FUNCTIONS

17 FEBRUARY 2024
REVISION: 1899

AZIZ MANVA
[email protected]

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.4 Transformations 151
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................. 2 3.5 Shifts, Scales and Reflections 155
3.6 Preparing for Calculus 161
Part I: Functions 3
4. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS .................... 162
1. FUNCTION BASICS .................................. 3
4.1 Graphing Rational Functions 162
1.1 Functional Operations 3 4.2 Method of Undetermined Coefficients 164
1.2 Function Definition: Input-Output Rules 9 4.3 Partial Fractions 176
1.3 Evaluating and Finding Functions 25 4.4 Wavy Curve: Polynomials 183
1.4 Even and Odd Functions 35 4.5 Wavy Curve: Rational 190
1.5 Domain 41
1.6 Range 59 5. FLOOR, CEILING AND FRACTIONAL
1.7 Quadratic Functions 69 FUNCTIONS ............................................. 193
2. COMPOSITE, INVERSE AND PIECE- 5.1 Basics 193
WISE FUNCTIONS ..................................... 85 5.2 Transformations 204
5.3 Equations 208
2.1 Composite Functions 85 5.4 More Equations 217
2.2 Inverse Functions: Tabular 97 5.5 Expressions 220
2.3 Inverse Functions: Graphical 102
2.4 Inverse Functions: Algebraic 107 6. RELATIONS......................................... 221
2.5 Domain and Range 116
6.1 Relations 221
2.6 Self Inverse Functions 122
6.2 Relations 222
2.7 Piece-Wise Functions 126
6.3 Relations on the Coordinate Plane 227
3. GRAPHING FUNCTIONS ....................136 6.4 Counting Arguments 229
6.5 Function as a type of Relation 230
3.1 Horizontal Asymptotes 136 6.6 Types of Function 231
3.2 Vertical Asymptotes 143 6.7 More about Relations 231
3.3 Intercepts and Sign Diagrams 147

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PART I: FUNCTIONS
1. FUNCTION BASICS
1.1 Functional Operations
A. Background
The common arithmetic operations are:
➢ Adding: +
➢ Subtracting: −
➢ Multiplication: ×
➢ Division: ÷
We also learn about
➢ Exponentiation: 𝑎𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑏 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
➢ Remainders: 5 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 3) = 2
Each of the operations above is associated with a sign, which serves as convenient notation, or shorthand, for
indicating the operation. It is also possible to define your own operations.

Example 1.1: Cost of Oranges

Nisha needs to buy oranges from the market. The vendor charges her 50 cents per orange, and $2 for the bag to
carry the oranges in. She buys 5 Oranges on Monday, and 6 Oranges on Tuesday. Each day, she needs a separate
bag. Find the money she has to pay the vendor on each day.

5 𝑂𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 5 × 0.5 + 2 = 2.5 + 2 = 4.5, 6 𝑂𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 6 × 0.5 + 2 = 3 + 2 = 5

Example 1.2: Defining a function for the cost of oranges

Nisha needs to buy oranges from the market. The vendor charges her 50 cents per orange, and $2 for the bag to
carry the oranges in. Since she needs oranges frequently, she creates a symbol to denote the cost of oranges,
including the cost of the bag.
Cost of 𝑛 oranges =⊗ 𝑛
A. Write ⊗ 𝑛 in cents and in dollars.
B. Let 𝑥 dollars be the cost of six oranges. Find 𝑥.
C. Using the value of 𝑥 from the previous part, find the cost of 𝑥 oranges.

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴: ⊗ 𝑛 = (50𝑛 + 200) 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = (0.5𝑛 + 2) 𝑑𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐵: 𝑥 = ⊗ 6 = 0.5 × 6 + 2 = 3 + 2 = 5
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐶: ⊗ 𝑥 = ⊗ 5 = 0.5 × 5 + 2 = 2.5 + 2 = 4.5 𝑑𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠

B. Defining your own operations

1.3: Defining your own operations

Mathematically, you can define any operation that you wish, so as it is meaningful.

➢ Whether it makes sense, or is useful is secondary to the math.

Example 1.4
Define

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3𝑎 − 2𝑏
𝑎⊗𝑏=
4
A. 2 ⊗ 4
B. 3 ⊗ 2

3(2) − 2(4) 6 − 8 2 1
2⊗4= = =− =−
4 4 4 2
3(3) − 2(2) 9 − 4 5
3⊗2= = =
4 4 4

1.5: Operation Expressions

If you have multiple defined operation, you can use order of operations to decide the priority. In particular,
brackets will take the highest priority (unless otherwise specified)

Example 1.6
3𝑎 − 2𝑏
𝑎⊗𝑏=
4
Given the definition above, find the value of:
4⊗1
1⊗4

Calculate the numerator and the denominator separately:

3(4) − 2(1) 12 − 2 10 5
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟: 4 ⊗ 1 = = = =
4 4 4 2
3(1) − 2(4) 3 − 8 5
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟: 1 ⊗ 4 = = =−
4 4 4

The expression that we want is:

5
4⊗1 5 5 5 4
= 2 = ÷ (− ) = × (− ) = −2
1 ⊗ 4 −5 2 4 2 5
4

Example 1.7
𝑥 3
Define ≪ 𝑥 = + . Find:
3 𝑥
A. ≪ 3+ ≪ 2
≪4
B. ≪1

Part A
3 3
≪3=+ =1+1=2
3 3
2 3 4 9 13 1
≪2= + = + = =2
3 2 6 6 6 6
1 1
≪ 3+ ≪ 2 = 2 + 2 = 4
6 6
Part B
4 3 16 9 25
≪4⇒ + = + =
3 4 12 12 12

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1 3 10
≪1=
+ =
3 1 3
≪4 25 10 25 3 5
=≪ 4 ÷≪ 1 = ÷ = × =
≪1 12 3 12 10 8

Note that you cannot “cancel” the ≪ operator in numerator and denominator. In this case, it gives an incorrect
answer.
≪4 4
= =4
≪1 1

1.8: Commutative Property

The commutative property lets you interchange the order of operations.

Example 1.9
A. Is multiplication commutative?
B. Is subtraction commutative?
C. Is division commutative?
D. Is addition commutative?

𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑌𝑒𝑠
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑁𝑜
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑁𝑜
𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑌𝑒𝑠

Example 1.10
3𝑎 − 2𝑏
𝑎⊗𝑏=
4
Given the definition above, is 𝑎 ⊗ 𝑏 commutative?

We already saw that:

3(4) − 2(1) 12 − 2 10 5
4⊗1= = = =
4 4 4 2
3(1) − 2(4) 3 − 8 5
1⊗4= = =−
4 4 4

Hence:
4⊗1≠ 1⊗4
And in general, the operation defined is not commutative.

1.11: Equations
We can use defined operations to make equations. And those equations can be solved to find the value of
variables.

Example 1.12
3𝑎 − 2𝑏
𝑎⊗𝑏=
4
Given the definition above, find the value of 𝑥 if
𝑥 ⊗ 2 = −3

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3𝑥 − 2(2)
= −3
4
3𝑥 − 4 = −12
3𝑥 = −8
8
𝑥=−
3

Example 1.13
Define 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎, 𝑏 are any two numbers. For example
4 ∗ 3 = 2 × 4 + 2 × 3 − 4 × 3 = 8 + 6 − 12 = 2
If 3 ∗ 𝑥 = 4, then 𝑥 is (NMTC, Primary-Screening, 2006/12)

Use the definition to evaluate the value of 3 ∗ 𝑥:

2×3+2×𝑥−3×𝑥 =4
6 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 = 4
−𝑥 = 4 − 6
−𝑥 = −2
𝑥=2

Example 1.14
1 1
Define △ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 2. Find the value of 𝑀𝑎𝑥 {△ 2,△ 4,△ ,△ 0.3} − 𝑀𝑖𝑛 {△ 2,△ 4,△ ,△ 0.3}
2 2

△
⏟ 2 = 3(2) + 2 = 6 + 2 = 8
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥=2
△ 4 = 3(4) + 2 = 12 + 2 = 14
⏟
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥=4
1 1 3 7
△ 4 = 3( ) + 2 = 3( ) + 2 = + 2 =
⏟ 2 2 2 2
1
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥=
2
△ 0.3 = 3(0.3) + 2 = 0.9 + 2 = 2.9
⏟
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥=0.3

𝑀𝑎𝑥 − 𝑀𝑖𝑛 = 14 − 2.9 = 11.1

Note that as 𝑥 increases, Δ𝑥 also increases, and hence, we only need to find the values of △ 4 and △ 0.3

1.15: Distributive Property

The distributive property holds if you are able to “distribute” an operation over brackets. For example:
𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 ⇒ 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example 1.16
Is multiplication distributive over subtraction?

Substitute 𝑐 = −𝑥 in 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐:

𝑎(𝑏 + (−𝑥)) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎(−𝑥)
𝑎(𝑏 − 𝑥) = 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝑥

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Hence, multiplication is distributive over subtraction.

Example 1.17
Define △ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 2.
A. Is △ 𝑥 distributive over addition?
B. For any value of 𝑥, △ (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) =△ 𝑥1 +△ 𝑥2 + 𝑐. Find the value of 𝑐.

Part A
The distributive properties would imply:
△ (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) =△ 𝑥1 +△ 𝑥2

This does not hold in general because the LHS add 2 once, while the RHS adds 2 twice. For example, consider
𝑥1 = 0, 𝑥2 = 0
△ (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) =△ (0 + 0) =△ (0) = 0 + 2 = 2
△ 0 +△ 0 = (0 + 2) + (0 + 2) = 4

We can also do this algebraically:

LHS =△ (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) = 3(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) + 2
RHS =△ 𝑥1 +△ 𝑥2 = 3𝑥1 + 2 + 3𝑥2 + 2 = 3(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) + 4 ≠ 𝐿𝐻𝑆
Part B
From the above:
△ (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) = 3(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) + 2 = 3(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) + 4 − 2 =△ (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) − 2
△ (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) =△ (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) − 2
𝑐 = −2
C. Nested Operations

1.18: Nested Operations

We put one defined operation inside another defined operation using parentheses.

Example 1.19
Define ⊠ 𝑧 to be the sum of the factors of an integer z. Evaluate:
⊠ 1 +⊠ 2 + ⋯ +⊠ 2023

Note that any number has factors which are both positive and negative. For example:
⊠ 2 = −2 − 1 + 1 + 2 = 0
And this is true in general.

Hence:
⊠ 1 +⊠ 2 + ⋯ +⊠ 2023 = 0 + 0 + ⋯ + 0 = 0

Example 1.20
Define ⊠ 𝑦 to be the sum of the positive factors of an integer 𝑦.
A. Find ⊠ 6
B. Find ⊠ 9
C. Find ⊠ 7. Hence, find ⊠ (⊠ 7)
D. Find ⊠ [⊠ (⊠ 5)]
E. Find ⊠ (⊠ −2)
F. Find the numbers ⊠ 𝑧 such that ⊠ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧

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G. Find the smallest value of 𝑦 such that ⊠ 𝑦 = 2𝑦

Parts A and B
⊠ 6 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 6 = 12
⊠ 9 = 1 + 3 + 9 = 13

Part C

⊠7 = 1+7 = 8
⊠ (⊠ 7) =⊠ (1 + 7) =⊠ (8) = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 = 15

Part D
⊠ [⊠ (⊠ 5)] =⊠ [⊠ (6)] =⊠ [12] = 28

Part E
⊠ (⊠ −2) =⊠ (1 + 2) =⊠ 3 = 1 + 3 = 4

Part D:
⊠ 𝑧 for positive integers is always greater than the number.
⊠1=1
⊠ 𝑧 for negative integers is always positive. Hence, all negative numbers will satisfy the requirement.
𝑥 < 0 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 = 1

Example 1.21
𝑎2
The operation ⊗ is defined for all nonzero numbers by 𝑎 ⊗ 𝑏 = 𝑏
. Determine [(1 ⊗ 2) ⊗ 3] − [1 ⊗ (2 ⊗ 3)].
(AMC 8 2000/17)

1 2
2
1 2 2 ( ) 12 1 3 1 9 8 2
[( ) ⊗ 3] − [1 ⊗ ( )] = [ 2 ] − [ ] = − = − =− =−
2 3 3 4 12 4 12 12 12 3
3

D. Back-Calculations
If we are given the output to a defined operation, we can work backwards to find the input.

Example 1.22
Suppose that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 means 3𝑎 − 𝑏. What is the value of 𝑥 if 2 ∗ (5 ∗ 𝑥) = 1? (AMC 8 2016/11)

2 ∗ (5
⏟ 6 − (5
⏟ ∗ 𝑥) = 1 ⇒ ⏟ ⏟ ∗ 𝑥) = 1 ⇒ 6 − (15 − 𝑥) = 1 ⇒ 6 − 15 + 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 = 10
𝒂 𝑏 𝟑×𝟐 =𝟏𝟓−𝒙

E. Multi-Variable Defined Operations

It is possible to define operations that have more than one input. This works the same way as a single input.

Example 1.23
𝑥 𝑦 (3†5)+( 7†4)
Define 𝑥 † 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑥 . Calculate 6†2

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Example 1.24
(3†5)+( 7†4)
Define 𝑎⋀𝑏⋀𝑐 = . Calculate 6†2

F. Commutative Property
The commutative property says that interchanging the numbers does not matter in multiplication. For example
3×5=5×3
The commutative property may or may not hold in defined operations.

Example 1.25
Define the operation ⋇ by 𝑎 ⋇ 𝑏 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑏. What is (3 ⋇ 5) − (5 ⋇ 3)? (AMC 10 2007/2)

The operation is not guaranteed to be commutative. So, we cannot say that:

(3 ⋇ 5) − (5 ⋇ 3) = 0
Rather, we work it out using the definition:
(3 ⋇ 5) − (5 ⋇ 3) = (3 + 5)5 − (5 + 3)3 = 8 × 5 − 8 × 3 = 8 × 2 = 16

G. Associative Property

1.2 Function Definition: Input-Output Rules

A. Definitions and Basics

1.26: Definition
A function is a rule that associates 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 with each input.

Example 1.27
A rule associates two outputs with each input. Is it a function?

𝑁𝑜.

1.28: Notation
Functions are usually denoted using single letters. 𝑓 and 𝑔 are very common letters to use. Other letters can
also be used.

𝑦
⏟ = 𝑓( ⏟
𝑥 )
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑: 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑥

➢ We commonly use the variable 𝑦 to represent the output

➢ We commonly use the variable 𝑥 to represent the input

Example 1.29
𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑛)

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡: 𝑧

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𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡: 𝑛
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑔

1.30: Inputs
The input for a function can be any kind of number, or sometimes not even a number. Some specific cases which
are of interest are:
1
➢ Discrete: Eg: {−2, 3,6,9,12, 2.5, 3 }
2
➢ Continuous. Eg: −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 12

Example 1.31
Let
ℝ, 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝕎, 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
ℕ, 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
ℂ, 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
ℚ, 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

A. 𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑛) where 𝑝 is the number of pizzas I order for a party, and 𝑛 is the number of people attending
the party. What set does 𝑛 belong to?
B. 𝑠 = 𝑓(ℎ) where 𝑠 is the clothing size for a school uniform, and ℎ is the height of the student. What set
does ℎ belong to?

