MODULE 1

I. INTRODUCTION

Before starting to discuss a language, sometimes we are necessary to define it. In

this relation, we may make some questions such as: “What is a language?”, or “What do
you know about a language”, or “What is meant by a language?” Someone’s answer may
be different from that of the other. For instance, he says: “Oh, it is what we use in
communication” or the other says: “It is made up of sentences that convey meaning”, or
perhaps someone else says: “It is a means of communication”. If those definitions are
viewed from the study of language, they are insufficient ones. Let us examine the
following definitions:

A language is system of arbitrary, vocal symbols that permit all people in a given
culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to
communicate or to interact (Finocchioro, in Ramelan 1984)

A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication

(Wardhaugh, in Ramelan, 1984)

A language is arbitrary system of articulated sounds made use of by a group of

humans as a means of carrying on the affairs of their society (Francis, in Ramelan,
1984)

A language is a set of rules enabling speakers to translate information from the

outside world into sound (Gumperz, 1972)

Based on the definitions of a language above, we cay that a language a means of

communication. But, if the definition of a language is used in the study of language, we
must involve the other means of communication that are not categorized as a language.
If we regard a language as consisting of sounds, the fact shows that the other means of
communication may use sounds as its medium. In short, a means of communication
known as a language must have some characteristics that do not belong to the other
means of communication.

III. MODULE OUTCOMES:

1. Define language and learning according to different authorities

2. Discuss how one’s understanding of language determines how once teaches it

3. Share insights on how one’s understanding of the way a learner learns determine one’s

philosophy of education, teaching style, approach, methods, and classroom techniques.

 III. Excite

1. In the nature-nurture debate as it applies to language acquisition, Chomsky

emphasizes .

a. the ‘harmony and mutual dependence’ of nature and nurture

b. the fundamental antagonism of nature and nurture
c. the importance of nature over nurture
d. the importance of nurture over nature

2. The concept of Universal Grammar embodies the idea that .

a. the child is born with an adult-like knowledge of grammar

b. the child acquires Universal Grammar regardless of their native language
c. certain aspects of grammar are universally acquired
d. certain aspects of grammar are innate

3. For Chomsky, a trait is innate if its development does not involve .

a. extraction of information from the environment

b. exposure to information in the environment
c. extraction of Universal Grammar from the environment
d. exposure to Universal grammar in the environment

4. The distinction between core and periphery in Universal Grammar captures the idea
that .

a. some languages have core Universal Grammar, while others have peripheral
Universal Grammar
b. core Universal Grammar is innate while peripheral Universal Grammar is
acquired
c. some aspects of grammar are universal (core) while others are idiosyncratic to
particular languages (periphery)
d. some aspects of grammar are central to Universal Grammar (core), while others
are on the edge (periphery)

5. Parameters of variation account for .

a. variety among different languages on the periphery

b. variety among different languages as expressed within Universal Grammar
c. different kinds of Universal Grammar across the world’s languages
d. innate variation among children in their acquisition of Universal Grammar

6. Arguments in support of Universal Grammar include .

a. speed and ease of acquisition

b. speed and complexity of acquisition
c. no teaching despite extensive exposure to linguistic input
d. no teaching despite the complexity of the linguistic input

7. Chomsky (1975) argues that the child is exposed to a very limited sample of
language because .

a. parents in some cultures do not talk to their children

b. the child uses a finite sample of language to acquire a finite set of rules
c. there is a finite number of possible sentences
d. there is an infinite number of possible sentences

8. Young children could not be taught language directly because .

 a. they lack the necessary metalinguistic skills
b. parents lack the necessary metalinguistic skills
c. most parents have not been trained in language teaching
d. CDS has no effect on metalinguistic skills

9. With respect to speed of acquisition, language is acquired more quickly than .

a. Svisual acuity
b. object permanence
c. conservation
d. communication

10. The poverty of the stimulus argument is based on the assumption that the child
.

a. cannot learn language from an impoverished linguistic stimulus

b. cannot acquire Universal Grammar from an impoverished linguistic stimulus
c. knows more about language than other cognitive capacities
d. knows more about language than could be learned from experience

IV.

Based on the definitions of a language above, we can state some characteristics

of human language, as follows:

1. A language is a system.

2. A language is said to be arbitrary

3. A language is social.

4. A language is spoken.

5. A language is productive or creative.

6. A language is complete for its native speakers.

1. A language is systematic. (It follows a certain rule, proper arrangement of words)

Since a language is said to be a system, it must be systematic in nature. The

systematisms of a language can be seen from the fact that, take an example, if we regard
a language as being made up of sounds, we find out that only certain sounds occur in
any one language that these occur in certain regular and predictable patterns. In English,
for instance, when a name for a new shampoo was coined, Prell was possible but not
Srell, because the cluster sr does not occur in the language.

