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ADVANCED DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

IRRIGATION IV (IRR47W1)

1ST SEMESTER 2024

Compiled by: Dr Akinola Ikudayisi

BEng, MSc, DEng (Civil Engineering)
Head, Civil Engineering Department,
Buffalo City Campus.

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 PROVISIONAL COURSE OUTLINE
Week Topic
1 Soil / Water / Plant relations
2 Soil / Water / Plant relations
3 Types of irrigation systems
4 Types of irrigation systems
4 PROJECT 1
5 Irrigation scheduling
6 Irrigation scheduling
6 TEST 1
7 Irrigation in South Africa
8 Irrigation in South Africa
9 Irrigation design (feasibility studies)
10 Irrigation design (feasibility studies)
10 TEST 2
11 Environmental impact of irrigation
12 Environmental impact of irrigation
13 Design project(s)
14 REVISION
15 EXAMINATION

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 READING LIST
1. Irrigation Design Manual, ARC-Institute for Agricultural Engineering, 2003
2. Irrigation Manual Planning, Development, Monitoring & Evaluation of Irrigated
Agriculture with Farmer Participation, FAO SAFR 2002
3. Michael A.M. (2008). Irrigation: Theory and Practice (2nd Edition). Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
4. Majumdar D. K. (2004). Irrigation Water Management Principles and Practice.
Prentice-Hall of India Pct. Limited. New Delhi.
5. S. S. Singh (1995) Crop Management (5th Edition). Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
6. Irrigation Guide : National Engineering Handbook, United States Department of
Agriculture
7. Water Resources Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, India, 2008
(http://nptel.ac.in/downloads/105105110/)
Websites
• http://www.fao.org/home/en/

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 INTRODUCTION
Irrigation is the artificial application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed
intervals for the purpose of agricultural production.
Irrigation is also an adequate and timely supply of water to the plant root zone for optimum
crop yield.Irrigation helps grow agricultural crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate
disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of less than average rainfall.
Effective irrigation will influence the entire growth process from seedbed preparation,
germination, root growth, nutrient utilization, plant growth and regrowth, yield and quality.
Irrigated agriculture is the biggest consumer of water in the world. About 70% of the
world’s freshwater is used for irrigation.

Water scarcity and stiff competition for water between different sectors have resulted in
reduced water availability for irrigation. Hence, production of food with less water
availability is a major challenge for both rainfed and irrigated agriculture around the world.
“To irrigate is to water crops by bringing in water from pipes, canals, sprinklers, or other man-
made means, rather than relying on rainfall alone. Places that have sparse or seasonal
rainfall could not sustain agriculture without irrigation. In areas that have irregular
precipitation, irrigation improves crop growth and quality. By allowing farmers to grow crops
on a consistent schedule, irrigation also creates more reliable food supplies
This course is therefore designed to give a thorough knowledge of water, agriculture and
their multifaceted relationships so that associated challenges can be overcomed.

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 CHAPTER ONE
1.1 SOIL/WATER/PLANT RELATIONSHIP
Water is introduced to the soil by an irrigation system, by a regulated water table, or by
precipitation. It is stored in the soil matrix and then extracted by plant roots to meet the plant
evapotranspiration (ET) needs. This chapter on soil-plant-water relationships treats the
physical properties of soils and plants that affect the movement, retention, and use of water
and that must be considered in designing and operating systems for conservation irrigation.
In planning and designing an irrigation system, the technician is concerned primarily with the
water- holding capacity of a soil, particularly in the root zone of the plant; with the water-
intake rate of the soil; with the root system of the crop to being grown; and with the amount
of water that the crop uses. In addition, a working knowledge of all soil-plant-water
relationships is necessary in order to plan and manage efficiently the irrigation for particular
crops grown on particular soils and in order to adjust the design to various conditions.
1.2 SOIL
Soil is a complex mass of mineral particles (sand, silt, clay) and organic particles (plant
and animal residues at various stages of decomposition). Soil is a heterogeneous (diverse in
character or content) mass consisting of a three phase system of air, water and solids
(Fig. 1.1). Mineral matter forms the largest fraction of soil and serves as a framework
(matrix) with numerous pores of various proportions. Soils function as a storehouse for
plant nutrients, as habitat for soil organisms and plant roots, and as a reservoir for
water to meet the evapotranspirational demands of plant communities.

Figure 1.1: The three constituents of soil

The void space within the solid particles is called the soil pore space. Decayed organic
matter derived from the plant and animal remains are dispersed within the pore space. The
soil air is totally expelled from soil when water is present in excess amount than can be
stored. The amount of water that a soil can hold for plant use is determined by its physical
and chemical properties. This amount determines the length of time that a plant can sustain
adequately between irrigations or rainfall events. This amount also determines the
frequency of irrigation, the amount to be applied, and the capacity of the irrigation
system needed for continuous optimum crop growth.

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1.2.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
The parent material of mineral soils consists of loose, unconsolidated fragments of
weathered rocks or unconsolidated sediments.
Two MOST important physical properties of soils are texture and structure. Soil texture
refers to the relative proportion of variously sized groups of mineral particles in a specific
soil or horizon. Soil structure refers to the manner in which soil particles are arranged in
groups or aggregates. Together, soil texture and soil structure help to determine the supply
of water and air in a soil. The physical characteristics of soil are those properties that may
be measured by physical means and may be expressed in physical terms such as:
structure, colour, density, porosity, hydraulic conductivity, texture and depth.
1.2.1.1 Texture
The different particles which occur in soil are described in general as sand, silt and clay.
Soil particles are generally classified according to their sizes (diameter). For example, silt is
defined by USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) as particles of sizes between
0.002 and 0.05 mm. South Africa uses the USDA size classification, hence, the size of soil
particles are given in Table 1.1. Since the geometric shape of soil particles is irregular, a
single figure cannot be used to indicate the actual size. The size of particles is referred to in
terms of the equivalent spherical diameter (e.s.d).
It’s important to note that the term soil only refers to particles smaller than 2.00mm. Many
soils however contains soil fragments larger than 2.00mm. They are referred to as stones,
gravel or cobble stones.
Table 1.1: Particle size of soil according to the SA – system
Size class Diameter (mm)
Pebbles >250.0
Stones 75.00 - 250.00
Gravel 2.00 - 75.00
Very coarse sand 1.00 – 2.00
Coarse sand 0.50 - 1.00
Medium sand 0.25 – 0.50
Fine sand 0.10 - 0.25
Very fine sand 0.05 - 0.10
Silt 0.002 – 0.05
Clay <0.002

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Some of the physical characteristics associated with different size classes are illustrated in
Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Physical characteristics of different sizes classes
Characteristics Texture class
Coarse sand Fine sand Silt Clay
Water holding Very low Low Moderately low Very high
capacity
Capillary rising Limited Moderately high High Very high
ability
Infiltration rate Very fast Fast Slow Extremely slow
Cohesion and Limited Very low Moderately high Very high
plasticity
Heat transfer Fast Moderately fast Slow Very slow
Aeration/gas Very good Good Moderately good Very poor
exchange
Cation Limited Extremely low Low Very high
adsorption ability

(a) Texture classes

Texture is defined as the relationship between the amount of sand, silt and clay
occurring in the soil. According to their sizes, soil particles are grouped into gravel, sand,
silt and clay. Figure 1.2 shows a soil texture triangle which is used to determine the texture
class of soil, after the particle size compound is known. Each side of the triangle represents
a size fraction (silt, sand and clay) which runs clockwise from 0% to 100%. If soil has 30%
sand, 60% silt and 10% clay, the various percentages can be marked on the three axes
respectively and relevant class determined from the point where the three readings
intercept each other. From the chart, the corresponding texture for the texture triangle is silt
loam.
With the exception of loam, the class name indicates the size fraction which are dominant. It
can be concluded that in the sandyclay texture class (marked red in the figure), sand and
clay are the two dominant size fractions. In the texture class loam, there is more or less an
equal amount of physical characteristics in almost all aspects, such as being readily tillable,
good air and water permeability and reasonably high water-holding abilities. Where texture
is concerned, loamy soils contain slightly lower clay than sand and silt as can be seen from
the Figure 1.2, the maximum content of loamy soil is 2.7%.

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 Figure 1.2: USDA soil texture chart
The name of texture classes in which the word sand occurs, can be adapted to indicate the
dominant sand sub-fraction. A sand – grading chart is used for this purpose. Examples are
fine sand loam, coarse sand, loam fine sand. The classes namely sand, loamy sand and
sand-clay-loam are further subdivided according to the percentage of the sand fraction
consisting of coarse, medium or fine sand.
Thirteen texture classes are currently used in South Africa. These are outlined in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Soil texture classes used in SA – system
1. Pure sand 2. sand 3. Loamy sand
4. Sandy loam 5. Loam 6. Silt loam
7. Silt 8. Sandy clay loam 9. Clay loam
10. Silt-like clay loam 11. Sandy clay 12. Silt-like clay
13. Clay

However, it is more convenient to divide the thirteen texture classes into three broad
categories, namely coarse, medium and finely textured particles. Figure 1.4 shows the
three categories.
Table 1.4: Broad division of texture classes
Coarse Medium Fine
Classes (1-4) Classes (5-7) Classes (8-13)
Sands Loams All texture classes
Loam sands Silt loams With the name clay therein
Sand loams Silt

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*NOTE: The soil texture best suited for irrigation and crop farming is any soil which contains
‘loam’. They are generally accepted to have a favourable characteristics.

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1.2.1.2 Soil structure
This refers to the arrangement of soil particles and aggregates with respect to each
other. Aggregates are groups of individual soil particles adhering together. Soil structure is
recognized as one of the most important properties of soil mass, since it influences the rate
with which water and air penetrates the soil and move through the profile. Structure type
(Figure 1.3) refers to the particular kind of particle grouping that predominates in a soil
horizon. Single grained and massive soils are structureless. In single-grained soils, such as
loose sand, water percolates very rapidly.
Water moves very slowly through massive soils such as some clays. The more favourable
water relations are usually in soils that have prismatic, blocky, and granular structure; platy
structure impedes the downward movement of water. Unlike texture, structure of the soil
can be changed to the depth of tillage. Excellent structure develops in the surface layer
of soils high in organic matter and on which perennial grass is growing. Cycles of
wetting and drying or of freezing and thawing (melting) improve structure in the plow layer.
On the other hand, cultivation of medium- or fine- textured soils when their moisture content
is high tends to destroy structure.

Figure 1.3: Various types of soil structures

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1.2.1.3 Bulk density
The bulk density is the mass of the dry soil per unit of the total volume. The total volume is
determined before the sample is dried. Another name for bulk density is volumetric density
or matrix density. This refers to the dry mass per unit volume soil in the natural
undisturbed field condition. The bulk density (ρb) of a soil can be determined by:
𝑀𝑀𝑠𝑠
(ρ ) = =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (1.1)
b 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏

1.2.1.4 Particle density

This is the mass of the dry soil per unit of the total volume of soilds.
𝑀𝑀𝑠𝑠
(ρ ) = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (1.2)
d =
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

1.2.1.5 Soil Porosity

Porosity is the percentage of the total volume of soil, which is not filled by solid particles and
in which water for plant absorption is stored. It is therefore the tank in which water is stored
in the soil. It is dependant upon the structure, texture, consistency and bulk density of the
soil. These pores may be filled with air or water. Porosity therefore refers to the relation
between the total pore volume and the bulk volume of the soil, but does not refer to the size
of the pores. There are two size classes of porosity namely:
Macro pores (>60µm): Useful for movement and distribution of water
Micro pores (<60µm): Are important for the storage of capillary soil
water.
A direct measurement of a soil’s porosity is difficult. Therefore, the following relation between
bulk
density (ρb), particle density (ρd) and porosity is used.
Volume solid phase = ρb/ρd X100%
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (%) = (1 − 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌/𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 ) 𝑋𝑋100 (1.3)
Note: The particle density of quarts, namely 2650kg/m3 is usually used.
1.2.1.6 Infiltration
This describes the downward penetration of water into the soil. The infiltration rate may be
regarded as the rate at which the water penetrates the soil. If a dry soil is wetted, the
infiltration rate is high, but it decreases rapidly as the soil is wetted.
1.2.1.7 Permeability
This is defined as the ease with which the gasses, water and plant roots can penetrate a
horizon or layer and move through it. Permeability is dependent on soil characteristics such
as porosity, structure, texture and the state of the soil water level. When referring to
permeability of water, hydraulic conductivity (kw)is used. This is the capacity of the soil at
a certain soil water content to
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conduct water through the pores. The wetter the soil (saturated), the higher the hydraulic
conductivity.
1.2.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Soil comprises of inorganic particles, air and organic matter. As a result, certain chemical
reactions take place. The following are the chemical properties of soil which are of
importance in irrigation.
1.2.2.1 pH
This is the degree of acidity or alkalinity of soil samples. A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is
acidic, while above 7 is alkaline. Most soil prefer a slight to moderate acidic soil (pH
between 5.5 and 7). pH extremes are an indication that problems might occur under
irrigation. A pH value of 7.5 and above in a soil containing lime indicates a sodic soil while a
pH value of 8.5 and higher indicates an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of 15 or
higher.
1.2.2.2 Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
This is determined by the ratio of Na to Ca and Mg (Na: (Ca+Mg)) in soils. A high SAR
value may indicate sodium problems in the soil. The SAR of a soil is approximately equal to
1 or 2 times the ESP of the soil.
1.2.2.3 Saline quality (brackishness)
A brackish soil is a soil with a soil water containing an excess of exchangeable sodium, as
well as a notable quantity of soluble salts, which impedes the growth of most cultivars. The
presence of sodium is the most important reason for the deterioration of soil under irrigation
in arid areas. The higher the electrical conductivity, the higher the presence of salts. An
excess of free salts influences the permeability, internal drainage of soils and availability of
soil water for plant roots.
Vaalharts Irrigation Scheme
1.3 WATER
1.3.1 QUANTIFICATION OF SOIL WATER
The amount of water present in the soil at any given time can be described in many ways.
Terms such as dry, wet, saturated and unsaturated are often used. However, they do not
quantify the soil water content fully. The following terms and descriptive terminologies
describe the soil water content.
1.3.1.1 Saturation water content (θs)
Saturation is when the soil pores are completely filled with water and no air is present in the
soil. The soil is in a ‘waterlogged’ condition and roots cannot grow under such conditions.

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 1.3.1.2 Field capacity (FC)
This is the maximum amount of water a soil can retain against the earth’s gravity. It’s the
amount of water that a soil can retain after it has been saturated and allowed to drain to a
stage where the drainage rate has become very small. The capillary forces, which tends to
retain the water in the pores and the gravitational force of the earth, which tends to remove
the water from the soil are in equilibrium. In irrigation, if the field is wetted above FC, it
amounts to wastage and loss of water.
1.3.1.3 Permanent wilting point (PWP)
This is the water content at which plants can no longer obtain sufficient water to provide for
their transpirational requirements. At this point, the soil becomes dry and the plant wilts
permanently, except soil water is re-introduced via irrigation or rain. It should be noted that
PWP is a soil water condition determined by the plant. This is why their values are different
per plant type.
1.3.1.4 Total available water (TAW)
This is the amount of water that a crop can extract from its root zone, and its magnitude
depends on the type of soil and the rooting depth. The difference in the soil water
content between the FC and PWP multiplied by the rooting depth is called the total
available water. For example, the amount of total available water in soil as a function of the
clay content is shown in Table 1.5.
Total available water in soil is calculated as follows:
Soil water content at field capacity (FC): 0.24
m3/m3 Soil water content at permanent wilting point (PWP): 0.14
m3/m3 Difference (FC-PWP): (PAW) 0.10
m3/m3 Because: 0.10 m3/m3 is the same as 0.10 m/m ,
Therefore: If the soil is 500 mm deep, the TAW in the soil is 500 mm x 0.10 m/m = 50mm.
Table 1.5: Approximated water holding capacity according to clay content
Clay content (%) Water holding capacity (mm/m)
0–5 60 – 100
5 – 15 80 – 130
15 – 35 100 - 130
35 - 55 130 - 160

1.3.1.5 Readily available water (RAW)

This is the water that is at the soil water tension between -10 and -100kPa and can
therefore be readily absorbed by the plant. The amount of water in mm available per layer, is
calculated by reading off the difference in volumetric water content at -10 and -100kPa from
the corresponding layer’s water curves and multiplying it with the thickness of the layer.

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 Example:
Water content at -10kPa = 150 mm/m
Water content at -100kPa = 94 mm/m
RAW = (150 – 94) mm/m
= 56 mm/m

If irrigation is to take place at 50% extraction of RAW, the soil water content will drop to 122 mm/m,
which is equal to a tensiometer reading of 28 kPa.

1.3.1.1 Plant available water (PAW)

Plant-available water, PAW, is the volume of water stored in the soil reservoir that can be
used by plants. It is the difference between the volume of water stored when the soil is at
field capacity and the volume still remaining when the soil reaches the permanent wilting
point (the lower limit). (FC- PWP).
The amount of PAW stored in the soil reservoir is commonly expressed as the depth of water
per unit depth of soil. Typical units are inches of PAW per inch of soil depth or inches of
PAW per foot of soil depth. Different types of soils have different PAWs. Estimates of PAW
for various soil textural classes are given in published soil survey reports. These estimates
range from less than 0.05 inch of PAW per inch of soil for coarse sandy soils to nearly 0.2
inch of PAW per inch of soil for silty loams. Soil properties including PAW vary within a field
and from field to field even within the same soil series. As a result, values given in soil
surveys are averages and are not a good estimate for a specific field.
1.3.1.2 Hygroscopic water
This is the water that is held by means of adhesion forces around the soil particles. It is also
known as water absorbed by a dry soil from an atmosphere with relative humidity or water
that remains in the soil after ‘air-drying’. This form of water is not available to the plant and
is bound by a soil water matric suction of less than -1500 kPa or higher. This means that
soil water is less available for the plant at a matric suction of -1600 kPa than at -1500 Kpa.

1.3.1 SOIL-WATER RELATIONSHIP (SUMMARY)

After discussing both soil and water under different conditions, it is imperative to find the
relationship between soil and water. The soil is composed of three major parts: air, water,
and solids. The solid component forms the framework of the soil and consists of mineral
and organic matter. The mineral fraction is made up of sand, silt, and clay particles. The
proportion of the soil occupied by water and air is referred to as the pore volume. The pore
volume is generally constant for a given soil layer but may be altered by tillage and
compaction. The ratio of air to water stored in the pores changes as water is added to or
lost from the soil. Water is added by rainfall or irrigation, as shown in Figure 1.4

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 Figure 1.4: Evapotranspiration process and cycle
Water is lost through surface runoff, evaporation (direct loss from the soil to the
atmosphere), transpiration (losses from plant tissue), and either percolation (seepage into
lower layers) or drainage. The pore volume is actually a reservoir for holding water. Not all
of the water in the reservoir is available for plant use. Figure 1.5 represents a "wet"
(saturated) soil immediately after a large rainfall. Note that all of the pores are filled with
water. Gravity will pull some of this water down through the soil below the crop's root zone.
The water that is redistributed below the root zone due to the force of gravity is gravitational
water. In general, gravitational water is not available to plants, especially in sandy soils,
because the redistribution process occurs quickly (in two days or less).

Figure 1.5: Saturated condition of soil water

After the redistribution process is complete, the soil is at field capacity. Under this condition
it contains the greatest amount of water that is potentially available to plants. The actual
volume of water present when the soil is at field capacity depends on the soil texture. Plants
get most of their water from capillary water. This is the water retained in soil pores after

15
drained. Surface tension (suction) holds capillary water around the soil particles. As water is
removed by plants or by evaporation from the soil surface, the films of water remaining
around the soil particles become thinner and are held by the soil particles more tightly.
When the surface tension becomes high, the plant is unable to take up any of the remaining
water and permanent wilting results. When the plant has removed all available water, the
soil's water content has reached the permanent wilting point (PWP).

Table 1.6: Soil, water, and plant terms used in irrigations scheduling.

Term Definition

Saturation Condition when all soil pores are filled with water.

The soil-water content after the force of gravity has drained or

Field Capacity (FC)
removed all the water it can, usually 1 to 3 days after rainfall.

