THREE-PHASE SYMMETRICAL FAULT

Per Unit Representation

- voltage, current, kilovolt ampere and impedances in a circuit are often
expressed as a percent or per unit of a selected base or reference value of each
of these quantities.

Example:
If a base voltage of 120 kV is chosen, voltages of 108, 120, and 126 kV
become 0.9, 1.0 and 1.05 per unit (p.u.) or 90%, 100%, and 105%, respectively,
that is, the per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the
quantity to its base value expressed as a decimal. The ratio in percent is 100
times the value in p.u.

- voltage, current, kilovolt ampere, and impedance are so related that

selection of base values of any two of them determines the base values of the
remaining two.
- the base impedance is the impedance which will have a voltage drop across it
equal to the base voltage if the current flowing in the impedance is the base value
of the current.
- the base kilovolt amperes in a single-phase system is the product of the
base voltage in kV and the base current in amperes. Usually base kV and base kVA
are the quantities selected to specify the base.
- for the single-phase systems, or three-phase systems where the term
current refers to the line current, the term voltage refers to the voltage to
neutral, and kilovolt ampere refers to the kilovolt ampere per phase, the following
equations relate the various quantities.

base kVA, 
Base current, I =
base voltage, kVLN

base voltage, VLN

Base impedance, Z =
base current , A

Z=
(base voltage, kVLN )2 x 1000
base kVA, 

Z=
(base voltage,
kVLN )2
base MVA, 
 Base Power, kW ,  = base kVA, 
Base Power, MW , . = base MVA, 

actual impedance, 
Per unit impedance of a circuit element, Z p.u. =
base impedance, 

where:  denotes per phase or single-phase

LN denotes line-to-neutral

Unless otherwise specified, a given value of base voltage in three-phase

system in line-to-line, and a given value of base kilovolt amperes or base megavolt
amperes (MVA) is the total 3-phase base.
Base impedance and base current can be computed directly from, 3-phase
values of base kilovolts and base kilovolt amperes. If we interpret base kVA and
base voltage in kV to mean base kVA for the total of the three-phases and base
voltage line-to-line, we find:

base kVA, 3 − 
Base current, I =
3 x base voltage, kVLL
2
 base voltage, kVLL 
  x 1000
Base impedance, Z =  3 
base kVA3−
3

Z=
(base voltage,kVLL )2 x 1000
base kVA3−

Z=
(base voltage, kVLL )2
base MVA3−

where: 3 −  denotes 3-phase

LL denotes line-to-line

Change of Base of Per Unit Quantities

Sometimes the p.u. impedance of a component of a system is expressed on a
base other than the one selected as base for the part of the system in which the
component is located. Since all impedances in any one part of the system must be
expressed on the same impedance base when making computations, it is necessary
to have a means of converting per-unit impedances from one base to another.
 actual impedance,  x base kVA
Per unit impedance of a circuit element, Z p.u. =
(base voltage, kV )2 x 1000
actual impedance,  x base MVA
Z p.u. =
(base voltage, kV )2

The equation shows that the p.u. impedance is directly proportional to the base
kVA or MVA and inversely proportional to the square of base kV. Therefore, the
change per unit impedance on a given base to per unit impedance on a new base, the
following equation applies.

 base kVAnew 
2
p.u. Z new  base kVgiven   
= 
p.u. Z given  base KVnew   base kVAgiven 
 

 base kVAnew 
2
 base kVgiven 
p.u. Z new = p.u. Z given    
  base kVAgiven 
 base KVnew   
 base MVAnew 
2
 base kVgiven 
p.u. Z new = p.u. Z given    
  base MVAgiven 
 base KVnew   

Example:
The reactance X " of a generator is given as 0.20 p.u. based on the
generators nameplate rating of 13.2 kV, 30,000 kVA. The generator is installed in
a power system in which the base for over all calculation is 13.8 kV and 50,000
kVA. Find the p.u. reactance, X " , expressed on the new base.
Solution: base kVgiven = 13.2 kV
base kVnew = 13.8 kV
base kVAgiven = 30,000 kVA
base kVAnew = 50,000 kVA
p.u. X given = 0.20
p.u. X new = ?