𝑛∈𝕎
ℎ∈ℝ

1.32: Rule
The rule can be:
➢ Mathematical
➢ Logical/verbal
➢ Tabular
➢ Graphical
➢ Ordered Pairs

Any form that precisely associates a single output with any valid input.

Example 1.33
Associate each form of the function below with one of the following ways of presentation:
A. Logical/verbal
B. Mathematical
C. Specified in a table
D. Ordered Pairs

Form 1: 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 5
Form 2: 𝑦 is the output obtained by subtracting 5 from the input.
Form 3:(𝑥, 𝑦) = {(1, −4)(2, −3)(0, −5 )(8,3)}
Form 4:
Input 1 2 0 8

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Output -4 -3 -5 3

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 1: 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 2:
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑙
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 3: 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟

1.34: Functions as Input-Output Machine

Function
Input Output
Machine
A function can be thought of as an input-output machine.
Every input the function gets has some process applied to
it and this process then results in an output.
In the function machine analogy, we do not focus too much on the method by which the function is converted
from the input into the output.

1.35: Mathematical Functions

Functions can be defined using mathematical rules. The maths that you have learnt, and are going to learn
(linear, quadratic, polynomial, trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic) will be very useful here.

Example 1.36
A function has an output which is double its input. Write the function as a:
A. Mathematical Rule
B. Logical/Verbal Rule
C. Input-Output Table
D. Set of Ordered Pairs
E. Graph
F. Ordered Pairs on a Graph

𝐌𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐑𝐮𝐥𝐞

𝑦= 𝑓
⏟ ( ⏟
𝑥 ) = 2𝑥
⏟
𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
For example:

𝑓
⏟ ( ⏟
6 ) = 12
⏟ , 𝑓(0.3) = 0.6
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Logical or Verbal Rule:
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Input-Output Rule
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 − 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑹𝒖𝒍𝒆
Input 𝑥 3 5 3 0.2 𝑥
4
Output 𝑓(𝑥) 6 10 6 0.4 2𝑥
4
Set of Ordered Pairs
(𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,2), (2,4), (3,6), …
Graph

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Set of Ordered Pairs on a Graph

1.37: Logical Functions

A function does not have to be mathematical. It only needs to associate each input with an output. For instance,
a function might be associated with the following
➢ Input: Student, Output: Grade
➢ Input: Name of Person, Output: City where the person lives
➢ Input: Person, Output: Aadhar Number of the Person

Example 1.38
𝑟(𝑥) is a function that associates a student with a roll number. State this function and give the following data in
an input-output table.

𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: {(𝑇𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑎
⏟ ,⏟
𝐴 − 23) , (𝐷𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑑
⏟ ,⏟
𝐵 − 14) (𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑠
⏟ ,⏟
𝐴 − 7)}
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒙 𝒚 𝑺𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝑵𝒐

𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒: 𝑟(𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡

Input-Output Table
Input Teertha David Carlos . . . 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡
Output 𝐴 − 23 𝐵 − 14 𝐴−7 . . . 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑁𝑜

B. Checking for Functions

1.39: Checking for a Function

To be a function, a rule must meet two conditions:
➢ There must be no input that does not have an output.

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➢ Every input must be associated with exactly one output

Things which are valid:

➢ Inputs can be repeated
➢ Outputs can be repeated (in other words, it is not necessary for the output of each input to be unique)
➢
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 − 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Example 1.40
Input 3 2 5 6 1 5
Check whether the input-output table given represents a
function. Output 4 8 7 4 9 7.5

The table has 5 as an input twice (see below). And it has different outputs for the two 5’s.

𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 − 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑹𝒖𝒍𝒆

Input 3 2 5 6 1 5
Output 4 8 7 4 9 7.5

Hence, the above table does not represent a function.

Example 1.41 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 − 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑹𝒖𝒍𝒆

Does the given input-output table represent a function? Input 3 2 5 6 1 5
Output 4 8 3 4 9 0.75
4
There is only one input that gets repeated, and that is
3
5→ , 5 → 0.75
4
But note that
3
= 0.75
4
And hence every input is mapped to precisely one output.
The fact that 5 as an input occurs twice is not a problem.

Example 1.42: Input-Output Child Roshni Rishi Radha Jay Vishal Jyoti
Table City London New Toronto London Amsterdam Geneva
York
Does this input-output table giving the
favorite city of different children represent a function where the child is the input, and the city is the output?

Note that two different children have the same output, which is London. This is not an issue. Different inputs
can have the same output.

Given that the table above represents a function, 𝐶𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑓(𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑). Also, find:
A. 𝑓(𝑅𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑛𝑖)
B. 𝑓(𝑅𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑖)

𝑓(𝑅𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑛𝑖) = 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑛
𝑓(𝑅𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑖) = 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑌𝑜𝑟𝑘

Example 1.43: Input-Output Table Time 3.00 9.00 12.00 3.00 6.00
Does this input-output table giving the temperature at a Temperature 28 26 24 22 24

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certain time of the day with the time of the day as an input, and the temperature as an output represent a
function.

This table does not represent a function. The input

3.00
Occurs twice, and has two different outputs.

Example 1.44
Suggest a way to make the table from the prior example into a function.

One way to make this a function to check the real-world interpretation. If there is a different value of the output
because one time is 3.00 pm, and the other is 3.00 am, then the table can be converted into a function by being
precise about the input.

Method I
By using am and pm for the time:
Time 3.00 pm 9.00 pm 12.00 am 3.00 am 6.00 am
Temperature 28 26 24 22 24

Method II
By using a 24-hour clock instead of a 12-hour clock:
Time 3.00 pm 9.00 pm 12.00 am 3.00 am 6.00 am
Temperature 28 26 24 22 24

Then the table above is a function.

1.45: Equations
Equations are a standard way to represent a function.

➢ This does not mean that every equation is a function.

➢ Rather every equation which has a unique output for each input results in a function.

Example 1.46
Check if the following equations represents a function 𝑦
⏟ = 𝑓(𝑥)
⏟:
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
A. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 5
B. 𝑦 = 𝑥2
C. 𝑦 = √𝑥
D. 𝑥 = 𝑦2
E. 𝑥 = 𝑦3

Parts A, B, C and E
In order to see whether the given equation is a function, we attempt to write it in the form
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Which we can successfully do for each of Parts A, B and C:

Linear Function
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5

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Part A is a linear function (a function that represents a line).

All lines are functions except for vertical lines.
Parabola
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
For every input, there is precisely one output, and hence, this is a function.
Square Root Function
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥

𝑦 = √9 ⇒ 𝑦 = ±3 ⇒ 𝟐 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒔 ⇒ 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝒂 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

The above logic is not correct.

By convention, the output of the square root symbol only gives the positive square root as its output. Hence:
√9 = +3
It does not give two outputs. Hence:
√9 ≠ ±3
If you want both the positive and the negative square root, then you must write:
±√9

3
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥
The above equations associates 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦
⏟ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 with every value of 𝑥.
𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕
Hence, Parts A, B and C, and E are all functions.

Parts D
Suppose we attempt to write
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
We must then solve the given equation for 𝑦:
𝑥 = 𝑦 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = ±√𝑥
And this associates two values of 𝑦 for each value of 𝑥 (except when 𝑥 = 0), and hence it is not a function.

Challenge 1.47
Check if the following equations represents a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥):
A. 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑒 ≈ 2.71
B. 𝑦 = sin 𝑥

1.48: Uniqueness of Output

If a function has a unique output for each input, then it is a special kind of functions.
Such functions are invertible functions.

Example 1.49
In the previous example, you decided that the following are both functions:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
Do each of the functions above associate a different output for each input? If yes, say why? If no, say why?
Hence, state whether it is necessary that a function associates a different output for each input.

Equation A gives a different output for each input.

Equation B does not give a different output for each input. Specifically:

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𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

It is not necessary that a function associates a different output for each input.

C. Logical Rule

Example 1.50
Check whether the following rules mentioned below are functions:
A. A rule that associates the ⏟
𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 of each student in a college to ⏟
ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒.
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
B. A rule that associates the 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒
⏟ of each student in a college, to ⏟
ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

Part A
Every roll number is associated with precisely one name.
Hence, this rule represents a function.

Part B
Two students can have the same name.
But, they will have different roll numbers.

Hence, this rule does not represent a function.

Example 1.51
The PAN number is the unique identifying number issued by the Income Tax Department of the Government of
India to every citizen of India who applies for one.

Check whether the following rules mentioned below are functions:

A. A rule that associates the ⏟
𝑃𝐴𝑁 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 of each citizen of India to ⏟
ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒.
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
B. A rule that associates the 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒
⏟ of each citizen of India who has a PAN number, to ⏟
ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑃𝐴𝑁 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Part A
Every PAN number is associated with exactly one name.
Hence, the rule given in Part A is a function.
Part B
Every individual is associated with exactly one PAN Number.
But, it is possible that two individuals have the same name.

For same, if two people have the name

𝑀𝑎ℎ𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑆ℎ𝑎ℎ
They will still have different PAN Numbers.

Hence, the rule given in Part B is not a function.

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D. Graphing Functions
Functions can be represented as a graph by plotting them on the Cartesian coordinate plane.

Example 1.52
Use a graphing calculator to show the following functions in graphical form:
A. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1
B. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2
3
C. 𝑦 = 𝑥

1.53: Graphical Test: Vertical Line Test

For a rule to be a function it must associate a single output with every input.
Hence, any vertical line must cut the graph of a function in a maximum of one place.

If you draw a vertical line through a function, you can identify the 𝑥 coordinate and the 𝑦 coordinate of the point
where the line cuts the graph of the function.

The 𝑥 coordinate represents the input. The y coordinate represents the output.

➢ If any vertical line cuts a graph in a maximum of one place, then every input is associated with exactly
one output, and hence the graph is a function.
➢ If a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place, then at least one input is associated with two or
more outputs, and hence the graph is not a function.

Example 1.54
You used a graphing utility to enter the algebraic form of some functions above. Go back and have a look at
those graphs, and confirm that any vertical line cuts the graph of these functions in a maximum of one place.

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Any vertical line will cut the graphs in a maximum of one place.

Example 1.55
The adjoining figure shows the graph of a circle on the coordinate plane drawn using the
equation
𝑦2 + 𝑥2 = 4
Does this graph represent a function?

If you draw a vertical line through the graph of a circle, it cuts the graph in two places
(except at the extremes).
The adjoining figure has a green line drawn, which cuts the graph in two places.
Hence, the graph of a circle is not a function.

Example 1.56
The adjoining figure shows the graph of
𝑥 = 𝑦2
Determine whether this is the graph of a function.

Any vertical line drawn to the right of

𝑥=0
Will cut the graph in more than one place.

This means that there is more than one output associated with a single
input.
And hence, this is not the graph of a function.

E. Average Rate of Change

1.57: Average Rate of Change

The average rate of change of a function is very important
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 )
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = = =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

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Example 1.58
Find the average rate of change of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 over the interval: (−1
⏟,⏟2)
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐

𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(−1) = (−1)2 = 1

𝑦2 = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 𝑓(2) = (2)2 = 4

We can tabulate this as follows:

𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑦1 𝑦2
−1 2 1 4

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 ) 22 − (−12 ) 4 − 1 3

𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = = = = =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 − (−1) 2+1 3
=1

Example 1.59
Consider the function showing the number of lemonade
Month(𝑚) Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
glasses sold by Karuna over the period Jan to June 2020
𝐺𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑑 350 300 100 125 75 150
given by the table alongside. Find the average rate of = 𝑔(𝑚)
change of the number of glasses sold from Feb to June.

150 − 300 150

𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = =− = −37.5
6−2 4
The average rate of change of the number of glasses sold is
−37.5 ⇒ 37.5 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ

F. Intercepts

1.60: Intercepts
The places where a graph cuts the 𝑥 and the 𝑦 axes are its intercepts.

1.61: Finding Intercepts Graphically

The graphical approach uses visual inspection to see where the graph of the functions intersects the 𝑥-axis. It is
difficult to apply for approximation.

➢ The 𝑥 intercept of a function is also called a 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 of the function.

Example 1.62
Identify the zeroes of the function in the graph of on the right.

From the graph, we can see that the graph intersects the x-axis at
−4, −3, −2
And these are the zeroes of the function.

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1.63: Finding Intercepts Algebraically

To find the 𝑥-intercept, substitute
𝑦=0
To find the 𝑦-intercept, substitute
𝑥=0

Example 1.64
Find the intercepts, if any, of each function below:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 4
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 12
1
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
4
D. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥+2

Part A 4
𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 −
We have 5
𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 4 ⇒ 𝑦 = 5𝑥 + 4 Part B
To find the 𝑦-intercept, substitute 𝑥 = 0: 𝑦 intercept
𝑦=4 12
To find the 𝑥-intercept, substitute 𝑦 = 0: 𝑥 intercept
𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 12 = 0
4 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4) = 0
5𝑥 + 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = − 𝑥 ∈ {−3, −4}
5
𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 − 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 4.

Part C
1
0= ⇒0=1
𝑥
There is no solution.
Hence, there is no x intercept.
𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡
To find the 𝑦-intercept, substitute 𝑥 = 0:
1
𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡
0
Part D

To find the 𝑥-intercept, substitute 𝑦 = 0

4
0= ⇒ 0 = 4 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡
𝑥+2

To find the 𝑦-intercept, substitute 𝑥 = 0:

4
𝑦= ⇒𝑦=2
𝑥+2
G. Quadratic Functions
A quadratic function has complex behavior across its entire domain. But a lot of information can be
meaningfully extracted by looking only the sign of a function.
A sign diagram does precisely this.

For example, consider the function:

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𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) ⇒ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ {𝑎, 𝑏},

Based on what we know about the behavior of a quadratic, we know that the function above represents an
upward parabola, and hence:

𝑥 (−∞, 𝑎) (𝑎, 𝑏) (𝑏, ∞)

𝑓(𝑥) +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒

Example 1.65
Draw a sign diagram for the following functions:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 36
B. 𝑔(𝑥) = −(𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 36)

Part A
First, we factor the function:
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 12)(𝑥 + 3) ⇒ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠 ∈ {−3,12}

This is the graph of a quadratic, which is always a parabola.

Since the leading coefficient is positive, we know that the graph represents an upward parabola.
𝑥 (−∞, −3) (−3,12) (12, ∞)
𝑓(𝑥) +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒

Part B
First, we factor the function:
𝑓(𝑥) = −(𝑥 − 12)(𝑥 + 3) ⇒ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠 ∈ {−3,12}

And now this is the same as the previous example, except that since the leading co-efficient is negative, it is a
downward parabola.

