Discourse Analysis

In this Video We'll cover:

 What is Discourse Analysis
 Types of Discourse Analysis
 Cohesion
 Coherence
 Conversation Analysis
 Turn Taking
 Cooperative Principles
 Hedges
 Implicatures
 Schemas and Scripts

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 Definition:
Discourse Analysis is a method of studying how people use language in different
situations to understand what they really mean and what messages they are
sending. It helps us understand how language is used to create social relationships
and cultural norms.

 Types of Discourse Analysis

Conversation Analysis
Critical discourse Analysis (CDA)
Discursive Psychology

 Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical connections that make a text or
dialogue hang together. It involves the use of cohesive devices such as pronouns,
conjunctions, lexical repetition, and referencing. refers to the grammatical and
lexical devices used to create those connections between sentences.
"Ali Loves Hockey. He is the good player of this game"
"I love pizza, my favorite color is blue, I need to buy some groceries."

Example of Cohesion:
My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he
could. That car worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my
college education. Sometimes I think I'd rather have the convertible.

 Coherence
Coherence, on the other hand, refers to the overall sense and logical organization
of a text. It involves presenting ideas, events, or arguments in a clear and
understandable manner, allowing readers to make sense of the information
presented.

"I love dogs. The weather is really nice today. I think I'll go for a swim later.

Example of Coherence:
"I woke up early in the morning and decided to go for a jogging. As I stepped
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 "I woke up early in the morning and decided to go for a jogging. As I stepped
outside, I noticed dark clouds gathering in the sky. The wind started to blow, and
soon it began to rain heavily. I hurried back home and enjoyed a hot cup of tea
while listening to the soothing sound of raindrops."

 Speech Events
Speech events involve not only the words and utterances used but also the
nonverbal cues, gestures, and contextual factors that contribute to the overall
meaning and effectiveness of the communication.

They can include formal events such as lectures, presentations, and ceremonies, as
well as informal events such as conversations, interviews, and debates. Examples
of speech events include a job interview, a courtroom trial, a radio interview, a
classroom lecture, a political rally, or a casual conversation between friends.

 Conversation Analysis
Turn Taking
Turn-taking in conversational analysis refers to the process by which participants
in a conversation alternate in taking speaking turns.
It involves the management and coordination of speaking opportunities, allowing
each participant to contribute to the conversation in an orderly and balanced
manner.

Example of Turn-taking:
Let's consider a conversation between two friends, Alice and Bob, discussing their
plans for the weekend:

Alice: "Hey Bob, have you made any plans for the weekend?"
Bob: "Not yet, I was thinking of going hiking. How about you?"
Alice: "Hiking sounds great! I've been wanting to explore a new trail nearby. Can
I join you?"
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 I join you?"
Bob: "Sure, that would be awesome! We can meet at the trailhead around 9 am
on Saturday."
Alice: "Perfect! I'll bring some snacks and water. Should we invite Sarah too?"
Bob: "Absolutely, the more, the merrier! Let's invite her and see if she's
interested."

 Cooperative Principle
→ The Cooperative Principle is a concept which outlines the basic principles that
govern effective communication in conversation.
→ It was introduced by philosopher and linguist Paul Grice in his work "Logic and
Conversation" in 1975.
→ Grice proposed that conversation participants implicitly follow these principles
to make their communication more efficient and meaningful.

 Maxim of Quantity
 Maxim of Quality
 Maxim of Relevance
 Maxim of Manner

Maxim of Quantity:
This maxim suggests that speakers should provide an appropriate amount of
information required for the conversation, neither too much nor too little.
Example:
A: "What time is it?"
B: "It's 2:00."
If Person B were to respond with "It's 2:00, and I just had lunch," it would violate
the maxim by including irrelevant information.

 Maxim of Quality:
This maxim states that speakers should provide truthful and accurate information,
avoiding falsehoods or unsupported claims.
Example:
A: "Did you enjoy the movie?"
B: "Yes, I found it entertaining and well-acted."

 Maxim of Relevance:
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 Maxim of Relevance:
This maxim suggests that speakers should provide information that is relevant to
the current topic or the ongoing conversation.
Example:
A: "How was your vacation?"
B: "It was fantastic! The beach was beautiful, and the weather was perfect."
In this example, Person B adheres to the maxim by sharing information directly
related to the vacation

 Maxim of Manner:
This maxim relates to the manner in which speakers should communicate. It
encourages clarity, coherence, and avoiding ambiguity or obscurity.
Example:
A: "Can you please explain how to solve this math problem?"
B: "Sure, first, you multiply the two numbers, then divide by the sum of the
factors, and finally subtract the initial value."

 Hedges
→ Hedges, in language and communication, refer to linguistic devices or expressions
used to mitigate or soften the impact of a statement, make it less absolute or
certain, or indicate a degree of tentativeness or uncertainty. Hedges are often
employed to convey politeness, humility, or to avoid making overly assertive or
dogmatic claims.

Examples of Hedges:
 "I think" or "I believe":
Used to express personal opinions while acknowledging the possibility of other
perspectives or differing views.
Example: "I think we should consider a different approach to solve this
problem."

 "Perhaps" or "Maybe":
These hedges introduce a sense of uncertainty or possibility, allowing for
alternative interpretations or outcomes.
Example:
"Maybe we should try a different strategy and see if it yields better results."

 "To some extent" or "In some cases":

These hedges qualify a statement by acknowledging that it may not be universally

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 These hedges qualify a statement by acknowledging that it may not be universally
applicable but has certain limitations or exceptions.
Example: "To some extent, exercise can help improve overall health."

 "It is possible" or "There is a chance":

These phrases introduce the notion of potential or probability without making
definitive claims or commitments.
Example: "There is a chance we might experience delays due to the weather
conditions."

 Implicatures
Violation of any of four maxims is known as a conversational implicature. It may
occur intentionally or unintentionally, leading to miscommunication or adding
additional meaning beyond the literal interpretation of the words used.

A: "I heard there's a new movie playing at the theater tonight."

B: "I'm busy tonight, unfortunately."
Friend B intentionally violates the Maxim of Relevance

 Background Knowledge
In Discourse Analysis, background knowledge refers to the information, beliefs,
experiences, and cultural understanding that individuals bring to a conversation
or text.

Example
Alex: "Did you hear about the protest at City Hall? It was a real Boston Tea Party
moment."
Sam: "Oh, you mean they threw tea into the harbor?"
Alex: "No, not literally. I meant it was a symbolic act of resistance."

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 (The Boston Tea Party was a political protest that occurred on December 16, 1773,
at Griffin's Wharf in Boston, Massachusetts. American colonists, frustrated and
angry at Britain for imposing “taxation without representation,” dumped 342
chests of tea, imported by the British East India Company into the harbor)

 Schemas and Scripts

Schemas:
▪ Schemas are mental frameworks or structures that represent organized knowledge
about a particular concept, object, event, or situation.
▪ Allow individuals to quickly process and interpret new information based on their
existing knowledge and expectations.
Example of Schemas:
A person's schema for a restaurant might include information about the typical
layout, the presence of tables and chairs, waitstaff, menus, and a general
expectation of ordering, eating, and paying for a meal.

Scripts:
▪ Scripts are a type of schema that represent structured knowledge about a
sequence of events or actions typically observed in specific situations.
▪ Scripts often include social norms, roles, and typical behaviors associated with
specific contexts.
Example of Scripts:
A script for going to a movie theater might involve arriving at the theater,
purchasing tickets, selecting seats, watching the movie, and then exiting the
theater.

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