2/7/2018

CC442 Digital Communications

Prof. Dr. Said E. El-Khamy, Life Fellow IEEE

Spring 2017-2018

CC442 Digital Communications ,

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El-Khamy

PCM
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Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a special form of A/D conversion. It consists of

sampling, quantizing, and encoding steps. It is widely popular because:
- Used for long time in telephone systems
- Inexpensive electronics exists
- Errors can be corrected during long haul transmission
- Can use time division multiplexing

PCM
signal

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PCM for Analog to Digital Conversion

(A/D)
• In converting an analog signal to an equivalent sequence
of “0’s” and “1’s”, we go through three processes:
– Sampling:
• converting continuous–time analog signals to discrete–time
analog signals.
– Quantization
• converting discrete–time analog signals to discrete–time digital
signals (finite set of amplitude levels).
– Coding
• Map each amplitude level to a binary sequence.

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Quantization
• Analog samples with an amplitude that may take value in
a specific range are converted to a digital samples with
an amplitude that takes one of a specific pre–defined set
of values.
• The range of possible values of the analog samples is
divide into L levels. L is usually taken to be a power of 2
(L = 2n).
• The center value of each level is assigned to any sample
that falls in that quantization interval.
• For almost all samples, the quantized samples will differ
from the original samples by a small amount, called the
quantization error.

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Quantization: Illustration
A quantization interval Corresponding quantization value
mp

v
2m p
L = 2n v 
L
L levels t
0
n bits 0 Ts 2Ts 3Ts 4Ts 5Ts

–mp
Q uantizer Input S am ples x
Q uantizer O utput S am ples x q

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Input-Output Characteristics of Quantizer

Quantizer
Output xq
x
xq
v/2

v/2

v/2

v/2
Quantizer
v v v 
v v/2 v v v v Input x

v/2

v/2

v/2

mp

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Quantization Error

Quantization Error q  x  x q

v/2
Quantizer
v/2 Input x
v v v v v  v v v

mp

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Quantization Noise
• The quantization error is assumed to be uniformly
distributed over the range (-n/,n/).

v / 2 v / 2
1 1 q 3 
Pq   q dq  2
 
v / 2
v v  3 q v / 2

1   v / 2   v / 2   1   v   v  
3 3 3 3

      
v  3 3  v  24 24 
   
 v 
2


12
 2m /L
2
2
• Or, p mp
P
CC442
q 
Digital 
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Signal-to-Quantization-Noise Ratio
Signal Power Ps
SNR  
Noise Power Pq
3L2
 Ps .
m p2

 3L2   3 
SNR dB  10  log10  2 Ps   10  log10  2 Ps   10  log10 22 n
 mp   mp   
   
 3 
 10  log10  2 Ps   20n  log10  2 
 mp 
  6n


   6n dB.

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SNR-Bandwidth Exchange
• More bits/sample for the same message results in more
quantization levels, less quantization step, less
quantization noise, higher SNR.
• On the other hand, more bits/sample results in
bandwidth expansion
Ps
SNR  3 (2) 2 n ; ( SNR) dB    6n
mp
• One added bit results in multiplying SNR by a factor of
4 (6 dB), but multiplying the transmission bandwidth
by a factor of (n+1)/n

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February 2018, Prof. Dr. Said El-Khamy

Coding
PCM Code
A quantization interval Corresponding quantization value n bits/sample
mp
111
v 110
101
L = 2n
L levels 100
0
n bits 0 Ts 2Ts 3Ts 4Ts 5Ts
011
010
001
000
–mp
Quantizer Input Samples x
001 011 100 110 110 110 100 010 010 010 100 101 101
Quantizer Output Samples x q
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Basic Waveforms for Binary

Transmission
• The simplest form is to send a +ve pulse for a “1” and a
–ve pulse for a “0”.
• Transmitting the message g(t) would translate into
sending a a long sequence of +ve and –ve pulses.
• Note that the larger the transmission rate (pulses/sec)
the narrower the pulse, the wider its spectrum, the
higher the channel bandwidth required for
transmission.
• The minimum theoretical bandwidth required to
transmit R pulses/sec is R/2 Hz (Using NRZ waveform).

R=1lTp
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Major Line Codes

• Categories of Line Codes

– Polar - Send pulse or negative of pulse ( +1, -1)
– Unipolar - Send pulse or a 0 (1,0)
– Bipolar – 3 level pulse ( +1, 0, -1)
– Generalized Pulse Shapes
– NRZ -Pulse lasts entire bit period
• Polar NRZ
• Bipolar NRZ
– RZ - Return to Zero - pulse lasts just half of bit period
• Polar RZ (RB)
• Bipolar RZ (AMI)
– Manchester Line Code
• Send a 2-  pulse for either 1 (high low) or 0 (low high)
• Includes rising and falling edge in each pulse
• No DC component

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– Polar NRZ:
• Wireless, radio, and satellite applications primarily use Polar NRZ
because bandwidth is precious
– Unipolar NRZ
• Turn the pulse ON for a ‘1’, leave the pulse OFF for a ‘0’
• Useful for noncoherent communication where receiver can’t
decide the sign of a pulse
– fiber optic communication often use this signaling format
– Unipolar RZ
• RZ signaling has both a rising and falling edge of the pulse
• This can be useful for timing and synchronization purposes
– Polar RZ (or, RB)
– Bipolar RZ (AMI)

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Commonly Used Line Codes

• Polar line codes use the antipodal mapping
 A, when X n  1
an  
 A, when X n  0
– Polar NRZ uses NRZ pulse shape
– Polar RZ uses RZ pulse shape

– (RB)

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Unipolar NRZ Line Code

• Unipolar non-return-to-zero (NRZ) line code is defined by unipolar
mapping
 A, when X n  1
Where Xn is the nth data
an  
0, when X n  0 bit
• In addition, the pulse shape for unipolar NRZ is:
where Tb is the bit period  t 
f (t )     , NRZ Pulse Shape
 Tb 

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February 2018, Prof. Dr. Said El-Khamy

Manchester Line Codes

• Manchester line codes use the antipodal mapping
and the following split-phase pulse shape:
 Tb   Tb 
t 4  t 4 
f (t )        T 
 Tb   b 
 2   2 

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Modulation Rate

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EXAMPLE 1:
• A signal of bandwidth 4 kHz is samples at Nyquist rate
and transmitted using PCM with uniform quantization. If
the number of quantization levels L is increased from 64
to 256, find the change in SNR and transmission
bandwidth.
– Number of bits/sample, n, has been increased from 6 to 8.
– SNR improved by 12 dB (16 times)
– Original bandwidth (assuming NRZ waveform):
B1=1/2*Tp=1/(2/(n*fs)) = n*fs/2=n* W= 6*4= 24 kHz.
– B2= 8*4=32 kHz
– B expanded by a factor of 1.33 (33% increase).
From 24 kHz to 32 kHz.

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EXAMPLE 2:
• We want to scan and send a black-and-white image of
height 11 inches and width 8.5 inches (Letter size paper).
The resolution of the scanner is 600×600 dots per inch
square. The picture will be quantized using 256 levels.
Find the size of the scanned image and the time it takes
to transmit the image using a modem of speed 56 kbps.
– n=log2(256)= 8bits/sample
– Size of image =
11(in)×8.5(in)×600×600(samples/in2)×8bits/sample

= 269280000 bits = 269 Mbits

–
– Time to transmit = 269280000 / 56,000 = 4808 sec = 80 min

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