The idea of systematicness of language as it is found in the arrangement of words

implies the idea of predictability. In an English sentence a noun is usually preceded by a
determiner and so when someone hears a determiner, he can anticipate that a noun is
following it; this noun, which may function as the subject of a sentence, will be followed
by a verb as the main part of the predicate; this verb will take an -s or –es ending when
the preceding noun functioning as subject is third person singular actor and the sentence
is in the simple present tense (Ramelan, 1984 : 45)

2. A language is said to be arbitrary

A language is said to be arbitrary. This means that it is firstly created on the basis
of social agreement. In this relation, there is no reasonable explanation, for instance, why
a certain four-footed domestic animal is called dog in English, asu in Javanese, or anjing
in Indonesian. Giving a name of the animal is really based on the agreement among the
members of the social groups. On other words, Javanese, English and Indonesian people
made an agreement to call the animal as asu, dog, and anjing respectively. In this relation,
George Yule (1987 : 118-19) states that the linguistic form has no natural relationship
with that four-legged barking object. Recognizing this general fact about language leads
us to conclude that a property of linguistic signs is their arbitrary relationship with the
objects they are used to indicate.

3. A language is social.

Thirdly. a language is social. We all know that a language is socially acquired,

learned and then used. If this statement is related to language acquisition and/or
language learning, we may have an illustration that a new-born child acquires a
communicative competence with a given language in a speech community; in the next
step, he learns and uses the language in a speech community. Thus, a language is not
genetically transmitted; but, it is socio-culturally acquired and/or learned.

In social context, a language is not only means for communication but also it is an
important medium for establishing and maintaining social relationship. For instance, there
are two persons sitting in a waiting room of bus station; they begin to introduce and talk
to each other. In short, they know each other. At the time of introducing, talking and
knowing each other, they establish social relationship and they will probably maintain their
social relationship in future time. Establishing and maintaining social relationship must
involve the use of language.

4. A language is spoken.

Basically, a language is always spoken. This statement implies that all people the
world over, regardless of their race or ethnic group, always speak a language. This means
that they always have a way of communicating ideas by using sounds that are produced
by their speech organs.

Human language can be said to be an oral-auditory communication system. Why?

Oral-auditory communication has many advantages over other possible means of
communication. A speaker and a listener do not need an instrument, as writers and
readers do. This is to say that the writers and readers need writing implements and written
texts respectively. A speaker and a listener do not look at one another, as the deaf using
hand-gestures language do. One can speak and listen while carrying out other activities,
as long as they do not involve the mouth and the ear (Taylor, p. 6).

5. A language is productive or creative.

Another characteristic of human language is that it is productive or creative. This

refers to the ability of native speakers to understand and produce any number of
sentences (which they never heard before) in their native language.

The first aspect of the creative use of language is that a human being can say
things that have never been said before. If we think back about our talk we have just had
with our friend, we may be certain that our conversation consisted of sentences that
neither we nor our conversant have heard or produced before.

6. A language is complete for its native speakers A language is a part of human

culture.
Beside it is used for establishing and maintaining social relationship, it is used for
expressing human culture. A language is complete for its native speakers to express their
own culture. If a language is regarded as a system of symbol, it can be used as
constitutive, cognitive, expressive, and evaluative symbols. A constitutive symbol refers
to a symbol of human belief to God or supernatural power; for instance, human beings
pray to God by using a language. A cognitive symbol refers to a symbol created by human
beings to recognize and introduce human knowledge about their environment.

An expressive symbol refers to a symbol used by human being to express their emotion.
An evaluative symbol refers to a symbol used by human being to state something good
or bad, honest or dishonest, and the like.

Functions of a language

Forms of sentences of a language generally serve specific function. The sentences

are created, among others, on the basis of purposes. The purposes of creating sentences
are (a) to inform something or someone to the audiences; the sentences created are
called statements (declarative sentences), (b) to question about something or someone;
the resultant forms are interrogative sentences, (c) to ask or command someone to do
something; the resultant forms are imperative sentences, and (d) to show a surprise on
someone or something; the resultant forms are exclamatory sentences.