Water in the soil that is free to drain or move due to the forces of
Gravitational Water gravity. Gravitation water is the volume of water in the soil between
saturation and field capacity. This water is not usually used by
plants.
Redistribution
Downward movement of gravitational water through the soil profile.
(Percolation)

Water retained in soil pores after gravitational water has drained or is

Capillary Water held loosely around soil particles by surface tension. Most of the
soil-water available to plants is capillary water.

Temporary Wilting Daily cycle of plant wilting during the day followed by recovery at
night.
The soil-water content of which healthy plants can no longer extract
Permanent Wilting
water from the soil at a rate fast enough to recover from wilting. The
Point (PWP)
permanent wilting point is considered the lower limit of plant-
available water.
Plant-Available The amount of water held in the soil that is available to plants;
Water (PAW) the difference between field capacity and permanent wilting point.

Water in thin, tightly held films around soil particles; not available
Unavailable Water
to plants.

Potential Rooting The deepest rooting depth attained by crop roots depending on the
Depth type of crop and independent of soil conditions.

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 Deepest rooting depth attained by a crop under specific soil
Maximum
conditions. Physical and chemical barriers in the soil often limit
Rootin
actual rooting depths to less than potential rooting depth.
g Depth

The upper portion of the root zone where plants get most of their
Effective Root Depth
water. Effective root depth is estimated as one-half the maximum
rooting depth.
Maximum amount of water that could be lost through
Potential
evapotranspiration under a given set of atmospheric conditions,
Evapotranspiration
assuming that the crop covers the entire soil surface and that the
(PET)
amount of water present in the soil does not limit the process.

Maximum daily rate at which a crop can extract water from a moist
Crop Water Use Rate
soil to satisfy PET; controlled ny stage of crop development.

Crop Susceptibility A measurement of crop response to a unit of stress.

The amount of plant-available water removed from the soil by plants

Depletion Volume
and evaporation from the soil surface.

Allowable Depletion The amount of plant-available water that can be removed from the
Volume soil without seriously affecting plant growth and development.

1.3.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE IRRIGATION OF SOIL

When soils are investigated for irrigation purposes, there are a number of factors that must
be taken into consideration. They include the following:
1.3.2.1 Colour of the soil
The colour of the soil can give an indication as to the irrigability of the soil. Soils coloured
red, red- brown and yellow-brown are, in most cases, irrigable, depending on the depth of
the soil and its location. The soils should undergo a chemical analysis for the best
recommendation, and the colour of the soil alone should not be relied upon.
1.3.2.2 Effective soil depth
The depth of soil is one of the most important properties of a soil in determining its
irrigability. Soil depth determine the storage or reservoir volume in which water and
nutrients are stored and also the degree of drainage past the root zone. Over-irrigation
usually takes place and this water must be able to drain away without any problems. A
profile hole is dug using soil auger to determine the depth of soil down to the limiting layer.
A limiting layer is basically a layer with poor water conductivity which is harder or more
dense than the soils above.

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The ideal is a well-drained soil with a soil depth of 1500 mm or more. Certain crops may do
well with a soil depth of 900 mm, also good harvest may be obtained in shallow soil with an
effective soil depth of 450 mm, provided that cultivars with shallow root systems such as
planted pastures are planted there.
1.3.2.3 Texture of the soil
This has been discussed extensively in Section 1.2.1.1. However, in addition, Soil texture
influences infiltration rate, permeability, water holding capacity, internal drainage and
erodibility of soils. The ideal texture is not too fine, not too coarse, and must have a good
particle size distribution. The following texture classes are undesirable within the effective
root depth: clay, sandy clay, clay loam (>35% clay), silt clay, silt clay loam (>35% clay) and
coarse sand.
1.3.2.4 Clay content
A clay content >35% may be considered irrigable provided the colour of the soil is red and it
has a structure that is not stronger or greater than moderate, fine, angular and block under
dry conditions. It must be recommended that the finer the soil particle, the greater the
contact surface, the higher the volume of water hold, the larger the volume of water that
may be absorbed, the smaller the air pores and the greater the volume that is available to
crop.
1.3.2.5 Soil structure
A moderately developed granular structure is preferable. The structure must be stable in
water and not dispersive, else, soil crusting can develop. Soil crusting leads to aeration
problems, low infiltration rates and increases the erodibility of the soil. A too strongly
developed structure is indicative of a high clay content with its accompanying problems.
1.3.2.6 Soil pH
Provided the pH of the soil lies between 7.5 and 5.5, and its electrical conductivity is less
than 300 mS/m, the soil is suitable for irrigation. If these values are exceeded, then the
sodium absorption ratio (SAR) and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) must be
determined. When pH is lower than 5.5, the possibility of aluminum poisoning exists.
1.3.2.7 Quality of irrigation water
Water quality for irrigation is very important. Irrigation water, regardless of its source,
always contains some soluble salts in it. Apart from the total concentration of the dissolved
salts, the concentration of some of the individual salts, and especially those which are most
harmful to crops, is important in determining the suitability of water for irrigation. The
constituents usually determined by analyzing irrigation water are the electrical conductivity
for the total dissolved salts, soluble sodium percentage, sodium absorption ratio, boron
content, PH, cations such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and anions such as
carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides and nitrates.
Where water of a poorer quality is used, the soil must be deeper so that leaching of salts
may take place. Problems may occur if a C1S1 quality water is used with a high conductivity
and many dissolved

18
salts. The water reacts with the salts and will result in an undesirable condition such as
lowering the infiltration rate of the soil.
1.3.3 WATER ABSORPTION BY PLANTS
Water is absorbed mostly through the roots of plants, though an insignificant absorption is
also done through the leaves. Plants normally have a higher concentration of roots close to
the soil surface and the density decreases with depth as shown in Figure 1.6. In a normal soil
with good aeration, a greater portion of the roots of most plants remain within 0.45m to
0.60m of surface soil layers and most of the water needs of plants are met from this zone.
As the available water from this zone decreases, plants extract more water from lower
depths. When the water content of the upper soil layers reach wilting point, all the water
needs of plants are met from lower layers. Since there exists few roots in lower layers, the
water extract from lower layers may not be adequate to prevent wilting, although sufficient
water may be available there.
When the top layers of the root zone are kept moist by frequent application of water through
irrigation, plants extract most of the water (about 40 percent) from the upper quarter of their
root zone. In the lower quarter of root zone the water extracted by the plant meets about 30
percent of its water needs. Further below, the third quarter of the root zone extracts about
20 percent and the lowermost quarter of root zone extracts the remaining about 10 percent
of the plants water. It may be noted that the water extracted from the soil by the roots of a
plant moves upwards and essentially is lost to the atmosphere as water vapours mainly
through the leaves. This process, called transpiration, results in losing almost 95percent of
water sucked up. Only about 5percent of water pumped up by the root system is used by
the plant for metabolic purpose and increasing the plant body weight.
1.3.4 WATERING INTERVAL FOR CROPS
A plot of land growing a crop has to be applied with water from time to time for its healthy
growth. The water may come naturally from rainfall or may supplemented by artificially
applying water through irrigation. A crop should be irrigated before it receives a set back in
its growth and development. Hence the interval between two irrigations depends primarily
on the rate of soil moisture depletion. Normally, a crop has to be irrigated before soil
moisture is depleted below a certain portion of its availability in the root zone depending on
the type pf plant. The intervals are shorter during summer than in winter. Similarly, the
intervals are shorter for sandy soils than heavy soils. When the water supply is very limited,
then the interval may be prolonged which means that the soil moisture is allowed to deplete
below 50percent of available moisture before the next irrigation is applied. The optimum
rates of soil moisture for a few typical crops are given below (Reference: Majumdar, D K,
2000)
• Maize : Field capacity to 60 percent of availability
• Wheat : Field capacity to 50 percent of availability
• Sugarcane: Field capacity to 50 percent of availability
• Barley : Field capacity to 40 percent of availability
• Cotton : Field capacity to 20 percent of availability

19
As for rice, the water requirement is slightly different than the rest. This is because it
requires a constant standing depth of water of about 5cm throughout its growing period. This
means that there is a constant percolation of water during this time and it has estimated that
about 50 to 70 percent of water applied to the crop is lost in this way.
For most of the crops, except rice, the amount of water applied after each interval should be
such that the moisture content of the soil is raised to its field capacity. The soil moisture
depletes gradually due to the water lost through evaporation from the soil surface and due
to the absorption of water from the plant roots, called transpiration more of which has been
discussed in the next session. The combined effect of evaporation and transpiration, called
evapo-transpiration (ET) decides the soil water depletion rate for a known value of ET
(which depends on various factors, mainly climate); it is possible to find out the irrigation
interval.
1.3.5 IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN PLANT GROWTH
During the life cycle of a plant water, among other essential elements like air and fertilizers,
plays a vital role, some of the important ones being:
• Water maintains the turgidity of the plant cells, thus keeping the plant erect. Water
accounts for the largest part of the body weight of an actively growing plant and it constitutes
85 to 90 percent of the body weight of young plants and 20 to 50 percent of older or mature
plants.
• Water provides both oxygen and hydrogen required for carbohydrate synthesis during the
photosynthesis process.
• Water acts as a solvent of plant nutrients and helps in the uptake of nutrients from soil.
• Food manufactured in the green parts of a plant gets distributed throughout the plant body
as a solution in water.
• Transpiration is a vital process in plants and does so at a maximum rate (called the
potential evapo transpiration rate) when water is available in adequate amount. If soil
moisture is not sufficient, then the transpiration rate is curtailed, seriously affecting plant
growth and yield.
• Leaves get heated up with solar radiation and plants help to dissipate the heat by
transpiration,
which itself uses plant water.

1.3.6 CALCULATION EXAMPLES

Calculation of the gravimetric water content of a soil:
Gravimetric water content of a soil reflects the amount of water in a soil on a mass basis. It
can be a fraction such as (kg water/kg soil) or as a percentage such as (kg water /100kg
soil). It is determined by this equation:
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 (%) = 𝑋𝑋 100% (1.4)
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

20
Example 1a:
Calculate the gravimetric water content of a soil sample with wet soil of 825g and dry soil of
700g. This is by measuring the wet soil sample, dry it to remove water and then weigh the
dry soil.
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = (825 -700)/700 X 100%
= 17.86% or 17.86g/100g
Calculation of bulk density:
Calculate the bulk density of a soil sample with wet soil of 825g and dry soil of 700g and
volume of dry soil of 500 cm3. This is the mass of dry soil per unit of the total volume of dry
soil.
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
(Pb) = (1.5)
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

= (700 g/500 cm3) = 1.4 g/cm3

and that is equal to 1400 kg/m3 (to convert from g/cm3 to kg/m3, multiply by 1000)

Calculation of particle density:

Calculate the particle density of a soil sample with wet soil of 825g and dry soil of 700g and
volume of dry soil of 500 cm3. This is the mass of dry soil per unit of the total volume of
solids.
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
(ρp) = (1.6)
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

= (700 g/500 cm3) = 1.4 g/cm3

Calculation of porosity
Calculate the porosity of a soil sample with wet soil of 825g and dry soil of 700g and volume
of dry soil of 500 cm3.
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (%) = (1 − 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌/𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 ) 𝑋𝑋100 (1.7)
Note: The particle density (𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌) of quarts, namely 2650kg/m3 is usually used
= (1 – 1400 /2650) X 100
47.17%

21
 Calculation of the volumetric water content of a soil
Calculate the volumetric water content of the soil sample with wet soil of 825g and dry soil of
700g and volume of dry soil of 500 cm3. This is the volume of liquid water per volume of soil.
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝜃𝜃 ) = [ × ] (1.8)
𝑣𝑣 100 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤

Where: 𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = gravimetric water content of the soil

ρb = bulk density of the soil
ρw = density of water (1000kg/m3 or 1g/cm3)
𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏
Please note: The units of both in the term must be the same, namely: in kg/m3 or g/cm3.
𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤

Solution:
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣) = (17.86/100 x 1400/1000)
= 0.250 mm3/mm3
= 250 mm/mm
And when multiplied by 1000, it gives 250 mm/mm
*Note: All these units are the equal: m3/m3 = cm3/cm3 = mm3/mm3 = m2/m2 = cm2/cm2 =
mm2/mm2
= m/m = cm/cm = mm/mm

22
1.4 WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS
In irrigated agriculture, the measurement and interpretation of the water to be used for
irrigation of crops is one of the first steps to be taken in the planning of an irrigation project.
Irrigation water influences the growth of plants, the properties of the soil, the biological
balance in soils and also on irrigation equipment to be used. However, water quality
concerns have often been neglected because good quality water supplies have been
plentiful and readily available. This situation is now changing in many areas. Intensive use
of nearly all good quality supplies means that new irrigation projects and old projects
seeking new or supplemental supplies must rely on lower quality and less desirable
sources. To avoid problems when using these poor quality water supplies, there must be
sound planning to ensure that the quality of water available is put to the best use.
Water used for irrigation can vary greatly in quality depending on the type and quantity of
dissolved salts. Salts are present in irrigation water in relatively small but significant
amounts. They originate from dissolution or weathering of the rocks and soil, including
dissolution of lime, gypsum and other slowly dissolved soil minerals. These salts are applied
with the water and remain behind in the soil as water evaporates or is used by the crop.
The suitability of irrigation water is determined not only by the amount of salt present
but also by the kind of salt. Various soil and cropping problems develop as the total salt
content increases, and special management practices may be required to maintain
acceptable crop yields. Water which contains a lot of dissolved salts may be used on a
soil with a good internal drainage pattern, provided the salts are leached out of the
soil from time to time. The build-up of salts in the soil must be monitored continuously.
The following are the water quality – related problems in irrigated agriculture. These are
problems related to salinity, water infiltration rate and toxicity.
1.4.1 SALINITY
A salinity problem exists if salt accumulates in the crop root zone to a concentration that
causes a loss in yield. In irrigated areas, these salts often originate from a saline, high water
table or from salts in the applied water. Yield reductions occur when the salts accumulate in
the root zone to such an extent that the crop is no longer able to extract sufficient water from
the salty soil solution, resulting in a water stress for a significant period of time. If water
uptake is appreciably reduced, the plant slows its rate of growth. The plant symptoms
are similar in appearance to those of drought, such as wilting, or a darker, bluish-green
colour and sometimes thicker, waxier leaves. Symptoms vary with the growth stage, being
more noticeable if the salts affect the plant during the early stages of growth. In some cases,
mild salt effects may go entirely unnoticed because of a uniform reduction in growth across
an entire field.
Salts that contribute to a salinity problem are water soluble and readily transported by
water. A portion of the salts that accumulate from prior irrigations can be moved (leached)
below the rooting depth if more irrigation water infiltrates the soil than is used by the crop
during the crop season. Leaching is the key to controlling a water quality-related
salinity problem. Over a period of time, salt removal by leaching must equal or exceed the
salt additions from the applied water to prevent

23
salt building up to a damaging concentration. The amount of leaching required is dependent
upon the irrigation water quality and the salinity tolerance of the crop grown.
Salt content of the root zone varies with depth. It varies from approximately that of the
irrigation water near the soil surface to many times that of the applied water at the bottom of
the rooting depth. Salt concentration increases with depth due to plants extracting water but
leaving salts behind in a greatly reduced volume of soil water. Each subsequent irrigation
pushes (leaches) the salts deeper into the root zone where they continue to accumulate until
leached. The lower rooting depth salinity will depend upon the leaching that has occurred.
Following an irrigation, the most readily available water is in the upper root zone - a low
salinity area. As the crop uses water, the upper root zone becomes depleted and the zone of
most readily available water changes toward the deeper parts as the time interval between
irrigations is extended. These lower depths are usually more salty. The crop does not
respond to the extremes of low or high salinity in the rooting depth but integrates water
availability and takes water from wherever it is most readily available. Irrigation timing is thus
important in maintaining a high soil-water availability and reducing the problems caused
when the crop must draw a significant portion of its water from the less available, higher
salinity soil-water deeper in the root zone. For good crop production, equal importance must
be given to maintaining a high soil-water availability and to leaching accumulated salts from
the rooting depth before the salt concentration exceeds the tolerance of the plant.
In irrigated agriculture, many salinity problems are associated with or strongly influenced by
a shallow water table (within 2 metres of the surface). Salts accumulate in this water table
and frequently become an important additional source of salt that moves upward into the crop
root zone. Control of an existing shallow water table is thus essential to salinity control and
to successful long- term irrigated agriculture. Higher salinity water requires appreciable
extra water for leaching, which adds greatly to a potential water table (drainage) problem
and makes long-term irrigated agriculture nearly impossible to achieve without adequate
drainage. If drainage is adequate, salinity control becomes simply good management to
ensure that the crop is adequately supplied with water at all times and that enough leaching
water is applied to control salts within the tolerance of the crop.
1.4.2 WATER INFILTRATION RATE
An infiltration problem related to water quality occurs when the normal infiltration rate
for the applied water or rainfall is appreciably reduced and water remains on the soil
surface too long or infiltrates too slowly to supply the crop with sufficient water to
maintain acceptable yields. Although the infiltration rate of water into soil varies widely
and can be greatly influenced by the quality of the irrigation water, soil factors such as
structure, degree of compaction, organic matter content and chemical make-up can also
greatly influence the intake rate.
The two most common water quality factors which influence the normal infiltration rate are
the salinity of the water (total quantity of salts in the water) and its sodium content relative to
the calcium and magnesium content. A high salinity water will increase infiltration. A low
salinity water or a water with a high sodium to calcium ratio will decrease infiltration. Both
factors may operate at the same time. Secondary problems may also develop if irrigations
must be prolonged for an extended period of time to achieve adequate infiltration. One
serious side effect of an infiltration problem is the potential to develop disease and vector
24
(mosquito) problems. An infiltration problem related to water quality in most cases occurs in
the surface few centimetres of soil and is linked to the structural stability of this surface soil
and its low calcium content relative to that of sodium. When a soil is irrigated with a high
sodium water, a high sodium surface soil develops which weakens soil structure. The
surface soil aggregates then disperse to much smaller particles which clog soil pores. The
problem may also be caused by an extremely low calcium content of the surface soil. In some
cases, water low in salt can cause a similar problem but this is related to the corrosive nature
of the low salt water and not to the sodium content of the water or soil. In the case of the low
salt water, the water dissolves and leaches most of the soluble minerals, including calcium,
from the surface soil.
1.3.1 TOXICITY
Toxicity problems occur if certain constituents (ions) in the soil or water are taken up
by the plant and accumulate to concentrations high enough to cause crop damage or
reduced yields. The degree of damage depends on the uptake and the crop sensitivity.
The permanent, perennial-type crops (tree crops) are the more sensitive. Damage often
occurs at relatively low ion concentrations for sensitive crops. It is usually first evidenced by
marginal leaf burn and interveinal chlorosis (yellowing of the leaves). If the accumulation is
great enough, reduced yields result. The more tolerant annual crops are not sensitive at low
concentrations but almost all crops will be damaged or killed if concentrations are
sufficiently high.
The ions of primary concern are chloride, sodium and boron. Although toxicity problems
may occur even when these ions are in low concentrations, toxicity often accompanies and
complicates a salinity or water infiltration problem. Damage results when the potentially toxic
ions are absorbed in significant amounts with the water taken up by the roots. The absorbed
ions are transported to the leaves where they accumulate during transpiration. The ions
accumulate to the greatest extent in the areas where the water loss is greatest, usually the
leaf tips and leaf edges. Accumulation to toxic concentrations takes time and visual damage
is often slow to be noticed. The degree of damage depends upon the duration of
exposure, concentration by the toxic ion, crop sensitivity, and the volume of water
transpired by the crop. In a hot climate or hot part of the year, accumulation is more rapid
than if the same crop were grown in a cooler climate or cooler season when it might show
little or no damage.
Toxicity can also occur from direct absorption of the toxic ions through leaves wet
by overhead sprinklers. Sodium and chloride are the primary ions absorbed through
leaves, and toxicity to one or both can be a problem with certain sensitive crops
such as citrus. As concentrations increase in the applied water, damage develops more
rapidly and becomes progressively more severe.

1.3.2 WATER QUALITY CLASSIFICATIONS

Irrigation water quality is defined or classified by the quantity of physical, organic and
chemical characteristics. Tests should be carried out regularly on the irrigation water in
order to prevent the salts from reaching unacceptable levels. In Eastern Cape, the following
organisation carries out water analysis.

