Learning methods

What is a method?

A method is a practical application of an approach. A theory is put into practice at

the level of a method. It includes decisions about; the particular skills to be taught,
the roles of the teacher and the learner in language teaching and learning, the
appropriate procedures and techniques, the content to be taught, and the order in
which the content will be presented.

What is a procedure?

Procedures are described as the ordered set of techniques. They are the step-by-
step measures to execute a method. (They are the ordered step-by-step events that
have specific outcomes). A procedure is smaller than a method and larger than a
technique.

What is a technique?

A technique is part and parcel of procedures. They are the actual moment-to-
moment classroom steps that lead to a specific outcome. Every procedure is
realized through a series of techniques. They could take the form of an exercise or
just any other activity you have to do to complete a task.

What are Learning Methods?

Total physical response (TPR)
TPR is an approach to teaching a second language, based on listening linked to
physical activities which are designed to reinforce comprehension. For example,
students are listening and they make animal noises every time they hear the name
of an animal.
Suggestopedia
It is a method of teaching a foreign language in which students learn quickly by
being made to feel relax, interested and positive. This method is developed
because of the fact the that students naturally face psychological barriers to
learning.

The Silent Way (SW)

It is a methodology of teaching language based on the idea that teachers should be
silent as much as possible in the classroom, but the learners should be encouraged
to produce and speak language as much as possible. In this method, we should
maximize the the student-talking time and minimize the teacher-talking time. (they
learn by using colorful rods)

Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)

It is a method of foreign language teaching which emphasizes the teaching of
listening and speaking before reading and writing. It uses dialogues as the main
form of language presentation and drills as the main training techniques. The
mother tongue is discouraged in the classroom.

Direct Method (DM)

The direct method is a language teaching method. Through this method students
are directly taught with target language without using native language. Sometimes
called natural method and it has one basic rule: no translation is allowed. This
method puts a srtong emphasis on practice and oral training, listening and
speaking.

Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

GTM is a method of teaching foreign language derived from the
classical/traditional method of teaching dead languages like Greek and Latin. In
grammar-translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and apply them by
translating sentences between the target language (L2) and the native language
(L1). The focus of this method was on the translation of text, grammar, and rote
learning of vocabulary (memorization). There is no emphasis on speaking and
listening comprehension since Greek and Latin were taught more as academic
subjects rather than a means of oral communication.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

CLT is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that
emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a
language. It is also refferred to as “communicative approach”. In CLT, errors are
considered natural. The primary goal of this approach is to enable students to
communicate fluently in the target language.

Community Language Learning (CLL)

Community Language Learning is a humanistic method that emphasizes the role of
human values and the understanding of the learner’s feelings and emotions in the
teaching/learning process. In such a method, the learner is perceived as a ‘whole
persons’. That is to say, teachers consider not only students’ feelings, but also their
physical reactions and desire to learn. It is also called counseling-learning theory.
Community Language Learning represents the use of Counseling-Learning theory
to teach languages.

Task-based Language Teaching/ Learning (TBLT/L)

TBLT or task-based instruction (TBI) focuses on the use of authentic language and
on asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language. Such tasks can
include visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling a customer service for
help.

A task is an activitiy or goal that is carried out using language.

Teacher roles: selector and sequencer of task, preparing learners for tasks,
consciousness-raising.
 TEACHING Approaches
What is an approach?

An approach is a set of theories, assumptions about what language is and about

how learning a language occurs. It describes the nature of language, how
knowledge of a language is aquired, and the conditions that promote language
acquisition.

Types of approches

There are 2 types of approaches: Macro-approaches and micro-approaches.

Macro-approaches (general) Micro-approaches (specific)

Competency-based approach  Inductive/daductive approach (grammar)
Standard-based approach The deductive approach is a traditional method of
teaching language and/or grammar where rules are given
by the teacher up front followed by corresponding
examples. That learners get the terminology at first, then
move on to understanding them with reference to the
examples served. That means the learners do not have
much to do as the teacher does it all from dropping the
rules, giving examples and then explaining the rules with
reference to the examples. the teacher's role is front and
center in class.
The inductive approach is where the examples are
served first and the learner has the responsibility to figure
the rules out. The teacher acts as the guide where the
learners are at the very center of the teaching-learning
process. They start figuring out the structure or the rule
from the examples and find the answers all by themselves.
 Product/process approach (writing)
The product approach to teaching writing is a
methodology that focuses on the final written product
rather than the writing process. With this approach,
emphasis is placed on the finished piece of writing
rather than the stages used to create it. The primary
goal of this approach is to enable the writer to create a
well-structured, coherent, and grammatically correct
written piece.
Process approaches to writing tend to focus more on
the varied classroom activities which promote the
 development of language use: brainstorming, group
discussion, re-writing
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/professional-
development/teachers/knowing-subject/articles/product-and-
process-writing-comparison
 Bottom-up/top-down approach (listening)
Top-down listening uses background knowledge and
contextualizes words to aid comprehension An
approach to understanding the world that starts with
the big picture and then focuses on the details. It’s
based on cognitive understanding and expectations..
Bottom-up listening uses sounds, words, and other
small units to create meaning. An approach that starts
with individual elements and works up to create the
whole picture. It begins with sensory data and builds up
to cognitive understanding.
 Lexical approach (vocabulary)
The lexical approach is a way of analysing and teaching
language based on the idea that it is made up of lexical
units rather than grammatical structures. The units are
words, chunks formed by collocations, and fixed phrases.
What is the role of the teacher in the lexical approach?
Lexical approach is primarily an approach for
developing autonomous learning. Therefore, the
teacher's role is to provide an environment in which
the student can manage their own learning. The
student's responsibility is in using what is called a
concordancer

What is a standard?