𝑥 (−∞, −3) (−3,12) (12, ∞)

𝑓(𝑥) −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒

Example 1.66
A quadratic function has roots at 4 and 5, and has 𝑦-intercept 6. Find the function.

𝑝 and 𝑞 are the roots, so

𝑝 = 4, 𝑞=5

We also know that the 𝑦-intercept is 6. And, at the y-intercept, by definition,

the value of 𝑥 is:
0
Hence, substitute 𝑓(𝑥) = 6, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑝 = 4, 𝑞 = 5 into 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑝)(𝑥 − 𝑞),
giving us:
6 3
6 = 𝑎(0 − 4)(0 − 5) ⇒ 6 = 𝑎(−4)(−5) ⇒ 6 = 20𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎 = = = 0.3
20 10
And hence the function is:
3
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 5)
80

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H. Zeroes of Factored Functions

Earlier, we were working with quadratic functions, and we needed to factor the functions.
When working with higher-degree polynomials, the factoring itself can be a lengthy process, and hence,
questions will often give the equation to us in factored form.

1.67: Zero of a Function

A zero of a function is the value of 𝑥 (the input) which makes 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)(output) zero.

Example 1.68
Find the zeros of the function:
1
𝑓(𝑥) = (3𝑥 − ) (2𝑥 − 7)
2

To find the zeroes, we substitute 𝑓(𝑥) = 0:

1
(3𝑥 − ) (2𝑥 − 7) = 0
2
Use the zero-product property:
1 1 1
3𝑥 − = 0 ⇒ 3𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑥 =
2 2 6
7
2𝑥 − 7 = 0 ⇒ 2𝑥 = 7 ⇒ 𝑥 =
2
1 7
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 ∈ { , }
6 2

Example 1.69
Find the product of the zeros of the following function
(𝑥 − 27)(𝑥 − 26) … . (𝑥 + 26)(𝑥 + 27)

The product of the roots will be

(27)(26) … (0) … (−26)(27) = 0

Example 1.70
Find the zeroes of:
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 5)

To find the zeroes, we let 𝑓(𝑥) = 0:

(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 5) = 0
By the zero-product property, we have:
𝑥−3=0⇒𝑥 =3
𝑥−4=0⇒𝑥 =4
𝑥−5=0⇒𝑥 =5
And we can combine the above three to get:
𝑥 ∈ {3,4,5} ⇒ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠 ∈ {3,4,5}

1.71: Multiplicity of a Zero

If a zero occurs in a function more than once due to the power of the expression, that is called the multiplicity of
the zero.
(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ

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➢ Multiplicity of different zeroes need not be the same.

Example 1.72
Find the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 3)2 and determine the multiplicity.

To find the zeroes, we let 𝑓(𝑥) = 0:

(𝑥 − 3)2 = 0
Take square roots both sides:
𝑥−3=0
𝑥=3

𝑥 = 3 is a zero of the function. But the original function was

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 3)2 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 3)

Hence, 3 occurs twice as a zero in the function, and hence

𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 3 = 2

Example 1.73
Determine the zeroes and their multiplicity in:
3 3 2
1 12
𝑓(𝑥) = (2𝑥 − ) (𝑥 − 5)(3𝑥 − 5) (7𝑥 − )
4 2

3 3 1 12
(2𝑥 − ) (𝑥 − 5)(3𝑥 − 5)2 (7𝑥 − ) = 0
4 2

Use the zero-product property:

3 3 3 3 3
(2𝑥 − ) = 0 ⇒ 2𝑥 − = 0 ⇒ 2𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑥 = , 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 3
4 4 4 8
𝑥 − 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 5, 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1
5
(3𝑥 − 5)2 = 0 ⇒ 3𝑥 − 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = , 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 2
3
12
1 1 1 1
(7𝑥 − ) = 0 ⇒ 7𝑥 − = 0 ⇒ 7𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑥 = , 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 12
2 2 2 14

1.74: Parity of Multiplicity of a Zero

Parity is a technical term that refers to whether a number is even or odd. A root that occurs an
➢ odd number of times is said to have odd multiplicity
➢ even number of times is said to have even multiplicity

Example 1.75
Consider the function
5
3 2 √5
ℎ(𝑥) = (𝑥 − ) (𝑥 − √2) (𝑥 − ) (𝑥 − 0.23)11 (𝑥 + 54)53
4 √7
Find the zeroes of ℎ(𝑥), find the multiplicity of each zero, and then the parity of the multiplicity.

3 3
𝑥− =0⇒𝑥= , 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1 ⇒ 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑂𝑑𝑑
4 4
2
(𝑥 − √2) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = √2, 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 2 ⇒ 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛

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5
√5 √5
(𝑥 − ) =0⇒𝑥= , 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 5 ⇒ 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑂𝑑𝑑
√7 √7
(𝑥 − 0.23)11 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0.23, 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑦 = 11 ⇒ 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑂𝑑𝑑
(𝑥 + 54)53 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −54, 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 53 ⇒ 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑂𝑑𝑑

Example 1.76
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
A function has a zero with odd multiplicity and is of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑏 . Then, which of the following is
possible:
A. 𝑎 is odd.
B. 𝑎 is even.
C. 𝑎 is neither even nor odd.
D. 𝑏 is even.
E. 𝑏 is odd.
F. 𝑏 is neither even nor odd.

Since the multiplicity creates no restriction on a, it can be anything:

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶

Since the zero is of odd multiplicity, 𝑏 must be odd:

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸

Final Answer:
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐸

I. End Behavior of Polynomial Functions

1.77: Polynomial Functions

Polynomial functions are of the form
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝕎, 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0

➢ Polynomials are written in standard form in descending order of 𝑛.

➢ The value of 𝑛 is the degree of the polynomial

𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5 ⇒ 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 1
𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 1 + 1𝑥 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 2
1
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 1 + 7 ⇒ 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 3
2
3
𝑃(𝑥) = √𝑥 + √𝑥 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑃(𝑥) = 5 ⇒ 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 0

1.78: End Behavior

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The end behavior of polynomial functions is very important. End behavior refers to the value of the polynomial
as
𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 → ∞
𝑥 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 → −∞

1.79: End Behavior of Polynomial Functions

For polynomial function of even degree as
𝑥 → ∞ ⇒ 𝑃(𝑥) → ∞
𝑥 → −∞ ⇒ 𝑃(𝑥) → ∞

For example, the diagram alongside shows the graph of

𝑦 = 𝑥2
Which becomes
➢ very large when 𝑥 becomes large
➢ very large even when 𝑥 becomes very negative

1.80: End Behavior of Polynomial Functions

For polynomial function of odd degree as
𝑥 → ∞ ⇒ 𝑃(𝑥) → ∞
𝑥 → −∞ ⇒ 𝑃(𝑥) → −∞

Which becomes
➢ very large when 𝑥 becomes large
➢ very negative when 𝑥 becomes very negative

1.3 Evaluating and Finding Functions

A. Evaluating Functions

1.81: Evaluating Functions

Functions can be mathematical rules. Given the input, it is often required to calculate the associated output.
This can be done by substituting the input into the function expression.

Example 1.82
Answer each part independently:
A. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5, then find the value of the function when 𝑥 = 7.
7 3
B. Given that 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 + 4 𝑥 + 2, evaluate the function at 𝑥 = 4.
C. Consider 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 58. When 𝑥 = 2, what is 𝑔(𝑥)?
D. What is the output of 𝑠(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 1 when 𝑥 = −1.
3
E. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 8𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 0, what is the value of 𝑓 (4)? (MathCounts 2005 Workout 4)

Part A
𝑓(7) = 3(7) + 5 = 21 + 5 = 26
Part B

3 3 2 7 3 36 21 32 89 9
𝑔( ) = 4( ) + ( )( ) + 2 = + + = =5
4 4 4 4 16 16 16 16 16

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Part C
ℎ(2) = 2(2)3 + 3(2)2 + 6(2) + 58 = 16 + 12 + 12 + 58 = 98
Part D
𝑠(−1) = 3(−1)4 + 5(−1)3 + 2(−1) + 1 = 3 − 5 − 2 + 1 = −3
Part E
3 3 3 3 2 3
𝑓( ) = 8 ( ) − 6 ( ) + 12 ( ) − 0
4 4 4 4

1.83: Variables as Inputs

Even if the input is a variable, we substitute and proceed as per usual.

Example 1.84
A. Evaluate 𝑓(2𝑥 − 5) given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6.
B. Evaluate 𝑓(6 − 𝑥) given that 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5

Part A
𝑓(2𝑥 − 5) = 3(2𝑥 − 5)2 − (2𝑥 − 5) + 6
= 3(4𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 25) − 2𝑥 + 5 + 6
= 12𝑥 2 − 60𝑥 + 75 − 2𝑥 + 11
= 12𝑥 2 − 62𝑥 + 86
Part B
𝑓(6 − 𝑥) = −2(6 − 𝑥)2 − 3(6 − 𝑥) + 5
= −2(36 − 12𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) − 18 + 3𝑥 + 5
= −72 + 24𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 − 18 + 3𝑥 + 5
= −2𝑥 2 + 27𝑥 − 85

Example 1.85 𝑥 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Use the function defined below to find the following, if they exist: 𝑓(𝑥) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
A. 𝑓(3)
B. 𝑓(8)

𝑓(3) = 5
𝑓(8) = 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

1.86: Nested Functions

It is possible to nest functions inside other functions.

Example 1.87
A. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1. What is the value of 𝑓(1 + 𝑔(2))? (MathCounts 2003 Warm-Up 3)
B. In the above question, find 𝑓(𝑥) + [𝑓(𝑥)]2 .

Part A
𝑓(1 + 𝑔(2)) = 𝑓(1 + 3) = 𝑓(4) = 2(4) − 3 = 5
Part B
𝑓(𝑥) + [𝑓(𝑥)]2 = (2𝑥 − 3) + (2𝑥 − 3)2 = 2𝑥 − 3 + (4𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 9) = 4𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 6

1.88: Constant Function

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A constant function has only a single output for all its valid inputs, and the output does not depend on its input.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, 𝑐 = 𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Example 1.89
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 4. Find:
A. 𝑓(3)
B. 𝑓(4)
3
C. 𝑓 (7)
D. 𝑓(𝜋 2 )

𝑓(3) = 4
𝑓(4) = 4
3
𝑓( ) = 4
7
𝑓(𝜋 2 ) = 4

Example 1.90
Akash is working with a function 𝑝 such that 𝑝(𝑥) = 2. Find 𝑝(2).

𝑝(𝑥) = 2 ⇒ 𝑝(2) = 2

B. Back-Calculations

1.91: Back Calculations

Given an output for a function, it is possible to arrive at one or more values that could have led to the output.

➢ In practice, this often means solving a linear, quadratic or some other equation.

Example 1.92
A. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5 for all real numbers 𝑥, then find the value of 𝑥 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 12.
B. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 for all real numbers 𝑥, then find the values(s) of 𝑥 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 73
C. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 for all real numbers 𝑥, then find the values(s) of 𝑦 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 has only one solution
for 𝑥.
D. Here are two functions: 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑘𝑥 − 6. If 𝑓(10) − 𝑔(10) = 10, what is the
value of 𝑘? (MathCounts 2007 National Countdown)

Part A
7
𝑓(𝑥) = 12 ⇒ 3𝑥 + 5 = 12 ⇒ 3𝑥 = 7 ⇒ 𝑥 =
3
Part B
𝑓(𝑥) = 73 ⇒ 𝑥 2 = 73 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±√73
Part C
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±√𝑦 ⇒ √𝑦 = −√𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦 = 0
Part D
Before evaluating 𝑓(10) − 𝑔(10), first simplify:
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4 − (𝑥 2 − 𝑘𝑥 − 6) = 2𝑥 2 + (−2 + 𝑘)𝑥 + 10

Substitute 10 in the above expression:

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200 − 20 + 10𝑘 + 10 = 10
180 + 10𝑘 = 0
𝑘 = −18

Example 1.93
A function 𝑓 has the property that 𝑓(3𝑥 − 1) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 for all real numbers 𝑥. What is 𝑓(5)? (AMC 12B
2007/9)

We need the input to be 5. This means that:

3𝑥 − 1 = 5 ⇒ 3𝑥 = 6 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2

Substitute the value of 𝑥 = 2 in the RHS of the function definition:

𝑓(3𝑥 − 1) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7

C. Functional Equations

1.94: Functional Equation

A function equation is an equation where some of the terms are written in terms of functions.

➢ Functional equations can be difficult, and they are a subject of deep study.
➢ But we will look at some very basic equations.

Example 1.95
𝑥 𝑥
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4. Let A be the solution to 2𝑓(2𝑥) = 3 (2). Let B be the solution to 2𝑓(2𝑥) = 3𝑓 (2)
Find 𝐴 and 𝐵.

Finding A
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 2𝑓(2𝑥) = 2[3(2𝑥) − 4] = 12𝑥 − 8
3𝑥 21𝑥 16
12𝑥 − 8 = ⇒ =8⇒𝐴=𝑥=
2 2 21
Finding B
𝑥
2𝑓(2𝑥) = 3𝑓 ( )
2
𝑥
2[3(2𝑥) − 4] = 3 [3 ( ) − 4]
2
9𝑥
12𝑥 − 8 = − 12
2
15𝑥
= −4
2
8
𝑥=−
15

Example 1.96
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 12. If 𝑚 > 0 and 𝑓(3𝑚) = 3(𝑓(𝑚)), what is the value of 𝑚? (MathCounts 2005 Warm-Up
16)

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𝑓(3𝑚) = 3(𝑓(𝑚))
Substitute the definition of the function:
9𝑚2 + 12 = 3(𝑚2 + 12)
3𝑚2 + 4 = 𝑚2 + 12

Simplify and solve:

2𝑚2 = 8
𝑚2 = 4
𝑚 = ±2

But reject the negative value since 𝑚 > 0:

𝑚=2

Example 1.97
6 6 6
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 5, solve 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑓 (17 𝑥). Note: 2𝑓 (17 𝑥) means 2 × 𝑓 (17 𝑥)

6
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑓 ( 𝑥)
17
Substitute the definition of the function:
6𝑥
2𝑥 + 5 = 2 [2 ( ) + 5]
17
Simplify and solve:
24𝑥
2𝑥 + 5 = + 10
17
10𝑥
=5
17
17
𝑥=
2
D. Recursive Functions

Example 1.98
A saint has a magic pot that doubles the number of gold coins that you put into it overnight. A disciple puts in
some gold coins over the weekend (on Friday night), and collects 400 gold coins on Monday morning. How
many gold coins did he put in to begin with?

𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑛𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡: 𝑥 𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑠

𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔: 2𝑥 𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑠
𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔: 4𝑥 𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑠
𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔: 8𝑥 𝑔𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑠

400
8𝑥 = 400 ⇒ 𝑥 = = 100
8

𝐺(𝑥) = 2𝐺(𝑥 − 1) = 2[2𝐺(𝑥 − 2)] = 8𝐺(𝑥 − 3)

Example 1.99: Factorial Function

𝑛! (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑: 𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙) is defined for positive integer values of 𝑛 as the product of the first 𝑛 positive integers:

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𝑛! = 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ … ∙ 𝑛
It can also be defined recursively as:
𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑛 × 𝑓(𝑛 − 1), 𝑓(1) = 1
Find the value of 𝑓(4) using the recursive definition. Show your working.

Build up the Function

𝑓(2) = 2𝑓(1) = 2 × 1 = 2
𝑓(3) = 3𝑓(2) = 3 × 2 = 6
𝑓(4) = 4𝑓(3) = 4 × 6 = 24

Go Backwards
𝑓(4) = 4𝑓(3) = 4 ∙ 3𝑓(2) = 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 𝑓(1) = 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 24

Example 1.100: Fibonacci Function1

The Fibonacci sequence is defined recursively for integer inputs as:
𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑓(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑓(𝑛 − 2) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 3
𝑓(1) = 1, 𝑓(2) = 1

Find the value of 𝑓(4) using the recursive definition. Show your working.

Building it up
𝑓(3) = 𝑓(2) + 𝑓(1) = 1 + 1 = 2
𝑓(4) = 𝑓(3) + 𝑓(2) = 2 + 1 = 3
Recursive Method
Use the definition for 𝑓(4):
𝑓(4) = 𝑓(3) + 𝑓(2)
Use the definition for 𝑓(3) = 𝑓(2) + 𝑓(1):
= [𝑓(2) + 𝑓(1)] + 𝑓(2)

Simplify:
𝑓(1) + 2𝑓(2)
Substitute 𝑓(1) = 1, 𝑓(2) = 1
= 1 + 2(1) = 1 + 2 = 3

Example 1.101: Fibonacci-Style Function

The function 𝑓(𝑛) = 3𝑓(𝑛 − 2) − 2𝑓(𝑛 − 1), where 𝑓(2) = 3 and 𝑓(1) = −1. What is the value of 𝑓(5)?
(MathCounts 2001 National Target)

This looks difficult, until we recognize that 𝑓(𝑛) is dependent upon the values of precisely 𝑛 − 1 and 𝑛 − 2. We
calculate in sequence:
𝑓(3) = 3𝑓(1) − 2𝑓(2) = 3(−1) − 2(3) = −3 − 6 = −9
𝑓(4) = 3𝑓(2) − 2𝑓(3) = 9 + 18 = 27
𝑓(5) = −27 − 54 = −81
E. Finding a formula for a function

1
The Fibonacci function is based on the Fibonacci sequence. This is covered in more detail in the Note on Sequences and Series.

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1.102: Finding a formula

To find 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦

Example 1.103
State 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥 given that:
𝑦 + 4 = 3(𝑥 − 2)

Isolate y on the LHS and then simplify:

𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 6 − 4 ⇒ 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 10
State it as a function:
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 10

Example 1.104
State 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥:
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 4

We want to isolate 𝑦. Subtract 3𝑥 from both sides:

2𝑦 = 4 − 3𝑥
Divide both sides by 2:
3
𝑦=2− 𝑥
2
State it as a function:
3
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 − 𝑥
2

Example 1.105
State 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥:
3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 + 2 = 5 + 𝑦

We want to isolate 𝑦. Tale all the 𝑦 terms to the RHS, and take all the non-𝑦 terms to LHS:
𝑥 − 3 = 𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑦
Factor out 𝑦 in the RHS:
𝑥 − 3 = 𝑦(1 − 3𝑥)
Solve for 𝑦:
𝑥−3
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) =
1 − 3𝑥

Example 1.106
If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 and 𝑒 are unknown constants, find 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥, if
3𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑑 + 𝑒𝑦

We want to isolate 𝑦. Tale all the 𝑦 terms to the RHS, and take all the non-𝑦 terms to LHS:
𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 − 𝑑 = 𝑒𝑦 − 3𝑎𝑥𝑦
Factor out 𝑦 in the RHS:
𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 − 𝑑 = 𝑦(𝑒 − 3𝑎𝑥)
Solve for 𝑦:
𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 − 𝑑
𝑦=
𝑒 − 3𝑎𝑥

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3𝑎𝑥𝑦 − 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑑 − 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐
y(3𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒) = 𝑑 − 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐
𝑑 − 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐
𝑦=
3𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒

Example 1.107
Find 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥:
𝑥𝑦 3 + 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 3

If 𝑥 ≠ 0:
𝑥𝑦 3 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 = −𝑎𝑥
𝑦 3 − 𝑥𝑦 3 = −𝑎
𝑦 3 (1 − 𝑥) = −𝑎
𝑎
𝑦3 = −
1−𝑥
3 𝑎
𝑦=√
𝑥−1

F. Stating a formula as a function

A function can be used to state familiar formulas from algebra or geometry. This is not a very challenging
concept by itself. Rather, it is a useful building block when manipulating geometrical functions.

Example 1.108: Squares and Cubes

State the formulae below in terms of functions
A. The 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
⏟ of a square is four times the ⏟
𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ of the square. State 𝑝 as a function of 𝑠. Also,
𝒑 𝒔
state 𝑠 as a function of 𝑝.
B. The 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
⏟ of a square is half the product of the length of its 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠
⏟ . The diagonals of a square are
𝒂 𝒅
congruent. State the area as a function of the diagonals. Also, state the length of the diagonals as a
function of the area of the square.
C. The diagonal of a square is √2 times the side length of the square. State the diagonal as a function of the
side length. Also, state the side length as a function of the diagonal.
D. The volume of a cube is the cube of its side length. State the volume of a cube as a function of its side
length.
E. The longest diagonal of a cube is √3 times the side length of the cube. State the longest diagonal of a
cube as a function of its side length.

Part A

𝑝
𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑠) = 4𝑠, 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑝) =
4
Part B
𝑑2
𝑎 = 𝑓(𝑑) = ⇒ 2𝑎 = 𝑑2 ⇒ 𝑑 = √2𝑎 ⇒ 𝑑 = 𝑓(𝑎) = √2𝑎
2
Part C

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𝑑
𝑑 = 𝑓(𝑠) = 𝑠√2 ⇒ 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑑) =
√2
Part D
3
𝑉 = 𝑓(𝑠) = 𝑠 3 ⇒ 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑉) = √𝑠
Part E
𝑑
𝑑 = 𝑓(𝑠) = 𝑠√3 ⇒ 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑑) =
√3

Example 1.109: Circles

State the formulae below in terms of functions
A. The 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
⏟ of a circle is 2𝜋 times the 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
⏟ of the circle. Write the circumference as a function
𝑪 𝒓
of the radius. Also, write the radius as a function of the circumference.
B. The 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
⏟ of a circle is 𝜋 times the square of the 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
⏟ of the circle.
𝒂 𝒓

𝐶
𝐶 = 𝑓(𝑟) = 2𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑓(𝐶) =
2𝜋
𝑎
𝑎 = 𝑓(𝑟) = 𝜋𝑟 2 ⇒ 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝑎) = √
𝜋

Example 1.110: Counting

State the number of diagonals of a polygon as a function of the number of vertices that it has, if the diagonals
are given by the product of the following three quantities:
A. The number of vertices(𝑛)
B. Three less than the number of vertices
C. Half

1 𝑛(𝑛 − 3)
𝑑 = 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑛 × (𝑛 − 3) × =
2 2

G. Functions with more than one Input

Example 1.111
Define 𝐸(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑐. What value of 𝑎 is the solution to the equation 𝐸(𝑎, 4,5) = 𝐸(𝑎, 6,7)? (AOPS
Alcumus, Algebra, Evaluating Functions)

𝐸(𝑎, 4,5) = 𝐸(𝑎, 6,7)

Substitute the definition of the function:
𝑎 × 42 + 5 = 𝑎 × 62 + 7
Simplify and solve:
1
16𝑎 + 5 = 36𝑎 + 7 ⇒ −2 = 20𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎 = −
10

Example 1.112
State the formulae below in terms of functions
A. The 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
⏟ of a rectangle is the product of the 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
⏟ , and the 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
⏟ of the rectangle. State the area of
𝒂 𝒍 𝒘
the rectangle as a function of the length and the width.

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B. The 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
⏟ of a cuboid is the product of the 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
⏟ , 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
⏟ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
⏟ of the cuboid. State 𝑣 as a
𝒗 𝒍 𝒘 𝒉
function of 𝑙, 𝑤 and ℎ.

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴: 𝑎 = 𝑓(𝑙, 𝑤) = 𝑙𝑤
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐵: 𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑙, 𝑤, ℎ) = 𝑙𝑤ℎ
H. Interpreting Functions

Example 1.113
A bar of chocolate costs 4 dollars. The function 𝑚 = 𝑐(𝑏) gives the cost 𝑐 of purchasing 𝑏 bars of chocolate.
A. Identify the input variable, and its meaning
B. Identify the output variable and its meaning
C. Interpret the following statements
I. 𝑐(3) = 12
II. 𝑐(𝑎) = 4𝑎

Part A
The input variable is b.
𝑏 is the number of bars of chocolate purchased.

Part B
We apply the function c to the input b in order get the output m.
The output is m.
We can also write the output as 𝑐(𝑏)

Part C
Sub-Part I
𝑐(3) = 12
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 3 ⇒ 3 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 12 ⇒ 12 𝐷𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑

We rewrite the above in a single sentence:

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 3 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑠 12 𝑑𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠.
Sub-Part II
𝑐(𝑎) = 4𝑎
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 4𝑎 ⇒ 4𝑎 𝐷𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑

We rewrite the above in a single sentence:

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑠 4𝑎 𝑑𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠.

Example 1.114
The function 𝑓(𝑥) models the height of the 𝑥 𝑡ℎ floor of the building 𝐴𝑉𝐴𝐿𝑂𝑁 from the ground in feet. Interpret
the statement:

𝑓(3) = 𝐻
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 3 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑠 3𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐻 ⇒ 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝐻 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡

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We rewrite the above in a single sentence:

𝑇ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 3𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑉𝐴𝐿𝑂𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝐻 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡.

I. Back Calculations

Example 1.115
Let 𝑓 be a linear function for which 𝑓(6) − 𝑓(2) = 12. What is 𝑓(12) − 𝑓(2)? (AMC 12 2003)

Substitution Method
Use 𝑓(𝑥)
⏟ = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 in the given condition:
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑓(6) − 𝑓(2) = 12 ⇒ (6𝑎 + 𝑏) − (2𝑎 + 𝑏) = 12 ⇒ 4𝑎 = 12 ⇒ 𝑎 = 3
We want to find:
𝑓(12) − 𝑓(2) = (12𝑥 + 𝑏) − (2𝑥 + 𝑏) = 10𝑎 = 30

Slope from Coordinate Geometry

𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 12 12 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = = =3⇒3= ⇒ 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 30
𝑅𝑢𝑛 6 − 2 4 12 − 2

Example 1.116
If 𝑓(1) = 5, 𝑓(2) = 8 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 2, what is the value of 𝑓(3)? (MathCounts 1996 National
Countdown)

Note that 𝑓(𝑥) is a linear function in which we already know the constant term:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 + 2
And hence we only need one value of 𝑓 to find the answer.

𝑓(1) = 5 ⇒ (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 2 = 5 ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 3
Substiute 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 3, 𝑥 = 3 in 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 + 2:
3(3) + 2 = 11

1.4 Even and Odd Functions

A. Even Functions
There are two definitions of an even function. Both definitions are equivalent, and you should make sure that
you understand why they are equivalent.

1.117: Even Function: Graphical Test

A function is an even function if:
➢ It has the 𝒚-axis as a vertical line of symmetry.
➢ OR if reflecting it across the 𝒚-axis does not change it.

Example 1.118
Decide whether the graphs given below are the graphs of even functions.

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Draw the y-axis. It is a line of symmetry for the first and the second graph, but not the third.

Example 1.119
A. The function 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 has slope 10 when 𝑥 = 5. Determine the slope of 𝑔(𝑥) when 𝑥 = −5.
B. An even function 𝑓(𝑥) has slope 𝑚 when 𝑥 = 𝑥1 . Determine the slope of 𝑓(𝑥) when 𝑥 = −𝑥1 .

Part A
−10
Part B
−𝑚

1.120: Even Function: Algebraic Test

A function is an even function if:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓

The algebraic version of the graphical test relies on the same idea that the graphical version does.
When you reflect a graph across the y-axis, at every point, you replace 𝑥 with −𝑥.

Hence, if you do the same thing algebraically, and the function does not change, then the function is an even
function.

𝐴 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝒙 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ − 𝒙 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example 1.121
Consider the function in the table below:

Domain 𝑥 4 5 9 −4 −5 −9 12
Range 𝑓(𝑥) 7 8 9 7 8 9 6

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𝑓(𝑥) is:
A. An even function
B. Not an even function
C. Cannot be determined

𝑓(12) = 6, 𝑓(−12) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ⇒ 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵

Example 1.122
Some values of 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥) are given for a function:

𝑥 4 5 9 −4 −5 −9 12
𝑓(𝑥) 7 8 9 7 8 9 6

𝑓(𝑥) is:
A. An even function
B. Not an even function
C. Cannot be determined

Here, we do not know 𝑓(−12), and hence the answer is Option C.

Example 1.123
Check whether 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is even.

Algebraic Method
Substitute −𝑥 for 𝑥:
𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏

Graphical Method
We can do the same thing graphically. Draw the graph of
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
Which is an upward parabola, with the vertex at the origin.

Since the graph is symmetrical about the 𝑦-axis, the function is even.

Example 1.124
Check whether 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 is even.

𝑓(−𝑥) = −3𝑥 ≠ 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏

In fact, this function is odd:

𝑓(−𝑥) = −3𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑶𝒅𝒅

Example 1.125
Check whether 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3 is even.

𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2 + 5(−𝑥) + 3 = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 ≠ 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏

Example 1.126
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Check whether 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 is even.

Algebraic Method
𝑓(−𝑥) = 3 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏

You can do this graphically also. 𝑓(𝑥) is a constant function. The graph
of
𝑓(𝑥) = 3
Is symmetrical about the y-axis, and hence the function is even.

1.127: Powers
➢ Polynomial functions that have only even powers of the variable are even.
✓ The constant term is 𝑥 0 , and hence is an even power.
➢ Polynomial functions that have a non-zero coefficient of an odd power of the variable are not even.