25
 (i) Grootfontein Agricultural Development Institute, Middelburg 5900
(ii) Agricultural Department, Port Elizabeth 6000

1.3.2.1 Physical Impurities

Physical impurities are those particles which occur in the water, and which can be
measured. Sediment, for example has a diameter of higher than 0.001 mm while turbidity
has a diameter of less than 0.001 mm. Sediment may be removed by the use of sediment
dams, sand filters, disc filters or cyclonic separators. Turbidity is removed using flocculants,
followed by settlements or filtration.

1.3.2.2 Chemical Impurities

These impurities are chemical elements or compounds which separately, or in combination
with each other, give rise to problems in plants and soils. Table 1.7 provides an explanation
of the variables which are shown in a water analysis. There is an increasing demand for the
determination of the presence of heavy metals, such as mercury, lead and manganese –
which are found as a result of increasing industrial pollution – and micro – elements in
irrigation water analysis.
Problems with iron and manganese blockages occur where iron ions (Fe++) and manganese
ions (Mn++) are found in water. These ions forms occur in solution in water. Oxidation
causes sedimentation. The sediments is usually Fe(OH)3 and MnO2 which may cause
blockage of drip and micro-irrigation systems. However, water containing more than
0.4mg/l of iron should not be chlorinated, as it forms insoluble iron compounds
which accelerate blocking. This irrigation water should be exposed to air as much as
possible in order to promote flocculation and sedimentation.

26
Table 1.7: Chemical impurities which may be identified during a water analysis.
Analysis Abbreviation/Symbol Unit
Electrical EC mS/m
conductivity
Soluble sodium SSP %
percentage
Sodium SAR Ratio
adsorption ratio
Total dissolved TDS mg/L
solid
s
Ions Symbol Atomic weight Equivalent
[u] weight
Cations
Calcium Ca2+ 40 20
Magnesium Mg2+ 24 12
Sodium Na+ 23 23
Potassium K+ 39 39

Anions
Carbonate CO3- 60 30
Bicarbonate HCO3- 61 61
Sulphate SO4- 96 48
Chloride Cl- 35.5 35.5
Nitrate NO3- 62 62

27
1.3.2.3 Organic impurities (pathogenic or biological)
Organic impurities may be sub-divided into organic colloids, algae and bacterial growths.
- Organic colloids may be flocculated out with the help of slaked lime.
- Problems with algae may be rectified with copper sulphate (if pH < 7), and/or
with chlorination.
- Chlorination may also be used for the treatment of bacterial growths.
1.3.3 PRE-FILTERING AND TREATMENT OF IRRIGATION WATER
The chemical, biological and physical condition of irrigation water necessitates pre-
treatment and
pre-filtration before the water is filtered to the desired quality.
1.3.3.1 Sedimentation and aeration
In cases where irrigation water contains solid particles in suspension in excess of 200 parts
per million, it is advisable to have a sedimentation dam where the particles can be
sedimented before the water is filtered. This will prevent an overload on the filters as well as
excessive backwashing of them.
The following points are important for the use of a sedimentation
dam: The outlet of the dam should be as far as possible
from its inlet
The back-wash water from the filters should be dumped as far as possible from
the inlet It must be possible to clean the dam with minimum effort
Water for filtration should be drawn from the upper layer of the dam (suction pipe
mounted on float).
A long, narrow sedimentation dam is more efficient than a square one.

Table 1.8: Physical impurities which may be identified during a water analysis.
Soil texture Particle size Sedimentation rate (m/min)
(mm)
Coarse sand > 0.5 38
Medium 0.25 – 0.5 22
sand Fine 0.1 – 0.25 5
sand Very 0.05 – 0.1 0.9
fine sand Silt 0.002 – 0.05 0.015
Clay < 0.002 0.0006
Sedimentation time is that time which is needed by certain material particle sizes to
sediment under gravity.
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙
ts = ; 𝑣𝑣 (1.9)
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
=
where: v = sedimentation rate (m/min)
𝑙𝑙 = total depth (m)
ts = sedimentation time (min)
28
Example: Calculate the sedimentation time (ts)for particles with diameter of 0.002 mm over a
depth of 1.8m.
Solution:
From Table 1.8, the sedimentation rate is 0.015 m/min and according to equation 1.9,
𝑙𝑙
ts =
𝑣𝑣

sedimentation time = 1.8/0.015 = 120 minutes.

This implies that the water should stay in the sedimentation dam for at least two hours
before being fed into the irrigation system. The minimum volume water stored should be
twice the hourly flow rate of the irrigation system. Where there is iron in the water, it is
necessary to aerate the water so that the iron may oxidise. The iron oxide will then sediment
in the dam and the water may be drawn off the surface for irrigation.
1.3.3.2 Acid treatment
Acid treatment is done when magnesium, calcium and carbonate salts pose a threat of
blocking to the drippers. A water sample should first be analyzed in the laboratory before
recommendations are made. Acid should not be added at the same point as chlorine.
Acid treatment may increase the effectiveness of chlorine if the pH is reduced to between
4.5 and 5.
1.3.3.3 Chlorination
Organisms which grows in the pipelines may block micro jets and drippers. Chlorination is
the only
way to counteract them, but should be applied strictly according to guidelines.

1.3.4 QUALITY TERMINOLOGIES

The chemical quality of water reflects the composition and concentration of the dissolved
matter within it. This matter includes cations such as calcium, magnesium and sodium, as
well as anion, such as bicarbonate, sulphate and chloride. Baron, fluorides and nitrates
occur in lower, but significant concentrations.
1.3.4.1 Total dissolved solids (TDS)
TDS indicates the quantity of salts which are dissolved in the water, and is expressed in
mg/L. The higher the quantity of dissolved salts, the higher the TDS value. A close
relationship exists between the electrical conductivity (EC) and the amount of dissolved
salts. The EC value is expressed in millisiemens per metre. 1 mS/m = 10 µ mho/cm. The
mS/m is the old unit which is still sometimes used.
The relationship between the EC and quantity of dissolved salts is as
follows: 1 mS/m EC = 5 -7 mg/L TDS.

29
1.3.4.2 Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
The SAR is an index of the potential of a given water source to bring about conditions or
certain reactions in a given soil. The SAR value is determined from the concentration of
sodium, calcium and magnesium in water, and it gives an indication of the level at which
a soil’s exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) will stabilise after an extensive irrigation
with the water.
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = (2.1)
√𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶+𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
2

Where Na = Sodium concentration

(mg/L)
Ca = Calcium concentration (mg/L)
Mg = Magnesium concentration
(mg/L)
1.3.4.3 pH or degree of acidity
The pH of irrigation water is often not regarded as critical. This is because there is tolerance
of crops to varying degrees of pH. At very high, or very low pH levels, the analysis should
look into other possible causes of the pH deviation.
1.3.4.4 Bicarbonate (HCO3)
A large amount of bicarbonates in irrigation water will decrease the effects of sodium, as the
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium in the soil sediment as insoluble carbonates. The
relative quantity of sodium in the soil will then increase. This build-up sodium is known as
residual sodium carbonate (RSC) and is determined by using the following equation:
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶3 + 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻3) − (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀) (2.)
Where RSC = residual sodium carbonate concentration (mg/L)
(𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶3 + 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑂𝑂3) = carbonate concentration (mg/L)
(𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀) = calcium and magnesium concentration (mg/L)
RSC between 0 and 1.25 are reasonably safe, while values of 2.5 and higher indicate that
the water is unsuitable for irrigation. Water with carbonate value of 90mg/L and higher often
cause white washing on the leaves of the plants. This condition occurs especially with
overhead irrigation systems where the foilage of plants are wetted.
1.3.4.5 Toxic substances
Toxic substance is mainly influenced by the sodium, chloride and boron content of the
irrigation water. Plant tolerance towards these toxins must be pre-determined before planting
in order to limit future problems. Table 1.9 gives the classification of toxicity levels in water.

30
Table 1.9: Classification of toxicity levels in water

Classification Concentration (mmol/L)

Na Cl B
Exceptional <4 <3–5 < 0.3
Good to very good 4 -6 3.5 – 4.5 0.3 – 0.5
Moderate to good 6–7 4.5 – 5.5 0.5 – 1.0
Bad to moderate 7–9 5.5 – 7.5 1.0 – 2.0
Very bad, possibly 9 – 12 7.5 – 10 2.0 – 3.0
harmful
Very bad, usually 12 – 16 10 – 14 3.0 – 4.0
harmful
Harmful >16 >14 >4

1.3.4.6 Electrical conductivity

It is the ability of water to conduct an electrical current, and it is measured in mS/m.
1.3.4.7 General solutions
The most important aspect concerning water problems is to adapt the planning of the
cultivation of crops to suit the water and not the changing of the soil and water to suit the
crop. The analysis and properties of soil, water and crops should be seen as an entity in
order to determine the best recommendations and practices.

1.4 PLANT
1.4.1 PLANT FACTORS
Three plant factors must be considered in developing a sound irrigation schedule: the crop's
effective root depth, crop water use rate, and its sensitivity to drought stress (that is,
the amount that crop yield or quality is reduced by drought stress). Each of these factors is
discussed below:
1.4.1.1 Effective Root Depth
Rooting depth is the depth of the soil reservoir that the plant can reach to get PAW. Crop
roots do not extract water uniformly from the entire root zone. Thus, the effective root depth
is that portion of the root zone where the crop extracts the majority of its water. Effective root
depth is determined by both crop and soil properties.
Plant Influence on Effective Root Depth: Different species of plants have different
potential rooting depths. The potential rooting depth is the maximum rooting depth of a crop
when grown in a moist soil with no barriers or restrictions that inhibit root elongation.
Potential rooting depths of most agricultural crops important in South Africa range from
about 1.5 to 2 metres. Water uptake by a specific crop is closely related to its root
distribution in the soil. About 70 percent of a plant's roots are found in the upper half of the
crop's maximum rooting depth. Deeper roots can extract moisture to keep the plant alive,
but they do not extract sufficient water to maintain optimum growth. When adequate
moisture is present, water uptake by the crop is about the same as its root distribution.
31
Thus, about 70 percent of the water used by the crop comes from the upper half of
the root zone (Figure 1.6). This zone is the effective root depth.

Figure 1.6: Water extracted by root system of a plant

1.3.1.1 Crop Water Use Rate
Often, irrigation scheduling requires an estimate of the rate at which PAW is being
extracted. A "checkbook" approach is often used to keep a daily accounting of water
additions and removal. Soil- water measurements should be used to schedule irrigation for
these systems, but continued PAW extraction during the irrigation cycle must also be
estimated so that the last part of the field does not get too dry.
In the above situations, the crop's water use rate must be estimated. As with rooting
depth, water use rate is a function of the crop's stage of development, as shown in Figure
1.7. For example, corn uses water three times as fast during the pollination period (65 to 75
days after planting, 0.25 inch per day) as during the knee-high stage (35 to 40 days after
planting, 0.08 inch per day).

Figure 1.7: Crop water use of corn at various stages of development

32
1.3.1.2 Crop Sensitivity to Drought Stress
The reduction in crop yield or quality resulting from drought stress depends on the stage of
crop development. For example, corn is most susceptible to stresses caused by dry
conditions at the silking stage (Figure 1.8). For a given level of stress, the yield reduction for
corn would be four times greater at the silking stage than at the knee-high stage. From the
yield standpoint, applying irrigation water at silking would be worth four times more than if
the same amount of water was applied during the knee-high stage. Knowledge of this
relationship is most useful when the irrigation capacity or water supply is limited. When
water is in short supply, irrigation should be delayed or cancelled during the least
susceptible crop growth stages. This water can then be reserved for use during more
sensitive growth stages.
The susceptibility of corn to dry stress at various stages of development is shown in Figure
1.8. This relationship is typical for most agricultural crops irrigated in South Africa. The most
critical irrigation period typically begins just before the reproductive stage and lasts about 30
to 40 days to the end of the fruit enlargement or grain development stage. Because the root
system is fully developed by the beginning of the reproductive period, irrigation amounts
should be computed to replace the depleted PAW within the effective root zone (12 inches).
When irrigation is scheduled before the crop root system is fully developed, the amount of
irrigation to apply should be based on the depleted PAW within the actual effective root
depth at the time of irrigation. For example, irrigation scheduled when corn is at the knee-
high stage (35 to 40 days after planting) should apply only about two-thirds as much water
as an irrigation scheduled during the tasseling stage (65 days after planting) because the
effective rooting depth at the knee-high stage is only two-thirds as deep (8 inches compared
to 12 inches), as shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.8: Susceptibility of Corn to drought stress

33
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 TYPES OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

Figure 2.1: Classification of irrigation systems

34
The three major classification of irrigation systems are flood, mobile and static. Each of
these will be discussed extensively now.
2.1 FLOOD IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
In flood irrigation, water floods over the soil surface and thus wets the soil. These comprise of
border, furrow, basin and short-furrow irrigation systems.
2.1.1 Border irrigation
Water is diverted into a preconstructed bed and allowed to flow freely over the soil surface.
The bed consists of an almost horizontal flow area and two earth borders to define the width
of the bed. The longitudinal slope of the bed is influenced by various factors.
Advantages
 Low energy costs, because the water flows by gravity over the field.
 The crop is not wetted, thus leaf and fruits diseases are reduced
 Brackish water can be leached with relative ease
 Low capital input costs if the land is relatively level
Disadvantages
 Considerable water losses may occur if the supply system is not properly
designed and maintained.
 The system is very sensitive and small deviations from the design specifications can
reduce application uniformity significantly.
 Not all crops can be grown in bordered beds
 The viability of this system is mainly influenced by the extent of earthworks required
for bed preparation
 It is relatively inflexible and difficult to alter once it has been installed
 It is relatively labour intensive
 Very high management inputs are required.
 Unsuitable for soils with very high infiltration rates.

35
Figure 2.2: Border irrigation
2.1.2 Furrow irrigation
Water is diverted to preconstructed furrows, in which the water flows and thus wets the
soil. The slope of the furrows is specified in the design instruction.
Advantages
 It is relatively inexpensive
 The crop itself is not wetted, only the roots
 Low energy costs, since the water flows by gravity in the furrows
 It is a relatively simple system with few mechanical parts that can wear out
 Less sensitive to ground slope than border irrigation
Disadvantages
 It is very sensitive to deviations from design specifications and water applications
may differ drastically with small deviations from design specifications.
 Only row crops can be irrigated
 The system is relatively labour-intensive
 Proper design and maintenance of the supply system is crucial for a high irrigation
efficiency.
 Soils with high infiltration rates cannot be irrigated by this method.

36
Figure 2.3: Furrow irrigation
2.1.3 Basin irrigation
Here, a certain quantity of water is diverted into a preconstructed basin and allowed to
infiltrate the soil. The basins vary in size according to the type of application required.
Basins in which rice is planted, are up to one hectare (10,000 m2) in size, while the basins
in which fruit trees are planted are approximately 1 m2.
Advantages
 The crop being cultivated is not wetted, only the soil
 More variation in application is possible than with furrow or border irrigation
 Basin irrigation is possible on soils with very high or low infiltration rates.
Disadvantages
 Relatively high flow rates are required for this type of system
 The construction of the basins can be relatively expensive, particularly for basins
with concrete sides.
 Reasonably labour-intensive
 With larger basins, the cost of this type of system will be dependent on the extent of
the earth works required to level the bottom of the basin.

37
Figure 2.4: Basin irrigation
2.1.4 Short – furrow irrigation
This is a combination of basin and furrow irrigation systems. It consists of short furrows with
little or no longitudinal slope into which a certain amount of water is diverted in a relatively
short time and allowed to infiltrate the soil.
Advantages
 The crop being cultivated is not wetted, only the soil
 A larger variation in application is possible than with border or furrow irrigation
 This system is less sensitive to slope and flow variations
Disadvantages
 Mechanised cultivation over short furrows is difficult
 Water losses occur in the supply furrow
 Relatively labour – intensive
2.2 MOBILE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
Mobile systems include all systems that move over the soil surface while water is applied.
Examples are centre – pivot, linear move and traveling gun irrigation systems.
2.2.1 Centre-Pivot irrigation
This consists of a metal frame and pipes supported by wheels with an A- frame at
approximately 50m intervals and it rotates around a fixed pivot. Emitters are mounted on the
pipes and they wet the soil while the construction rotates around the pivot.

Advantages
 Very low labour requirements
 Relatively low energy requirements
 Chemigation and fertigation is possible through the system

38
Disadvantages
 Due to the circular wetting pattern, outfall pieces of land are not wetted. (This
problem is reduced where corner systems are used)
 This type of system is relatively expensive

Figure 2.5: Centre-pivot irrigation

2.2.2 Linear (lateral) move irrigation
The structure of this type of system resembles that of a centre pivot. The main difference
between the two systems is that the linear across the field and not in a circle like the centre
pivot.
Advantages
 Outfall pieces of land is avoided with rectangular fields
 Low labour requirements
Disadvantages
 Water supply to this type of system is problematic
 It is a very expensive system
 Only relatively large field can be irrigated economically

39
Figure 2.6: Lateral move irrigation
2.2.3 Travelling gun
irrigation
This system consists of a big gun mounted on a trolley or sleigh and it is pulled across the
field with a cable and winch during the irrigation process. The winch is usually driven by the
system pressure.
Advantages
 Low labour requirements
Disadvantages
 High energy requirements
 Sensitive to wind
 High application rate
 High maintenance requirements

Figure 2.7: Traveling gun irrigation

40
2.3 STATIC IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
This includes all systems that remain stationary while water is applied. It includes Sprinkler
and Micro
irrigation systems.
2.3.1 Sprinkler irrigation system
With sprinkler irrigation system, water is supplied above the ground by means of
sprinklers or sprayers. It is divided in to permanent and portable systems.
2.3.1.1 Permanent systems
With this system, lateral and emitters are permanently installed and no pipes or emitters need
to be moved. The different irrigation blocks are controlled by valves.
Advantages
 Low labour requirements
 Not as sensitive to wind as portable systems since the whole area is irrigated
simultaneously.
 Plants are not mechanically damaged by the moving of pipes and sprinklers.
Disadvantages
 Wet patches often develop around the sprinklers due to the distribution pattern of the
stroke type sprinklers.
 This system is very expensive
 Cultivation of land is impeded by permanently installed irrigation equipment.