 base kVAnew 
2
 base kVgiven 
p.u. X new = p.u. X given    
  base kVAgiven 
 base kVnew   
2
 13.2   50,000 
p.u. X "new = (0.20 )    
 13.8   30,000 
p.u. X "new = 0.30498 p.u.
Selection of Base for Per-Unit Quantities
The selection of kVA and kV base is made in order to reduce the work
required by calculations as much as possible.
1. A base is selected in some parts of the system.
2. Then the bases in the other parts of the system or other circuits
separated from the original parts by transformers are determined
according to the transformers principles or theories.
3. The base selected should be one that yields p.u. values approximately equal
to unity in order to simplify the work of computation. Also time will be
saved if the base selected makes few p.u. quantities already known need be
converted to a new base.
4. The resistance and reactance of a device given by the manufacturer in %
or in p.u., the base is to be understood to be the rated kVA and rated kV
of the device.
5. The ohmic value of the resistance and leakage reactance of a transformer
depend on whether they are measured on the high or low tension side of
the transformer. If in p.u., the base kVA is to be understood to be the
kVA rating of the transformer and the kV of the high tension side.
6. The base voltage is the voltage rating of the low-tension side of the
transformer if the ohmic values of the resistance and leakage reactance
are measured or referred to the low-tension side and the voltage rating of
the high tension side if referred to the high tension side of the
transformer.
7. The p.u. impedance is the same for a transformer whether the ohmic
values of the resistance and leakage reactance are referred to the high or
low-tension side of the transformer.

Example:
A single-phase transformer is rated 110/440V, 2.5 kVA. The leakage
reactance measured from the low tension side of the transformer is 0.06.
Determine the leakage reactance in p.u.

(base kV )2 x 1000
Base Z =
base kVA

=
(110 / 1000)2 x 1000
2.5
= 4.84 
 actual reac tan ce
p.u. X =
base impedance
0.06
=
4.84
= 0.012397 p.u.

If the reactance has been measured from the high-tension side, the ohmic
value would be

VAL = VAH
V1 V
V1 I1 = V2 I 2 but I 1 = ; I2 = 2
Z1 Z2
V1 V
V1  = V2  2
Z1 Z2
(V1 )2 (V2 )2
=
Z1 Z2
2
Z 2  V2 
= 
Z1  V1 
2
V 
Z 2 = Z1  2 
 V1 
2
 VH 
Reactance(referred to high-tension side) = Reactance(referred to low-tension side)  
2  VL 
 440 
X = (0.06 )  
 110 
X = 0.96 

For the p.u. X”:

(base kVHT )2 x 1000

Base Impedance(High-tension side), Z =
base kVA

=
(0.440 )2 x 1000
2.5
= 77.44 
actual impedance, 
so, X” =
base impedance, 
0.96
=
77.44
= 0.012397 p.u.
Example:
Three-parts of a single-phase electric system are designated A, B, & C and
are connected to each other through transformers as shown below:

The transformers are rated as follows:

A – B: 10,000 kVA, X” = 10%
B – C: 10,000 kVA, X” = 8%
If the base in circuit B is chosen as 10,000 kVA, 138 kV, find the p.u. impedance of
the 300  resistance load in circuit C referred to circuit C, B, and A. Draw the
impedance diagram neglecting magnetizing current, transformer resistance, and
line impedances. Then determine the voltage regulation if the voltage at the load
is 60kV with the assumption that the voltage input to circuit A remains constant.
Solution:
Transformer Theory

VS N S
=
VP N P
base kVcircuit A 1
=
base kVcircuit B 10
1
base kVcircuit A = base kVcircuit B  
 10 
1
= (138)  
 10 
= 13.8 kV

base kVcircuit C 1
=
base kVcircuit B 2
1
base kVcircuit C = base kVcircuit B  
2
1
= (138)  
2
= 69 kV
 (base kVcircuit C )2 x 1000
Base impedance of circuit C, ZC =
base kVA circuit C

=
(69)2 (1000)
10,000
= 476.1 

actual impedance
a) p.u. impedance of circuit C, Zp.u. =
base impedance
3000
=
476.1
= 0.630120 p.u.

b) impedance diagram

600
c) VLoad =
base kVcircuit C
600
=
69
= 0.869570 p.u.

VLOAD
ILOAD =
Z LOAD
0.86957 0
=
0.630120
= 1.380
VS = VLOAD + IZ LOAD
= 0.869570 + (1.380)( j 0.18)
VS = 0.9043515.942 p.u.

V NL = 0.90435 p.u.
V FL = 0.86957 p.u.