A standard is a statemant of what students should know and be able to do and

demonstrate at the end of the process of the language study (lesson or course).

Standards should be clear, straightforward, observable, measurable, and well-

articulated.

Standard-based approach (SBA)

Standard-based approach focuses on what students will learn and be able to do

with the language. It also focuses on both the competence and performance; what
students will learn and also what students will be able to do with what they have
learned.

Types of standards

Content standard: is statement about what learners should know and be able to
do with English.

Performance standard: shows us how learners have achieved the standards

targeted. They refer to how learners are meeting a standard and show the learner’s
progress towards meeting a standard.

Proficiency standard: these standards tell us how well learners should perform.

Assessment standarads: are guidelines for evaluating learner’s performance and

attainment of content standards.

Characteristics

 Teacher-centered; meaning that, the teacher who provides

students with knowledge.
 Connects English with other subject areas (history, geography,
philisophy…).
 Requires performance-based assessment.
 Cultural understanding is essential in language education.
 Communication is not strictly one skill, but a mixture of spoken,
written, and auditory skills.
 Language learning experiences should be extended from the
classroom to the outside world.
 Comparing our own language and culture with other language
and culture leads to better understanding of ours.

The five areas (5Cs)

The SBA is concerned with developing the following five areas:
Communication: learners can communicate effectively in more than one language
in order to function in a variety of situations and for multiple purposes. They can
also communicate in both oral and written forms, interpret both oral and written
messages, show cultural understanding and present oral and written information
to various audiences for a variety of purposes.

There are three modes of communication; interpretive, interpersonal, and

presentational.

 In interpretive communication, students comprehend written, oral, or visual

communication on a variety of topics without any active negotiation of
meaning. (listening to stories, reading brief text excerpts, viewing images in
various activities)
 In interpersonal communication, students engage in two-way oral or written
communication with active negotiation of meaning to share information,
feelings, and opinions. (singing songs, playing games, doing lesson activities,
conversing about art project)
 In presentational communication, students present spoken or written
information that is prepared for an audience. present completed art project,
present written work from portfolio activities)

Culture: learners will gain deeper understanding of their culture and other cultures
in terms of their perspectives (values, ideas, attitudes), practices (pattern of social
interactions), and products (books, laws, music).

Connections: learners will make connections with other subject areas. (Philosophy,
).

Comparison: learners will gain awareness of cross-cultural similarities and

differences (in terms of language and culture).

Communities: learners will extend their learning experiences from EFL classroom
to the outside world through activities such as the use of the internet.

Competency-based approach (CBA)

What is a competency?
 A competency is the ability to do something successfully and effectively. In other
words, competency means the ability to use English successfully and properly.
(how well learners will be using the target language or what they have learned).

Competency-based approach (CBA)

It is an approach to education that focuses on the student’s demonstration of
desired learning outcomes as central to the learning process. In other words, it
allows students to advance based on their ability to master a skill or competency
at their own pace regardless of environment.

In the competency-based approach, we have what we call task-based oriented or

task-based approach which means that students should be exposed to a set of tasks
(these tasks should be authentic; meaning that, they should stimulate real life situations) in
which they can produce that language and perform what they have learned.

Characteristics

 It is a learner-centered.
 Specific themes and situation are used as means to develop competencies
and improve performances.
 It is a task-based.
 It focuses on the performances that learners should expect to attain, not
just the content to be covered.

Principles

 Language acquisition is fostered by engaging learners in real tasks.

 Language learning is a problem_solving activity.
 Learners learn in different ways which implies catering for different
learning styles.
 Learners acquire language better in rich learning environments in which
they receive “comprehensible input”.
 Learners achieve proficiency at different rates (levels).

Teacher’s roles
  To manage the classroom events.
 To monitor language output/competencies develepment.
 To create the conditions that are conductive to the development of
communication competencies.
 To provide learners with effective learning opportunities.
 To adopt approaches that are responsive to the specifity of the
teaching/learning context.
 To provide immediate feedback.
 To put into practice principles of good language teaching and testing.

Learner’s roles

 To learn cooperatively.
 To be more self-directed and responsible for his own learning; that is, to
plan, monitor, and evaluate his learning. (autonomous learning)
 To be on the outlook for effective skills and strategies.
 To be actively involved in the process of language learning.

Assessment
This curriculum requires perfermance assessment; that is, the process of
measuring the learner’s performances. Continuous assessment; therefore, is an
integral part of teaching and learning.

Criterion-reference standards describe the precise amount of end-of-level or

end-of-unit or end-of-course competencies the learner is expected to attain.

The learner’s achievement determines whether he can proceed to the next unit
or course of instruction.