Figure 2.8: permanent sprinkler irrigation

41
2.3.1.2 Portable systems
With portable systems, equipment is moved from one position to the next after irrigation of a
section of the field is completed. Examples of portable systems include:
2.3.1.2.1 Quick-coupling system
A quick coupling system consists of above – ground quick coupling pipes of light steel,
aluminium, polyethylene or PVC, with sprinklers mounted on them. The pipes with the
sprinklers are placed in position and the pump is then switched on. After a certain period of
time, the pump is switched off and the pipes with the sprinklers are moved to the next
position.
Advantages
 Less labour-intensive than flood irrigation
 Supply system losses are usually lower than flood irrigation
 This type of system is more adaptable in terms of application per cycle than flood
irrigation
Disadvantages
 Crops sensitive to mechanical damage like tobacco should preferably not be
irrigated with this system
 Leaves are wetted, crops are more at risk of contracting diseases
 Irrigation time per day is decreased according to the time required to move the pipes
 Irrigation water of poor quality can burn leaves of crops
 Labour is still needed to move the pipes
 Energy requirements are higher than flood irrigation systems
 The application uniformity of the system is affected by wind

Figure 2.9: Quick-coupling sprinkler irrigation

42
2.3.1.2.2 Dragline system
With a dragline system, the sprinkler are coupled to the laterals by means of high quality
hoses. The advantage is that laterals if portable only have to be moved after 5 to 7 standing
positions and not after each standing position as with quick – coupling systems.
Advantages
 Requires less labour than the quick-coupling systems
 The pump does not have to be switched off when the pipes are being moved
 With permanent laterals, the pipes do not have to be moved, only the sprinklers and
hoses.
 Of all the sprinkler irrigation systems, this is the cheapest system.
Disadvantages
 Special measures have to be taken to keep the spacing of the sprinklers constant.
 Energy requirements are higher than for flood irrigation
 Wind has a negative influence on the application uniformity of the system
 Draglines are relatively expensive

Figure 2.10: Dragline irrigation

2.3.1.2.3 Hop-along system
Like the permanent system, this type of system has permanent laterals, but the sprinklers
have to be moved.
Advantages
 Not as expensive as a permanent system
 Otherwise it has the same advantages as a permanent system

43
Disadvantages
 More labour-intensive than a permanent system
 Otherwise it has same disadvantages as a permanent system
2.3.1.2.4 Big gun system
This type of system entails a very large sprinkler, operating at a very high pressure in order
to wet a relatively large area.
Advantages
 Less labour-intensive than the quick-coupling system
 The wetted area is larger than with other sprinkler systems
 Capital cost lower than the permanent systems
Disadvantages
 Due to the high pressure and flow rate, the energy requirements are higher and
consequently also the pumping costs.
 The system is very sensitive to wind
 The large drops can damage small plants than for normal sprinkler irrigation
 The application efficiency is lower than for normal sprinkler irrigation
2.3.1.2.5 Boom irrigation
The boom system consists of a rotating boom on which a series of sprayers or sprinklers are
mounted. The boom is mounted on a trolley, which can either be self-propelled or towed by a
tractor.
Advantages
 Low labour requirements
 Relatively inexpensive
 Large areas are wetted for each setup of the boom
 With correct design, good application uniformity can be obtained.
Disadvantages
 High-pressure models are extremely sensitive to wind
 The system always has to move on routes that are wetted by the irrigation
 Special roads have to be built to move the system
 High winds may damage the structure
 High – pressure models have high energy requirements.
2.3.1.2.6 Side-roll system
This type of system consists of quick-coupling pipes to which have been mounted to facilitate
the moving of the pipes.
Advantages
 Easier to move the pipes than with quick-coupling systems

44
  Labour requirements are lower than those of a quick-coupling system
Disadvantages
 Crops growing higher than 1.5m cannot be irrigated.
 Rank-growing crops lie down on the wheels and thus impede movement
 The system has to be anchored against wind to keep it in place
 Moving is extremely difficult on fields with steep gradients
 Moving is also impeded by row crops.
2.3.2 Micro irrigation systems
With micro irrigation, small quantities of water are applied on a regular basis in a limited
area within the vicinity of the plants root. Owing to the large number of laterals needed for
micro irrigation, it is a relatively expensive system. It consists of drip, micro sprayer and
mini sprinklers irrigation system.
2.3.2.1 Drip systems
Drip irrigation consists of black polyethylene pipes equipped with drippers at fixed intervals.
A dripper dispenses small quantities of water through a small opening. The pipes are laid
parallel to each other across the field. Drippers, spaced at fixed distances on the pipes,
distribute the water across the field. The water dripping onto the soil is distributed horizontally
by means of capillary force and vertically by means of gravity and capillary force.
Advantages
 The system can be fully computerized
 Hardly any evaporation of water takes place
 Irrigation can take place 24 hours a day (no moving)
 Not influenced by wind in any way
 Low energy requirements
 Decreases weed growth between the plants since only the root zone of the crop is
wetted
 Runoff does not occur because of the regular, small applications
 Low labour requirements
Disadvantages
 A very expensive system
 Drippers become clogged very easily and effective filtration is therefore essential
 Cultivation is impeded cultivation particularly with seasonal crops
 Drip laterals impede cultivation particularly with seasonal crops
 Highly pervious soils cannot be irrigated with this system due to insufficient lateral
movement of soil moisture
 Some organic matter tends to coat the inner walls of the pipes and thus clog the
drippers
 Rainfall is not effectively utilized due to the continuously high moisture contents of the
soil.
 Root diseases are more prevalent because of the root zone being almost permanently
wet.

45
Figure 2.11: Drip irrigation
2.3.2.2 Micro spray systems
Micro sprayers are very small emitters that distribute water on the soil underneath the crop.
The sprayers are coupled with short resilient or rigid pipes, or directly onto the polyethylene
laterals. Water is emitted through a small opening (0.75 – 2.2 mm in diameter) and spread
by a fixed or rotating distributor. Micro sprinklers are usually used for strip wetting. Instead
of wetting the total soil surface, only the strips in which the crops has been planted in the
field are irrigated. The exception to the rule is in greenhouses, where an overhead system
is used to wet the whole area.
Advantages
 The same as for drip irrigation, but clogging is less prevalent
 Twenty-four hour per irrigation is possible
 Wetted area is larger than that of drip and it is therefore suitable for a larger variety of
soils
Disadvantages
 As for drip systems, filtration is also required, but not to the same extent
 Although this type of system may very well be influenced by wind, it is to a lesser
extent than with sprinkler or mobile systems.
 Rainfall is utilized less effectively because of the relatively wet conditions in the root
zone
 It is more sensitive to wind than drip systems.

46
Figure 2.12: Micro sprayer irrigation

2.4 CHOOSING AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Selection of an irrigation system for a specific application is not an easy task because the
various systems have wide fields of application. Various factors that play a part in the
selection are discussed below:
2.4.1 Water
The amount of available water, the quality of water and the cost thereof may influence
the choice of an irrigation system. If the amount of available water is a limiting factor on the
area to be irrigated, it might be more profitable to select a micro irrigation system, with a high
water use efficiency. Where irrigation contain harmful chemical substances that could burn
the leaves of the plant or influence the quality of the product, overhead irrigation systems
that wets the foliage should be avoided.
2.4.2 Soil
For micro irrigation of soils with a very high sand fraction, micro sprayers would be
preferable to drippers. However, if the soil has a very high clay fraction and a low infiltration
rate, a dragline system might be more suitable than a large centre pivot is and overhead
system is to be installed.
2.4.3 Topography
Topography plays an important role where systems such as linear and flood irrigation
systems are concerned and may dictate the choice of a system.

47
2.4.4 Climate
In very hot climatic conditions, water applied by sprinkler irrigation that wets the leaves is
plants may burn the leaves. Under such conditions it would be better to use a micro system
or a flood irrigation system.
2.4.5 Energy costs
Energy requirements and therefore operating costs of some systems such as the big gun,
travelling gun and the high-pressure travelling boom are considerably higher than for low –
pressure systems such as, for drip irrigation and should therefore be taken into
consideration with system selection.
2.4.6 Crop
The crop to be irrigated will highly influence the choice of the irrigation system to be
adopted. It will be ineffective to irrigate wheat with a drip system for row crops.
2.4.7 Labour
A shortage of labour may force the farmer to use self-propelled or permanent
systems rather than movable systems.
2.4.8 Capital cost
Micro irrigation systems are generally more expensive than for instance portable systems.
The farmer may for economic reasons rather select the cheapest portable system, even
though it might not be the ideal system for the application.
2.4.9 Personal considerations
Although each system has its own field of application, the final choice rests with the user of
the system, the farmer. Each farmer has his own personal preferences that are influenced
by various factors such as his current farming practice and level of training.
2.5 SUMMARY OF SOIL – WATER RELATIONSHIP
Table 2.1: Summary table of soil physical properties.
Type of soil Coarse Medium Fine
Saturation capacity (SC) 25–35% 35–45% 55–65%
% weight

Field capacity (FC) % 8–10% 18–26% 32–42%

weight
Wilting point (WP) 4–5% 10–14% 20–24%
% weight
SC/FC 2/1 2/1 2/1
FC/WP 2/1 1.85/1 1.75/1
Bulk density(volume 1.4–1.6 g/cm3 1.2–1.4 g/cm3 1.0–1.2 g/cm3
weight)

48
 PAW by volume 6% 12% 16–20%
(FC-WP x bulk density)

PAW in mm per metre 60 mm 120 mm 160–200 mm

soil depth (FC-WP x
bulk density x 10)

Soil water tension in

bars:
• at field capacity 0.1 0.2 0.3
• at wilting point 15.0 15.0 15.0
Time required from 18–24 h 24–36 h 36–89 h
saturation to field
capacity
Infiltration rate 25–75 mm/h 8–16 mm/h 2–6 mm/h

Example
The field capacity (FC) of a 45cm layer of soil is 18%. How much water in cubic metres per
hectare does the layer hold?
Solution:
Given the FC = 18%, from Table 2.1, it falls into the medium
textured soil. Also FC/WP = 1.85/1 from the table. 1.85WP = FC;
WP = FC/1.85
WP = 18/1.85 = 9.7%.
From the table, PAW in mm per metre soil depth (FC-WP x bulk density x 10). However,
Bulk density
= 1.2g/cm3 & depth = 45cm = 0.45m
PAW (mm/m) = (18 – 9.7) X 1.2 X
10;
= 8.3 X 1.2 X 10 = 99.6mm/m,
PAW (mm/45cm) = 8.3 X 1.2 X 10 X 0.45 = 44.8mm
PAW (m3/ha) = PAW (mm/m) x depth of layer (m) X 10
= 99.6 X 0.45m X 10 = 448.2 m3/ha

49
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
Irrigation scheduling is defined as the frequency with which water is to be applied based on
needs of the crop and nature of the soil. Irrigation scheduling may also be defined as a
scientific management techniques of allocating irrigation water based on the individual crop
water requirement (ETc) under different soil and climatic condition, with an aim to achieve
maximum crop production per unit of water applied over a unit area in unit time.
Based on the above definitions, the concept made is “If we provide irrigation facility, the
agricultural production and productivity will go up automatically”. Irrigation scheduling is a
decision making process repeated many times in each year involving when to irrigate and
how much of water to apply. Both criteria influence the quantity and quality of the crop.
How much and how often water has to be given depends on the irrigation water need of
the crop.
Irrigation scheduling is important for both water savings and improved crop yields. The
following 8 factors affect irrigation scheduling:
• The soil water status; the crop water requirements; depth of root zone,
evapotranspiration rate, amount of water to be applied per irrigation, irrigation
method, drainage conditions and soil texture.
3.1 IRRIGATION WATER NEED/REQUIREMENT
The irrigation water need is defined as the crop water need minus the effective
rainfall. It is usually expressed in mm/day or mm/month. For example, if the irrigation water
need of a certain crop, grown in a hot, dry climate is 8 mm/day (see Figure 3.1), this means
that each day the crop needs a water layer of 8 mm over the whole area on which the crop
is grown. This water has to be supplied by means of irrigation.

Figure 3.1: Irrigation water need of 8mm/day

An irrigation water need of 8 mm/day, however, does not mean that this 8 mm has to be
supplied by irrigation every day. In theory, water could be given daily. But, as this would be
very time and labour consuming, it is preferable to have a longer irrigation interval. It is, for
example, possible to supply 24 mm every 3 days or 40 mm every 5 days. The irrigation
water will then be stored in the root zone

50
and gradually be used by the plants: every day 8 mm. The irrigation interval has to be
chosen in such a way that the crop will not suffer from water shortage.
For example, if it is assumed that the soil is wet (at field capacity) on day 1 (see Figure 3.2),
the crop will have no difficulty in taking up the water for the first couple of days. When,
however, more and more days pass - and no irrigation is given - the crop will have more
and more difficulty in taking up the water.

Figure 3.2: In the absence of rainfall and no irrigation water is applied

In Figure 3.2, it can be seen that, on this soil, the plants start to suffer after approximately
one week. Irrigation water should be given before this happens, in order to allow for optimal
production. In general, this means that irrigation should at the latest take place when
approximately half of the available water content of the root zone has been used by
the plants. When, for example (Figure 3.3), irrigation water is given on day 5, on day 9, on
day 13, etc., the plants will not suffer from water shortage.

51
 Figure 3.3: Regular and adequate irrigation water application

NOTE: In principle, the amount of irrigation water given in one irrigation application (irrigation
depth) is the amount of water used by the plants since the previous irrigation. The amount of
irrigation water which can be given during one irrigation application is however limited. The
maximum amount which can be given has to be determined and may be influenced by:
- the soil type
- the root depth
- the irrigation method.
The soil type influences the maximum amount of water which can be stored in the soil per
metre depth. Sand can store only a little water or, in other words, sand has a low available
water content. On sandy soils it will thus be necessary to irrigate frequently with a small
amount of water. Clay has a high available water content. Thus on clayey soils larger
amounts can be given, less frequently.
The root depth of a crop also influences the maximum amount of water which can be
stored in the root zone (see Figure 3.4). If the root system of a crop is shallow, little water can
be stored in the root zone and frequent - but small - irrigation applications are needed. With
deep rooting crops more water can be taken up and more water can be applied, less
frequently. Young plants have shallow roots compared to fully grown plants. Thus, just after
planting or sowing, the crop needs smaller and more frequent water applications than when
it is fully developed.

52
Figure 3.4: Plants with deep roots take up water over a greater depth than shallow rooting
plants

How much water can be infiltrated into the soil with the locally used irrigation method has
to be checked in the field. For instance, when using basin irrigation, more water can be
infiltrated during one irrigation application than when using furrow irrigation. In particular,
with small-scale irrigation (small water flows and small fields) it is often the irrigation method
which is the most limiting factor when determining the maximum irrigation application.
3.2 NET IRRIGATION APPLICATION DEPTH
Irrigation takes place when the permissible depletion fraction (p) of plant available water
(PAW) is depleted from the root depth, i.e. to replenish the depleted water. Therefore:
Net depth of irrigation dose (d) in mm = (PAW X p)
D Where PAW is the available water in mm/m
P = permissible depletion fraction; D = root depth (m)
Example
What is the net irrigation dose (d) in mm to replenish the moisture deficit given that
PAW = 99mm/m; p = 0.5; D = 0.4m
Solution:
d = (99 X 0.5) X 0.4 = 19.8mm
3.3 EFFECTIVE RAINFALL
In many areas, seasonal rain precipitation (P) might provide part of the water requirements
during the irrigation season. The amount of rainwater retained in the root zone is called
effective rainfall (Pe) and should be deducted from the total irrigation water requirements
calculated. Pe can be roughly estimated as:

53
Pe = 0.8P - 25, where P > 75 mm/month
Pe = 0.6P - 10, where P < 75 mm/month

3.4 CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS (ETC)

The amount of water which evaporates from wet soils and plant surfaces together with the
plant transpiration is called EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ET). Its value is largely determined
by climate factors such as solar radiation, temperature, humidity, wind and by the
environment. Out of the total evapotranspiration, evaporation accounts for about 10% and
plant transpiration accounts for the remaining 90%.
The crop water need (ETc) is defined as the depth (or amount) of water needed to meet the
water loss through evapotranspiration. In other words, it is the amount of water needed by
the various crops to grow optimally. The crop water need mainly depends on:
· The climate: in a sunny and hot climate, crops need more water per day than in a cloudy
and cool climate.
· The crop type: crops like maize or sugarcane need more water than crops like millet or
sorghum
· The growth stage of the crop: fully grown crops need more water than crops that have
just been planted.

3.4.1 Effects of climate on Crop Water Needs

The major climatic factors which influence the crop water needs are:
- Sunshine
- Temperature
- Humidity
- windspeed
Table 3.1 shows the effect of major climatic factors on crop water need. The highest crop
water needs are thus found in areas which are hot, dry, windy and sunny. The lowest values
are found when it is cool, humid and cloudy with little or no wind.
Table 3.1: Effects of major climatic factors on crop water need.
Climatic Factor Crop Water Need
High Low
Temperature hot cool
Humidity low (dry) high (humid)
Windspeed windy little wind
Sunshine sunny (no clouds) cloudy (no sun)

54
The influence of the climate on crop water needs is given by the reference crop
evapotranspiration (ETo). The ETo is usually expressed in millimetres per unit of time,
e.g. mm/day, mm/month, or mm/season. Grass has been taken as the reference crop.
ETo is the rate of evapotranspiration from a large area, covered by green grass, 8 to 15 cm
tall, which grows actively, completely shades the ground and which is not short of water
(see Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.5: Reference crop evapotranspiration

There are several methods to determine the ETo (see Figure 3.6). They are either:
experimental, using an evaporation pan, theoretical, using measured climatic data, e.g. the
Blaney- Criddle method.

Figure 3.6: Methods to determine reference crop evapotranspiration

55
The most practical method for determining ETo is the pan evaporation method. The
approach combines the effects of temperature, humidity, windspeed and sunshine. The
best known pans are the Class A evaporation pans (circular) and sunken pan (square).
The evaporation from the pan is very near to the ET of grass that is taken as an index of
ETo for calculation purposes. The pan direct readings (Epan) are related to the ETo with
the aid of the pan coefficient (Kpan), which depends on the type of pan, its location and the
climate (humidity and windspeed). Hence, ETo = Epan X Kpan
For a class A pan, the average Kpan value is 0.70 and sunken pan is 0.80.
3.4.2 Effects of crop type on Crop Water Needs
This section discusses the relationship between the reference grass crop and the crop
actually grown in the field. This relationship is given by the crop factor, Kc, as shown in the
following formula:
ETc = ETo X Kc

ETc = crop evapotranspiration or crop water need

(mm/day)
Where,

Kc = crop factor

ETo = reference evapotranspiration (mm/day)

Both ETc and ETo are expressed in the same unit: usually in mm/day (as an average for a
period of one month) or in mm/month. The crop factor (kc) depends on the type of crop, the
growth stage of the crop, total growing period and climate. Table 3.2 lists the kc value for
different crops at various growth stages.
Table 3.2: Crop factor (kc) for seasonal crops
Crop Initial Crop Mid-season Late and
development harvest
Bean 0.35 0.70 1.0 0.9
Cabbage 0.45 0.75 1.05 0.9
Carrot 0.45 0.75 1.05 0.9
Cotton 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.8
Cucumber 0.45 0.70 0.90 0.75
Maize 0.40 0.80 1.15 1.0
Onion 0.50 0.75 1.05 0.85
Potato 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.75
Tomato 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.8

Another element to consider when estimating crop water requirements is the percentage of
the field area (ground) covered by the plant. A reduction factor, which is expressed as kr, is
applied to the conventional ET crop calculations. This factor is slightly higher by about 15
percent than the actual ground covered by the plant. For example, if the actual ground cover
is 70%, kr = 0.70 X 1.15 = 0.80.
56
3.4.3 Total Growing Period
The total growing period (in days) is the period from sowing or transplanting to the last day
of the harvest. It is mainly dependent on:

• The type of crop and the variety

• The climate
• The planting date
As the growing period heavily depends on local circumstances (e.g. local crop varieties) it is
always best to obtain these data locally. Only if no data are available locally should Table
3.3 be used.
Table 3.3: Total Growing Periods of some crops
Crops Total Growing Crops Total Growing
Period Period
(Days) (Days)
Alfalfa 100-365 Millet 105-140
Banana 300-365 Onion green 70-95
Barley/Oats/Wheat 120-150 Onion dry 150-210
Bean green 75-90 Peanut/Groundnut 130-140
Bean dry 95-110 Pea 90-100
Cabbage 120-140 Pepper 120-210
Carrot 100-150 Potato 105-145
Citrus 240-365 Radish 35-45
Cotton 180-195 Rice 90-150
Cucumber 105-130 Sorghum 120-130
Eggplant 130-140 Soybean 135-150
Flax 150-220 Spinach 60-100
Grain/small 150-165 Squash 95-120
Lentil 150-170 Sugarbeet 160-230
Lettuce 75-140 Sugarcane 270-365
Maize sweet 80-110 Sunflower 125-130
Maize grain 125-180 Tobacco 130-160
Melon 120-160 Tomato 135-180

As can be seen from Table 3.3, there is a large variation of values not only between crops
but also within one crop type. In general, it can be assumed that the growing period for
a certain crop is longer when the climate is cool and shorter when the climate is
warm.

57
3.4.4 Crop Growth Stages
Once the total growing period is known, the duration (in days) of the various growth stages
has to be determined.
The total growing period of a crop is divided into 4 growth stages:
1. The initial stage: this is the period from sowing or transplanting until the crop covers
about 10% of the ground.

2. The crop development stage: this period starts at the end of the initial stage and lasts
until the full ground cover has been reached (ground cover 70-80%); it does not necessarily
mean that the crop is at its maximum height.
3. The mid - season stage: this period starts at the end of the crop development stage and
lasts until maturity; it includes flowering and grain-setting.
4. The late season stage: this period starts at the end of the mid-season stage and lasts
until the last day of the harvest; it includes ripening.