Traditionally, there are three functions of a language. These three functions of a

language are actually related from one to another. For the sake of discussion, they are
discussed in separate ways. The prime function of a language has been assumed to be
cognitive; a language is used to express ideas, concepts, and thought. The second
function is said to be evaluative; a language has been viewed as a means of conveying
attitudes and values. The third function of a language is referred to be affective; a
language is used by its speakers to transmit emotions and feelings.

According to Mary Finocchiaro, there are six functions of a language are; they are
as follows:

1. Personal. The personal function enables the user of a language to express his
innermost thoughts; his emotions such as love, hatred, and sorrow; his needs, desires,
or attitudes; and to clarify or classify ideas in his mind.

2. Interpersonal. The interpersonal function enables him to establish and maintain good
social relations with individuals and groups; to express praise, sympathy, or joy at
another’s success; to inquire about health; to apologize; to invite.

3. Directive. The directive function enables him to control the behaviour of others through
advice, warnings, requests, persuasion, suggestions, orders, or discussion.

4. Referential. The referential function enables him to talk about objects or events in the
immediate setting or environment or in the culture; to discuss the present, the past,
and the future.

5. Metalinguistic. The metalinguistic function enables him to talk about language, for
example, “What does mean?”

6. Imaginative. The imaginative function enables him to use language creatively in

rhyming, composing poetry, writing, or speaking (1989:1-2).

According to Roman Jacobson (in Bell, Roger T. 1976:83), functions of a language are
related to aspects.

ASPECT FUNCTION
Addresser Emotive, expressive, affective
Addressee Conative
Context Referential, cognitive, denotative
Message Poetic
 Contact Phatic, interaction management
Code Metalinguistic

Definition of Language by Different Scholars and Linguists

If you ask someone else what is the best way to communicate with yourself?
Without any hesitation or hindrance, he will reply to you ‘definitely language’. So language
is the most influential ways to communicate with each other. But many of us want to get
the answer to the question ‘what is the definition of language’? In fact, everybody is
capable of attempting this question and answering it somehow or other. Nonetheless, we
are not able to find a single definition of language that has completely explained the
phenomenon in that particular question and give us the satisfaction and stopped scholars,
authors and linguists to define the exact answer of that question.

However, language is a complex human phenomenon as all attempts to define it has

proved inadequate. In brief, we can say, language is an ‘original noise’ used in actual
social situations by human beings. Language is basically a system of conventional,
spoken or written symbols by means of which human beings are used to communicate
with each other.

Let us now go through the definition of language delivered by different scholars, linguists,
authors and reference books.

Aristotle
Speech is the representation of the experience of the mind. That is according to Aristotle,
language is a speech sound produced by human beings in order to express their ideas,
emotions, thoughts, desires and feelings.

Saussure
Language is an arbitrary system of signs constituted of the signifier and signified. In other
words, language is first a system based on no logic or reason; secondly, the system
covers both objects and expressions used for objects; and thirdly objects and expressions
are arbitrarily linked; and finally, expressions include sounds and graphemes used by
humans for generating speech and writing respectively for the purpose of communication.

Sapir
According to Sapir, language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily
produced sounds. The definition of Sapir expresses that language is mainly concerned
with only human beings and constituted a system of sounds produced by them for
communication.

Bloomfield
The totality of the utterances that can be made in a speech community is the language of
that speech community. Bloomfield’s definition of language focuses on the utterances
produced by all the people of a community, and hence overlooks writing. Besides, he
stresses form, not meaning, as the basis of language.

Bloch and Trager

According to Bloch and Trager, a language is a system of arbitrary vocal sounds by
means of a social group cooperates. In their definition of language, they point out that,
language is an arbitrary system, vocal sounds, way of communication, and collectivity.

Noam Chomsky
Noam Chomsky says the language is the inherent capability of the native speakers to
understand and form grammatical sentences. A language is a set of (finite or infinite)
sentences, each finite length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. This definition
of language considers sentences as the basis of a language. Sentences may be limited
or unlimited in number, and are made up of only limited components.

Derbyshire
Derbyshire says the language is undoubtedly a kind of means of communication among
human beings. It consists primarily of vocal sounds. It is articulatory, systematic, symbolic
and arbitrary. This definition of Derbyshire clearly utters, language is the best source of
communication. It also portrays how human language is formed and what are the
fundamental principles of language.

Lyons
According to Lyons, languages are the principal systems of communication used by
particular groups of human beings within the particular society of which they are
members. Especially Lyons points out that, language is the best communicative system
of human beings by particular social groups.