Gradner’s Theory of MulTiple

Intelligences
Gardner outlines his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of
Multiple Intelligences, where he suggested that all people have different kinds
of “intelligences”. Gardner theorizes that people don’t have just an intellectual
capacity, but have many kinds of intelligence, including naturalistic, musical,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, special-visual, linguistic, logical-mathematical,
existential, and bodly-kinesthetic intelligence.

1. Naturalistic intelligence: designates the human ability to discriminate

among living things as well as sensitivity to other features of the natural
world. (Loves animals, plants, nature, and understanding natural world:
Biologist, conservationist)
2. Musical intelligence: Excels in performing and composing musical pieces:
singer, musician, musical composer. (the capacity to design pitch, rhythm,
tone)
3. Spatial intelligence: The ability to think in three dimensions; presenting
the spatial world internally in your mind, creating and interpreting visual
images, excels in shapes, designs, graphics and visualization: designer,
engineer)
4. Linguistic intelligence: the capacity to use language to present your ideas,
to express your feelings or to persuade others. (excels in words, language,
poetry: poets, writers)
5. Interpersonal intelligence (between people): the ability to understand,
interact effectively with other people. (understanding the feelings, needs
and purpose of others: leaders, social workers)
6. Intrapersonal intelligence (within the self): the ability to understand
oneself and one’s thoughts. having an understanding of yourself, of
knowing who you are, what you can do; (understanding your own interior
thoughts and feelings in a very clear way: philosopher, clergy)
7. Logical-mathematical intelligence: the ability to calculate, quantify,
handle mathematical problems, carry out complete mathematical
operations. (excels in Math and logical thinking/ reasoning: bankers,
accounts)
8. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: excels in performing sports, physical
activities and body movements. (feeling and expressing things physically;
doing hands-on work: actors, athlete)
 9. Existential intelligence: to exhibit the proclivity to pose and ponder
questions about life, death and ultimate realities. (capacity to tackle deep
questions about human existence as the meaning of life and death…)

PPP Framework in Teaching

What is PPP?

PPP stands for presentation, practice and production. It is a model (paradigm) to

describe the typical stages of language teaching lesson. It is a deductive approach.
It consists of 3 stages: presentation stage, practice stage, and production stage. PPP
is a teacher-centered approach.

Presentation stage

In this stage the teacher presents the new grammar concept or vocabulary in a
meaningful context or situation to his learners. Building up stories on the board,
using realia (e.g newspaper cuttings, household items, objects, pictures, other
materials), flashcards and miming are fun ways to present the language. Short
audio or film clips can also be highly effective. The aim of this stage is to ensure
that the students understand the context you are presenting and to get them to
start thinking about it.

Practice stage

In this stage, students begin to use the elements of language that they learnt
previously through activities developed by the educator. The stage is usually
controlled by the teacher and learners practice saying or writing the language
structure or vocabulary correctly. Teachers should certainly model and correct if
mistakes occur.

Activities include:

Drill sentences / sounds - individually, in pairs or whole class, multiple-choice

exercises, gap fill tasks, directed, paired conversation practice. The aim of this
stage is building students’ accurate use of language.
Production stage

Once learners have demonstrated that they fully understand the key learning
points and are able to demonstrate it without mistakes in controlled exercises, they
can move onto the (free) production stage. In this stage, students are encouraged
to use the target language as fluently and naturally as possible to replicate use
outside of the classroom.

Activities include

Role-plays, communication tasks (e.g presentations, speeches, debates, articles),

collaborative tasks, discussion activities.

In this stage the teacher should not intervene or correct whilst students are
“producing” language. Rather if mistakes have been made, it is better to address
them after the exercise has been completed.

ECRIF framework in Teaching

What is ECRIF?

ECRIF stands for Encounter, Clarify, Remember, Internalize, Fluently use. It is a way
of looking at how people learn. Rather than prescribing what teachers should or
should not do. It focuses on the learning process that students go through as they
work with the target skill or knowledge rather than what the teacher is doing during
the lesson. ECRIF is a learner-centered approach.

Encounter stage

It is the first time learners encounter new material, knowledge or information. The
teacher elicits the background knowledge related to topic or language point. He
finds out what the students already know related to the lesson. Example of
activities used; storytelling, role play, pictures, recordings, sorting, categorizing,
predicting.
Clarify stage

Clarify occurs when learners make sense of the target language. They can
distinguish the Form, Use, Meaning, and Pronunciation (FUMP) of the target
language. They ask questions and think about what is correct. The teacher assists
in clarifying, and checking or assessing learners’ understanding of material. One
way that teachers check comprehension is with Comprehension Checking
Questions (CCQs).

Remember stage

This is the first step in which knowledge is stored in the short-term memory. It is
usually characterized by repetition, drilling, and referring back to support materials
such as models or prompts. Activities like; matching, guessing games, gap-filling,
informtion gap activity, scrambled words or sentences, searches. The activities of
this stage of learning are called controlled practice.

Controlled practice means that the learner has lots of support, and little or no
choice in how to successfully complete the activity or exercise.

