the design process, engineers must be certain that the system is designed to comply to EMC standards. There are many design considerations that need to be taken into account. While it is not the point of this paper to give detail explanations about EMC design techniques, brief descriptions will be given simply for an overview. Engineers needing more technical details can refer to any EMC handbook. Cable wiring and harnessing is a significant EMI concern. Cables are required to distribute electrical power and transmit electrical signals for the operation of various systems. Since cables are usually routed to accomodate its function, it is often difficult to quantify its environment and it usually varies over both frequency and electric and

magnetic field amplitudes. Cables can be EMI radiating sources if they act as radiating antennas, or be susceptible to EMI if they are receiving antennas. Cables can also be coupling paths. In addition, cables are sometimes harnessed together, so interference can also be between two cables that are close in proximity. Therefore, their performance is very difficult to predict. Many specifications classify wiring or cable types into four to six categories but these classifications are generally qualitative in nature. More quantitative classifications should look at levels of power transmitted, or susceptibility of termination. Connectors are contacts that either link or separate two cables or other equipments. There may be anywhere from several to hundreds of individual wire-pins or coaxial sheaths making simultaneous contact via a connector. EMI problems from connectors are usually related to poor contact which may result in arcing, or overheating that leads to arcing. Poor contact connections can also result in driven-circuit voltage variations from the contact impedance modulation of the driving-circuit source. Impedence coupling from outside sources can happen in connector grounding paths. Improperly shielded connectors or poor cable-connector-equipment- enclosure contact can cause radiated emission penetration or leaking through apertures. Grounding is one of the least understood EMC subjects, despite the fact that it seems straightforward. Improper grounding is the source of many EMI problems. Grounding is necessary to prevent shock hazard, which occurs when a wiring or component insulation in an equipement frame or housing breaks down. Grounding also protects against lightning damage. Grounding is also necessary to reduce EMI due to electric field flux coupling, magnetic field flux coupling, and common impedance coupling. There are two reasons why grounding is not understood well. One reason is that shock and safety control requirements existed before the electronics and high frequency area, so traditional grounding techniques were developed to satisfy those requirements. A second reason is that sometimes a conflict occurs between requirements for safety grounds and EMI control. Different considerations must be taken into account with shielding. Shielding is the use of conductive materials to reduce radiated EMI reflection or absorption. Usually, the theoretical attenuation offered by materials to electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic waves does not match that achieved in practice. This is because a shielded enclosure or housing is not completely sealed. Any shielding application has some kind of penetrations and apertures like meter windows, cover plates and access cover members, and push buttons. These apertures cause leakage and therefore compromises the integrity of the shielding material. Shielding integrity can be restored through the use of EMC gaskets, EMC sealants, and conductive grease. Gaskets provide either temporary or semipermanent sealing applications between joints and structures. Sealants include conductive epoxies which are used to join, bond, and seal two or more metallic metaling surfaces, and conductive caulking which is used to shield and seal two or more metallic mating members held together by other mechanical means. Conductive grease provides a low-resistivity contact path between mating members.

The previous design considerations dealt with topics that represent problems between sources and receptors. There are also EMI control techniques that are applied at the component, circuit, and equipment levels. The problem with resistors, inductors, and capacitors is that they do not behave at their stated values, especially at high frequencies due to the effects of parasitic inductance and capacitance. Under certain conditions, their performace degrades at frequencies as low as 1MHz. Inductive devices like transformers, solenoids, and relays produce low-impedence fields that are sources of EMI if they are uncontrolled. The main techniques available for controlling transient-producing devices involves using diodes and filters, and for controlling magnetic fields involves shielding. Surface tracking is an insulator problem that is a source of EMI. Surface tracking (or leakage) is a condition in which small currents creep across the insulator. It is caused by surface contamination of the insulation by moisture or solid conductive particles. The EMI control technique is to protect from contamination through the use of proper material and proper voltage design. Techniques used to minimize EMI in conductors include coating conductors with a high-permeability material and using hollow conductors at higher frequencies to minimize external fields. There are many techniques for different components, not all of which are listed here. This section only serves as a brief introduction. Radio-frequency interference (RFI) is a serious EMI problem today due largely to the large number of radio transmitters that exist. Radio transmitters range from large, highpower transmitters such as broadcast, communications, and radar to small, low-power equipments such as handheld radios and cellular telephones. The problem with radio transmitters is twofold, as equipment can cause interference to nearby radio and television receivers, and equipment can be upset by nearby transmitters. Radio and television receivers can be very vulnerable to RFI pollution from nearby computers. Repetitive digital signals contain harmonics that can extend into the GHz range. This unwanted energy can be radiated through cables and wiring acting as antennas, or conducted through the ac power system. If the levels are high enough, the receivers can be damaged. It was this emissions problem that caused countries around the world to pass EMI regulations. In the U.S., complaints from consumers about interference with television disruption in the 70's drove the FCC to initiate mandatory EMI testing of personal and commercial computers in the 1980's. Digital circuits are usually the primary source of emissions, and analog circuits are more vulnerable to RFI than digital circuits. In protecting equipment against RFI, it is important to start at the circuit level. Filters can be used and sometimes multistage filters are needed. Slots and seams cause the most problem in RFI shielding, so high-quality shields and connectors are needed for adequate RFI protection. Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is also an EMI problem. An ESD event starts with a very slow buildup of energy, followed by a very rapid breakdown. It is this fast breakdown that causes EMI problems in modern electronic systems. The energy discharge yields EMI frequencies in the hundreds of megahertz. The high speed and frequency of the ESD energy can damage circuits, bounce grounds, and cause upsets through electromagnetic coupling. The most common method of ESD generation is triboelectric charging which is caused by stripping electrons from one object and depositing electrons on another object.