Wardhaugh
A language is a system of arbitrary vocal sounds used for human communication. This
definition of language by Wardhaugh mainly insists on arbitrariness, vocal sounds,
humans and communication.

Patanjali
Indian linguist Patanjali utters, language is that human expression which is produced by
different speech organs of human beings. Through speech organs, humans produced
several expressions which are converted to language.

Encyclopedia Britannica
Language is a system of conventional or written symbols by means of which human
beings as members of social groups and participants in its culture, communicate. In other
words, it says the language is a system of communication of which human beings express
themselves.

PLATO
Language is essentially a statement of one's mind by means onomata (name
objects or something) and rhemata (speech), which is a reflection of the idea of
someone in the flow of air through the mouth.

Harimurti Kridalaksana
Language is a symbol system sounds an arbitrary language that allows people
to work together, interact, and identify.

WILLIAM A. Haviland
Language is a system of sounds that when combined according to certain rules
pose meanings can be captured by all the people who speak the language.

Wittgenstein
Language is a form of thinking that can be understood, in touch with reality,
and has the form and structure of logical

According Wibowo
Language is a system of symbols that are meaningful and articulate sound
(generated by said tool) that are arbitrary and conventional, which is used as a
means of communication by a group of men to give birth to feelings and
thoughts.
1. “A change in human disposition or capability that persists over a period
of time and is not simply ascribable to processes of growth.”
— From The Conditions of Learning by Robert Gagne
2. “Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or
behavior due to experience. This definition has three components: 1)
the duration of the change is long-term rather than short-term; 2) the
locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge in
memory or the behavior of the learner; 3) the cause of the change is the
learner’s experience in the environment rather than fatigue, motivation,
drugs, physical condition or physiologic intervention.”
–From Learning in Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Richard E.
Mayer
3. “We define learning as the transformative process of taking in
information that—when internalized and mixed with what we
have experienced—changes what we know and builds on what we do.
It’s based on input, process, and reflection. It is what changes us.”
–From The New Social Learning by Tony Bingham and Marcia Conner
4. “It has been suggested that the term learning defies precise definition
because it is put to multiple uses. Learning is used to refer to (1) the
acquisition and mastery of what is already known about something, (2)
the extension and clarification of meaning of one’s experience, or (3) an
organized, intentional process of testing ideas relevant to problems. In
other words, it is used to describe a product, a process, or a function.”
–From Learning How to Learn: Applied Theory for Adults by R.M. Smith
5. “Acquiring knowledge and skills and having them readily available from
memory so you can make sense of future problems and opportunities.”
(Listen to an interview with one of the authors.)
From Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning by Peter C.
Brown, Henry L. Roediger III, Mark A. McDaniel
6. “A process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience
and increases the potential of improved performance and future
learning.”
From How Learning Works: Seven Research-Based Principles for
Smart Teaching by Susan Ambrose, et al.
7. “The process of gaining knowledge and expertise.”
From The Adult Learner by Malcolm Knowles
8. “Learning involves strengthening correct responses and weakening
incorrect responses. Learning involves adding new information to your
memory. Learning involves making sense of the presented material by
attending to relevant information, mentally reorganizing it, and
connecting it with what you already know.”
From eLearning and the Science of Instruction by Ruth C. Clark and
Richard E. Mayer
9. “A persisting change in human performance or performance
potential…[which] must come about as a result of the learner’s
experience and interaction with the world.”
From Psychology of Learning for Instruction by M. Driscoll
10. “Learning is a process that occurs within nebulous environments
of shifting core elements – not entirely under the control of the
individual. Learning (defined as actionable knowledge) can reside
outside of ourselves (within an organization or a database), is focused
on connecting specialized information sets, and the connections that
 enable us to learn more are more important than our current state of
knowing.”
From Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age by George
Seimens

Task 1. PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT

WORD/TAG CLOUDING
Directions: Create a word cloud with Language and Learning as two big
words based on the common concepts presented above. You may use
photoshop or any software applications available to you. Upload your output
on our FB PAGE and GOOGLE CLASSROM.

Example:

RUBRICS:
CONCEPT : 40 %
RELATEDNESS : 30%
PRESENTATION (ARTISTICALLY) : 30%

Task 2: ESSAY
Directions: Answer the following questions briefly and concisely.
1. How does learning take place?
2. How can a person ensure success in language learning?
3. What is the optimal interrelationship of cognitive, affective, and physical
domains for successful language learning?
4. What are the effects of varying methodological approaches, textbooks,
materials, teacher styles, and institutional factors?