Internalized stage

In this stage, students have a chance to move the knowledge or skill from short-
term to long-term memory. They start to personalize it and use it in different
contexts. They connect it mentally to prior experiences with images, sounds, and
feelings.

Fluently use

In this stage, students have a chance to use the new language to communicate their
ideas. They work toward being able to spontaneously use the language in different
context. They use the language freely and fluently.
 PDP Framework
PDP stands for (Pre, During, and Post). It is a teaching framework that can be used
to teach the receptive skills – listening and reading. In regards to reading, it helps
in building learners’ reading skills as well as their reading comprehension.

Pre-reading/listening

This is the stage of the lesson before the learners read or listen to the text. Activities
in this stage include: activiting schema, assessing students’ background knowledge,
pre-learning the new and necessary vocabulary to understand the text, and
generating students’ interest in the topic. The purpose of doing such activities is to
help set the learners up for seccessful reading/listening.

During reading/listening

This stage happens while the learners actually interact with the text. In this stage,
learners are provided with several activities that allow them to have multiple
exposure to the text. The activities are given to the learners before they read/listen.
These activities should incorperate different reading/listening techniques. The
purpose of providing learners with many chances to read/listen to the text with a
variety of different activities is to improve their reading/listening skills and help
them to comprehend the text. Activities and tasks should be staged in a step-by-
step manner from general to specific, easy to difficult, and concrete to abstract.

Post-reading/listening

This stage happens after the learners have read/listened to the text and have
shown comprehension of it. It is an extra-stage –the “icing on the cake” so to speak.
Activities in this stage focus on building/integrating other skills by using and
expanding on the content/theme/topic of the text. Post-stage also helps the
learners make sense of what they have learned. Post-activities usually encourage
learners to connect or apply the content/theme/topic to their lives and to
personalize the content/theme/topic by allowing the learners to creatively use
what they know and/or have learned.
 Learning Theories
What is a theory?

A theory is a fact-based idea or principle that explains ceratin aspects of human

thoughts, behaviors and emotions. It is based on hypothesis, which is backed by
evidence.

Behaviorism (Watson, B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, Thorndike)

Behaviorsism is a theory that considers language to be a learned behavior or habit,

which we acquire through a process of “stimuli-response” and “positive
reinforcement” or “punishment”. For example, if a student gives a good answer
to a teacher’s question, he should praise him. (Reinforcement).

Skinner claimed that if humans are povided with a correct stimulus, they would be
able to be trained to respond in a particular manner exhibited by a set of behavioral
outcomes.

Behaviorism does not concern itself with the learners’ internal mental states,
constructs, and sysmbols that cognitivisim considers in its focus on learning
schemas.

Cognitivism (Noam Chomsky, Jean Piaget)

While behaviorisim believes that language is essentially acquired through a process

of S-R and PR or P, and that humans are not born with the ability to learn language.
Cognitivists argue that language is not just a learned habit devoid of creativity. They
also suggest that humans are endowed (born) with LAD, Language Acquisition
Device, which helps or enables them not only learn languages, but also use them
creatively.

Constructivism (Jean Piaget)

In the constuctivist theory, learners of language construct their knowledge of
language by themselves through exposure to the world and people.

Think of language as a house, the components of language are the bricks. Learners
pick up the bricks (components of language) through exposure to their
environment and build up the house (language) themselves. As people grow up
and exposed to the world and language, they improve their linguistic knowledge.

Acorrding to construtivism, development proceeds learning; that is, humans need

to develop their cognitive abilities, then they can learn.

Schemes: every child is born with innate cognitive structures that enables him to
interact with the external world.

Schema: refers to the basic building blockd of intellegent behavior, unit of

knowledge, or a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use
both to understand and to respond to situations.

Adaptation: the process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment by

means of assimulation and accomodation. ( It is the tendency to adjust to the
environment. In lay words, it is the process by which humans match the original
experience and the new one).

Assimulation: the process of understanding new experiences based existing

schemes. In other words, it is the process of absorbing new ideas, object, and
events in term of existing cognitive structure. For example, you give a child a certain
object and he deals with it randomly based on his innate cognitive abilities.

Accommodation: the process of changing something in a schema to fit a new

experience. Sometimes, when old ways of dealing with the world simply don’t
work, a child might modify an existing scheme in light of new information or new
experience.

Equilibration: the process of restoring balance between old knowledge and new
experiences.

Socio-constructivism (Lev Vygotsky)

According to Vygotsky, children learn their first language by interacting more
linguistically knowledgeable people; that is, they learn by interacting with people
who know language better than children do.

Unlike the constructivists, socio-constructivists argue that learning proceeds

development.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): it refers to the space between what a

learner can do without assistance and what he can do with guidance and support
from a skilled partner. Generally, lessons should target learners’ ZPD so as not to
be boring or too difficult and frustrating.

Scaffolding: it consists of the instructional techniques or activities provided by the

educator, or more competent peer, to support learners in solving learning
problems.

More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): it refers to someone who has better

understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a
particular task, process, or concept.

Humanisim (Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers)

The humanistic theory of teaching and learning is an educational theory that

believes in teaching the “whole student”. Cognitive and affective learning are
both important to this theory; that is, knowledge and feelings go hand-in-hand in
the learning process. Therefore, lessons and activities should foucs on the whole
student and their intellect and feelings, not one or the other.