In an insulator, it may be a long time before charge recombination occurs, so a voltage builds. If the voltage becomes large enough, a rapid breakdown occurs in the air, creating the ESD arc or spark. Sources of triboelectric charging includes humans, furniture, and material or device movement. Humidity also affects ESD as the lower the humidity, the higher the likelihood of ESD problems. High humidity is helpful because the moisture reduces surface impedance and allows charges to recombine at a faster rate. However, high humidity leads leads to surface tracking or leakage at lower temperatures, so there is a tradeoff. ESD has several failure modes that are not completely independent of one another. These include direct hit to circuit, ground bounce, electromagnetic field coupling, and predischarge electric field. Like RFI problems, good protection against ESD problems start at the circuit level through the use of filters and multilayer boards. High-quality shields and connectors can be used for good ESD cable protection. The length-to-width ratio for grounds should be less than 3 to 1. Thin materials are adequate for shielding and special attention must be paid to slots and penetrations. [Gerke94] In addition to the design considerations above, there are other EMC issues in the design of embedded systems. One is the compatibility among transmitters that are designed to work together. For example, when every car has a forward-pointing smart cruise control radar, and they are either next to each other or coming head-on at each other, the transmitters must be designed that there is not interference. Another problem to consider is what happens when a component is inserted in an intergrated system and causes EMI. For example, computer motherboards are designed with empty slots for different cards to be plugged into. In particular, video cards are FCC certified to ensure that they are compatible with whichever motherboard they are plugged into. There are also issues concerning EMC when humans are the receptors. A scare that has not yet been proven deals with cellular phone emissions. A source cited that radiation emitted from cellular phones has shown to cause short-term memory loss and lapses in concentration. However, this is not a proven fact yet. There was also an early brain cancer scare with cell phones that actually led to the FCC limiting the transmitting power of handheld cell phones to 0.3 watts.

Environmental Reliability Testing

Environmental reliability testing is a systematic approach to the collection, analysis, and application of information regarding service use in environmental conditions. Environmental measurement and test became a growing concern during World War II and the Korean War and a discipline by the Space Race and the Vietnam War. It is very important that we understand the interactions of manufactured products and the environmental stresses they encounter when in use. Environmental reliability testing can be divided into three categories: development testing, verification testing, and production testing. Development testing refers to all tests performed generally before the design goes into production. Verification testing refers to testing performed on the production configuration. Production testing refers to the application of environmental stresses to large product populations to improve the manufacturing process and to verify that it

remains under control. Questions to take into consideration for each type of testing are listed below. [Caruso96]

Development testing How will the product respond structurally, thermally, and in other ways to environmental stresses? What are the strength limits of the product? Which materials and manufacturing processes are best suited to the product? Which test setups, fixtures, and stress application methodologies are best suited to the sought after product information? Verification testing How close do the performance and reliability characteristics of the product come to design predictions and customer expectations? What is the correlation of long-term test results to service life? How can the accumulation of fatigue stress be reliabily accelerated through test compression and exaggeration? Production testing Which environmental test techniques are best suited to revealing the type of processing flaws most likely to be present in the product? What percentage of the product population should be evaluated to provide confidence in the robustness of the production process? What is the appropriate level of assembly at which to apply environmental stresses to maximize the likelihood of defect disclosure at the least cost? What is the best way to assure integrity of vendor-supplied elements of the product?

A brief description of the various testing techniques will be presented below.

Development tests Product characterization - To determine through stress response surveys how the product will respond structurally, thermally, and in other relevant ways to environmental stresses. Accelerated life tests - Tests that involves applying environmental stress levels and other conditions that are exaggerated beyond normal service levels. An example of one test is step-stress or fragility testing where progressively higher stress levels are applied until the product fails. Materials and methodology evaluations - It is important to run controlled experiments to compare the relative effectiveness of different materials and assembly processes.