3.5 IRRIGATION INTERVALS OR FREQUENCY

This is the number of days between consecutive irrigations. It is
denoted by: i = d / ETc
where d is the net depth of irrigation application (dose) in mm and ETc is the daily
crop evapotranspiration in mm/day.
Example: Where d is 19.8mm, and ETc is 2.5 mm/day, the irrigation interval (i) = 19.8/2.5 =
8 days.

3.6 IRRIGATION APPLICATION EFFICIENCY (Ea)

The amount of water to be stored in the root zone is estimated as the net irrigation dose (d).
however, during the irrigation process, considerable amount of water loss occurs through
evaporation, seepage, deep percolation etc. The amount lost depends on the efficiency of
the system. Irrigation field application efficiency is expressed as:

𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = × 100
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔)
Where, d is the water stored in the root zone and Water Applied (gross) is the irrigation
water. Table
3.4 gives an approximate application efficiency of various on-farm irrigation systems and
methods.

58
Table 3.4: Approximate application efficiency of various on-farm irrigation systems and
methods.
Irrigation system/method Ea %
Earth canal network surface methods 40 – 50
Lined canal network surface methods 50 – 60
Pressure piped network surface methods 65 – 75
Hose irrigation systems 70 – 80
Low – medium pressure sprinkler systems 75
Microsprinklers, micro-jets, minisprinklers 75 – 85
Drip irrigation 80 - 90

Example: The net irrigation dose (d) for an area of 1 ha is 19.8 mm, i.e. 198m3. The water
delivered during irrigation is 280m3. What is the application efficiency?
Answer: Ea = (198/280) X 100 = 70.7% or expressed as a fraction, 0.70. the remaining 30
% of water applied is lost.

3.7 SYSTEM FLOW (SYSTEM CAPACITY)

The minimum flow capacity of any irrigation system should be the one that can meet the
water requirements of the area under irrigation at peak demand:
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨
𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊

Where, Q is the system flow in cubic metres per hour, A is the area in hectares, dg is the
gross irrigation application depth (irrigation dose) in mm, i is the interval in days between
two irrigations at peak demand, t is the operating hours per day, and 10 is a constant for
hectares.
However, the minimum flow of the system should be the one that enables the completion of
irrigation at least two days before the next irrigation. This allows time to repair any damage
to the system or pumping unit. Therefore, the value of i in the above formula should be
reduced by two days.
The duration of application per irrigation is determined as:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇 = 10 𝐴𝐴
𝑄𝑄
Where T is the total operating hours of the system.

59
3.8 GENERAL EXAMPLES
3.8.1 CALCULATION OF CROP WATER NEEDS (ETc) = ETo X Kc
Question 1: Determine the crop water need of Tomatoes using the following data;
Month Jan Feb March Apr May June July
ETo 4.0 5.0 5.8 6.3 6.8 7.1 6.5
(mm/day
)
Humidity Medium (60%)
Windspeed Medium (3m/sec)
Duration of growing period (from sowing): 150 days
Planting date: 1 February (direct sowing)

Solution:
Step 1: Using appropriate tables, estimate the growth stages for the crop type.

Crops Total Initial stage Crop Mid-season Late

Growin Development stage season
g stage stage
period
Tomato 150 days 35 days 40 days 50 days 25 days

Step 2: Indicate on table, as per example below, the ETo values and the duration of the
corresponding growth stages.

Planting date 1 Feb

Initial stage, 35 days 1 Feb -5 March
Crop development stage, 40 days
Mid-season stage, 50 days
6 March - 15 April
16 April - 5 June
2.5
Late season stage, 25 days 6 June -30 June
Last day of the harvest 30 June

Step 3: Determine the Kc factor for each of the 4 growth stages using Tables and bearing in
mind that the humidity and windspeed are medium.
60
Kc, initial stage = 0.45

Kc, crop development 0.75

stage =
Kc, mid-season stage = 1.15

Kc, late season stage = 0.8

The Kc values are inserted in the Table as follows:

It can be seen from the table above that the months and growth stages do not
correspond. As a consequence, the ETo and the Kc values do not correspond.
Yet the ET crop = (ETo × Kc) has to be determined on a monthly basis. It is thus necessary to
determine the Kc on a monthly basis, which is done as follows:
(see also the table above)

Februar Kc Feb = 0.45

y:
March: 5 days: Kc =
0.45
25 days: Kc =
0.75

NOT The Kc values are rounded to the nearest 0.05 or

E: 0.00.
Thus Kc, March = 0.70

April: 15 days: Kc = 0.75 2.5

15 days: Kc = 1.15

Thus Kc, April = 0.95

61
May: Kc, May = 1.15

June 5 days: Kc =
: 1.15
: 25 days: Kc =
0.80

Thus Kc, June = 0.85

In summary:

Step 4: Calculate, on a monthly basis, the daily crop water need, using the formula
ETc = ETo × Kc (mm/day)

February: ETc = 5.0 × 0.45 = 2.3 mm/day

March: ETc = 5.8 × 0.70 = 4.1 mm/day

April: ETc = 6.3 × 0.95 = 6.0 mm/day

2.5
May: ETc = 6.8 × 1.15 = 7.8 mm/day

June: ETc = 7.1 × 0.85 = 6.0 mm/day

In summary:

62
Step 5: Calculate the monthly and seasonal crop water
needs Note: all months are assumed to have 30 days.

February ETc = 30 × 2.3 = 69 mm/month

March ETc = 30 × 4.1 = 123 mm/month

2.5
April ETc = 30 × 6.0 = 180 mm/month

May ETc = 30 × 7.8 = 234 mm/month

June ETc = 30 × 6.0 = 180 mm/month

The crop water need for the whole growing season of tomatoes is the addition of all the ETc
from February to June, which is 786 mm.
3.8.2 CALCULATION OF IRRIGATION WATER NEEDS (IN)
As explained in Section 3.1 (page 56), the irrigation water need (IN) is defined as the crop
water need minus the effective rainfall. On the farmland, water can be supplied to the crops
in various ways:
• By rainfall
• By irrigation
• By a combination of irrigation and rainfall
In cases where all the water needed for optimal growth of the crop is provided by rainfall,
then irrigation is not required and the Irrigation water need (IN) equals zero: IN = 0.
In cases where there is no rainfall at all during the growing season, all water has to be
supplied by irrigation. Consequently, the irrigation water need (IN) equals the crop water
need (ETc): IN = ETc.
In most cases, however, part of the crop water need is supplied by rainfall and the
remaining part by irrigation. In such cases the irrigation water need (IN) is the difference
between the crop water need (ETc) and that part of the rainfall which is effectively used by
the plants (Pe).
In formula: IN = ETc - Pe.

63
In summary:

If sufficient rainfall : IN = 0

If no rainfall at all : IN = ETc

If partly irrigation, partly : IN = ETc -

rainfall Pe

DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTIVE RAINFALL (Pe)

Using Figure 3.7, when rain water (1) falls on the soil surface, some of it infiltrates into the
soil (2), some stagnates on the surface (3), while some flows over the surface as runoff (4).
When the rainfall stops, some of the water stagnating on the surface (3) evaporates to the
atmosphere (5), while the rest slowly infiltrates into the soil (6).
From all the water that infiltrates into the soil ((2) and (6)), some percolates below the root
zone (7), while the rest remains stored in the root zone (8).

Figure 3.7: Effective rainfall (8) = (1) - (4) - (5) - (7)

In other words, the effective rainfall (8) is the total rainfall (1) minus runoff (4) minus
evaporation (5) and minus deep percolation (7); only the water retained in the root zone (8)
can be used by the plants, and represents what is called the effective part of the
rainwater. The term effective rainfall is used to define this fraction of the total amount of
rainwater useful for meeting the water need of the crops.
The 2 simple formulae for estimating the fraction of the total rainfall which is used effectively
is given as:

Pe = 0.8 P - 25 if P > 75 mm/month

Pe = 0.6 P - 10 if P < 75 mm/month

64
Where P = rainfall or precipitation (mm/month)
, and
Pe = effective rainfall (mm/month)

NOTE: Pe is always equal to or larger than zero; never negative

QUESTION 1
Calculate the effective rainfall (Pe) for the following monthly rainfall figures: P = 35, 90,116,
5, 260, 75 mm
ANSWER
P Formula Pe
(mm/month) (mm/month)
35 Pe = 0.6 P - 10 11
90 Pe = 0.8 P - 25 47
116 Pe = 0.8 P - 25 68
5 Pe = 0.6 P - 10 0
260 Pe = 0.8 P - 25 183
75 Pe = 0.8 P - 25 or 0.6 P - 35
10

Calculation of The Irrigation Water Needs (IN) = ETc - Pe

This example, which Illustrates the irrigation water need calculation method, is a continuation
of the example from Section 3.8.1. ETc values (mm/month) are:
Month Feb Mar Apr May Jun TOTAL
e ETc
ETc 69 123 180 234 180 786mm
(mm/month)
In addition, the following rainfall figures are given:

Month Feb Mar Apr May June

P (mm/month) 20 38 40 80 16

Step 1: Calculate for each month the effective rainfall using the formulae:
Pe = 0.8 P - 25 if P > 75 mm/month
Pe = 0.6 P - 10 if P < 75 mm/month

Feb Mar Apr May June

P (mm/month) 20 38 40 80 16
Pe 2 13 14 39 0
(mm/month)
Step 2: Calculate the irrigation water need (IN), both in mm/month and mm/day, using the

65
formula: IN = ETc - Pe; e.g. In February; IN = 69 - 2 = 67 mm, etc. To calculate IN
(mm/day), divide IN (mm/month) by 30 days.

Months Feb Mar Apr May June

ET crop (mm/month) 69 123 180 234 180
Pe (mm/month) 2 13 14 39 0
IN (mm/month) 67 110 166 195 180
IN (mm/day) 2.2 3.7 5.5 6.5 6.0

Total irrigation water need over the growth periods = (67+110+166+195+180)

= 718mm ETc for the total growth period = 786mm/month
IN for the total growth period =
718mm/month Pe = 68mm
This is the amount of water that rainfall will contribute to the growth of our crop
(Tomatoes).

66
3.9 DETERMINATION OF THE IRRIGATION SCHEDULE FOR CROPS
The accurate determination of an irrigation schedule is a time-consuming and
complicated process. The introduction of computer programs, however, has made it
easier and it is possible to schedule the irrigation water supply exactly according to the water
needs of the crops. Ideally, at the beginning of the growing season, the amount of water
given per irrigation application, also called the irrigation depth, is small and given frequently.
This is due to the low evapotranspiration of the young plants and their shallow root depth.
During the mid-season, the irrigation depth should be larger and given less frequently due to
high evapotranspiration and maximum root depth. Thus, ideally, the irrigation depth
and/or the irrigation interval (or frequency) vary with the crop development.
When sprinkler and drip irrigation methods are used, it may be possible and practical to
vary both the irrigation depth and interval during the growing season. With these methods it
is just a matter of turning on the tap longer/shorter or less/more frequently.
When surface irrigation methods are used, however, it is not very practical to vary the
irrigation depth and frequency too much. With, in particular, surface irrigation, variations in
irrigation depth are only possible within limits. It is also very confusing for the farmers to
change the schedule all the time. Therefore, it is often sufficient to estimate or roughly
calculate the irrigation schedule and to fix the most suitable depth and interval; in
other words, to keep the irrigation depth and the interval constant over the growing season.
Among methods used to determine the irrigation schedule are: plant observation method,
estimation method and simple calculation method. The plant observation method is the
method which is normally used by farmers in the field to estimate "when" to irrigate. The
method is based on observing changes in plant characteristics, such as changes in colour
of the plants, curling of the leaves and ultimately plant wilting.
In the estimation method section, a table is provided with irrigation schedules for the
major field crops grown under various climatic conditions.
The simple calculation method is based on the estimated depth (in mm) of the irrigation
application, and the calculated irrigation water need of the crop during the growing season.

67
3.9.1 Plant Observation Method
The plant observation method determines "when" the plants have to be irrigated and is
based on observing changes in the plant characteristics, such as changes in colour of the
plants, curling of the leaves and ultimately plant wilting. The changes can often only be
detected by looking at the crop as a whole rather than at the individual plants. When the crop
comes under water stress the appearance changes from vigorous growth (many young
leaves which are light green) to slow or even no growth (fewer young leaves, darker in
colour, and sometimes greyish and dull).
Some crops (such as cassava) react to water stress by changing their leaf orientation: with
adequate water available, the leaves are perpendicular to the sun (thus allowing optimal
transpiration and production). However, when little water is available, the leaves turn away
from the sun (thus reducing the transpiration and production).
To use the plant observation method successfully, experience is required as well as a good
knowledge of the local circumstances. A farmer will, for example, know where the sandy
spots in the field are, which is where the plants will first show stress characteristics: the
colour changes and wilting are more pronounced on the sandy spots.
The disadvantage of the plant observation method is that by the time the symptoms are
evident, the irrigation water has already been withheld too long for most crops and yield
losses are already inevitable. It is important to note that it is not advisable to wait for the
symptoms. Especially in the early stages of crop growth (the initial and crop development
stages), irrigation water has to be applied before the symptoms are evident.
Another indicator of water availability is the leaf temperature. If the leaves are cool during
the hot part of the day, the plants do not suffer from water stress. However, if the leaves are
warm, irrigation is needed. Special devices (infra-red thermometers) have been developed
to measure the leaf temperature in relation to the air temperature. However, they must be
calibrated for specific conditions before being used to determine the irrigation schedule.
Another method used to determine the irrigation schedule involves soil moisture
measurements in the field. When the soil moisture content has dropped to a certain critical
level, irrigation water is applied. Instruments to measure the soil moisture include gypsum
blocks, tensiometers and neutron probes.
3.9.2 Estimating the Irrigation Schedule
In this section, a table is provided to estimate the irrigation schedule for the major field crops
during the period of peak water demand; the schedules are given for three different soil
types and three different climates. The table is based on calculated crop water needs and
an estimated root depth for each of the crops under consideration. The table assumes
that with the irrigation method used the maximum possible net application depth is 70 mm.
With respect to soil types, a distinction has been made between sand, loam, and clay,
which have, respectively, a low, a medium and a high available water content. With respect
to climate, a distinction is made between three different climates.

68
 Shallow In a sandy soil or a shallow soil (with a hard pan or impermeable layer close
and/or sandy to the soil surface), little water can be stored; irrigation will thus have to
soil take place
frequently but little water is given per application.
Loamy soil In a loamy soil more water can be stored than in a sandy or shallow soil.
Irrigation water is applied less frequently and more water is given per
application.
Clayey soil In a clayey soil even more water can be stored than in a medium soil.
Irrigation
water is applied even less frequently and again more water is given per
application.
Climate 1 Represents a situation where the reference crop evapotranspiration ETo =
4 -5
mm/day. (Cool climate)
Climate 2 Represents an ETo = 6 - 7 mm/day. (Medium Climate)
Climate 3 Represents an ETo = 8 - 9 mm/day. (Hot Climate)
An overview indicating in which climatic zones these ETo values can be found is given below:
REFERENCE CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ETo) (mm/day)
Climatic zone Mean daily temperature
low medium high
(less than 15°C) (15-25ºC) (more than 25ºC)
Desert/arid 4-6 7-8 9 - 10
Semi-arid 4-5 6-7 8-9
Sub-humid 3-4 5-6 7-8
Humid 1-2 3-4 5-6

69
EXAMPLES
1. Estimate the irrigation schedule for groundnuts grown on a deep, clayey soil, in a hot
and dry climate.
Firstly, the climatic class has to be identified: climate 3 (ETo = 8-9 mm/day) represents a hot
climate. Table 3.5 shows that for climate 3 the interval for groundnuts grown on a clayey
soil is 6 days and the net irrigation depth is 50 mm. This means that every 6 days the
groundnuts should receive a net irrigation application of 50 mm.
2. Estimate the irrigation schedule for spinach grown on a loamy soil, in an area with an
average temperature of 12º C during the growing season.
The average temperature is low: climate 1 (ETo = 4-5 mm/day). Table 3.5 shows, with
climate 1, for spinach, grown on a loamy soil an interval of 4 days and a net irrigation
depth of 20 mm.
3. Estimate the irrigation schedule of sorghum grown on a sandy soil, in an area with a
temperature range of 15-25º C during the growing season.
The average temperature is medium: climate 2 (ETo = 6 -7 mm/day). Table 3.5 shows, with
climate 2 for sorghum grown on a sandy soil, an irrigation interval of 6 days and a net
irrigation depth of 40 mm.

70
Table 3.5: Estimated irrigation schedules for the major field crops during peak water use

periods

71
3.9.3 Simple Calculation method
This section gives a simple calculation method for the irrigation schedule; this schedule is
based on the entire growing season. The simple calculation method to determine the
irrigation schedule is based on the estimated depth (in mm) of the irrigation applications,
and the calculated irrigation water need (IN) of the crop over the growing season.
Unlike the estimation method, the simple calculation method is based on calculated
irrigation water needs. Thus, the influence of the climate, i.e. temperature and rainfall, is
more accurately taken into account. The result of the simple calculation method will
therefore be more accurate than the result of the estimation method.
The simple calculation method to determine the irrigation schedule involves the following
steps that are explained in detail below:
Step 1: Estimate the net and gross irrigation depth (d) in mm.
Step 2: Calculate the irrigation water need (IN) in mm, over the total growing
season.
Step 3: Calculate the number of irrigation applications over the total growing
season.
Step 4: Calculate the irrigation interval in days.

Step 1: Estimate the net and gross irrigation depth (d) in mm

The net irrigation depth is best determined locally by checking how much water is given per
irrigation application with the local irrigation method and practice. If no local data are easily
available, Table
3.6 can be used to estimate the net irrigation depth (d net), in mm. As can be seen from the
table, the net irrigation depth is assumed to depend only on the root depth of the crop and
on the soil type. It must be noted that the d net values in the table are approximate values
only. Also the root depth is best determined locally. If no data are available, Table 3.7 can
be used which gives an indication of the root depth of the major field crops.
Table 3.6: Approximate net irrigation depths (mm) (d net)
Shallow rooting Medium rooting Deep rooting
crops crops crops
Shallow and/or sandy 15 30 40
soil
Loamy soil 20 40 60
Clayey soil 30 50 70

Table 3.7: Approximate Root depth of the major field crops

Shallow rooting Crucifers (cabbage, cauliflower, etc.), celery, lettuce, onions,
crops (30-60 cm): pineapple,
potatoes, spinach, other vegetables except beets, carrots, cucumber.
Medium Bananas, beans, beets, carrots, clover, cacao, cucumber,
rootin groundnuts, palm trees, peas, pepper, sisal, soybeans,
g crops (50-100 sugarbeet, sunflower, tobacco,
cm): tomatoes.
72
 Deep rooting Alfalfa, barley, citrus, cotton, dates, deciduous orchards, flax, grapes,
crops (90-150 maize, melons, oats, olives, safflower, sorghum, sugarcane,
cm): sweet potatoes,
wheat.
Not all water which is applied to the field can indeed be used by the plants. Part of the water
is lost through deep percolation and runoff. To reflect this water loss, the field application
efficiency (Ea) is used (section 3.6 on page 65). The gross irrigation depth (d gross), in mm,
takes into account the water loss during the irrigation application and is determined using
the following formula:
100 × 𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
Where, d gross is gross irrigation depth in
mm
d net = net irrigation depth in mm
Ea = field application efficiency in percent
If reliable local data are available on the field application efficiency, these should be used. If
such data are not available, the following values for the field application efficiency can be
used:

- for surface / flood : Ea =

irrigation 60%
- for sprinkler irrigation : Ea =
75%
- for drip irrigation : Ea =
90%

If, for example, tomatoes are grown on a loamy soil, Tables 3.6 and 3.7 show that the
estimated net irrigation depth (d net) is 40 mm. If furrow irrigation is used, the field
application efficiency is 60% and the gross irrigation depth is determined as follows:
100 𝑋𝑋 40
𝑑𝑑 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = = 67mm = rounded to 65mm
60

73
Step 2: Calculate the irrigation water need (IN) over the total growing season
This has been discussed in detail in Section 3.8.2. Assume that the irrigation water
need (in mm/month) for tomatoes, planted 1 February and harvested 30 June, is as follows:

Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun Total

e
IN (mm/month) 67 110 166 195 180 718 mm
The irrigation water need of tomatoes for the total growing season (Feb-June) is thus (67 +
110 + 166
+ 195 + 180 =) 718 mm. This means that over the total growing season a net water layer of
718 mm has to be brought onto the field.
NOTE: If no data on irrigation water needs are available, the estimation method (section
3.9.2) should be used.
Step 3: Calculate the number of irrigation applications over the total growing season
The number of irrigation applications over the total growing season can be obtained by
dividing the irrigation water need over the growing season (Step 2) by the net irrigation
depth per application (Step 1). Number of irrigation applications = IN / d net.