Example 1.128
Check whether the following functions are even using the test given above.
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3
D. 𝑓(𝑥) = 23𝑥 64 + 7
E. 𝑓(𝑥) = 64𝑥 23 + 7
F. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 20 + 𝑥 18 + 𝑥 16 + ⋯ + 4

⏟2 ⇒ 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛
⏟0 ⇒ 𝑂𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥
𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3 ⇒ 𝐻𝑎𝑠 6𝑥 1 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

Example 1.129: Using Even Functions

A. If 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function and 𝑓(3) = 7, find 𝑓(−3).
B. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥, evaluate 𝑓(5) − 𝑓(−5). (MathCounts 2001 National Countdown)
C. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥, evaluate 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(−𝑥). (MathCounts 2001 National Countdown)
D. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2020 + 𝑥, find 𝑓(7) − 𝑓(−7).
E. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2020 + 𝑥 2018 + ⋯ + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥, find 𝑓(7) − 𝑓(−7)
F. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 4 − 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 5 and 𝑓(−3) = 2, then what is the value of 𝑓(3)? (1995 AHSME)

Part A
For an even function:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥)
𝑓(−3) = 𝑓(3) = 7
Part B
We break this function into two parts:
⏟4 + 𝑥 2 +
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5𝑥
⏟
𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕
For an even function:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥)
𝑓(5) = 𝑓(−5)

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The value of 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 will remain the same for both 𝑓(5) and 𝑓(−5). Therefore:
𝑓(5) − 𝑓(−5) = ⏟ 5(5) − 5(−5) = 25 + 25 = 50
𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑥 4 +𝑥 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙
Part C
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − (𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥) = 10𝑥
And then we can find:
𝑓(5) − 𝑓(−5) = 10(5) = 50
Part D
⏟2020 + 7 − ⏟
7 [(−7)2020 − 7] = ⏟
72020 − 72020 + 7 + 7 = 14
𝑓(7) 𝑓(−7) =0

Part E
𝑓(7) − 𝑓(−7) = 7 − (−7) = 14
Part F
Logic
The difference between 𝑓(3) and 𝑓(−3) will only depend upon terms that have an odd power of 𝑥.

𝑓(−3) will have −3 term, while 𝑓(3) will have 3 in it.

Hence,
𝑓(3) = 𝑓(−3) + 2(3) = 2 + 6 = 8
Algebraic Method
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 4 − 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 5 − (𝑎𝑥 4 − 𝑏𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5 ) = 2𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(−𝑥) = 2𝑥

Substitute 𝑥 = 3:
𝑓(3) − 𝑓(−3) = 2(3) ⇒ 𝑓(3) = 8

Example 1.130
1
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 (2𝑥 + 2−𝑥 )

1 1
𝑓(−𝑥) = (2−𝑥 + 2𝑥 ) = (2𝑥 + 2−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏
2 2

Example 1.131
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
The hyperbolic sine is defined sinh 𝑥 = 2
. Show that it is even.

1 1
𝑓(−𝑥) = (𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) = (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏
2 2
B. Odd Functions

1.132: Odd Function: Graphical Test

A function is an odd function if
➢ reflecting it across the 𝒚-axis, and then reflecting it across the 𝒙-axis does not change its value
➢ OR if it is symmetrical about the origin

Example 1.133
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Check whether the functions graphed below are odd:

𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑂𝑑𝑑

1.134: Odd Function: Algebraic Test

𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓

𝑓(−𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

−𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

−𝑓(−𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

Example 1.135
Check whether 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 is odd.

Algebraic Method
𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)3 = (−𝑥 3 ) = −𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑶𝒅𝒅

Graphical Method
𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
Reflect across the y-axis
𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ ⇒ 𝑦 = (−𝑥)3
Reflect across the x-axis
𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ ⇒ 𝑦 = −(−𝑥 3 ) = 𝑥 3 = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ

Example 1.136
A. Check whether 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 is odd.
B. Check whether 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 is odd.

Part A
𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)3 + (−𝑥) = −𝑥 3 − 𝑥 = −(𝑥 3 + 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑶𝒅𝒅
Part B
𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥
−𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 ≠ 𝑓(−𝑥) ⇒ 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝒐𝒅𝒅

1.137: Odd Powers

Functions that have only odd powers of the variable are odd.

Example 1.138

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Check whether the following function are even, odd or neither using the test given above.
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
D. 𝑓(𝑥) = 23𝑥 72 + 15
E. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 31 + 𝑥 29 + ⋯ + 𝑥 + 7
F. 𝑓(𝑥) = 37𝑥 2 + 4
G. 𝑓(𝑥) = 21𝑥 23 + 𝑥
H. 𝑓(𝑥) = 21𝑥 23 + 7
I. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 27 + 𝑥 26 + 𝑥 25

⏟3 ⇒ 𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
𝑂𝑑𝑑
𝑓(𝑥) = ⏟3
𝑥 + ⏟
𝑥 ⇒ 𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑓(𝑥) = ⏟3
𝑥 + 𝑥
⏟ 2
+ ⏟
𝑥 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

Example 1.139
1
𝑓(𝑥) = (2𝑥 − 2−𝑥 )
2

1 1
𝑓(−𝑥) = (2−𝑥 − 2𝑥 ) = − (−2−𝑥 + 2𝑥 ) = −𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑂𝑑𝑑
2 2

MCQ 1.140
A graph fails the vertical line test, but passes the test of an odd function (so it is symmetrical about the origin).
Then:
A. The graph is an odd function.
B. The graph is a function, but not odd.
C. The graph is not a function.
D. The graph intersects the x axis an odd number of times.

Option C.

Challenge 1.141

C. Periodic Functions

1.5 Domain
A. Definitions

1.142: Domain and Range

Domain is the set of acceptable input (or 𝒙-values) for the function.
Range is the set of output (or 𝒚-values) that the function can take.

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The domain can be given explicitly when a function is defined.

If functions are given in tabular form, the domain and the range can be listed out from the table.

Example 1.143: Tabular Function

The following table gives the favorite subject as a Student Pari Nitish Santosh Arya
function of the student name. Give the domain and Subject English Humanities Maths English
range of that function.

Domain is the input values, which are all the students.

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = {𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖, 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑠ℎ, 𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑠ℎ, 𝐴𝑟𝑦𝑎}
Range is the output values, which are the subjects:
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ, 𝐻𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠, 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠}

Example 1.144: Numeric Values

State the domain and the range of the function below, which gives the shoe Roll Number 21 27 4 7
size of a student as a function of his roll number: Shoe Size 4 6 5 6
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝑓(𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)

Domain is the set of input values, which are the Roll Numbers:
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = {4, 7, 21, 27}
Range is the set of output values, which are the shoe sizes.
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {4,5,6}

Notes:
➢ We only write the number 6 once in the range. We are using set notation, and repetition is not
meaningful in sets.
➢ We wrote domain and range in ascending order. This is to make things easy for us, but is not needed in
set notation – sets do not need numbers to be in a particular order.

Example 1.145: Graphical Function

1.146: Explicit Domain

A function can be defined as a mapping from one set to another. The first set represents the domain, the second
set represents the co-domain.
𝑓: ℚ ⏟ → ℝ
⏟ , 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑪𝒐−𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏

B. Co-Domain(Optional)

1.147: Co-Domain

Example 1.148: Identifying Domain, Co-Domain and Range

𝑓 is a function, defined as given below. Identify the domain, co-domain and the range for the function.
𝑓: ℤ → ℤ, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

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𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 = ℤ = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠

𝐶𝑜 − 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑜𝑒𝑠 = ℤ = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

Range: The values which the function actually achieves in its co-domain is called the range. Note that 𝑥 2 is
always positive, and hence 𝑓(𝑥) will never be negative. Hence, the range of 𝑓(𝑥) is
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝕎 = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠

Example 1.149: Identifying Valid Inputs for the Domain

State which inputs are valid, and which are not for for 𝑓 defined as 𝑥 −3 5 7 0.3
𝑓: ℤ → ℤ, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . 𝑓(𝑥) 9 25 49 0.09

The set of valid inputs for 𝑓 is the set of integers. 0.3 is not an integer. Hence, it is not a valid input. Other inputs
are valid.

Example 1.150: Making Range and Co-Domain the Same

Modify the function 𝑓: ℤ → ℤ, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 to get a new function 𝑔 such that its range and its co-domain are
the same.

The range of 𝑓 is 𝑊. The co-domain is currently ℤ. If we change the co-domain from ℤ to 𝕎, the co-domain and
the range will be the same:
𝑔: ℤ → 𝕎, 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
C. Finding Range
Range is the set of valid y values for a function. Range can be found by:
➢ Graphical Methods: This requires looking at the graph of a function. This is usually the case for simple,
concept-based questions.
➢ Algebraic Methods: These requires finding the inverse of the function and then finding the domain of
the inverse.

Example 1.151
Find the range of the function below:
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝕆, 𝕆 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠

Consider some sample inputs and their corresponding outputs

{… , −3, −1,1,3, … } = {… , −6, −4, −2,2,4, … }
The inputs can be extended on the left as well as the right. This will cause the outputs to also get similarly
extended.

A nice way to describe the outputs is then:

𝑅𝑓 = 𝔼 − {0}, 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

Example 1.152
Find the range of the function below:
𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝐷𝑓 = 𝔼 , 𝔼 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠
2
Consider some sample inputs and their corresponding outputs
{… − 4, −2,0,2,4 … } = {… , −2, −1,0,1,2, … }
The inputs can be extended on the left as well as the right. This will cause the outputs to also get similarly
extended.

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A nice way to describe the outputs is then:

𝑅𝑓 = ℤ, ℤ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

D. Implicit Domain
If a function does not specify, its domain, then the domain is understood from the context. Numbers for which
the function expression is not defined are excluded from the domain. In particular:
➢ Fractions cannot have denominator zero since division by zero is not defined.
➢ Expressions inside square roots cannot be negative since negative numbers do not have a square root in
the real number system.
If asked to find the domain of a function, we will attempt to find the largest valid domain for the function.

E. Fractions / Division by Zero

Division by zero is not defined. Hence, the denominator of a fraction cannot be zero. If the denominator is an
expression, then you need to separately check whether the denominator can be zero.

Example 1.153
Find the domain of the following functions:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5
3
B. 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑥
3𝑥+5
C. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥
5
D. 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑥+2
𝑥+𝜋
E. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥+𝜋
𝑥+2
F. 𝑠(𝑥) =
2
3 5 5
G. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 + 7 + 2
𝑥+ 𝑥+ 𝑥+
4 2 3

Part A Part E
There are no restrictions. We cannot have:
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑥 + 𝜋 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −𝜋
In interval notation as: 𝐷ℎ = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 − 𝜋 = {𝑥| 𝑥 ≠ −𝜋}
𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, ∞) =⏟(−∞, −𝜋) ∪ (−𝜋, ∞)
Part B 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
3 Part F
The denominator of the expression 𝑥 cannot be 𝑥+2
The denominator of the expression 2
is a
zero. Therefore, the domain is the set of all real
constant, and it is never zero. Hence, we have:
numbers, except zero, which can also be written:
𝑁𝑜 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⇒ 𝐷𝑠 = 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝐷𝑔 = ⏟ ℝ − {0} = ⏟ (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
𝑺𝒆𝒕 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
⇔ 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, +∞)
Part C 𝐷𝑠 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ }
Same as Part B Part G
Part D None of the denominators can be zero. Hence, we
We cannot have: equate the denominators to zero separately:
𝑥 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −2 3 3
𝑥+ =0⇒𝑥=−
𝐷𝑔 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 − 2 = {𝑥| 𝑥 ≠ −2} 4 4
7 7
= (−∞,
⏟ −2) ∪ (−2, ∞) 𝑥+ =0⇒𝑥=−
𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
2 2

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2 2 7 3 2
𝑥+ =0⇒𝑥=− 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ − ,− ,−
3 3 2 4 3
And hence none of these values can be in the And we can write this in interval notation:
domain of the function. 7 7 3 3 2 2
(−∞, − ) ∪ (− , − ) ∪ (− , − ) ∪ (− , ∞)
2 2 4 4 3 3

Example 1.154
A continued fraction has multiple fractions. Each of the fractions in the continued fractions must have a non-
zero denominator. Use this to find the domain of
2
𝑓(𝑥) =
2
1+ 1
3+𝑥

Innermost Fraction
The innermost fraction cannot have denominator zero, and hence:
0 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓
Second Level Fraction
1 1 1 1
3 + = 0 ⇒ = −3 ⇒ 𝑥 = − ⇒ − 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓
𝑥 𝑥 3 3
Third Level Fraction
2 2 1 1 1 1
1+ =0⇒ = −1 ⇒ −2 = 3 + ⇒ −5 = ⇒ 𝑥 = − ⇒ − 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓
1 1 𝑥 𝑥 5 5
3+𝑥 3+𝑥

Write the Answer

1 1
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 − , − , 0
3 5
1 1
{𝑥| 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ − , − , 0}
3 5
1 1 1 1
(−∞, − ) ∪ (− , − ) ∪ (− , 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
3 3 5 5
F. Squares and Sum of Squares
If you have a square in the denominator, the only way for a square to be zero is when the expression inside the
square is zero.

In other words
𝑥2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0

The sum of squares can only be zero if each square term is itself zero:
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = 0 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑏 = 0

Example 1.155
Find the domain of:
3
A. 𝑓(𝑡) = (𝑡+2)2
3 3
B. 𝑓(𝑡) = (𝑡+4)2 + (𝑡−4)2
3
C. 𝑓(𝑡) = (𝑡+4)2 +(𝑡−4)2

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Part A
Here, we equate the denominator to zero: Hence, the domain is
(𝑡 + 2)2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 = −2 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝐷𝑓 = {𝑡|𝑡 ≠ −2} Part C (Alternate Method): Solving Quadratic
Part B Equations
Equate each denominator to zero: The denominator of a fraction cannot be zero.
(𝑡 + 4)2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 + 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 = −4 Hence, equate the denominator to zero and solve:
(𝑡 − 4)2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 − 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 = 4 (𝑡 + 4)2 + (𝑡 − 4)2 = 0
𝐷𝑓 = {𝑡|𝑡 ≠ −4,4} 𝑡 + 8𝑡 + 16 + 𝑡 2 − 8𝑡 + 16 = 0
2

Part C: Using Logic 2𝑡 2 + 32 = 0

(𝑡 + 4)2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 + 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 = −4 2𝑡 2 = −32
(𝑡 − 4)2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 − 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 = 4 𝑡 2 = −16
But 𝑡 cannot −4 and 4 at the same time. 𝑡 = √−16 ⇒ 𝑡 ∈ ℂ ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Hence, there are no values of 𝑡 for which the And since there are no real solutions, we must have
denominator is zero. 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

G. Square Roots
➢ Square roots of negative numbers are not defined for real numbers.
√−4 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
➢ Hence, to be defined in real numbers, expressions inside a square root sign must be non-negative.
➢ Validity of zero in a square root
✓ In general, zero is acceptable in a square root, since the square root of zero is also zero, and
hence a valid real number.
✓ However, if a square root is the denominator of a fraction, then the square root cannot be zero.
Hence, in that case, the square root must be positive.

By default, the number system that we will use in assessing the domain will be the set of real numbers.
We will other sets of numbers (rational numbers, integers, whole numbers) only when there is a reason to not
consider real numbers.