V NL − V FL
Voltage Regulation = x 100%
V FL
0.90435 − 0.86957
= x 100%
0.86957
= 3.9997%
To prepare an impedance diagram with impedances expressed in p.u., we begin with
the one-line diagram and with the information giving nameplate ratings of
generators, motors, and transformers and their ohmic or per unit values plus data
about transmission lines. The following important points should be kept in mind:
1. A base kilovolt (kV) and base kilovolt amperes (kVA) is selected in one
part of the system. The base values for a 3-phase system are
understood to be line-to-line kilovolts (kV) and 3- kilovolt amperes
(kVA) or megavolt amperes (MVA).
2. For other parts of the system, that is, on the other sides of the
transformers, the base kilovolt (kV) for each part is determined
according to line-to-line voltage ratios of the transformers. The base
kilovolt ampere (kVA) will be the same in all parts of the system. It will
be helpful to mark the base kV of each part of the system on the one-line
diagram.
3. Impedance information available for 3-phase transformers will usually be
in per unit or in percent on the base determined by the ratings.
4. For three single-phase transformers connected as a 3-phase unit, the 3-
phase ratings are determined from the single-phase rating of each
individual transformer. Impedance in p.u. or in percent for the 3-phase
unit is the same as that for each individual transformer.
5. Per unit impedance given on a base other than that determined for the
part of the system in which the element is located must be changed to
the proper base.

Example:
A 30,000 kVA, 13.8 kV 3- generator has a subtransient reactance of 15%. The
generator supplies two motors over a transmission line having transformers at both
ends, as shown in the one-line diagram below. The motors have rated inputs of
20,000 and 10,000 kVA, both 12.5 kV with X” = 20%. The 3-phase transformer T1
is rated 35,000 kVA, 13.2-115 kV with leakage reactance of 10%. Transformer
T2 is composed of three single-phase transformers each rated 10,000 kVA, 12.5-67
kV with leakage reactance of 10%. Series reactance of transmission line is 80 .
Draw the reactance diagram with all reactance’s marked in per unit. Select the
generator rating as base in the generator circuit.
If the motors have inputs of 16,000 and 8,000 kW, respectively, at 12.5 kV and
both operate at unity p.f., find the voltage at the terminals of the generator.

Solution:
Generator Circuit as the base:
base voltage = 13.8 kV
base kVA = 30,000 kVA
X " = 0.15 p.u.

Transmission Line Circuit:

base voltagetransm ission circuit 115
=
base voltagegenerator circuit 13.2
base voltagetransm ission circuit 115
=
13.8 13.2
 115 
base voltagetransm ission circuit = (13.8)  
 13.2 
= 120.23 kV

Motor Circuit:

Line-to-line voltage rating

3-phase voltage rating of T2(line-to-line)

12.5  − 3 (67)  kV
12.5  − 116.05  kV
base voltagem otor circuit 12.5
=
base voltagetransm ission circuit 116.05
base voltagemotor circuit 12.5
=
120.23 116.05
 12.5 
base voltagem otor circuit = (120.23)  
 116.05 
= 12.9502 kV
Reactances in p.u.
Generator: X " = 0.15 p.u.

Transformer 1, T1:
 base kVAnew 
2
p.u. X new  base kVgiven   
= 
p.u. X given  base KVnew   base kVAgiven 
 
 base kVAnew 
2
 base kVgiven 
p.u. X new = p.u. X given    
  base kVAgiven 
 base kVnew   
2
 13.2   30,000 
p.u. X "new = (0.10 )    
 13.8   35,000 
p.u. X "new = 0.078423 p.u.

Transmission Line:
(base kVtrans. cct. )2 x 1000
baseZ transm ission circuit. =
base kVAtrans. cct.

baseZ transm ission circuit. =

(120.23)2 x 1000
30,000
baseZ transm ission circuit. = 481.84 

actual impedance, 
X" =
base impedance, 
80
X" =
481.84
X " = 0.16603 p.u.

Transformer 2, T2:
p.u. X given = 0.10 p.u.
base kVgiven = 116.05 kV
base kVnew = 120.23 kV
base kVAgiven = 3(10,000) = 30,000 kVA
base kVAnew = 30,000 kVA

 base kVAnew 
2
 base kVgiven 
p.u. X new = p.u. X given    
  base kVAgiven 
 base kVnew   
2
 116.05   30,000 
p.u. X "new = (0.10 )    
 120.23   30,000 
p.u. X "new = 0.093168 p.u.
 Motor 1, M1:
p.u. X given = 0.20 p.u.
base kVgiven = 12.5 kV
base kVnew = 12.9502 kV
base kVAgiven = 20,000 kVA
base kVAnew = 30,000 kVA
2
 12.5   30,000 
X "new = (0.20)    
 12.9502   20,000 
X "new = 0.279504 p.u.