If the net depth of each irrigation application is 40 mm (d net = 40 mm; Step 1), and the
irrigation water need over the growing season is (IN = 718 mm; Step 2), then a total of
(718/40) = 18 applications are required.

Step 4: Calculate the irrigation interval (INT) in days

Thus a total of 18 applications is required. The total growing season for tomatoes is 5
months (Feb- June) or 5 x 30 = 150 days. Eighteen applications in 150 days corresponds to
one application every 150/18 = 8.3 days.
In other words, the interval between two irrigation applications is 8 days. To be on the safe
side, the interval is always rounded off to the lower whole figure: for example, 7.6 days
becomes 7 days; 3.2 days becomes 3 days.
CONCLUSION
In this example, the irrigation schedule for tomatoes is as follows:
d net = 40 mm
d gross = 65 mm
irrigation interval = 8 days
Total number of irrigation applications = 18 applications.
NOTE: A chart of the actual irrigation dates can be developed using the irrigation
scheduling information derived above.

74
3.9.3.1 Adjusting the Simple Calculation Method for the Peak Period
When using the simple calculation method to determine the irrigation schedule, it is
advisable to ensure that the crop does not suffer from undue water shortage in the months
of peak irrigation water need.
For instance, in the above example the interval is 8 days, while the net irrigation depth is 40
mm. Thus every 30 days (or each month): 30/8 x 40 mm = 150 mm water is applied. This is
the value of d net (mm/month).
NOTE: The amount of water given during each month (d net) should be compared with the
amount of irrigation water needed during that month (IN).
The result is shown below. The "IN" values represents the irrigation water needs, while the
"d net" values represent the amount of water applied. The "d net - IN" values show whether
too much or too little water has been applied:
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Total
e
IN (mm/month) 87 110 166 195 180 718
d net (mm/month) 150 150 150 150 150 750
d net - IN (mm/month) +83 +40 -16 -45 -30 +32
The total net amount of irrigation water applied (750 mm) is more than sufficient to cover
the total irrigation water need (718 mm). However, in February and March too much water
has been applied, while in April, May and June, too little water has been applied.

Care should be taken with under-irrigation (too little irrigation) in the peak period as this
period normally coincides with the growth stages of the crops that are most sensitive to
water shortages.
To overcome the risk of water shortages in the peak months, it is possible to refine the
simple calculation method by looking only at the months of peak irrigation water need and
basing the determination of the interval on the peak period only.
In the example given above for tomatoes, this means looking at the months April, May and
June:

Months of peak irrigation water Apr May Jun Sub-total

need e
IN (mm/month) 166 195 180 541 mm

75
The total irrigation water need from April to June (90 days) is 541 mm, while the net
irrigation depth is 40 mm. Thus 541/40 = 13.5 (rounded 14) applications are needed.
Fourteen applications in 90 days means one application every 6.4 (rounded 6) days.
Calculated this way the irrigation schedule for the tomatoes would be:
d net = 40 mm
d gross = 65 mm
interval = 6 days
Over the total growing period of 150 days, and interval of 6 days, this means 150/6 = 25
applications. With the net irrigation depth of 40 mm, every 30 days (or each month): 30/6 x
40 mm = 200 mm water is applied. This is the value of d net (mm/month) recalculated.
In the total growing season, the total d net (mm/month) is 1000 mm.
The overall result of adjusting the irrigation schedule to the months of peak irrigation water
demand is shown below:
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Total
e
IN (mm/month) 67 110 166 195 180 718
d net (mm/month) 200 200 200 200 200 1000
d net - IN (mm/month) +133 +90 +34 +5 +20 +282
This way of determining the irrigation schedule avoids water shortages in the month of peak
water needs but on the other hand also results in a higher seasonal irrigation water
application.
It is possible to combine the two schedules. In this way some water is saved, and there
are no water shortages in the peak period.
The result of the combined irrigation schedule for the whole growing season is as follows:
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Total
e
IN (mm/month) 67 110 166 195 180 718
d net (mm/month) 150 150 200 200 200 900
d net - IN (mm/month) +83 +40 +34 +5 +20 +182

76
In summary:
Feb-March
d net = 40 mm
d gross = 65 mm
Interval = 8 days

April-May-June
d net = 40 mm
d gross = 65 mm
Interval = 6 days

3.9.4 Irrigation scheduling using simulation models

The irrigation scheduling simulation models are essentially of two types: water fluxes
simulation models, when the water balance is computed from the water fluxes entering
and leaving the root zone, and soil water balance simulation models, when the water
balance computations are performed by estimating the input and output quantities of water
to the soil reservoir with a predetermined time step.
Water flux models are used when the soil water fluxes have to be known or when the
quantities of solutes transported by the water have to be estimated. They require detailed
information on the soil hydraulic properties, crop canopy characteristics and other
parameters influencing water (and nutrients) extraction by the crop roots. The complexity of
processes simulated and of model parametrisation favour that a crop growth and yield
model is associated with water flux models.
On the contrary, the soil water balance models are easier to parametrise and require only
essential soil water characterisation and basic crop data, and use simplified water-yield
functions to evaluate the effects of water deficits in terms of yield reductions. The use of soil
water balance simulation models for irrigation scheduling is definitely recommended when
to be applied in the irrigation practice by planners, farmers, managers or farm advisers. This
is the case for the CROPWAT model, which has been successfully applied in several
regions and more recently to generate and evaluate deficit irrigation schedules for cereal
and horticultural crops.

3.9.4.1 CROPWAT model features

CROPWAT is a decision support tool for estimating ETo, CWR and crop irrigation
requirement (Garg and Dadhich 2014). It was designed by Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO) for the design and management of irrigation schemes. It helps to plan
irrigation schedules under different water supply conditions, either rain-fed or deficit
irrigation (Kloss et al. 2012).
CROPWAT uses a daily soil-water balance to evaluate irrigation management practices
and also develop irrigation schedules. The model is based on the FAO Irrigation and
Drainage papers No. 56
77
“Crop evapotranspiration” and No. 33 “Yield response to water” (Popova and Pereira 2011).
Calculations of the crop water requirements and irrigation requirements are carried out with
inputs of climatic, crop and soil data.
According to Smith (1992), in order for CROPWAT to estimate CWR, the model requires the
following information or data; (a) ETo values measured or calculated using the FAO Penman-
Montieth equation based on decade/monthly climatic data such as minimum and maximum
air temperature, relative humidity, sunshine duration and windspeed (b) Rainfall data
(daily/monthly/decade data) (c) Cropping Pattern which consists of the planting date, crop
coefficient data files (including Kc values, stage days, root depth, depletion fraction) and the
area planted (0-100% of the total area).
For irrigation schedules, CROPWAT model requires information on: (a) soil type: total
available soil moisture, maximum rooting depth, initial soil moisture depletion (% of total
available moisture) (b) Scheduling criteria; several options can be selected regarding the
calculation of application timing and application depth, or irrigate to return the soil back to
field capacity when all the easily available moisture has been used. Marica (2012) gave a
description of the formula used by CROPWAT model to calculate the CWR in Equation (4)
as follows:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 ∗ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 (4)
Where 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 is the crop factor. This shows that the peak 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 in mm/day can be less than the
peak ETo value when less than 100% of the area is planted in the cropping pattern. Eqn.
(5), given by Al-Najar (2011) calculates CWR as follows:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ∗ 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 – 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (5)
Where 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is the effective rainfall, calculated as follows:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 × [0.70917 × (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃/25.4)0.82416 – 0.11556] × 100.000955𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (6)
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 0.531747 + 0.295164 (𝐷𝐷/25.4) – 0.057697 × (𝐷𝐷/25.4)2 + 0.003804 × (𝐷𝐷/25.4)3
(7)
Where D is the usable soil water storage (mm) and 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is monthly rainfall (mm).
Total available soil water (TAM) is the maximum available water (mm) in the root zone of
the crop while the readily available soil water (RAM) is the amount of water (mm) in the root
zone that a plant can easily extract from the soil. These are calculated as follows:
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 1000 (𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 − 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃)𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 (8)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝜌𝜌 ∗ 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 (9)
Where 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 is the soil water content at field capacity, 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃is the soil water content at wilting
point, 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 is the root zone depth and ρ is the soil water depletion fraction.
Furthermore, CROPWAT adopts linear interpolation to estimate the average values of Kc in
between each crop development stages within the growing season. The “Crop Kc” values
are calculated as Kc*Crop Area, so if the crop covers only 50% of the area, the “Crop Kc”
values will be half of the Kc values in the crop coefficient data file. In estimating the CWR,
CROPWAT distributes the monthly total rainfall into equivalent daily values by using a
78
continuous polynomial curve. The model also assumes that monthly rain falls into 6 rain
storms, one every 5 days. In this study, three decades and four stages of plant growth were
adopted in CWR determination. The crop growth stages are initial, development, mid-
season and late season stages.
3.9.4.2 Using CROPWAT to assess crop water use in South Africa
The advantage of using the CROPWAT model as a tool for assessing crop water use is that
it is simple and easy to use, and linked to less intense data requirements than other
dynamic models such as ARCU, WOFORST and DSSAT. CROPWAT requires only
monthly inputs of climate and rain data, coupled with crop parameters and soils data, to
calculate water and irrigation requirements (Smith et al. 2002). Data input formats to
SAPWAT are similar to those of CROPWAT and for this study the SAPWAT database was
adapted to do the CROPWAT runs. To link with the Ricardian approach of the study, the
same 34 districts which were sampled for the household study in South Africa were
evaluated to assess crop water use and, to highlight the impact of climate change on crop
water use even further, the impact of climate change on maize water use and production in
three districts with differing production potential was examined more closely.

79
3.9.4.3 Climate and rainfall data
3.9.4.3.1 Precipitation
Climate and rainfall data are readily available in South Africa from the South African Weather
Service at http://www.weathersa.co.za/, which has forecasts for various sectors such as
aviation and shipping. Regional forecasts, mainly rainfall, are also available from various
independent weather forecasters and are published in local newspapers and electronic
media.
The ARC-ISCW (Agricultural Research Council-Institute for Soil, Climate and Water) also
maintains a climate database which was used in this study (ISCW 2002). Mean annual
precipitation (MAP) has a large impact on South Africa’s gross irrigation requirement
(Schulze et al. 2001). The driest province is the Northern Cape and the wettest KwaZulu-
Natal. The Western Cape, the second ‘driest’ province, receives mainly winter rainfall while
the rest of the country receives summer rains in the form of thunderstorms from October to
March. The provinces in which the most maize is cultivated are the North West Province,
the Free State, Gauteng and Mpumalanga.

3.9.4.3.2 Mean annual temperature

Mean annual temperature indicates very broadly the environmental status of a location and
can be only used as a general first guide to determine its suitability for a particular
agricultural crop (Schulze et al. 2001).
Although the Northern Province receives enough rain, its high temperatures make it less
suitable for maize production.
3.9.4.4 Irrigation requirements
Gross irrigation requirements within South Africa range from less than 800mm per annum,
mainly in parts of KwaZulu-Natal, the Eastern Cape, Swaziland and Mpumalanga, to over
2000mm over most of the Northern Cape and parts of the Western Cape and North
West Province. With projected

80
climate change scenarios of less precipitation, runoff will decrease, leading to declining dam
levels and the dilemma of whether to allocate water to agriculture or human consumption.
3.9.4.5 Soils data
To calculate crop water use with CROPWAT the model requires total available soil moisture
(mm/m depth), maximum rain infiltration rate (mm/day), maximum rooting depth (m) and
initial soil water depletion (%). The 84 Broad Natural Homogeneous Soil Zones delimited by
the Institute for Soil, Climate and Water can be used to derive the CROPWAT soil inputs.
3.9.4.6 Crop data
To calculate crop water use at district level using CROPWAT, the data required are area,
production, and planting date or cropping pattern. For each crop, crop coefficients and
growth stage length are also essential inputs.
3.9.4.7 Crop yield and area planted
A wide variety of crops are grown in South Africa but the most important are maize, wheat,
barley, sorghum, sunflower, groundnuts, sugar cane, deciduous fruit and grapes. The role
of cultivated pasture in the more livestock oriented areas must, however, not be
underestimated. Data about crop yields and areas under particular crops are mostly
available on a national or provincial scale. The reason for the lack in detail in the data is that
the last comprehensive agricultural census was held in 1993 (Census of Agriculture 1993a–
i). Further, South Africa operates with a completely open market system and farmers receive
little on no subsidy from government. Another reason for the limitations of the data is the land
reform act. Farmers are not willing to give out data freely. Thus, although South Africa has a
strong agricultural sector, exact figures of yield and area planted, not to mention a
distinction between irrigated and dryland areas for all the different crops produced at
magisterial district level, are unobtainable. However, there is much agricultural economic
(production costs) data available.
3.9.4.8 Cropping patterns
To estimate crop water use per district using CROPWAT, a knowledge of the cropping
pattern per district is required. South Africa can be divided into seven climatic regions: the
Eastern Cape (hot), KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape (cool), the lowveld Northern
KwaZulu-Natal, the highveld, the middleveld, the Western Cape, and the Northern
Cape/Karoo. Each climate has a unique influence on the cropping pattern of the district and
the crops planted.

81
 CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 IRRIGATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
The agricultural sector in South Africa is the biggest user of water in the country. The country
receives an average annual rainfall of about 500mm, which is regarded as low compared
with the global accepted average of 860mm/year (Annandale et al. 2011). Drought is a
common phenomenon because the available summer rain is poorly distributed. This led to
the country being classified as an arid and semi-arid region (Oyebode and Adeyemo
2014a).
According to FAO (2005), the country’s land suitable for rain-fed farming is about 13% of
the total land mass, while the remaining lands are too dry for farming; hence the need for
irrigation activities in the country. According to a report by the department of water affairs
and forestry (DWAF),in year 2000, irrigated agriculture was practised on almost 1.3million
hectares of South African lands, and these consumed about 61% of the total runoff water
explored by all sectors within that year (DWAF 2004). Figure 4.1 shows the map of irrigated
agriculture in South Africa. Major food crops grown within the country include maize, wheat,
pats, sugarcane, potatoes and sunflowers. Citrus and deciduous fruits produced are
exported in large quantities abroad (Ramaila, Mahlangu and du Toit 2011). A large
percentage of these food crops are produced under irrigation, and this makes farming of
great importance to the economy and development of South Africa.

Figure 4.1: Irrigated agriculture in South Africa (USDA 2013)

Agriculture within South Africa is expected to guarantee food security in the nation while
simultaneously creating employment opportunities for the teeming population (SANTO 2013).

82
4.1 HISTORY OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT – COMMERCIAL SECTOR
The Water Research Council describes the three phases of irrigation development in the
commercial sector as follows:
Phase 1 – Agriculture Phase
According to the WRC (2008), up until 1875, government did not provide any assistance to
water resource development. Water abstraction occurred where natural circumstances
permitted. This phase was characterized by a subsistence economy where markets were
often a long distance away from where the agricultural crops were grown. There was little
incentive for capital investment.
Phase 2 – Agricultural - Mining Phase
The Cape Colony was the first to initiate a policy in 1877. This was undertaken to promote
irrigation, using a strategy of collaboration between producers, combined with unsubsidized
loans for individuals or co-operative weir diversion and flood irrigation. Initially the co-
operative flood scheme development was slow, but quickly gained momentum after 1906
with the demand for ostrich feathers, together with the development of Lucerne pastures
that were grown under irrigation. On the onset of the drought between 1914 and 1916, more
water conservative methods and practices were used in those areas.
Phase 3 – Agriculture – Mining – Industrial Phase
This phase was characterized by the development of public storage schemes which were
due to the unreliable rains and the variable rain flows that necessitated the storage of water.
During this phase the number of the existing population in the irrigation schemes were few
and subsequently more settlers were brought in, in order to establish cooperative
developments. The crops that were targeted in this phase included tobacco, cotton, citrus,
etc. The financial strategy was also revised where loans were written off with partial
subsidization of private and cooperative schemes, as well as the introduction of completely
subsidized public schemes.
4.2 HISTORY OF SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATION SCHEMES
There are four eras on the history of the development of smallholder irrigation schemes.
These are:
19th Century: Peasant and Mission Diversion Scheme Era
This era was characterized by the development of river diversion technologies by private
individuals or groups of individuals. A majority of these developments were rendered non-
functional by the end of the 19th century. 13 crops were grown and there was little incentive
for capital investment

1930 – 1960: The Smallholder Canal Scheme Era

Majority of irrigation canals were constructed after the 2nd World War and the main objective
of this development was to provide Black families in the “Bantustans” with a livelihood. By
1955, an estimated 122 small scale irrigation schemes were developed that covered 11,406
ha, which comprised of 7 538 plots ranging from 1.28 ha to 1.71 ha, that were
83
comparatively small compared to the sizes of that developed for White irrigation schemes
which ranged from 8 – 20 ha.

1970 – 1990: The Independent Homeland Era

All homelands were characterized by poverty, low development and a largely rural resource
base. The government of the day funded the development of additional irrigation schemes
in these homelands. 64 smallholder irrigation schemes were developed that covered 13 000
ha during this era and included the Keiskammahoek, Tyefu, Xonxa and Ncora irrigation
schemes. The use of modern technology distinguished this era where pressurized overhead
irrigation schemes were used. Parastatals were established to ensure the centralization and
diversification of management.
However, problems soon arose that included social unrest, high maintenance costs,
management problems (due to the centralized nature thereof) and resulted in the
parastatals being withdrawn from the homeland. This, in turn, resulted in many of these
schemes becoming unproductive as they could not be sustained.
1990 - The Irrigation Management Transfer and Revitalization Era
The development of smallholder irrigation schemes in this era was based on improving the
lives among the previously disadvantaged populations in the rural areas and in the formal
settlements. The focus was on poverty alleviation and food security at community level. 62
schemes covering 2,400 ha were developed where the main irrigation technology included
the use of mechanical pumps and sprinkler technology.
When a lot of these smallholder irrigation schemes collapsed due to various reasons, the
new South African government undertook a programme to revitalize the smallholder
irrigation schemes in the late 1990s. At this stage the smallholder irrigation schemes
included those located in the former homelands and those that were located in commercial
farming areas where White farmers were settled previously.
The Limpopo Province undertook to revitalize the smallholder irrigation schemes under
firstly the Revitalization of Smallholder Irrigation Schemes (RESIS) Programme between
2001–2004 and subsequently the RESIS–Recharge Programme from 2005-2007. The
RESIS Programme focused on infrastructure rehabilitation and ‘joint ventures’ as a means to
rebuilding and ensuring the upliftment of communities in the irrigation schemes, through the
stimulation of profitable agribusiness through a comprehensive programme that would
include the training and capacity building of farmers to run their businesses profitably and
sustainably. The RESIS–Recharge Programme focused on infrastructure development and
strategic partnerships.
Recently, the Eastern Cape Infrastructure-Centered Interventions was launched. This was
an initiative to fund, repair and rehabilitate the degraded irrigation schemes. Another major
issue is the fact that no substantive planning or soil suitability tests were undertaken and the
concern is that the soils are completely unsuitable to some types of irrigation technology
such as center pivots.