Since humanistic learning focuses on the entire student, humanistic educators

understand that they need to create a safe environment so students can meet
their needs as much as possible.

Classroom management
What is classrrom management?
It refers to multidimensional and varied ways in which learners behaviors,
movements and interactions are organized by the teacher during the lesson to
make teaching conductive to effective learning.

Classroom management strategies

Build relationships: ask your students question about their lives and activities; if
they know that you are interested in who they are, it will create a connection with
them. Your students will come to like and respect you for caring about their lives
and less likely to misbehave.

Set rules and procedures: teachers must set class rules and exact procedures for
students to follow. That way students know what is expected of them and have a
clear understanding of what to do and how to behave in the class. These
procedures include: how to enter class, to start lesson and take notes, take part in
activities, classroom behavior, moving around the class, working in groups,
cleaning up and leaving class.

Teacher’s roles

 Instructor: they transmit knowledge to students.

 Motivator: they motivate their students.
 Assessor: they assess students’ performances.
 Monitor: they check students’ outcomes.
 Participant: they participate in the teaching and learning process.
 Counsellor/ advisor: they listen and give advice to their students.
 Manager: they manage the classroom.
 Planner: they plan their lessons.
 Facilitator: they facilitate their lessons.
 Guide: they guide their students through getting knowledge.

Teacher’s documents

 Lesson plan
  Record book
 Students’ list
 The pedagogical guidelines
 textbook

Qualities of a good teacher

Internal characteristics External characteristics

 They love teaching.  They make interesting lessons.
 They enjoy what they do.  They create a healthy
 They show sympathy. environment.
 They are willing to compromise.  They are wide knowledge.
 They are open to children.  They master their subject.
 They are good listeners.  They encourage their students.
 They are satisfied with their job.  They are good communicators.
 They are active.  They solve their problems.
 They are disciplined.  They make good decisions.
 They are consistent.  They are good reseachers.

Pedagogical contract/ code of conduct

A formal contract that the teacher establishes with his students at their first
encounter. It includes rules of the classroom (code of conduct). The teacher and
students agree on the rules abd vow (promise) to obey them. Any violation of
these rules would subject the violator to a punishment.

How to deal with adolescents

 Listen to them
 Motivate them
 Engage them
 Respect them
 Encourage them
 Don’t threat them

How to avoid disruptive behaviors

  Prepare beforehand
 Anticipate questions
 Be firm
 Fairness
 Build an image of a perseverant teacher
 Don’t start the lesson till you are sure that everyone is listening.
 Talk to disrupters in private (privately)

STT and TTT

 STT: Student Talking Time

 TTT: Teacher Talking Time
 TTT should be minimized and STT should be maximized by avoiding
echoing, invite more students to speak, adopt speaking activities,
giving prompts, use visual aids…

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

 Intrinsic because of the interest and enjoyment in the task itself

 Enjoymeny
 Purpose
 Growth
 Passion
 Self-expression
 Fun
 Extrinsic because of the outcome that will result by doing the task
 Promotions
 Pay raises
 Bonuses
 Benefits
 Prizes
 Winning
 Perks
 Error analysis
Errors and mistakes

A mistake can either be a slip of tongue or a temporary deficiency in producing

language. Mistakes can occur when learners are tired or when they unwillingly fail
to apply grammar while speaking. Generally, mistakes are self-corrected, since
learners promptly notice them. If they don’t, a simple hint from the teacher or
other learners would suffice to make learners aware of their mistakes and
accordingly correct them. On the other hand, an error is a repeated mistake that is
suggestive of the learner’s failure to grasp a structure or apply it properly. For
instance, if a student says repeatedly ,” she musts”, instead of must, it implies that
he has not fully grasped the rules governingmodals or is not acquainted with them
all together.
In concise terms, a mistake is a lapse made at the surface, while an error is a lapse
that indicates a deficiency in the deep surface (competence; linguistic knowledge,
as Chomsky refers to it)

Sources of errors

Interlingual interference: The interference of L1 in the learning of L2 is a major

source of errors. Students, especially beginners, draw from the system of their L1
in order to use and understand L2. This reliance may lead students to utter wrong
statements. For example, many Moroccan students say, “I have 17 years old”, as
an alternative to “ I’m 17 years old”.
Intralingual interference or Overgeneralization: Students gradually learn
grammatical rules of the language. As they do, they form hypotheses about the
language on the basus of their prior linguistic language. It often results in them
falling in the trap of overgeneralization. For example, a student may say
“informations”, thinking that forming plural is done by adding “s” to nouns.

Context of learning: It refers to the materials, atmosphere where the learning takes
place, and it also includes the teacher. The latter can also be a source of errors.
Teachers’ failure to explain alesson adequately or clarify it but wrongly, may lead
students to make errors.

How some approaches and methods consider mistakes and errors

Audiolingualism Communicative language learning

Errors or mistakes are bad habits that Errors are tolerated
should be avoided by students.
Mistakes and errors are part and partial
Students who make mistakes and of the learning process.
errors must be penalized.
They should be used as the basis to
constructing knowledge.