Test, analyze, and improve tests - Tests where the product is tested until failure, fixed, and then tested some more. This is a kind of iterative testing combined with progressive incorporation of test improvements. Verification tests Fatigue/durability tests - Tests that evaluate a product's long-term performance and survivability through repeated application of significant environmental stresses for many test cycles. [Caruso96] STRIFE testing - a combination of system level stess and life testing that involves operating conditions exceeding the recommended limits in order to find weak components. [Siewiorek91] Production tests Environmental stress sceening - Process used to precipitate manufacturing defects and infant mortality failures prior to delivery. It uses increased environmental stresses (i.e. temperature cycling, random vibration, high temperature) to reveal design defects and process-induced defects.

It is important to note that most product verification tests are usually one-time tests peformed on a representative sample of the product. Some tests may degrade the equipment so it is unrealistic to run the test on every single unit. This raises the issue whether running tests on a representative sample of the product is a reliable prediction that all of the units will pass the test. Since you cannot run the test on every single unit, how many units should the test be performed on to get a good guarantee that all units will pass the test? Another issue is what kind or levels of design changes requires reverification and re-certification? This is always a difficult issue to deal with, but it is certainly a very realistic concern. There are different points to remember when choosing environmental reliability tests for the development of any embedded system. First, there is no universal test procedure. No test will be completely effective in all environmental situations and each test has its strengths and weaknesses. The cheapest test is not always the best test as short-term and long-term tests are optimized for different purposes. There is no universal test purpose as each test has different goals. Test results are relative, not absolute. Therefore, test expectations should be realistic. Lessons from past experiences are also relevant, even if the testing techniques are obsolete. The purpose and goal of a test should be defined before the test is performed. Finally, no test can satisfy the goals of the overall testing process. Tests should be carefully chosen to eliminate nonproductive efforts, minimize redundancy, and maximize the likelihood of obtaining useful information. [Caruso96]

Standards Compliance
The ability to sell electronic products depends upon the products being able to meet the specifications contained in various regulations. Therefore, a brief study of the different

emission standards is necessary. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Rules and Regulations, Part 15 Subpart J deals with unintentional emissions from equipment that use digital techniques and generate or use timing signals or pulses of frequencies in excess of 10kHZ, or has a pulse rate of 10,000 pulses per second or higher. These specifications were first formed when users of television and other radio receivers complained about the interference of radiation from nearby operating digital devices. FCC 15J defines 2 classes of computing devices that must conform to emissions specifications. Computing devices refer to any computer peripheral including modems, printers, and other I/O devices. The 2 classes are defined as follows:

Class A: "A computing device that is marketed for use in a commercial, industrial, or business environment; exclusive of a device which is marketed for use by the general public, or which is intended to be used in the home." Class B: "A computing device that is marketed for use in a residential environment notwithstanding use in commercial, business, and environmental environments."

A device that passes Class B limits may be used in a Class A environment. There are different tests that are required for FCC compliance. There are 3 different types of FCC compliance as stated in the FCC Rules and Regulations.

Type approval - Based on equipment examination and test by the FCC. Type acceptance - Based on representation and test data for equipment to be used pursuant to a station authorization. Testing is performed by the manufacturer and the data is not required unless specifically requested by the FCC. Certification - Based on representation and test data for equipment designed to be operated without individual license under Rules and Regulations Parts 15 and 18. Testing is performed by the manufacturer and the test data is required by the FCC. [Violette87]

The International Special Committee on Radio Frequency Interference (CISPR) is an organization sponsored by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). CISPR is composed of each of the national committees of the IEC, a United Nations commission, and other international unions, commissions, and committees. It is responsible for setting uniform limits on electromagnetic emissions from equipment so that trade would not be inhibited between member countries as a result of different emissions specifications. CISPR publications deal with inteference for the following items:

Microwave ovens with power consumption below 5 kW Ignition systems Televisions, FM receivers, and AM receiver power-line susceptibility Conducted and radiated emission of household appliances, portable tools up to 2 kW, office machines, dimmer regulators, and other electrical apparatus Fluorescent lamps

Compliance with CISPR usually varies from country to country and each country has their own regulations regarding enforcement of the limits. [Violette87] Currently, there is worldwide effort towards harmonizing various EMC standards to reduce the trade barriers between countries and various sectors like Defense and Civilian. The lack of harmonization of standards is a great burden on manufacturers of electrical and electronic systems because it increases the duration of the product development cycle and the compliance evaluation costs. The increased use of these products has made it absolutely necessary to harmonize various EMC standards. In the Defense sector, the success of military missions is dependent on the trouble-free field performance of the electronic and communication equipments used. In the Civilian sector, it is necessary to protect the radio frequency spectrum from the electromagnetic noise emission of electrical systems. CISPR has provided recommendations for the implementation of EMC. However, each country can choose its own set of test instrumentation, test procedures, and test limits in their own EMC standards. This causes any manufacturer wishing to supply electronic equipments to different countries and the Defense and Civilian sector having to deal with a plethora of EMC standards. [Sampath97] In Europe, the market unification of 16 countries to form the European Union has affected the EMC standards scenario. The national EMC standards of these countries are being combined to form a harmonized EMC standard, called European Norms. This became known as the EMC Directive which went into effect January 1, 1996. All products that complied to the EMC Directive would bear a CE marking. This mark was required for any nation that wanted to sell electrical equipment in the European Community. Compliance can be completed by the following three ways:

Self-certification by manufacturer - The manufacturer performs the tests using in-house test equipment or a commercial test house. After the tests are completed and documented, the manufacturer files for a declaration of compliance. Technical Construction File (TCF) - The manufacturer prepares a TCF which decribes the product, sets out the procedures used to ensure conformity of the product, and includes a technical report or certificate from a Competent Body which are test facilities designated by member states as able to make decisions regarding compliance with the EMC Directive. Once the TCF is completed, the manufacturer files for declaration of compliance. Type acceptance - An EC type examination certificate issued by one of the Notified Bodies is required. Notified Bodies are usually government agencies in member states.

In the United States, the MIL-STD-461D issued by the Department of Defense represents a harmonized standard for military equipments and subsystems. Even with all the work that has been done to harmonize EMC standards, there are still more than 20 European Norms on EMC, various MIL-STD-461 documents, different FCC Rules and Regulations parts, and other EMC specifications from different industries. This still results in problems including different test requirements and different

limits and units of measurements. Currently, 5 certification bodies in the world, North America's Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Germany's VDE, Italy's IMQ, the UK's BABT, and the TUV Product Services have teamed up to issue an international EMC mark to products that meet all of the standards followed by the major economies. Even though acquiring this international mark requires product testing to comply to each standard and a high bill toward testing charges, it is a good step toward achieving a global EMC compliance certificate for a product. [Sampath97]

Available tools, techniques, and metrics

EMI testing is needed because EMI predictions and analysis alone are inadequate to assure compliance with EMI regulations. It is also necessary due to the complexity of design for EMC. There are a number of methods and nomenclature used in measuring EMI emission and susceptibility characteristics of equipment and subsystems. There are three levels of testings that exist and generally, the higher the level of testing, the more difficult and expensive it becomes.

Low-level testing - Component, equipment, and subsystem testing. Basically, low-level testing ensures that there will be very few EMI problems when testing at the next higher level. Intermediate-level testing - System and vehicle testing. This involves testing for EMI degradation or malfunction due to self-jamming. High-level testing - Electromagnetic environment (EME) interaction with the test item. Even after low-level and intermediate level testing, numerous problems can occur when the product is operating in its natural environment. [Violette87]

EMI testing can also be divided into three categories - compliance, engineering, and audit testing.

Compliance tests - These tests are run to prove that the design meets appropriate EMI requirements. These tests require very precise and absolute measurements, so expensive equipment and experienced personnel is needed. Compliance testing is performed at the end of the design but before sale of the product. Testing can be performed either using an independent EMI test laboratory or an in-house EMI test laboratory. Engineering tests - The objective of these tests is to uncover potential problems early in the design process. This is when you have the most time and flexibility in making design changes. Unlike compliance testing, engineering testing does not require high precision and accuracy to obtain good results, so simple tests with inexpensive equipment is satisfactory. EMI engineering tests are performed inhouse. Some tests include emission prescreening, ESD prescreening, RFI prescreening, and power-disturbance prescreening.

Audit tests - Audit tests are associated with manufacturing and quality, not with design. The goal of audit testing is to ensure that the design stays intact through its product life. An example of audit testing is statistical checks, where a unit is occasionally pulled off the production line and run through a series of EMI tests. Screening tests on all production units can prevent faulty units from leaving the production plant but it can be very expensive. [Gerke94]

Conclusions
There are several important conclusions to take away from this section. Mainly, they are the following:

EMI is a major problem in the development of embedded systems. Since embedded systems often exists in very noisy environments, even more attention must be paid to EMC. EMC must be taken into consideration during the design stage. Designing for EMC is a long process that starts early in the life cycle and proceeds through the testing stage and even in the post-production stage. Therefore, EMC is a concern for engineers at all phases of the developement of an embedded system. Environmental reliability testing is used to eliminate potential problems that the system can experience when it is operating in its natural environment. There are many EMC standards used in the regulation of products that may cause EMI.

EMC is a very important issue that embedded systems designers have to deal with. Even though it is a very difficult topic, there are may practical design techniques that can be used to design for EMC. This will greatly assist designers who are unfamiliar with EM theory to be confident in their design for EMC.