84
4.2 NATURAL RESOURCE BASE FOR IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE IN SOUTH AFRICA
4.2.1 Rainfall and Runoff
South Africa has low levels of rainfall relative to the world average. Its climate is
characterized by low, unreliable and insufficient rainfall, high temperatures, low humidity
and very high evapotranspiration. Rainfall is unevenly spread across the country’s
catchments leaving most of the northern and western parts dry (Figure 4.2).
Average rainfall ranges from less than 100 mm/per annum to over 1 500 mm per annum,
with an average of approximately 450 mm per annum. Linking this low rainfall rate to the
high level of aridity results in a mean annual runoff (MAR) of less than 10% - a very low
percentage when compared to countries with similar average rainfall. Rainfall patterns and
subsequent runoff, are highly seasonal (with short wet seasons and long dry seasons in
many parts of the country) and variable from year to year.
Runoff is low, especially in areas where irrigation is needed most. The amount of water that
reaches and flows through our rivers is estimated in the region of 49,040 million cubic
meters per annum (Mean Annual Runoff – MAR in Mm3 per annum). A portion of the MAR
needs to remain in the rivers and estuaries to support ecological functioning of the
catchments. The amount of water that can be abstracted at high assurance (the yield) from
surface water resources are estimated at 10 240 Mm3 per annum which is approximately
20% of the MAR. This inter and intra-annual variability of the hydrological system
complicates water resource management in South Africa.

Figure 4.2: Rainfall across South Africa

85
4.2.2 Groundwater
Despite the groundwater’s relative small contribution to the total water supply in South
Africa, it represents an important strategic water resource. Being stored underground where
evaporation is minimized, it is a more reliable source than surface water in times of drought.
According to the Ground Water Division of the Geological Society of South Africa (GSSA) the
ground water contribution is about 13% to the total water requirement. Owing to the lack of
perennial streams in the semi- desert to desert parts, two-thirds of South Africa’s surface
area is largely dependent on groundwater. In these water-scarce areas, groundwater is
more valuable than gold. Although irrigation is the largest user of groundwater, groundwater
still provides the water supply to more than 300 towns and smaller settlements in the
country.
Due to the predominantly fragmented and scattered nature of groundwater occurrence in
South Africa, it has presented considerable difficulties in quantifying its availability with any
certainty. In 2010 the Department of Water and Sanitation published the Ground Water
Strategy that represents for the first time the authoritative figures for the volumes of
groundwater that can be sustainably extracted for use, not only for the country as a whole,
but also for each of the 19 water management areas (WMA). The most recent scientific
estimates place groundwater in South Africa in the same league, volumetrically, as our
stored surface water resources: The total volume of available, renewable groundwater in
South Africa is 10,343 million m³ per annum or 7 500 million m³ per annum under drought
conditions. South Africa is currently using between 2000 and 4000 million m3 per
annum of this groundwater. Therefore, there is potential to considerably increase
groundwater supplies in the country.
The groundwater’s resilience to drought has been known for years and often one of the first
responses in times of serious drought is to drill boreholes. The advantages of groundwater
are low evaporation as volumes are stored underground and less direct impact to climate
change as compared to surface water since floods and droughts are quickly reflected in
river water levels. Only after prolonged droughts will groundwater levels show declining
trends.
Although the information on the extent of the use of groundwater for irrigation is scarce, the
Groundwater Division of GSSA has reported that agricultural irrigation remains the largest
user of groundwater compared to other sectors. In 2010, the DWS published the Ground
Water Strategy that is designed to ensure that groundwater is recognized, utilized and
protected as an integral part of South Africa’s water resource. This strategy further paves
way to the development and implementation of better groundwater management
programmes at water resource management levels, tailored to local quantity and quality
requirements. The use of ground water for irrigation increases towards the western side of
the country compared to the east.

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 4.2.3 Soils
The dominant soils of South Africa differ widely from those of the other world regions.
Because South Africa’s rivers are small, and those with highest runoff flow through narrow
deep gorges over short distances to the ocean, South Africa does not have any large alluvial
plains with deep, fertile irrigable soils. South Africa’s soils predominantly have poor
quality (see Figure 4.3) and are inherently exceptionally vulnerable to various types of
degradation, with low resilience. In irrigation agriculture, these include extreme vulnerability
to subsurface soil compaction (traffic pans and plough pans) under intensive cultivation
and soil crusting (surface sealing) under overhead irrigation systems, in some cases
including micro-irrigation systems such as drippers and micro-sprinklers

Figure 4.3: Land Capability in South Africa

Although it is generally considered that South Africa has very little areas left with irrigable soils that can
be put under irrigation, there are a number of substantial areas with soils of relatively good irrigation
potential close enough to rivers and at low enough elevation above them to make irrigation development
on them a possibility. The majority of the soils in the wetter climatic regions, where the irrigation demand
is lower, are prone to water logging during seasons with above average rainfall.

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4.2.4 General strategies relating to resource surveys, land suitability and land use
planning
Successful, efficient farming, especially intensive high input/high value irrigated farming is
not possible without high quality land use planning based on correct land suitability
evaluation and high quality detailed resource maps and information. High quality land
suitability evaluation and land use planning is particularly important in a country like South
Africa where water and good quality soils are scarce, soil patterns are complex and climatic
conditions are not ideal. Land suitability evaluation and land use planning is not only
required when new areas are to be put under irrigation, but each time changes to existing
land use are considered.
This would include each envisaged change in enterprise (e.g. type of crop, or even cultivar),
irrigation system or general management practices. Unfortunately irrigated agriculture often
fails because of inadequate resource information and/or poor land suitability evaluation and
consequently poor land use planning. It is extremely important that all the necessary
feasibility studies and resource information collection, especially detailed soil surveys
must be completed before the final planning of the siting of dams, canals, etc. is done and
definitely before construction is begun. Land suitability evaluation for irrigated agriculture
must include the following:

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4.2.4.1 Crop requirements and tolerances
Each crop has specific requirements (conditions ideal for it) and tolerances of specific non-
ideal conditions. For example, different deciduous fruit crops (peaches, apricots, apples,
pears, etc.) all have very different tolerances for specific soil conditions. Some soils on
which peaches will just absolutely die, are almost ideal for pears, for example. For any
specific one of the above crops the requirements and tolerances even differ greatly
between different rootstocks and different rootstock-scion combinations. The same is true
for all other types of orchard crops, vegetables and agronomic crops. Different crops also
have specific climatic requirements and tolerances. Even the presence or absence of
persisting diseases, pests or weeds can affect a suitability rating (DAFF 2007).
The FAO (1985) guidelines on land suitability evaluation stress that the aim should always
be to use local knowledge about the requirements and tolerances of crops when
parameters and criteria for land suitability evaluation are compiled. These should include
both research data and the empirical knowledge of field researchers, extension officers and
farmers, including traditional small-scale farmers. Only if no local information is available for
a specific crop, may international criteria be used as a poor alternative, but then it must be
ensured that only information from an overseas area with similar soils and climatic
conditions as the area for which evaluation is done, is used. Experience has shown that
even highly experienced overseas soil scientists often “misreads” the quality of South
African soils and make greatly erroneous recommendations.
Misleading, totally unrealistic, over-optimistic projections of potential crop yields and
especially gross margins, are common in feasibility studies for irrigation development in
South Africa – often despite the fact that good actual data are available – with disastrous
consequences. This is presently still being done (Laker, 2006).
4.2.4.2 Soil and climatic requirements and tolerances of different irrigation systems
Before the introduction of overhead irrigation systems, land suitability evaluation for
irrigation was simple. It was just a matter of suitability for flood bed, and sometimes furrow
irrigation. The differences in requirements and tolerances of the two are quite small.
Nowadays suitability evaluation and planning has to be done for a variety of different
irrigation systems with widely different requirements and tolerances in terms of factors such
as climate, soil and slope. A situation that is highly suitable for one irrigation system may be
totally unsuitable for another.
Drip irrigation is often regarded as a highly efficient water saving irrigation system. Yet, it is
not suitable for all soil conditions. On the one hand it requires lateral water distribution in
the soil through capillary action. In a coarse sandy soil this does not happen and the water
runs straight through in a narrow band. It is known that mature orchards died when
converted to drip on such soils, because an inadequate portion of the root system was
wetted. At the other extreme, it is extremely inefficient on soils that are chemically highly
dispersive and form dense surface seals even under zero energy water application, as are
found quite widespread in South Africa (Laker 2006 and DAFF 2007). Surface puddling
leads to excessive evaporation losses of applied water and the poor infiltration leads to
excessive drying of subsoils towards the end of the season and poor crop performance. On
such soils similar problems have been found under micro-sprinklers, e.g. in a citrus

89
orchard in the Eastern Cape. On the widespread crusting soils in the country, including the
physically disaggregating ones, this type of situation is even worse under more aggressive
types of overhead irrigation, like ordinary sprinklers and especially center pivots and floppy
irrigation. There are several unique factors that make South African soils different in this
regard, and thus South African models for predicting these scenarios and criteria for
adapting the design and management of overhead irrigation systems based on local
research must be used (DAFF, 2007). There are many situations where overhead, drip or
micro-irrigation will be technically better than flood or furrow irrigation. It is also important to
ascertain whether the minimum required technical support infrastructure is available for a
specific irrigation system before it can be decided to implement it. The key is to realize that
there is no such thing as a best “state of the art irrigation technology” that is suitable for all
circumstances, each case must be evaluated on its own. Finally, it is important to determine
the familiarity of a farmer with a specific technology and his/her potential capability to
manage it successfully, before it is recommended.
4.2.4.3 Climate Change
It is becoming increasingly clear that climate change is an inevitable process. With likely
long-term changes in rainfall patterns, rising temperatures and shifting climate zones.
Climate change is expected to increase the frequency of climate-related shocks, which in
turn will put pressure on food, energy and water supply. The impact will be amplified through
the interconnections and interdependence among these three resources, popularly known
as the Food Energy Water (FEW) Nexus.
South Africa’s energy system is the major source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
accounting for about 83% of the total emissions in the country. These GHG emissions are
the main drivers of climate change. A staggering 86% of the country’s electricity-generation
capacity is derived from coal, which is the biggest source of GHG emissions as far as
electricity generation is concerned. Altogether 95% of the country’s crude-oil requirement is
imported and the consumption of oil is steadily rising.
Climate change will exacerbate the challenges of meeting FEW needs. It will affect food
availability and accessibility and the stability of the food system directly through changes in
productivity, quality of yield, crop failures, loss of livestock, farming costs and the effects of
changing weather conditions on agricultural practices; and indirectly through the potential
effects on water resources and the distribution of pests/disease.
Water supply is impacted by rising temperatures through higher rates of evapotranspiration
and decreasing run-off. Changes to the frequency and intensity of rainfall lead to the
increased incidence of droughts and floods. Evidence indicates that more frequent and
more intense extreme weather events, rising sea levels and increasing irregularities in
seasonal rainfall patterns are already having an immediate impact not only on food
production but also on food distribution infrastructure.
Adverse changes in the quality, quantity and accessibility of water resources would require
increased energy inputs to purify water of lower quality or pump water from greater depths
or distances, and would intensify the competition between the energy and food sectors for
the existing water resources.

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4.2.4.4 Assessment of environmental requirements in irrigated agriculture
Assessment of environmental requirements in irrigated agriculture is critically important
because irrigated agriculture can have profound off-site environmental impacts, as well as
on-site environmental and socio-economic impacts. The most common impact is
downstream salinization of water. Apart from negative impacts for other water users, this
could be very serious for other irrigation farmers downstream. It is worse if the saline
drainage water flows into a dam from which downstream irrigators abstract their water.
Occasional floods form the life blood of most rivers. Floods also provide essential support
for the livelihoods of floodplain communities along some rivers. Dams that eliminate floods
or drastically reduce their heights have disastrous impacts for such communities, unless
artificial floods that are big enough are released at appropriate times of the year. A typical
South African example is the floodplain of the Pongola River below the Pongolapoort Dam,
with indications that the new Bovane Dam above the Pongolapoort Dam is having even
bigger negative impacts than the latter. Floods also serve to flush salts from irrigated areas
along river terraces, thus preventing them becoming saline. Possible pollution effects
should also receive attention.
4.3 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
In terms of the importance of irrigation agriculture in South Africa, it is evident that effective
communication, co-ordination and cooperation between various stakeholders, including
government, research institutions, private sector and the farmers will be required. Some of
the role players and their functions are described below.
4.3.1 Role Players and their functions
4.3.1.1 Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF)
The DAFF is saddled with the responsibility of guiding irrigated agriculture in the country.
DAFF has recognized the importance of irrigation and the desirability of supporting irrigation
farmers.
DAFF as the coordinator of the Irrigation Strategy will undertake to perform the following
functions:
• Coordination and effective communication on irrigation related matters through
the establishment of institutional arrangements including:
o Chairing the Water Use and Irrigation Working Group
o Establish a senior level committee at national level between DAFF, DWS, Provincial
Departments of Agriculture (PDAs) and the Department of Rural Development and Land
Reform (DRDLR). Chaired by the Director General (DG) and Deputy Director Generals
(DDGs) to review/revise policy, make decisions and create policy around land, water,
irrigation. The committee to meet once a year or once in two years.
• Develop general documentation for the sourcing of funding for irrigation schemes in
South Africa.
• Develop basic implementation guidelines for revitalization of government irrigation
schemes, expansion of new irrigated areas and water use efficiency and
management.
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 • Consult with research institutions such as the WRC on research needs and funding of
research projects relevant to irrigation in South Africa.
• Create a favourable or enabling environment through which the private sector and
other organisations can get involved.
• Support and monitor the implementation of irrigation projects which have been
provided funding by DAFF.
• Review the Irrigation Strategy every 10 years.

4.3.1.2 Provincial Departments of Agriculture (PDAs)

PDAs will undertake the following:
• Development of feasibility reports and subsequent business plans for irrigation and
drainage projects.
• Compile business plans for sourcing of funding for implementation of irrigation
projects through DAFF.
• Development of irrigation, surface and subsurface drainage designs for irrigation
projects.
• Implementation of irrigation projects
• Establishing of Coordinating Committees on Agriculture Water (CCAW) and chairing
of the meetings, at least 4 meetings per year.
• Permanent members of the Water Use and Irrigation Working Group (WUIWG).
• Provide extension support to irrigation farmers on maintenance, management
and scheduling of irrigation and drainage systems.
• Allocation of budget for irrigation initiatives.

4.3.1.3 Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS)

The National Water Act (No. 36 of 1998) specifies that Government is the trustee of the
nation’s water resources and requires that the DWS should act as custodian of these
resources. The NWRS2 provides the implementation framework for the Act.
DWS’s role will include the following:
• Consult with DAFF on dealing with unlawful water users, legal actions where
needed, water pricing, increase of water tariffs, etc.;
• Authorisation and licensing of water use;
• Construction, repair and maintenance of bulk infrastructure according to existing
agreements with Water User Associations (WUA) and Irrigation Boards;
• Implement the Water Based Rural Livelihoods and Food Security
Implementation Framework;
• Accelerate validation and verification process; and
• Consult with DAFF on policy developments in order to ensure proper alignment
between departments (DAFF, DWS and DRDLR).

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4.3.1.4 Other Departments
The Department of Rural Development and Land Reform (DRDLR) is responsible for
land allocation, rural development and land reform. This Department currently supports
revitalization of irrigation schemes in various provinces.
Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) is currently responsible for the
implementation of environmental laws, the National Environmental Management Act
(NEMA) and adherence to these laws including Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs).

4.3.1.5 State Owned Entities

Agricultural Research Council (ARC)
They provide research information and support and possible enterprise related
training. Water Research Commission (WRC)
They coordinate and fund research on issues related to the use of water by the sector.
Information on projects which were co-funded by DAFF and the WRC are available from
DAFF on request.
4.3.1.6 Private Sector
Private Sector will include institutions such as Commodity Organizations, Financial
Organizations, Academic Institutions, Research Institutions, Farmer Organizations and
other Non-government Organizations (NGO).
The private sector should participate in the development and support of small irrigation
farmers and subsistence irrigation farmers on food plots through the provision of linkages and
technical support.
4.4 Vaalharts Irrigation Scheme
Vaalharts irrigation scheme (VIS) is one of the largest irrigation schemes in the world
covering about
369.50 square kilometres. VIS is located at Northern Cape Province, which is identified as
the driest province in South Africa. Also, VIS is the largest irrigation scheme in South Africa
and the entire world (Ellington 2003). The scheme is located on a vast land area of about
370km2 and majorly used for irrigation. It lies east of Fhaap Plateau located in a summer
rainfall climatic zone on latitude 28°01′S and longitude 24°43′E (VIS 2013). The area
experiences paucity of rainfall with an average rainfall of about 442 mm per annum (Grove
2006; Adeyemo 2009) which makes irrigation important in the area.
During summer (October to February), the average rainfall is between 9.1mm and 9.6mm
per day. In the month of July, VIS experiences only 3.6mm of rainfall per day; and during
winter season, (April to October), almost no rainfall events occur (Annandale et al. 2011).
Simulated mean rainfall runoff in the area is between 20 and 41mm, and the lowest 10-year
measurement is between 4.8 and 9.3mm (Ellington 2003). There is significant difference
between the maximum and minimum temperaturesas the seasons change. Temperatures
ranges between 17.4 °C - 32.7 °C in January to a minimum of about 2.4 °C in July which is
the coldest month (Grove 2006).

93
The scheme is supplied with water abstracted from Vaal River, which is the main tributary of
the Orange River that provides water to the Vaal River supply area (DWA 1995b). Water
abstracted at Vaalharts diversion weir along the Vaal River, about 8 km upstream of
Warrenton, is conveyed through a 1 176km long network of canals. This system provides
irrigation water to a total of 39 820 ha scheduled land and industrial water to six towns (VIS
2013). Irrigation water is supplied to 680 commercial farmers in the scheme. Water is
supplied to farmers through feeder canals with capacities of 150 m3 per hour for 5½ days
per week.
The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) allocates water annually at the rate of 9,140m3/ha
to the scheme and it is charged at R8.77 cents per cubic metre of water use (Grove 2011).
For the purpose of sustainable management and coordination, the scheme is divided into
nine (9) water management zones namely; Hartswater, Jan Kemp, Magagong,
Spitskopdam, Springboknek, Taung, Taung dam, Tadcaster and West Canal (Ellington
2003).
Common crops grown in the area include wheat/barley, maize, groundnuts, cotton and
other permanent crops like lucerne, pecan nuts, grapes, olives and some other fruits (Grove
2006; Adeyemo 2009). VIS provides employment opportunities for hundreds of people and
also provides a means of farming livelihood, which results in an increase in the food security
of South Africa. A map of the area is presented in Figure 4.4 below.

Figure 4.4: Map of Vaalharts irrigation scheme in South Africa

94
 CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 IRRIGATION PLANNING AND DESIGN
Basic steps to take in the planning of an efficient low-volume irrigation system are as follows:
1. Conduct a feasibility study and site visit to the area regarding the potential
agricultural usage of the scheme. This includes the survey of the lands available,
cropping potentials, existing water sources, canals and associated infrastructure
needs to be inspected.

2. Gather accurate site data. Although accurate data is important to any irrigation
design, it is even more important with low-volume irrigation, because water is
distributed in more precise amounts. Site data encompasses information such as
water source(s), soil type, climate and hydrozones. It is also important to note
whether areas are densely planted or sparsely planted different planting schemes
dictate different design approaches and related drip products.

3. Soil samples must be collected and tested for fertility, nutrient status and
texture. Soil fertility recommendations must be done. Also, the physical and chemical
properties/status of the soil must be determined. Particle size analysis, texture
classes, amount of sand, clay, silt must be determined. In other words, a
comprehensive soil survey must be conducted.

4. Consider the climate of the area. Historical climate data of the area should help
achieve this. It’s suitability for various crops such as maize, barley, sunflower, cotton,
and so on must be determined (Climate and possible crops tolerance).

5. Determine the crops and seasons of growth. The table 5.1 below is a list of some
common food crops and their season of growth. These crops were short listed for
further consideration – based on the inherent agricultural potential.

Table 5.1: Crops and their growing season

CROP SEASONS
Barley Winter
Lucerne All year
Tomato Summer
Onion Winter
Pumpkin Summer
Maize Summer
Potato Autumn
Groundnut Summer
Sunflower Summer
Cabbage Winter

95
 6. Calculate the crop water requirements (ETc). Calculate the precise amount of
water needed by each type of plant within the irrigation site. By doing so, you’ll be
able to figure out the most effective irrigation methods and types of emitters
required for different groups of plantings.To calculate each plant’s water requirements,
you’ll need to take into account several factors, including species, climate and planting
density. In semi-arid regions such as South Africa, rainfall may be excluded from the water
demand calculations because of high variability, both spatially and temporally. Infrastructure
design would be based on peak demand and may not include rainfall. The only effect that
rainfall will have for the farmer will be for him to increase his overall planted area in summer
(with the attendant risk).