Types of error correction

 Self-correction: the teacher may help the student to recognize his

mistake/error and may also help him correct it.
 Peer-correction: A student may be aided by his peer in identifying and
correcting his mistake/error.
 Class-correction: The entire class may pay attention to the utterances of
students, identify the mistakes in them, and correct them accordingly.
 Teacher-Correction: When spotting a mistake made by a student, a teacher
may intervene in order to correct it.

It is preferable that the teacher makes students aware of their mistakes. If they fail
to know their mistakes, a teacher can resort to entire class group for correction. If
other students fail to see the mistake as well, the teacher can then correct
him/herself.

Practical strategies to correct Students’ errors/mistakes

Repetition: This is typically used to correct pronunciation mistakes . A teacher may

verbally repeat the utterance of a student in order to correct the mistake in it. For
example, a beginning-level student may say “I know him”, pronouncing the word
“know” as it is written; a teacher can repeat the word again and correct the
students’ pronunciation.

Reformulation: a teacher may reformulate a mistaken sentence in order to correct

it. Example; “I like to playing soccer”; student’s statement. The teacher’s statement
would be;”oh , you like to play soccer”.

Body language and facial expressions: believe or not, body language and facial
expressions can help students realize their mistakes. A look of confusion coupled
with hand gesture can make students aware of their mistakes.

Students’ repetition: When a student makes a mistake, a teacher may tell him/her
to repeat the utterance and stop him at the mistake he made.

Note-taking: another useful technique for correcting language blunders is by

noting them down. A teacher may take a notebook and write down the recurring
mistakes/errors of his/her students, so that he/she can later on devise a remedial
activity to correct them.

Self or Peer-correction

How to teach the four skills

Language, within the context of TEFL, is comprised of components and skills. The
components of English are vocabulary, functions, and grammar, while the four
skills are listening, reading, writing, and speaking.

The four skills of the language , which are listed above, are usually arranged into
two types receptive and productive. Reading and listening are receptive skills since
students only receive the language. However, writing and speaking are productive,
because students produce the language.

How to teach speaking

Warm-up : As usual it is desirable to start with a warm-up activity, preferably an

activity that is linked somehow to the topic of the speaking lesson. For instance,
during my oral exam, I was supposed to teach speaking with focus on the theme
health and health issues. So, as a warm up activity, I pretended to have some health
issues and told the students (in my case, supervisors) to guess what the illness is.

Pre-speaking : Having both revised some lexical items related to the topic of the
lesson and created a favorable atmosphere for the learning to take place, now it
would be ideal to put students in the context. It would be great if you ask questions
like, “when you are sick, what do you do about it ?”. Once you put them in the
context, you move on to provide them with lexis and exponents they will need to
speak, or “Language input”. You can use an audio, video, or a dialogue. Students
read the dialogue, answer comprehension questions, then you move to highlighting
important language exponents (I have a headache, take a pill). You make students
aware of the language they need to speak by way of exercises or direct questions
that elicits it from them.

While-speaking : Now that the students are equipped with the necessary language
to produce it, you give them clear and specific instructions as to what to do and
how. Also, you explain the roles , if there are any, that students are required to
play. For instance , in my case, I gave students cards with their roles written on
them (it would be even better if you provide them with cues, you are a doctor ).
You give students enough time to prepare their dialogues and rehearse them if
necessary, then, before they start performing, you notify them that they should
deliver a great performance so as to win the “best performance prize”. While
students are performing, you must not neither correct any mistakes nor allow
anyone to do so, instead let them feel free to act and express themselves. You, as
a teacher, will be taking notes of the frequently-made mistakes. After each
performance, invite the entire class for a group applaud. This will boost the affects
of the performers and inspire others to stand up and deliver theirs.

Post-speaking : Previously, the teacher monitored closely the performance of

students and wrote down the mistakes they commonly made. In this stage, the
teacher corrects mistakes with students and sheds

light on some of the features of spoken language, among of which are intonation ,
stress , and others.
How to teach listening

The teaching of listening follows three steps; pre-listening, while-listening, and

post-listening.

Pre-listening : in this stage, the teacher is required to introduce the topic to

students in a fun or tactical way. Let’s say, you have an audio clip about the effects
of smoking on health and would like to put your students in the context. The best
way to do (though there is no best way to do things) is to bring a photo, quote, or
simply by asking students about the effects of smoking on the users’ health. This
way, you put your students in the context and prepare them for the audio clip. After
doing this, you may explain key words to students. You can use pictures, or you can
bring them pictures or definitions of words and ask them to match the word with
its definition of picture.

While-listening : Now that you have given your students an idea about the topic of
your audio-clip, you move to the listening part. The first listening is purposed to
give students a general idea of the audio clip. After this first exposure to the audio
material, you may ask your students about the general idea of the audio. Then, for
the second listening, you ask students some questions in which they will have to
look for specific information in the text.

Post-listening : The teacher’s creativity (personal touch) becomes more apparent

in this stage. In this stage, a teacher may start a debate (are you for or against
smoking ?) , or a discussion in which students express their opinions and share their
ideas with one another. You can also ask them to design a posture, draw a painting,
write a song, devise a play, write a paragraph. Any of the abovementioned activities
can be useful.