1.156: Domain with a Square Root

Since square roots are defined for nonnegative quantities, √𝑥 has domain
𝑥≥0

For example:
√−3 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
√3 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

Example 1.157
Simplify and find the domain:
𝑛
√27𝑥 4 𝑦 2 𝑧 3
A. 𝑛=2
B. 𝑛=3
C. 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
D. 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

Part A The first term is just a number. No restrictions:

√27 × √𝑥 4 × √𝑦 2 × √𝑧 3 √27 = 3√3
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The second term has an even power of the variable. 𝑧≥0

4 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ⇒ 𝑥 4 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 Part B
√𝑥 4 = 𝑥 2 We are taking a cube root. There are no restrictions
The third term is a square: on the expressions inside a cube root.
𝑦 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 Part C
We are taking an odd root. There are no restrictions
√𝑦 2 = |𝑦|
on the expressions inside an odd root.
The fourth term has an odd power of 𝑧:
Part D
𝑧 > 0 ⇒ 𝑧3 > 0
The restrictions for an even root are the same as the
𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧3 = 0
restrictions for a square root. Hence, the answer is
𝑧 < 0 ⇒ 𝑧 3 < 0 ⇒ 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑨𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒅
the same as the answer for Part A.

Example 1.158
Find the domain of:
A. ℎ(𝑥) = √𝑥
1
B. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥
√
5+𝑥
C. 𝑞(𝑥) =
√𝑥−2
3𝑥+4
D. 𝑓(𝑥) =
√7𝑥+35

Part A 𝑥
⏟> 0 ⇔ ⏟ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ+
𝑥 ∈ (0, ∞) ⇔ ⏟
Square roots cannot be negative. Hence, the 𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒆𝒕 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
expression inside the square root must be And, we can also write
nonnegative. Therefore: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑥
⏟≥ 0 ⇔ ⏟ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ+ + {0}
𝑥 ∈ [0, ∞) ⇔ ⏟ Part C
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒆𝒕 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 The denominator cannot be zero. Further, the
And, we can also write expression inside the square root must be non-
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 negative. We can combine the two conditions to get:
Part B 𝑥 − 2 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > 2 ⇒ 𝐷𝑞 = (2, ∞)
Square roots cannot be negative. Hence, the
expression inside the square root must be positive. 𝐷𝑞 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 2
Therefore: Part D
𝑥≥0 7𝑥 + 35 > 0
The expression in the denominator cannot be zero. 7𝑥 > −35
Hence, 𝑥 > −5
√𝑥 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≠ 0 𝑥 ∈ (−5, ∞]
Combine the above two to get:

H. Integer Domain

Example 1.159
Find the domain of 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2
A. When considering only integers
B. When considering all real numbers

Part A: Integral Domain

The expression inside the square root cannot be negative. Hence, we must have:

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𝑥 + 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ −2 ⇒ 𝑥 > −3 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−2, −1,0,1, … }

𝐷𝑔 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 − 3
Part B: Real Number Domain
The expression inside the square root cannot be negative. Hence, we must have:
𝑥 + 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ −2 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [−2, ∞)
𝐷𝑔 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 − 2

Compare the answer for Part A with the answer for Part B.
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴: 𝐷𝑔 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 − 3
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐵: 𝐷𝑔 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 − 2
C. If in the answer for Part A, we replace Integers with Real Numbers, is the answer then correct for Part B.
D. If in the answer for Part B, we replace Real Numbers with Integers, is the answer then correct for Part A.

Part C
Let’s make the changes asked in the question:
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴: 𝐷𝑔 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 − 3 ⇔ 𝑥 ∈ (−3, ∞)
Draw a number line, and check:

We also get numbers between −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 2 (such as −2.5) which we just do not want.

Hence, if we make the change given in the question, the answer is not applicable for Part B.

Part D
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐵: 𝐷𝑔 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 − 2 ⇔ {−2, −1,0,1, … }

Example 1.160
5+𝑥
Consider 𝑞(𝑥) =
√10 − 3𝑥
A. Find the largest integer in the domain of 𝑞(𝑥)
B. Find the smallest integer not in the domain of 𝑞(𝑥)

Finding the Domain

The denominator cannot be zero. Further, the expression inside the square root must be non-negative. Combine
the two conditions:
10 1 1
10 − 3𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 3𝑥 − 10 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥 < = 3 ⇒ 𝐷𝑞 = (−∞, 3 ) ⇒ 𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 = 3
3 3 3

Part A
The largest integer that is in the domain of 𝑞(𝑥) is the rightmost integer that is covered by the red line. From the
graph, this is 3.
Part B
The smallest integer not in the domain is the leftmost integer not covered by the red line.

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From the graph, this is 4.

Example 1.161
3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) =
√𝜋𝑥 − 2𝜋
A. Find the domain.
B. Find the smallest integer in the domain.
C. Find the largest integer not in the domain.

Part A: Find the Domain

𝜋𝑥 − 2𝜋 > 0 ⇒ 𝜋𝑥 > 2𝜋 ⇒ 𝑥 > 2 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (2, ∞)

Part B
The smallest integer in the domain is the leftmost integer that is on the red line, which is 3.
Part C
The largest integer not in the domain is the rightmost integer not on the red line, which is 2.
I. Merging Solution Sets
Till now, the numerator did not play a role in the questions in this section, since there were no restrictions on
the numerator. However, if the numerator has a square root, then
➢ The square root must be non-negative
➢ The denominator, as usual cannot be zero.

Example 1.162
√𝑥 + 3
Consider 𝑎(𝑥) =
𝑥−2
A. Find the domain
B. Find the largest integer not in the domain
C. Find the smallest integer in the domain.

Part A
Here, we have conditions from both the numerator and the denominator. We need to be more careful here.
First, we find the conditions, then we simplify them, and finally we combine the results.
From the numerator
𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ −3
From the denominator:
𝑥≠2
Combine the two to get:
𝑥 is a real number greater than or equal to −3, but 𝑥 cannot be equal to 2.

And write in mathematical notation as:

𝑥 ≥ −3, 𝑥 ≠ 2 ⇔ 𝑥 ∈ [−3,2) ∪ (2, ∞)

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Part B
2

Part C
-3

J. Cube Roots
Cube roots do not have any restriction on the domain, since cube roots exist for all real numbers. Hence, the
domain of definition of a cube root is all real numbers.

Example 1.163
3
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 5

𝐷 = (−∞, ∞) = ℝ
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

Example 1.164
1
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
√𝑥 + 5

We do not have any restrictions because of the cube root.

But the expression inside the cube cannot be zero, since the cube root of zero is itself zero, and the denominator
cannot be zero.

Hence, we solve
3
√𝑥 + 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −5
And hence the
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 − 5.
K. 𝒏𝒕𝒉 Roots
In general:
➢ There are no restrictions on cube roots, and any odd roots.
➢ Even roots must be non-negative.

Example 1.165
𝑛
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 5 if:
A. 𝑛 is even
B. 𝑛 is odd

Part A
𝑥 + 5 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ −5 ⇒ 𝐷𝑓 = [−5, ∞)
Part B
There are no restrictions.
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

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L. Absolute Value
Recall that the denominator of a fraction cannot be zero. Hence, an expression in absolute value cannot be zero
either.

Example 1.166
|𝑥 + 4|
Find the domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
|𝑥 + 2|

The denominator of the fraction cannot be zero. So, we equate the denominator to zero and solve to find the
exceptions:
|𝑥 + 2| = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 2 = ±0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −2

𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, ∞)

𝑆𝑒𝑡: 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝐵𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟: {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ −2}
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦: 𝑥 < −2 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 > −2

Example 1.167
|𝑥 + 4|
Find the domain of the function 𝑔(𝑥) =
|𝑥 + 4| + 2

Logical Method
Consider the denominator.
|𝑥 + 4| > 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥.
2>0
And hence, the denominator is always positive.
And hence, the domain of the function is:
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
Algebraic Method
Equate the denominator to zero:
|𝑥 + 4| + 2 ⇒ |𝑥 + 4| = −2
Since absolute value cannot be negative, there are no solutions to this equation. The domain of the function is
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

Example 1.168
|𝑥 + 4|
Find the domain of the function ℎ(𝑥) =
|𝑥 + 5| − 2

Equate the denominator to zero:

|𝑥 + 5| − 2 = 0 ⇒ |𝑥 + 5| = 2 ⇒ 𝑥 + 5 = ±2 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±2 − 5 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−7, −3}
The domain is
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 {−7, −3}
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: (−∞, −7) ∪ (−7, −3) ∪ (−3, ∞ )
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥 < −7 𝑂𝑅 − 7 < 𝑥 < −3 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 > −3

Example 1.169
5
Find the domain of the function 𝑗(𝑥) =
|𝑥 + 4| − |𝑥 + 3|

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Equate the denominator to zero:

|𝑥 + 4| − |𝑥 + 3| = 0 ⇒ |𝑥 + 4| = |𝑥 + 3|
Use the property that |𝑎| = |𝑏| ⇔ 𝑎 = ±𝑏:
𝑥 + 4 = 𝑥 + 3 ⇒ 4 = 3 ⇒ 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 ⇒ 𝑵𝒐 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
7
𝑥 + 4 = −(𝑥 + 3) ⇒ 2𝑥 = −7 ⇒ 𝑥 = −
2
7 7
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥 < − 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 > −
2 2
M. Nested Absolute Values
When the denominator has nested absolute values, we get an equation with nested absolute values.
➢ The standard method to solve such questions is to remove the absolute values, starting with the
outermost.
➢ At each stage, the number of equations will double.

Absolute Value Equations Max.

Nesting Solutions
1 2 2
2 4 4
3 8 8

Example 1.170
5
Find the domain of the function 𝑗(𝑥) =
||𝑥 + 4| − 5| − 3

This has a nested absolute value. Standard methods to solve absolute values apply.

Isolate the outermost absolute value sign first:

||𝑥 + 4| − 5| − 3 = 0 ⇒ ||𝑥 + 4| − 5| = 3
Use the property that |𝑎| = 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑎 = ±𝑦:
|𝑥 + 4| − 5 = ±3

Solve each case above individually:

𝐂𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐈: |𝑥 + 4| − 5 = 3 ⇒ |𝑥 + 4| = 8 ⇒ 𝑥 + 4 = ±8 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±8 − 4 ⇒ 𝑥 = {−12,4}
𝐂𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐈𝐈: |𝑥 + 4| − 5 = −3 ⇒ |𝑥 + 4| = 2 ⇒ 𝑥 + 4 = ±2 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±2 − 4 ⇒ 𝑥 = {−2, −6}

𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 {−12, −6, −2,4}

(−∞, −12) ∪ (−12, −6) ∪ (−6, −2) ∪ (−2,4) ∪ (4, ∞)

Challenge 1.171
5
Find the domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
||𝑥 − 1| − 2| − 3

Isolate the outermost absolute value sign first:

||𝑥 − 1| − 2| − 3 = 0 ⇒ ||𝑥 − 1| − 2| = 3
Use the property that |𝑎| = 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑎 = ±𝑦:
|𝑥 − 1| − 2 = ±3
Solve each case above individually:

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𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼: |𝑥 − 1| − 2 = +3 ⇒ |𝑥 − 1| = 5 ⇒ 𝑥 − 1 = ±5 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±5 + 1 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {6, −4}

𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐼: |𝑥 − 1| − 2 = −3 ⇒ |𝑥 − 1| = −1 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Be careful with Case II, since absolute values can never be negative.

Hence, the final answer is

(−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, 6) ∪ (6, ∞)

Challenge 1.172
5
Find the domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
1 2 3
||𝑥 − 2| − 3| − 4

Isolate the outermost absolute value sign first:

1 2 3
||𝑥 − | − | =
2 3 4
Use the property that |𝑎| = 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑎 = ±𝑦:
1 2 3
|𝑥 − | − = ±
2 3 4

Solve each case above individually:

1 2 3 1 9 8 17 1 17 11 23
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼: |𝑥 − | − = ⇒ |𝑥 − | = + = ⇒𝑥− =± ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {− , }
2 3 4 2 12 12 12 2 12 12 12
1 2 3 1 −9 8 1
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼: |𝑥 − | − = − ⇒ |𝑥 − | = + =− ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2 3 4 2 12 12 12

Hence, the final answer is:

11 11 23 23
(−∞, − ) (− , ) ( , ∞)
12 12 12 12

N. Variables
If you have variables, you have to be careful to check whether the expressions involving those variables are
positive.
If they are not positive, then, as before, absolute value equations will not have a solution.

Challenge 1.173
5
If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are positive numbers such that 𝑎 < 𝑏 < 𝑐, find the domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
||𝑥 − 𝑎| − 𝑏| − 𝑐
Isolate the outermost absolute value sign first:
||𝑥 − 𝑎| − 𝑏| = 𝑐
Use the property that |𝑎| = 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑎 = ±𝑦:
|𝑥 − 𝑎| − 𝑏 = ±𝑐
Solve each case above individually:
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼: |𝑥 − 𝑎| − 𝑏 = 𝑐 ⇒ |𝑥 − 𝑎| = 𝑏 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑎 = ±(𝑏 + 𝑐) ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {𝑎 − 𝑏 − 𝑐, 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐}
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐼: |𝑥 − 𝑎| − 𝑏 = −𝑐 ⇒ |𝑥 − 𝑎| = 𝑏 − 𝑐 ⇒⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Hence, the final answer is:

(−∞, 𝑎 − 𝑏 − 𝑐) ∪ (𝑎 − 𝑏 − 𝑐, 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ∪ (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐, ∞)

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O. Nested Roots
Expressions inside a square root sign must be non-negative. This same condition applies to nested square roots.
However, the overall work increases because:
➢ Each square root must individually be non-negative.
➢ The intervals obtained from each square root must all be satisfied together. That is, we must take the
intersection of the intervals.