7. Design the irrigation schedules using irrigation simulation software

96
5.1 IRRIGATION DESIGN (FEASIBILITY STUDIES)
This course will not go into deep irrigation system designs but will consider some relevant
design examples.
Example 1: Surface system design
Farmer A is a member of a large irrigation district which has as its water source a storage
reservoir 60 km upstream from the entrance to the district distribution system. He wants to
irrigate a 65 ha of maize by center pivot. The crop water requirement since the last irrigation
is estimated as 50 mm.
Due to the expected uniformity of application of the center pivot system, an average of 55
mm of water will have to be applied to the field to ensure that all parts of the field receive a
minimum of 50
mm. Estimated spray and wind rift losses are 8 percent of the water discharge through the
sprinkler nozzles.
Distribution system losses from where the water enters the irrigation district in a canal to
the head of Farmer A field are estimated at 15 percent. Seepage and evaporation losses
in the unlined canal between the storage reservoir and the entrance to the district
distribution system are 45 percent.
*Compute the applicable Volume of water (m3) which must be released from the storage
reservoir to meet Farmer A crop water requirement.
SOLUTION
We will be working from the root zone back to the storage reservoir. That is:
Root zone application surface application device distribution system
storage reservoir

Area of farm = 65ha; ETc = 50mm; Water applied = 55mm;

Spray & Wind losses = 8%; Distribution system losses = 15%; Seepage & Evaporation losses
= 45%.
• Volume of water in the root zone = Farm area X ETc;
= 65ha X 50mm (but we must convert ha to m2 and mm to m in order get m3 for
volume). 1 ha = 10,000m2 & 1mm = 0.001m

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= (65ha X 10,000) X (50mm X
0.001) Vroot= 650,000m2 X 0.05m =
32,500m3
• Volume of water in the application surface (Vapps). This is the volume of the
corresponding 55mm water that needs to be applied to ensure all the field receives
50mm.

Vapps = 65ha X 55mm; = (65ha X 10,000) X (55mm X

0.001) Vapps= 650,000m2 X 0.055m = 35,750m3
• Volume delivered to application device considering the 8% spray and drift
losses
Vdev = Vapp + 0.08Vdev
Vdev = 35,750m3 +
0.08Vdev (1 - 0.08)Vdev =
35,750m3
0.92Vdev = 35,750m3;
Vdev= 35,750/0.92 = 38,859m3
• Volume delivered to distribution system considering 15% losses
Vdist = 38,859m3 +
0.15Vdist (1 - 0.15)Vdist =
38,859m3
0.85Vdist = 38,859m3;
Vdist= 38,859/0.85 = 45,716m3
• Volume extracted from storage reservoir considering 45% seepage and
evaporation
Vres = 45,716m3 +
0.45Vres (1 - 0.45)Vres =
45,716m3 0.55Vres =
45,716m3;
Vres = 45,716/0.55 = 83,120m3
The volume of water that must be released from the storage reservoir is 83,120m3

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5.2 The costs of an irrigation system
The costs of an irrigation system will be analyzed. These include:
5.2.1 Capital costs
These costs involve all one – off expenses and include the following:
• Purchase price
• Delivery cost
• Design fee
• Installation cost

The sum of all these costs should now be converted into an annual capital cost as if a loan
has been negotiated with a financial institution to pay for this. Equation 5.1 is recommended for
the conversion

99
 𝑖𝑖(1+𝑖𝑖)𝑛𝑛
𝑇𝑇 = 𝐾𝐾𝑘𝑘 (1+𝑖𝑖)𝑛𝑛−1
5.1

Where T = payment per annum

(R/annum) Kk = total capital
costs (R)
i = current interest rates
(fraction) n = terms of
repayment (year)
The reason for the conversion is to establish whether the farmer will not benefit more
by investing his money somewhere else rather than buying the system. Furthermore,
because all other costs are time-linked (R/annum), this conversion also attaches a
time value to the capital costs.

The term of repayment depends on the expected lifespan of the system. The cost is
converted into cost per hectare to simplify calculations.

Example 2: Capital costs

Farmer B receives the following quote for a 10 ha drag-line irrigation
system: Purchase price R34,000
Delivery cost R2,000
Design fee R1,000
Installation cost R3,000
Total R40,000

The current interest rate is 18%. Calculate the capital cost over a repayment of 10
years.
Solution
• Convert to an annual capital cost where:
Kk =
R40,000 i
= 0.18
n = 10 years

From equation 5.1,

0.18(1 + 0.18)10
𝑇𝑇 = 40,000
(1 + 0.18)10 − 1

T = 40,000 X (0.94/4.23)
T = R8,888.89 per annum

• Conversion to cost per hectare:

Total annual capital costs = R8,888.89 per annum

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 Total hectares irrigated = 10 ha
Total annual capital unit cost = R8,888.89 / 10 ha; = R888.89/ha per annum

5.2.2 Pump cost

Capital costs are not the only expenditure involved in an irrigation system. If a pump is used
to pump water through the system, the cost to do it is also involved. The equation 5.2 below
is used to calculate the cost of operating pump:
𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄
𝑃𝑃 = 5.2
0.036 𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚
Where P = operation
(kW) Q = flow rate (m3/h)
H = total pump height (m)
Ƞp = efficiency of pump
(fraction)
Ƞm = efficiency of motor
(fraction)

The expected working hours of the pump have to be established. Equation 5.3 indicates how
this can be calculated:
10 ∑(𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐴𝐴)
𝑡𝑡 = 5.3
𝑄𝑄
Where t = total annual pumping
hours A = crops area (ha)
GIR = total gross irrigation requirements (mm) of
crops Q = pumping rate (m3/h)

Therefore, the pump cost may be calculated as follows:

𝒌𝒌𝒑𝒑 = 𝑷𝑷 𝒕𝒕 𝑲𝑲𝒆𝒆 5.4

Where Kp = pump cost

(R) P = operation
(kW)
T = total annual pumping hours
(hours) Ke = energy unit cos(R/kW/h)
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Example 3: Pump cost
Farmer C wants to irrigate 10ha and the total irrigation requirement of the crop is 1000 mm
per annum. The pump flow rate is 50 m3/h and the total pump height is 60m. The pump and
motor efficiency is 70%. The pump is propelled by an electric motor and the energy cost is
25c/kWh. Establish what the expected annual pump cost will be.
Solution:
From equation 5.2
𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄
𝑃𝑃 =
0.036 𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚
50 × 60
𝑃𝑃 =
0.036 × 70

P = 1,190 kW

From equation
5.3
10 ∑(𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐴𝐴)
𝑡𝑡 =
𝑄𝑄
10 ∑(1000 × 10)
𝑡𝑡 =
50
t = 2000
hours

From equation 5.4

𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 = 𝑃𝑃 𝑡𝑡 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒

𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 = 1190 𝑋𝑋 2000 𝑋𝑋 0.25

𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 = 𝑅𝑅595,000/𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

The amount is converted to cost per hectare for the same reasons as those for calculating
capital costs.
Therefore, with pump cost = R5950/annum and area = 10
ha The pump unit cost = R59,500/ha per annum.

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5.3.3 Maintenance cost
Maintenance of the system due to wear and breakages should be budgeted for. For a more
superficial analysis, it is recommended to use only a percentage of the capital costs to
determine the annual maintenance cost.
The maintenance requirements of all systems are not the same and Table 5.2 indicates the
recommended percentages for the various systems.

Table 5.2: Maintenance as a percentage of capital cost

Types of system Annual maintenance
Flood 5
Sprinkler 5
Drag-Line 6
Pivot 3
Big Gun 5
Drip 5
Micro 5

The maintenance cost for example 2 is therefore calculated as follows:

Solution:
Maintenance cost = Total capital cost X Annual maintenance percentage
= R40,000 X 6% (for dragline)
= R2,400/ annum
Once again the cost is converted to cost per
hectare Cost per hectare = maintenance cost /
area
= R2400 / 10 ha; = R240/ha per annum

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 CHAPTER SIX
6.0 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF IRRIGATION
The benefits of irrigation have resulted in lower food prices, higher employment and more
rapid agricultural and economic development. The spread of irrigation has been a key factor
behind the near tripling of global grain production since 1950. But irrigation and water
resource development can also cause social and environmental problems.
Irrigation represents an alteration of the natural conditions of the landscape by extracting
water from an available source, adding water to fields where there was none or little before,
and introducing man-made structures and features to extract, transfer and dispose of water.
Irrigation projects and irrigated agriculture practices can impact the environment in a variety
of ways.
In addition to problems of waterlogging, salinization, and erosion that affect irrigated areas,
the problem of downstream degradation of water quality by salts, agrochemicals and toxic
leachates is a serious environmental problem. Salinization of water resources is possibly a
greater concern to the sustainability of irrigation than is that of salinization of soils, per se.
Many historians argue that soil salinization and the decline in food supply figured
prominently in the society's decline.
Elements contributing to the problem include increase in irrigation area and water
withdrawals, use of unlined irrigation canals, rising groundwater, extensive monoculture and
excessive use of persistent pesticides, increased salinization and salt runoff leading to
salinization of major rivers, increased frequency of dust storms and salt deposition,
discharge of highly mineralized, pesticide- rich return flows to main rivers, and excessive
use of fertilizers.
The management of water application systems as well as the suitability of related
agronomic practices has a dramatic influence on the environmental impact of irrigated
agriculture. Constraints in the water delivery systems (e.g., continuous versus on-demand
water supply), extremely low water quality of the irrigation water supply, and limitations to
investment on improved technologies exacerbate the environmental damage derived from
irrigation and limit the options available to farmers for mitigating the problem. Regardless of
the nature of the problem, improved management and technologies are the main tools
available to ensure the sustainability and productivity of irrigated lands. Some of the
environmental impact of irrigation are:
6.1 Salinity
All irrigation water contains dissolved salts derived as it passed over and through the land,
and rain water also contains some salts. These salts are generally in very low concentration
in the water itself. However, evaporation of water from the dry surface of the soil leaves the
salts behind. Salinization is especially likely to become a problem on poorly drained soils
when the groundwater is within 3 m or less of the surface (depending on the soil type). In
such cases, water rises to the surface by capillary action, rather than percolating down
through the entire soil profile, and then evaporates from the soil surface.
Salinization is a worldwide problem, particularly acute in semi-arid areas, which use large
amounts of irrigation water and are poorly drained. Salinization reduces crop productivity.

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In Africa, less than 10 % of salt-affected soils are also affected by human action. South Africa
has total irrigatable land of 13 million ha with about 1 million ha under irrigation giving a total
of 9% of the total area being cropped. Also the area of irrigated land that is salt affected is
0.1 million ha giving a total of about 10% of irrigated land area.
Salinity is often linked with the rise of groundwater tables resulting from excess irrigation
and poor drainage in large-scale, perennial irrigation systems. The resulting shallow water
tables bring salts to the upper layers of the soil profile. That salinity can also be induced by
the use of pumped groundwater of marginal or poor quality has been realized only more
recently. In these cases, the physical process underlying salinization is the absence of a
downward soil water flux of sufficient magnitude to leach the salts from the root zone.
Saline soils contain sufficient soluble salts to adversely affect the growth of most plants.
With a predominance of sodium on the exchange complex and a low concentration of salts in
the infiltrating water, the infiltration rate and permeability can be severely, and in some
cases, irreversibly reduced. Leaching and drainage cause salt loading of the water resource
into which the effluent is discharged. The volume needing disposal can be reduced through
improved irrigation management and reuse of drainage outflow for irrigation.
The technical problems that have led to irrigation-induced salinity include poor on-farm
water use efficiency; poor construction, operation and maintenance of irrigation canals
causing excessive seepage losses, and inadequate or lack of drainage infrastructure or, if
drainage facilities are present, their poor quality of construction, operation, and
maintenance.
6.2 Waterlogging
Waterlogging usually results from overuse and/or poor management of irrigation water.
Lining and covering of water conduits from the storage dams to the point of delivery
improves water usage and at the same time reduces the risk of a rise in the water-table in
many irrigated areas. This procedure needs to be applied to the 11 million hectares of land
in Africa that have been degraded through waterlogging, but it would also benefit areas
suffering from salinization. Waterlogging and salinization impacts can be further reduced in
most cases by more investment in education and management capacity rather than in
drainage and soil improvement works.
Worldwide, about 10% of all irrigated land suffers from water logging. As a result,
productivity has fallen about 20% in this area of cropland. Drainage problems affect large
areas of land in Africa America; in many cases these problems are compounded by
salinization.

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6.3 Agricultural runoff
One of the main non-point sources of water pollution is runoff from agriculture. Runoff of
agricultural chemicals is primarily a localized problem where agricultural input use is high.
The consumption of fertilizers has increased rapidly over the last 30 years, from 16 kilogram
per ha in 1966 to 62 kilogram per ha in 1996. However, fertilizer application is still below the
levels of developed countries. Not only nutrients and other chemicals are transported with
irrigation runoff waters. Soil erosion and subsequent transport of sediments (and adsorbed
chemicals) is caused by runoff of excess irrigation water from cropland. Soil erosion
decreases the productivity of the land. Furrow irrigation cause more erosion than
sprinklers or drip irrigation. Sediments transported by irrigation tail waters eventually return
to streams and rivers, negatively impacting canals and other water conveyance structures,
causing sedimentation of reservoirs and other structures, affecting the durability and
uniformity of sprinkler and drip irrigation systems, and creating significant problems to fish
habitat and aquatic ecosystems. Data on water pollution in developing countries are limited.
Further, such data are mostly aggregated, not distinguishing the relative proportion of point
and non-point sources. The water quality database that is available often is of little value in
pollution management at the river basin scale, and is not useful for determining the impact
of agriculture relative to other types of anthropogenic impacts.

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6.4 Impact on groundwater
Infiltration of irrigation water in excess of available root zone storage will penetrate beyond
the reach of roots and eventually recharge groundwater. Nitrates, salts, and other
chemicals dissolved in the soil water will move with the water. Crops with high water and N
requirements tend to increase the potential risk of nitrate pollution to groundwater. Light-
textured soils and intensive production of shallow-rooted crops under irrigation can lead to
considerable nitrate losses by leaching.
Nitrate in groundwater is highest in areas of well-drained soils and intensive cultivation of
row crops. Other sources of nitrate include cattle feedlots, food-processing plants, septic
tanks, and treated wastewater. Data on groundwater pollution in developing countries,
resulting from excess chemical input and irrigation, is not well documented, but it is likely to
show an increasing trend as irrigated agriculture worldwide becomes more intensively
managed. According to various surveys in India and Africa, 20 to 50% of wells contain
nitrate levels greater than 50 mg/l and in some cases as high as several hundred mg/l. In
some developing countries, it is wells in villages or close to towns that often contain the
highest N levels, suggesting that domestic excreta are the main source, though livestock
wastes are particularly important in semi-arid areas where drinking troughs are close to
wells.
6.5 Public health impacts
Polluted water is a major cause of human disease. According to the World Health
Organization, as many as 4 million children die every year as a result of diarrhea caused by
water-borne infection. The bacteria most commonly found in polluted water are coliforms
excreted by humans. Surface runoff and improperly designed rural sanitary facilities
contribute to this problem.
The use of untreated (or poorly treated) human wastewater for irrigation purposes
contributes to direct contamination of food. In many developing countries there is little or no
treatment of municipal sewage, yet urban wastewater is increasingly being used for
irrigation. The most common diseases associated with contaminated irrigation waters are
cholera, typhoid, ascariasis, amoebiasis, giardiasis, and enteroinvasive E. Coli. Crops that
are most implicated with spread of these diseases are ground crops that are eaten raw
such as cabbage, lettuce, strawberries, etc.
Nitrogen levels in groundwater have grown in many parts of the world as a result of
intensification of farming practice, particularly in irrigated lands. Nitrate levels have grown in
some countries to the point where more than 10% of the population is exposed to nitrate
levels in drinking water that are above the 10 mg/l guideline designed to prevent
methaemoglobinaemia to which infants and elderly

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are particularly susceptible. Although the problem is less well documented, nitrogen
pollution of groundwater appears also to be a growing problem in developing countries.
There is a linkage between increase in malaria in several Latin American countries and
reservoir construction. Schistosomiasis, a parasitic disease affecting more than 200 million
people in 70 tropical and subtropical countries, has been demonstrated to have increased
dramatically in the population following reservoir construction for irrigation and
hydroelectricity.
6.6 How Can We Mitigate the Environmental Impact of Irrigation?
As the world's population continues to grow, dams, aqueducts and other kinds of
infrastructure will still have to be built, particularly in developing countries where basic
human needs have not been met. But such projects must be built to higher standards and
with more accountability to local people and their environment than in the past. And even in
regions where new projects seem warranted we
must find ways to meet demands with fewer resources, minimum ecological disruption and
less money.
FAO has estimated that the potential exists, based on physiography and soil conditions, for
an eventual total of 400 million hectares of irrigated land, three-quarters of which would be
in the developing countries. Irrigated areas are 2.5 times more productive than rain-fed
agricultural land, and there is a strong presumption that their extent (some 300 million
hectares at present) will increase. However, expansion beyond present levels is
constrained by the shortage of suitable land, limited water supplies and the high cost of
installing large-scale irrigation schemes. In many cases it is more effective to improve the
management and production efficiency of existing irrigated areas than to open up new
irrigation schemes.
The modest improvements in agricultural efficiency could free up large quantities of water.
Growing tomatoes with traditional irrigation systems may require 40 percent more water
than growing tomatoes with drip systems. Even our diets have an effect on our overall water
needs. Growing a pound of corn can take between 100 and 250 gallons of water,
depending on soil and climate conditions and irrigation methods. But growing the grain to
produce a pound of beef can require between 2,000 and 8,500 gallons.
Unless the agricultural community embraces water conservation efforts, conflicts between
farmers and urban water users will worsen. New approaches to meeting water needs will
not be easy to implement: economic and institutional structures still encourage the wasting
of water and the destruction of ecosystems. Among the barriers to better water planning and
use are inappropriately low water prices, inadequate information on new efficiency
technologies, inequitable water allocations, and government subsidies for growing water-
intensive crops in arid regions or building dams.
Several types of interventions aimed at preventing, mitigating, or reversing soil and water
degradation at various levels within irrigated agriculture are possible. Some are applicable at
field or farm level, others at system, regional, or sub regional level. Examples of possible
interventions are given below, categorized as policy, engineering, system management,
and irrigation/agronomic practice interventions.

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6.6.1 Policy Interventions
1. Introduce water and power pricing that better represent the market value of water.
2. Introduce transferable water entitlements.
3. Set limits for allowable groundwater recharge (amount and quality) and introduce
penalties for exceeding these limits.
4. Provide incentives for land reclamation.
5. Require exhaustive environmental impact assessment for new irrigation projects.
6. Provide incentives for monitoring and reduction of the environmental impact of
existing irrigation projects.

6.6.2 Engineering interventions

1. Incorporate environmental impact considerations in the design, construction, and
operation of new irrigation projects.
2. Improve maintenance of irrigation infrastructure.
3. Construct drainage facilities.
4. Improve maintenance of existing drains.
5. Reuse waste and drain water, and find alternative ways to dispose drainage effluent.
6. Prevent or reduce canal seepage, i.e., through lining.

6.6.3 System management interventions

1. Improve the operation of existing irrigation and drainage infrastructure through
introduction of management information systems, etc.
2. Enhance farmers’ involvement in management and maintenance of irrigation and drainage
facilities.
3. Evaluate the feasibility of implementing on-demand water delivery to farms.

6.6.4 Irrigation/agronomic practices interventions

1. Minimize water losses in the on-farm distribution system.
2. Improve irrigation systems performance to minimize deep percolation and surface runoff.

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3. On-farm watercourse improvement and precision land leveling.
4. Implement more efficient irrigation methods (e.g. drip instead of surface irrigation).
5. Minimize sediment concentration in runoff water.
6. Grow different crops or introduce different crop rotations (i.e., less-water demanding
crops, more drought- and salt-tolerant crops).
7. Irrigate according to reliable crop water requirement estimates and leaching
requirement calculations.
8. Manage fertilizer programs so as to minimize nutrients available for
detachment and transport.
9. Apply soil amendments and reclamation practices.

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