How to teach reading

Teaching reading is usually conducted through three main stages; pre-reading,
while-reading, post-reading.

Pre-reading : Each reading passage we expose our students to falls within the scope
of the theme or the topic of a unit. It is always helpful and effective for a teacher
to put students in the context using either a picture, a video, a quote, or a question.
The means used (picture or video) will help students activate their prior knowledge
(schemata) of the topic at hand. For example; you have a reading passage about
the dangers of eating unhealthy food, a picture of an obese person eating
unhealthy food would be sufficient to not only put students in the context, but also
trigger their schemata (prior of knowledge) about the topic. Using the picture or
the title of the reading passage, you may ask your students to predicate what the
reading passage will be about.

While-reading : Having made their predications, students would ideally be

interested in reading the passage in order to check whether their forecasts are true
or not. In the first reading, students just try to pinpoint the general idea of the
passage. Then, once they do that, they move to answer comprehension questions,
true/false statements, making references or inferences. Example; students would
be instructed to infer the meaning of some words from the context, or to identify
what some pronouns refer to (take a look at the English BAC Exam). After doing all
of this, students would be fully aware of the main ideas of the text and would have
at least learned some new words.

Post-reading : The post reading activity gives teachers the chance to be creative. In
this stage, a teacher may instruct students to write a paragraph about the topic
raised in the passage, spark a debate, create a poster, have a discussion, and the
list goes on like that.

In reading, students practice a variety of skills including but not limited to scanning
, skimming, making references, making inferences, predicating, among others.

SKIMMING : reading a passage in search of its general idea.

SCANNING : reading a passage quickly in search of specific information.

How to teach writing

Writing is most certainly the most challenging, given that students are required to
produce language. Hence, teaching writing is as difficult as learning it.

Pre-writing : At this stage, it is essential that the teacher puts students in the
context first (using whatever technique he sees fits). Then, students are usually
supposed to work on a worksheet that typically contains a text with questions to
answer. Students first answer comprehension questions and then they explore the
features of the type of writing they are exposed to by doing tasks ( ex : narrative or
expository). For example, an argumentative essay has its features and its distinctive
structure. Therefore, as a teacher you need to help your students identify its main
components through tasks. (an example of a worksheet will be provided below).
Once students identify the features of the target lesson, you may introduce the
topic that they are required to write about, brainstorm some ideas, and write them
on the board.

While-writing : Students have by now developed a clear image of what to do and

how. Following the model text given to them, students will start their first draft.
Once they finish, the teacher may students to exchange their writings and correct
each other’s mistakes based on a checklist that a teacher provides his students
with. Then, students, who identify their mistakes, may proofread or edit their
writings so as to finalize them.

Post-writing : Having finally finalized their writings, a teacher may be creative in

how he asks his students to display their writings. A teacher may ask his/her
students to read them in front of the class group, or he may establish a writing
exhibition wherein students stick their final products on the walls of the classroom
and tour around to read each other’s works.

How to teach functions

What are functions?

According to the British Council, “functions refer to what items of language actually
do in a real context, as opposed to what they might mean literally. These include
suggesting, criticizing, refusing, agreeing and disagreeing, enquiring, talking about
the past, and giving advice.”

deductive and inductive approaches

Deductive approach to teaching functions : A deductive approach to teaching in

general is a teacher-centered pedagogical strategy that has been heavily criticized
throughout the last decades. When teaching functions through this approach, a
teacher will be inclined to explain the context under which a certain function is
used, introduce verbally the expressions of the function, and instruct students to
practice these functions through exercises.

Inductive approach to teaching functions : This is perhaps the most favorable,

effective approach to teach any language component in the entire EFL realm. This
advantageous position can be ascribed to the fact that this approach is learner-
centered, as opposed to the deductive approach. A teacher who follows this
approach when teaching functions will most likely provide students with the
function in a dialogue, and students notice the context and extract the expressions
of the dialogue. Once students become familiar with the expressions of the
function, the teacher then instructs them to fill in gaps using the expressions. Then,
a teacher instructs his/her students to come up with a dialogue or use the function
to respond to a given set of situations

How to teach grammar

 ASSESSMENTs
What is an assessment?

It is the process whereby teachers gather information about students’ performance

or ability. On the basis of this information, teachers may decide to adjust their
teaching methods and students may consider rectifying their learning strategies.

Types of assessment

Summative assessment : is often a formal type of assessment that is aimed at

making judgments about the performance or ability of students by assigning grades
to them. Summative assessment occurs periodically ; either at the end of year,
semester, or two or more units. Representatives of summative assessment can be
quizzes, exams, tests, and end-term papers. The focus of summative assessment is
directed towards the final product rather than the process. The saying below
summarizes the features of this type of assessment : IT IS ASSESSMENT OF
LEARNING AND TEACHING.

Formative assessment : While summative assessment focuses on the final product

, formative assessment stresses the process. In formative assessment, the teacher
does not allot grades every time he asks them to practice a structure or answer
comprehension questions. Unlike summative assessment, formative assessment
does not take place periodically, but rather constantly (in the form of concept-
checking questions, exercises and other examples of such). The purpose of
formative assessment is not to assign grades to students, but to receive data about
them which can help the teacher adapt his/her teaching methods to meet the
needs of the students. The saying cited below illustrates what formative
assessment is : IT IS ASSESSMENT FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING.

