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PCM
M’ary Encoding

M’ary Encoding
• Each waveform carries a symbol from a
set of size M.
• Each transmit symbol represents
m=log2(M) bits of the PCM words,
i.e. M=2m.
m=log2 M, 2m=M
• PCM waveforms (line codes) are used
for binary symbols (M=2).
• M-ary pulse modulation are used for
non-binary symbols (M>2).

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Baud and Minimum Bandwidth

Baud=Rs=1/Ts

baud = Rs = symbol rate (baud per second)

Ts = time of one signaling element (second)

symbol = one signaling element

What is the difference between baud and

bits per second (bps)?

Baud and Bit Rate

Baud is rate of change of a signal on the

transmission medium after encoding and
modulation have occurred (symbols per seconds),
rate of change at output of the Modulator.

Bit is rate of change at the input to the Modulator

(bits per second, bps).

Binary signals; logic 1 => High, logic 0 => Low

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Baud and Minimum Bandwidth

Rb=mRs=2mB=2B log2M

Rb = bitrate (bps)
Rs = baud (symbols per second)
B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (Hertz)
M = number of discrete signals or voltage levels
m= number of bits encoded into each symbol

Bmin=Rb/(2 log2M)=Rb/2m
For binary transmission, M=2, m=1:

Bmin=Rb/2

Non-Uniform Quantization
• There is a huge variation in voice signal level
from user to user, and for the same use from
call to call as well as within the call
(sometimes of the order of 1000:1)
• Uniform quantization provides same degree of
resolution for low and high values.
• Designing the step size for the low values
results in too many levels, and designing them
for the high values destroys the low values.

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Non-Uniform Quantizers

Nonuniform Quantization
• Nonuniform quantizers have unequally spaced levels
– The spacing can be chosen to optimize the Signal-to-Noise Ratio for a
particular type of signal
• It is characterized by:
– Variable step size
– Quantizer size depend on signal size

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 Many signals such as speech have a nonuniform distribution

 See Figure on next page (Fig. 2.17)
 Basic principle is to use more levels at regions with large
probability density function (pdf)
 Concentrate quantization levels in areas of largest pdf
 Or use fine quantization (small step size) for weak
signals and coarse quantization (large step size) for
strong signals

Statistics of speech Signal Amplitudes

Figure 2.17: Statistical distribution of single talker speech signal

magnitudes (Page 81)
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Nonuniform quantization using companding

• Companding is a method of reducing the number of bits required in ADC
while achieving an equivalent dynamic range or SQNR
• In order to improve the resolution of weak signals within a converter, and
hence enhance the SQNR, the weak signals need to be enlarged, or the
quantization step size decreased, but only for the weak signals
• But strong signals can potentially be reduced without significantly degrading
the SQNR or alternatively increasing quantization step size
• The compression process at the transmitter must be matched with an
equivalent expansion process at the receiver

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• The signal below shows the effect of compression, where the amplitude
of one of the signals is compressed
• After compression, input to the quantizer will have a more uniform
distribution after sampling
At the receiver, the signal is
expanded by an inverse
operation
 The process of
COMpressing and
exPANDING the signal is
called companding
 Companding is a technique
used to reduce the number
of bits required in ADC or
DAC while achieving
comparable SQNR
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• Basically, companding introduces a nonlinearity into the signal

– This maps a nonuniform distribution into something that more closely
resembles a uniform distribution
– A standard ADC with uniform spacing between levels can be used after
the compandor (or compander)
– The companding operation is inverted at the receiver

• There are in fact two standard logarithm based companding techniques

– US standard called µ-law companding
– European standard called A-law companding

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Input/Output Relationship of Compander

• Logarithmic expression Y = log X is the most commonly used

compander
• This reduces the dynamic range of Y

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Types of Companding
 -Law Companding Standard (North & South
America, and Japan)

log e 1   (| x | / xmax 
y  ymax sgn( x)
log e (1   )

where
• x and y represent the input and output voltages
•  is a constant number determined by experiment
• In the U.S., telephone lines uses companding with  = 255
– Samples 4 kHz speech waveform at 8,000 sample/sec
– Encodes each sample with 8 bits, L = 256 quantizer levels
– Hence data rate R = 64 kbit/sec
•  = 0 corresponds to uniform quantization

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A-Law Companding Standard (Europe, China, Russia, Asia, Africa)

 | x|
 A
xmax | x| 1
 ymax sgn( x), 0 
 (1  A) xmax A
y ( x)  
   | x| 
 1  log e  A 
  xmax  1 | x|
 ymax sgn( x),  1
 (1  log e A) A xmax
where
– x and y represent the input and output voltages
– A = 87.6
– A is a constant number determined by experiment

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Compressors and Expanders

• It is practically more feasible to compress the signal
logarithmically then apply it to a uniform quantizer.
• A reciprocal process takes place at the receiver by an
expander.
• The compressor/expander system is called compander.
• There are two standard laws for companders, the -law
(North America and Japan) and the A-law (Europe and
rest of the world).

-Law and A-Law Characteristics