Motor 2, M2:
p.u. X given = 0.20 p.u.
base kVgiven = 12.5 kV
base kVnew = 12.9502 kV
base kVAgiven = 10,000 kVA
base kVAnew = 30,000 kVA
2
 12.5   30,000 
X "new = (0.20)    
 12.9502   10,000 
X "new = 0.55901 p.u.

Reactance Diagram in p.u.

j 0.078423 j 0.11603 j 0.093168

j 0.279504 j 0.55901

Generator Circuit
base voltage = 13.8 kV
base kVA = 30,000 kVA.
Transmission Line Circuit
base voltage = 120.23 kV .
Motor Circuit
base voltage = 12.9502 kV .

actual voltage
Vm =
base kVm otor cct.
12.50
= (as reference )
12.9502
= 0.965240 p.u.
Pm = Pm1 + Pm 2
= 16,000 + 8,000
= 24,000 kW

actual power
Pm in p.u. =
base kVAm otor cct.
24,000
=
30,000
= 0.8 p.u.

Pm = Vm I m x p. f .m
0.8 = (0.96524) I m x 1
0 .8
Im =
0.96524
Im = 0.82881 p.u.

with Vm as reference
I m = 0.82881 cos −1` 1
I m = 0.828810 p.u.

Voltage at the generator terminals:

VGT = Vm + I L Z drop
= 0.965240 + (0.828810)( j 0.078423 + j 0.16603 + j 0.093168)
= 1.00516.167 p.u.

VGT = 1.00516.167 x base kVgen. cc

t.

= 1.00516.167 (13.8)
= 13.86916.167 kV

VGT = 13.869 kV
Problem:
Draw the impedance diagram in p.u. for the power system shown in the Fig.
Neglect resistance, and use a base of 50 MVA, 138 kV in the 40  line. The
ratings of the generator, motors, and transformers are:
Generator 1 : 20 MVA, 18 kV, X” = 20%
Generator 2 : 20 MVA, 18 kV, X” = 20%
Synchronous motor 3: 30 MVA, 13.8 kV, X” = 20%
3-phase - transformer : 20 MVA, 138/20 kV, X” = 10%
3-phase - transformer : 15 MVA, 138/13.8 kV, X” = 10%

If the voltage of bus C is 13.2 kV when the motor draws 24 MW at 0.8 power
factor leading, calculate for the voltage of buses A and B. Assume that the two
generators divide the load equally. Give the answer in volts and in per unit on the
base selected. Find the voltages at A and B when the circuit breaker connecting
generator 1 to bus A is open while the motor draws 12 MW at 13.2 kV with 0.8
power factor leading. All other circuit breakers remain closed.
Electrical Fault
- is any failure which interferes with the normal flow of current in the
network.

Types of Faults
1. Symmetrical Three-phase Faults
- accidental connection of the 3 lines together or the 3 lines to the ground.
2. Single Line-to-Ground Fault (SLGF)
3. Double Line-to-Ground Fault (DLGF)
4. Line-to-Line Fault (LLF)

Methods of Solution for Symmetrical Three-Phase Fault

I. by Internal Voltage of Machines
II. by Thevenin’s Theorem
III. by Bus Impedance Matrix

Example:

Ratings:
Generator: 5,000 kVA, 13.8 kV, X” = 0.15 p.u.
Transformer: 3-, 5,000 kVA, 13.8/6,9 kV, X” = 0.10 p.u.
Motor: 4,500 hp., 6.9 kV, at 0.9 efficiency and 0.866 p.f. lagging
X” = 0.20 p.u.

The motor is supplying load of 4,000 hp. at rated voltage, 88% efficiency, and 85%
p.f. lagging when a symmetrical three-phase fault occurs at P. Determine the
subtransient currents in amperes from the generator, from the motor, and to the
fault by a) internal voltages of the machines b) by Thevenin’s Theorem.
Take the generator ratings as base in the generator circuit.
Problem:

C B

Ratings:
Generator: 30,000 kVA, 13.8 kV, X” = 10%
Transformer: 3-, 30,000 kVA, 13.8/6.9 kV, X” = 10%
Each Motor: 7,500 hp., 6.9 kV, 90% efficiency at 90% power factor lagging,
X” = 20%
Each motor in the figure is supplying 6,000 hp at 89% efficiency and 86.6% power
factor lagging at 6.9 kV when a symmetrical 3-phase fault occurs at point P.
Determine the subtransient current in amperes in circuit breakers A, B, and C.
Take the generator rating as base in the generator circuit. (Solve by internal
voltage of machines and by Thevenin’s Theorem.)