Tests
What is a test?

Brown defines a test as a method of measuring a person’s ability, knowledge or

performance in a given domain. A test is intended to measure the knowledge and
skills one acquires during a sequence of sessions. In short, it is an assessment
instrument that is chiefly intended to turn students’ performance into numbers.

Test types

Proficiency test : it is a type of tests that measures a student’s knowledge of a

language or his/her bility to use that linguistic competence functionally.

Placement test : It is a test that is aimed at sorting test takers into groups so that
they roughly have the same level as other students in the group when they start
studying.

Diagnostic test : It is purposed to pinpoint the strengths and weaknesses of the test
taker. It is usually designed to guide remedial instruction.

Formative test : it is an ongoing process of testing that helps the teachers make
improvements on or change their educational strategies.

Achievement test : it measures what has been learned in a course or a sequence

of courses; it measures the extent to which test takers learned the material
presented in a course.

Designing an effective test

Reliability : A reliable test is a test that is characterized by consistency. A reliable

test is a test that renders the same (consistent) results when it is administered to
the same students in two occasions.

Validity : is an important feature in designing an effective test; it refers to the

extent to which a test measures what it intends to measure. The saying Test ,what
you teach, illustrates what validity means.

Authenticity : is defined as the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of

a given language test task to the feature of TLU (target language use). That is to
say, the test should make use of language that students are familiar with and that
is often based on themes which were previously covered in the class. Also, the test
must make use of authentic materials, since authentic materials help in testing
students in a realistic way.

Practicality : A practical test is a test that usually does not take too much time for
the students to accomplish, has a specific and time-efficient evaluation procedure,
that is, just as the test should be conducted within a timing that is appropriate (5
hours for a test is too much), the test should be relatively easy to correct for the
teacher, a test that takes a teacher too much time to correct is impractical. The
instructions should be clear and marks allotted to each items should be reasonable.

The principles of practicality are encapsulated in the four statements :

• Is not excessively expansive,

• Stays within appropriate time constraints,

• Is relatively easy to administer

• Has a scoring/evaluation procedure that is specific and time-efficient.

Washback effect : refers to the influence a test has on individuals. More

specifically, it refers to the influence the test has on the test takers, students, and
the test designers, teachers. Students, for instance, would realize the mistakes they
have made in a test after its correction and rectify them. The same applies to
teachers who may as well work on improving or changing their pedagogical
strategies.

Classroom management
What is a pedagogical contract?
A pedagogical contract is an implicit or explicit contract that a teacher establishes
with his students at their first encounters. The contract includes principally the
rules of classroom or code of conduct of the classroom. The teacher and students
agree upon the rules and vow to obey them. Any violation of the rules would
subject the violator to a punishment which is determined by the teacher in concord
with the students.

Why is it important to establish code of conduct?

Classroom management problems are among the most troubling issues that
teachers often have to deal with. To minimize classroom management problems or
anything that may hinder the process of learning, like disruptive behavior or
belatedness in part of students, it is essential that you establish your classroom-
rules, which may act as a reference that you rely on in case something undesirable
occurs in the classroom.

How to establish a pedagogical contract with your students?

It is vital that you get to know your students before you establish any contract with
them. Once you do so, you can then ask them what must and mustn’t be done in
the classroom. Then, you may cunningly introduce the rules , agree upon them with
students, and then suggest punishment for those who violate them. If it is possible
you may even stick the rules on the wall of your classroom if you wish.

ANSWERS TO SOME COMMONLY-ASKED

QUESTIONS
How to engage shy students in class activities?
There is no better way to engage shy learners in the process of learning than group
work tasks or activities. Within groups, shy students are more likely to interact
actively with others and make use of their potentials. This has proven to be a
successful educational strategy by many studies conducted in the EFL realm.

How to deal with disruptive students?

Some teachers are inclined to act impulsively and engage in verbal quarrels with
disruptive students , which sometimes amount to physical fights. Such strategy to
deal with disruptive students is not effective in handling successfully with
disruptive behavior. The perfect way to do so is to talk to them privately, get to
know their reasons, and try to get close them in a tactic way. Sometimes, such
students seek to get your attention, but they don’t use the favorable ways to do so.
Hence, it is suggested that disruptive students are always engaged in the process
of learning, so as to minimize the chances of them acting irresponsibly.

How to cater for your students’ needs and different learning styles?

It is commonly known that students have different learning styles and needs. As
teachers of English, we must not only cater for these needs and learning styles, but
also make use of them in the process of learning. Therefore, when planning a
teacher must include activities, games and tasks that include movement, speaking,
listening, and thinking so that students with various learning styles actively engage
in the process of learning.

How to deal with conflict between students?

Like dealing with disruptive students, handling conflicts between students begins
by speaking to them privately , listening to both sides’ stories , and make a
judgment that is fair and in accordance with the classroom rules that you and your
students have set forward.

What are the qualities that a teacher must have?

Patience, diplomacy, tolerance, respect, empathy, charisma, justice…