Example 1.174
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √5 − √𝑥 − 3

Inner Inequality:
𝑥−3≥0⇒𝑥 ≥3

Outer Inequality:
5 − √𝑥 − 3 ≥ 0 ⇒ 5 ≥ √𝑥 − 3 ⇒ 25 ≥ 𝑥 − 3 ⇒ 28 ≥ 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 ≤ 28

[3,28]

Example 1.175
Find the domain of 𝑝(𝑥) = √2 − √3 − 𝑥

Each expression inside a square root must be positive. We start with the inner inequality:
3−𝑥 ≥0⇒3≥𝑥 ⇒𝑥 ≤3

Outer Inequality:
2 − √3 − 𝑥 ≥ 0 ⇒ 2 ≥ √3 − 𝑥 ⇒ 4 ≥ 3 − 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 + 4 ≥ 3 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ −1

Number Line Method to Find the Intersection

And we need to meet both conditions, which is given by:

𝑥 ≥ −1 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑥 ≤ 3 ⇒ −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [−1,3]

Example 1.176
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √7 − √𝑥 + 3

𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ −3
7 − √𝑥 ± 3 ≥ 0 ⇒ 7 ≥ √𝑥 + 3 ⇒ 49 ≥ 𝑥 + 3 ⇒ 46 ≥ 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 ≤ 46
[−3,46]

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Challenge 1.177
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √7 + √𝑥 − 3

Inner Inequality:
𝑥−3≥0⇒𝑥 ≥3

Outer Inequality:
𝐵𝑜𝑔𝑢𝑠 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 7 + √𝑥 − 3 ≥ 0 ⇒ 7 ≥ −√𝑥 − 3 ⇒ 49 ≥ 𝑥 − 3 ⇒ 52 ≥ 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 ≤ 52

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 7 + √𝑥 − 3 ≥ 0
Note that each term of the left-hand side is individually greater than zero:
7 > 0, √𝑥 − 3 ≥ 0 ⇒ ⏟ 7 + ⏟ √𝑥 − 3 ≥ 0 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆
+𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑛−𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Hence, the final answer is:
[3, ∞)

Challenge 1.178

Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √1 − √2 − √3 − 𝑥

Innermost Inequality:
3−𝑥 ≥0⇒3≥𝑥 ⇒𝑥 ≤3
Middle Inequality:
2 − √3 − 𝑥 ≥ 0 ⇒ 2 ≥ √3 − 𝑥 ⇒ 4 ≥ 3 − 𝑥 ⇒ 4 + 𝑥 ≥ 3 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ −1
Outer Inequality:
Remove the outermost radical:

1 − √2 − √3 − 𝑥 ≥ 0 ⇒ 1 ≥ √2 − √3 − 𝑥 ⇒ 1 ≥ 2 − √3 − 𝑥
Remove the second radical:
1 + √3 − 𝑥 ≥ 2 ⇒ √3 − 𝑥 ≥ 1 ⇒ 3 − 𝑥 ≥ 1
Solve the inequality for 𝑥:
3≥1+𝑥 ⇒2≥𝑥 ⇒𝑥 ≤2

[−1,2]

Example 1.179

Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √3 − √2 − √1 − 𝑥

P. Factored Expressions
If an expression is already given in factored form, then finding the numbers not in the domain of the function
becomes much easier.

𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) = ⇒ 𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝑨𝒍𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 {−𝜶, −𝜷, −𝜸}
(𝒙 + 𝜶)(𝒙 + 𝜷)(𝒙 + 𝜸)

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Example 1.180
𝑥
Find the domain of 𝑝(𝑥) =
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 5)

𝑥+2=0
𝑥+3=0
𝑥−5=0

𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 {−2, −,3,5}

Q. Back Calculations
Questions can give us the domain of a function, and require us to work out the values of constants in the
functions. This requires an understanding of how the question would have been solved, if the values of the
constants had been given.

Example 1.181
The domain of
1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+𝑎
is all real numbers except −3. Find the value of 𝑎.

𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −𝑎

−𝑎 = −3 ⇒ 𝑎 = 3

Example 1.182
Find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑏 given that:
1
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, −7) ∪ (−7, −4) ∪ (−4, ∞)
(𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏)

The numbers not in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) are:

−7, −4

(𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−𝑎, −𝑏}

{−𝑎, −𝑏} = {−7, −4} ⇒ {𝑎, 𝑏} = {4,7}

Example 1.183
Find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑏 given that:
1
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓 = 𝑥 < −10 𝑂𝑅 − 10 < 𝑥 < 5 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 > 5
(𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏)

Example 1.184
Find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑏 given that:
1
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, −7) ∪ (−7, ∞)
(𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏)

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R. Square Roots

Example 1.185
If 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 𝑎, then domain of 𝑓 is:
A. (𝑎, ∞)
B. (−𝑎, ∞)
C. [𝑎, ∞]
D. [−𝑎, ∞]
E. Cannot be decided without knowing whether 𝑎 is positive or negative.

Example 1.186
Find the value of 𝑎 given that:
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 𝑎, 𝐷𝑓 = [7, ∞]

Example 1.187
√𝑥 + 𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝐷𝑓 = [−3, ∞]
√𝑥 + 𝑏
Statement I: The value of 𝑎 can be determined
Statement II: The value of 𝑏 can be determined

Mark the correct option:

A. Only I is true
B. Only II is true
C. Both I and II are true
D. Neither I nor II is true

Example 1.188
Find, in terms of 𝑎 and 𝑏, the domain of

𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑎 − √𝑏 − 𝑥

S. Applications

Example 1.189: Negative Numbers

Given that 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are constants with 𝑎 < 𝑏 < 𝑐 < 0, find the domain of
3 5 7
𝑓(𝑥) = + +
𝑥+𝑎 𝑥−𝑏 𝑥+𝑐
Find the largest number not in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥).

⏟
𝑎 < ⏟
𝑏 < ⏟
𝑐 <0
𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −𝑎
𝑥−𝑏 =0⇒𝑥 =𝑏
𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −𝑐
⏟
𝑏 < 0 < −𝑐⏟ < −𝑎 ⏟
𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

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(−∞, 𝑏) ∪ (𝑏, −𝑐) ∪ (−𝑐, −𝑎) ∪ (−𝑎, ∞)

Hence, the largest number not in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) is −𝑎.

Example 1.190: Counting

Consider the functions:
1 1 1
𝑓1 (𝑥) = , 𝑓2 (𝑥) = , 𝑓3 (𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥3 )(𝑥 − 𝑥4 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥5 )(𝑥 − 𝑥6 )
If the domain of each function is distinct, what is the minimum number of distinct values in
(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥6 )

With two numbers, it is not possible.

{0,1}
But with three distinct numbers, it is possible. For example, let the three numbers be {0,1,2}:
(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = (0,1)
(𝑥3 , 𝑥4 ) = (0,2)
(𝑥5 , 𝑥6 ) = (1,2)

If the above sequence of functions is continued

𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 , … 𝑓𝑛
what is the maximum value of 𝑛 given that the number of distinct values in (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) is 𝑣.

The number of ordered pairs that can be made is:

𝑣(𝑣 − 1)
2
And the number of functions, which is the value of n, is
𝑣(𝑣 − 1) 𝑣(𝑣 − 1)
÷2=
2 4

Example 1.191: Triangles

The three numbers not in the domain of
1 1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = + + , 𝑎 < 𝑏 < 𝑐, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℕ
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑏 𝑥−𝑐
Are the sides of a triangle. Find, in terms of 𝑎 and 𝑐, the largest value that 𝑏 can take.

By triangle inequality
𝑎+𝑏 <𝑐 ⇒𝑏 <𝑎−𝑐

Example 1.192: Rectangles

The two numbers not in the domain of
1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = + , 𝑤 < 𝑙, 𝑤, 𝑙 ∈ ℕ
𝑥−𝑙 𝑥−𝑤
Are the adjacent sides of a rectangle with perimeter 76. Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) that maximizes the area of the
rectangle.

2(𝑤 + 𝑙) = 76 ⇒ 𝑤 + 𝑙 = 38
To maximize the area, we want the numbers to be as close to each other as possible.
But, since 𝑤 < 𝑙, we cannot have a square.
𝑤 = 18, 𝑙 = 20 ⇒ 𝐴 = 360

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𝑥 =𝑤 ⇒𝑥−𝑤 =0
𝑥 =𝑙 ⇒𝑥−𝑙 =0

The two numbers not in the domain are

𝑤, 𝑙
The required domain is
ℝ − {18,20}

Example 1.193: Series

Find the sum of the numbers not in the domain of
1 1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = + + ⋯+
𝑥 + 50 𝑥 + 51 𝑥 + 59

−50 − 51 − ⋯ − 59
= −(50 + 0) + (−50 − 1) + ⋯ + (−50 − 9)

9 × 10
= (−50)(10) − [1 + 2 + ⋯ + 9] = −500 − = −500 − 45 = −545
2

Example 1.194: Telescoping Products

Find the product of all real numbers not in the domain of
𝑥
𝑝(𝑥) =
1 2 3 99
(𝑥 + ) (𝑥 + ) (𝑥 + ) … (𝑥 + )
2 3 4 100

1 2 3 99
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 {− , − , − , … , − }
2 3 4 100
And hence their product will be:
1 𝟐 𝟑 𝟗𝟗 1
(− ) (− ) (− ) … . (− )=−
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 100 100

Note that the sign will be negative since we have fractions with denominator
{2,3,4, … ,100} ⇒ 99 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ⇒ 99 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑠 ⇒ 𝑵𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓

1.6 Range2
A. Graphical Functions

1.195: Discrete Functions

A discrete function has a finite set of input-output values.

Hence, the domain and range for a function with discrete inputs and outputs will
be written using set notation.

Example 1.196
Find the domain and range of the function graphed alongside.

2 https://www.themathdoctors.org/finding-the-range-of-a-tricky-rational-function/

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Domain is the set of 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠:

1
{−1, 0, , 2}
2

Range is the set of 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠:

1 1
{− , , 2,3}
2 2

1.197: Continuous Functions

A continuous function has an interval of values over which it will take an input.

Hence, the domain and range for a function with continuous inputs and outputs
will be written using interval notation.

Example 1.198
Find the domain and range of the function graphed alongside.

Domain is the set of 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠:

[−2,2]

Range is the set of 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠:

[−2,0]

Example 1.199
Is it possible for a function to have a domain expressed in interval notation, and a discrete range expressed in
set notation? If yes, give an example of such a function and give its domain and range.

Example 1
We can do this using a constant function
𝑓(𝑥) = 1
with a restricted
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = [−2,2]

And since the function is constant, its range is

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {1}

Example 2
𝑦 = ⌊𝑥⌋
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = [0,3]
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {0,1,2}
Example 3

𝑦 = 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑥)
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (−∞, ∞)
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {−1,1}

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1.200: Piece-Wise Graphs

A piece-wise graph has separate definitions for each “piece” that its domain is broken
into.

Due to the flexibility of having more than one definition, these graphs allow for more
complex shapes and behavior.

Example 1.201
Find the domain and range of the function graphed alongside.

Domain is the set of 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠:

(1,3)

Range is the set of 𝑦-values:

(1,3] ∪ (4,7)
And the range can be written in inequality notation as:
1 < 𝑥 ≤ 3 𝑂𝑅 4 < 𝑥 < 7

1.202: Mixed Function

In a mixed graph, you can have a mix of discrete and continuous parts of the
function.

The usual rules for continuous and discrete functions will apply, but you
will have to be careful when merging the final results.

Example 1.203
Consider the function graphed alongside. Find the domain and range of the
function

Here, we need to be careful because we have both discrete and continuous parts to the function. The simplest
method of attack is to consider these separately.

Domain
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒: {−2,5}
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠: (−1,0) ∪ (0,4) ⇔ (−1,4), 𝑥 ∉ {0}
And we want both the parts:
(−1,0) ∪ (0,4) ∪ {−2,5}

Range
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒: {1,3}
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠: (−3,0) ∪ (0,2)
And we want both the parts:
(−3,0) ∪ (0,2) ∪ {3}
And we do not need to write the {1} separately, since it is already included in the interval (0,2).

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B. Linear Functions
Linear functions represent a straight line, and have the form
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑚 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, 𝑚 ≠ 0
𝑐 = 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡

Linear Function with Positive Slope

If you imagine extending the function to the
➢ left, the y-value will be as small (or as negative as we want).
➢ right, the y-value will be as large as we want.

Hence, a linear function with positive slope

(−∞, ∞) = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 = ℝ

Linear Function with Negative Slope

For a linear function with negative slope, if you extend the function:
➢ To the left, the value of y increases without bound
➢ To the right, the value y decreases without bound.

Hence, a linear function with negative slope also has range

(−∞, ∞) = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 = ℝ

Linear Function with Zero Slope

Substitute 𝑚 = 0 in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 to get:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑐
This is a constant function, and it has range
𝑐

Example 1.204
Find the range of the following functions:
A. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 4
B. 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5

Part A
This is a constant function, and its range has only a single value. Hence:
𝑅𝑓 = {4}
Part B
This is a non-constant linear function, and hence its range is:
𝑅𝑔 = (−∞, ∞) = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 = ℝ

C. Restricting the Domain

If we restrict the domain of a linear function, then the range will also be restricted.

Example 1.205
Find the range of the function:
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4, 𝐷𝑓 = (4, ∞)

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Consider the graph of the function

𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4
Because of the restriction on the domain, we only consider the
function in the blue shaded region.

If 𝑥 = 4, then:
𝑓(𝑥) = 3(4) + 4 = 12 + 4 = 16

The value 16 is not part of the range of 𝑓(𝑥) since the interval
(4, ∞)
Does not include 4 and hence
(4,16)
Is not part of the graph of:
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4, 𝐷𝑓 = (4, ∞)

To the right of 𝑥 = 4, 𝑓(𝑥) increases in value.

For 𝑥 = 4, and to the left of 𝑥 = 4, 𝑓(𝑥) is not defined.

Hence, the range of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4, 𝐷𝑓 = (4, ∞) is:

(16, ∞)

Example 1.206
Find the range of the function:
𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 3, 𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, 3]

Since the function is only defined for

(−∞, 3]
We are only interested in the shaded region.

The minimum value that the function takes is when 𝑥 = 3, which is:
𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 3 = −2(3) + 3 = −6 + 3 = −3

As 𝑥 decreases, y increases.
Hence, the range of y is:
[−3, ∞)
D. Increasing Functions
Recall that a function in which an increase in the value of 𝑥 always results in an increase in the value of 𝑦 is an
increasing function.
A linear function with positive slope is an increasing function.

Hence, to find the range of such a function, we only need to evaluate the function at its endpoints.

Example 1.207
Find the range of the function:
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 2, 𝐷𝑓 = [3,5]

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Evaluate the function at its endpoints:

𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝑓(3) = 2(3) − 2 = 6 − 2 = 4
𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝑓(5) = 2(5) − 2 = 10 − 2 = 8

Since the function is an increasing continuous function, the range is:

[4,8]

E. Decreasing Functions
Recall that a function in which an increase in the value of 𝑥 always results in a decrease in the value of 𝑦 is a
decreasing function.
A linear function with negative slope is a decreasing function.

Example 1.208
Find the range of the function:
𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥 + 4, 𝐷𝑓 = [1,2)

Example 1.209
Find the range of the function:
𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 2, 𝐷𝑓 = [𝑒, 𝜋]
Where 𝜋 and 𝑒 are constants such that
𝜋 ≈ 3.14, 𝑒 ≈ 2.71
(Give an exact answer)

Since we are asked for an exact answer, we must use the constants given in the question, and not approximate.

𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝑓(𝑒) = −2𝑒 + 2

𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝑓(𝜋) = −2𝜋 + 2
Which might make us think that the answer is:
[−2𝑒 + 2, −2𝜋 + 2]
But recall that this is a decreasing function. Also
𝑒 < 𝜋 ⇒ −𝜋 < −𝑒

Hence, in interval notation, we must write the smaller number on the left, giving us:
[−2𝜋 + 2, −2𝑒 + 2]
F. Discrete Domain
If the domain is discrete, then the range of the function will also be discrete.
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝐷𝑓 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 } ⇒ 𝑅𝑓 = {𝑓(𝑥1 ), 𝑓(𝑥2 ), … , 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 )}

Example 1.210
A. Find the range of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 2, 𝐷𝑓 = {3,4,5}
B. What is the connection between the function 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 2

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Part A
𝑅𝑓 = {4,6,8}
Part B
If we restrict the domain of 𝑔(𝑥), we get 𝑓(𝑥).
Hence, the three points that make up the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) all lie on the graph
of 𝑔(𝑥).

Example 1.211
Find the range of the function:
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝐷𝑓 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 }
(Your answer will be in terms of variables)

𝑅𝑓 = {𝑓(𝑥1 ), 𝑓(𝑥2 ), 𝑓(𝑥3 )} = {𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 }

G. Absolute Value Function

The absolute value function gives the absolute value of a number.
If the number is:
➢ positive, there is no change
➢ negative, the minus sign is removed, but the number is otherwise
unchanged.

Example 1.212
𝑦 = |𝑥| is graphed alongside. Find its domain and range.

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛: (−∞, ∞)

Since an absolute value can never be negative, the smallest value that |𝑥| can take is 0.
However, as we go to the right on the number line, or the left on the number line, |𝑥| becomes as large as want.
Hence, the range of |𝑥| is
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: [0, ∞)

1.213: Vertical Shifts and Vertical Scales

➢ Vertically shifting the absolute value function does change its range.
➢ The absolute value function does not change its range when you scale it vertically, scale it horizontally
or shift it horizontally.

Example 1.214
Find the range of:
A. |𝑥| + 3
B. |𝑥| − 𝜋
C. 2|𝑥|
1
D. |𝑥|𝜋
E. |𝑥 + 2|
F. |𝑥 − 2𝜋|
G. |3𝑥|
𝑥
H. |𝜋|

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Parts A and B
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: [3, ∞)
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: [−𝜋, ∞)

Parts C and D
𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ: 𝑦 = |𝑥|
𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ: 𝑦 = 2|𝑥|
1
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ: 𝑦 = |𝑥|
𝜋
For all functions above, the range is
[0, ∞)

Parts E and F
𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ: 𝑦 = |𝑥|
𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ: 𝑦 = |𝑥 + 2|
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ: 𝑦 = |𝑥 − 2𝜋|
For all functions above, the range is
[0, ∞)

Parts G and H
𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ: 𝑦 = |𝑥|
𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ: 𝑦 = |3𝑥|
𝑥
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ: 𝑦 = | |
𝜋
For all functions above, the range is
[0, ∞)

Example 1.215
Find the range of 𝑦 = |𝑥 + 4| + 2
Transformations
|𝑥| → ⏟
|𝑥 + 4| → ⏟
|𝑥 + 4| + 2
𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑝
𝑏𝑦 4 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑏𝑦 2 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Algebraically
The minimum value of |𝑥 + 4| + 2 occurs when
|𝑥 + 4| = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −4

𝑥 increases without bound to the left of 𝑥 = −4, and also to the right of 𝑥 = −4.

Hence, the range of 𝑦 = |𝑥 + 4| + 2 is

[2, ∞)

Example 1.216

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If there are multiple absolute value terms, we see whether the expression inside the absolute value is positive
or negative in different intervals.
Consider the expression |𝑥 + 3| − |𝑥 − 4|
A. Find the range
B. Hence, or otherwise, rewrite it as a piecewise function without using absolute value

Finding Critical Points

|𝑥 + 3| − |𝑥 − 4| has two expressions inside the absolute value sign. We check where each expression is
positive, and divide the number line accordingly.

(𝒙 + 𝟑) when 𝑥 + 3 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ −3
|𝑥 + 3| = {
−(𝒙 + 𝟑) when 𝑥 < −3

(𝒙 − 𝟒) when 𝑥 − 4 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ 4
|𝑥 − 4| = {
−(𝒙 − 𝟒) when 𝑥 < 4
We get three cases:
Case I: (−∞, −𝟑):
|𝒙 + 𝟑| − |𝒙 − 𝟒| = −𝑥 − 3 − (−𝑥 + 4) = −𝑥 − 3 + 𝑥 − 4 = −7
Case II: (−𝟑, 𝟒):
|𝒙 + 𝟑| − |𝒙 − 𝟒| = 𝑥 + 3 − (−𝑥 + 4) = 𝑥 + 3 + 𝑥 − 4 = 2𝑥 − 1
2𝑥 − 1𝑥=−3 = 2(−3) − 1 = −7, 2𝑥 − 1𝑥=4 = 7
Case III: (𝟒, ∞):
|𝒙 + 𝟑| − |𝒙 − 𝟒| = 𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥 + 4 = 7

Final Solution (−∞, −3 ) [−3, 4] (4, ∞)

Intervals −7 [−7,7] 7
𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 = [−𝟕, 𝟕]

Part B
From the behavior, we can conclude that
𝑦 = −7, 𝑥 < −3
|𝑥 + 3| − |𝑥 − 4| = { 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 ∈ (−3,4)
𝑦 = +7, 𝑥>4

Challenge 1.217
A. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 𝑝| + |𝑥 − 15| + |𝑥 − 𝑝 − 15|, where 0 < 𝑝 < 15. Determine the minimum value taken
by 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑥 in the interval 𝑝 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 15. (AIME 1983/2)
B. Also, determine the range of 𝑓(𝑥) in the interval 𝑝 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 15

Part A
Consider each term separately:
𝑥 − 𝑝 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > 𝑝 ⇒ 𝐴𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ |𝑥 − 𝑝| = 𝑥 − 𝑝
𝑥 − 15 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > 15 ⇒ 𝑁𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ |𝑥 − 15| = 15 − 𝑥
𝑥 − 𝑝 − 15 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > 𝑝 + 15 ⇒ 𝑁𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ |𝑥 − 𝑝 − 15| = 𝑝 + 15 − 𝑥

Hence,
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑝) + (15 − 𝑥) + (𝑝 + 15 − 𝑥) = 30 − 𝑥

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This will reach minimum value when 𝑥 = 15:

30 − 𝑥 = 30 − 15 = 15
Part B
0 < 𝑝 < 15
The values that 𝑥 can take are
0 < 𝑥 ≤ 15 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ [15,30)
H. Using Asymptotes

Example 1.218
Find the domain and range of the function:
1
A. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥
1
B. 𝑓(𝑥) =
3𝑥+5

Part A
Equate the denominator to zero to find its vertical asymptotes
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
The function will achieve all values going towards positive infinity and negative infinity.

Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, the function has a horizontal
asymptote at
𝑦=0
Hence, check if the function ever achieves its horizontal asymptote by substituting the value of y:
1
0 = ⇒ 0 = 1 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 ⇒ 0 ∉ 𝑅𝑓
𝑥
Hence, the final answer is:
𝐷𝑓 : ℝ − {0}
𝑅𝑓 : ℝ − {0}

Part B
1
𝑓(𝑥) =
3𝑥 + 5
Horizontal Asymptote is
𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑑
5
𝐷𝑓 : ℝ − {− }
3
𝑅𝑓 = ℝ − {0}

I. Inverse Functions to find Range

Example 1.219
Find the range of the following functions by finding the domain of the inverse function:
1
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
1
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥+5

Part A Find the domain of the inverse function and that is

Find the inverse function: also equal to the range of the original function:
1 1 𝐷𝑓−1 : ℝ − {0} ⇒ 𝑅𝑓 : ℝ − {0}
𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
𝑥 𝑥
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Part B 𝑅𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓−1 = ℝ − {0}

Find the inverse function:
1 1 − 5𝑥
𝑦= ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
3𝑥 + 5 3𝑥

J. Product of Functions

Example 1.220
𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are functions with domain ℝ such that 𝑅𝑓 = [−3, 1], and 𝑅𝑔 = [−5, 2]. Let the range of
𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) be [𝑎, 𝑏]. What is the maximum possible value of 𝑏? Note: 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) represents the product of the two
functions.

𝑓(𝑥0 ) = −3, 𝑔(𝑥0 ) = −5

Maximum value of range = -3 * -5 = 15

[15,2]
K. Composite Functions

Example 1.221
Consider
𝑔(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 4, 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥
A. Is 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) defined?
B. Can 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) be defined for a set of values?

Part A
𝐷𝑓 = [0, ∞ )
𝑅𝑔 = (−∞, ∞ )
Since 𝑅𝑔 is not a subset of 𝐷𝑓

L. Functional Expressions

Example 1.222

1.7 Quadratic Functions

A. Definition

1.223: Definition
The quadratic function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑎≠0
Is a parabola

Example 1.224
What is the shape of
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑎=0

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A line

1.225: Standard Form

When we write an expression in standard form, we write it in descending powers of 𝑥.

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Is in standard form.

1.226: Sideways Parabola

The equation
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐
Represents a parabola, but not a function.

Graphically
We can see in the graph alongside that every value of 𝑥 is associated with two values of 𝑦.

Algebraically:
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐
Take all variables to the left side:
𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 − 𝑥 = 0
This is a quadratic in terms of 𝑦, which can be solved by using the quadratic formula.
Substitute 𝑎 = 𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑏, 𝑐 = 𝑐 − 𝑥 in the quadratic formula:
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4(𝑎)(𝑐 − 𝑥)
𝑦=
2𝑎
And this has two solutions:
➢ One with the positive square root
➢ One with the negative square root

Hence, 𝑦 is not a function of 𝑥.

In the above 𝑥 is a quadratic function of y. Hence, it is not a function of 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥:
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐

1.227: Zeros
The zeroes of a parabola (or a function in general) are the values at which the function takes the value zero.
That is:
𝑓(𝑥) = 0 ⇔ 𝑦 = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑠 ⇔ 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠

Remember that these are equivalent concepts:

➢ Finding the zeros of a function
➢ Equating the function to zero
➢ Finding the 𝑥-intercepts of a function
➢ Finding the roots of the corresponding equation, with 𝑓(𝑥) = 0

Example 1.228
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6, find:
A. 𝑓(2)
B. the zeros of the function
C. the roots of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
D. the 𝑥-intercepts of the function

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Part A
𝑓(2) = 22 + 5(2) + 6 = 4 + 10 + 6 = 20

Part B
To find the zeros, we equate the function to zero:
𝑓(𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−3, −2}

Part C
Roots are the same (since the equation is the same).
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = {−3, −2}

Part D
𝑥-intercepts are the same as the roots
(−3,0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−2,0)

1.229: Upward and Downward Parabolas

The parabola
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
With leading co-efficient 𝑎 when the parabola is written in
standard form:
➢ Is an upward parabola if 𝑎 > 0
➢ Is a downward parabola if 𝑎 < 0

Remember the shape of an upward and a downward parabola.

➢ The red parabola is upward (concave up).
➢ The blue parabola is downward (concave down).

Example 1.230
What is the nature (upward, downward, or neither) of the following parabolas:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4
B. 𝑥 = −3𝑦 2 + 5𝑦 + 4
C. 𝑦 = −3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 4
D. 𝑦 = 3 + 5𝑥 − 4𝑥 2

𝐴: 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 3 ⇒ 𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎

𝐵: 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⇒ 𝑁𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
𝐶: 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = −3 ⇒ 𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎
𝐷: 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 − 4 ⇒ 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎

B. Graphs

Example 1.231: (Graphing Calculator Allowed)

Graph 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6. Then, for each part below, the on the same set of axes, graph:
1
A. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
B. 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
1
C. 𝑦 = 2
√𝑥 +5𝑥+6

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Comment on the behavior of the function.

C. Domain

1.232: Domain of a Parabola

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
is a parabola with
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ℝ

Domain is the set of values that 𝑥 can take. There are no restrictions on the value of 𝑥, since there are no square
roots, and no denominator to concern us.

Example 1.233
What is the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝜋𝑥 2 + 𝜋 2 𝑥 + 𝜋 3

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ℝ

Example 1.234
For how many values of 𝑎 does the quadratic 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 have an implied domain of only positive real
numbers.

Zero.

1.235: Quadratic Expression in the Denominator

The function
1
𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏)
Has domain
ℝ \{𝑎, 𝑏}
That is
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏.

The denominator of a fraction cannot be zero. All solutions of the quadratic equation are not part of the domain
of the function.

Example 1.236: Quadratics, and reducible to Quadratics

1
A. Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥+2)(𝑥−3)
1
B. Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 −𝑥−12
1
C. Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 +5𝑥+3
1
D. Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) =
2𝑥 2 +6𝑥+3
1
E. Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −12𝑥
1
F. How many real numbers are not in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 −2𝑥−15)(𝑥2 +8𝑥+15)?
1
G. Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦8 +8𝑦4 +12

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1
H. Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦8 −8𝑦4 +12
𝑥+3
I. Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥+2)(𝑥2 +10𝑥+21)

Part A

(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−2,3}
And hence the domain is
ℝ \{−2,3} ⇔ (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2,3) ∪ (3, ∞)
Part B
Equate the denominator to zero and solve:
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 12 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−3,4}
Which means that the domain is:
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 − 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4
Recall that two points not in the domain will divide the real number line into three valid intervals:
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3,4) ∪ (4, ∞)
Part C
Equate the denominator to zero and solve to find the exceptions:
2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3 = 0
2
2𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 3 = 0
2𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 3(𝑥 + 1) = 0
(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 3) = 0
3
𝑥 ∈ {− , −1}
2
And now the solutions above cannot be part of the domain. Hence, the domain is:
3 3
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (−∞, − ) ∪ (− , −1) ∪ (−1, ∞)
2 2
Part D
Equate the denominator to zero and solve to find the exceptions:
2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3 = 0
This cannot be factored easily, so apply the quadratic formula with 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 6, 𝑐 = 3:
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −6 ± √36 − (4)(2)(3) −6 ± √12 −6 ± 2√3 −3 ± √3
𝑥= = = = =
2𝑎 2(2) 4 4 2
And now the solutions above cannot be part of the domain.
Hence, the domain is:
−3 − √3 −3 − √3 −3 + √3 −3 + √3
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (−∞, )∪( , )∪( , ∞)
2 2 2 2
Part E
3 4
6𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 = 𝑥(2𝑥 + 3)(3𝑥 − 4) ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {0, − , }
2 3
3 3 4 4
(−∞, − ) ∪ (− , 0) ∪ (0, ) ∪ ( , ∞)
2 2 3 3
Part F
(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 5) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−5, −3,5} ⇒ 3 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
Part G
Notice that the first term has exactly double the power of the second term:
𝑦 8 = (𝑦 4 )2
And hence, we are in a position to reduce this to a quadratic.

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Let 𝑥 = 𝑦 4 :
𝑦 8 + 8𝑦 4 + 12 = 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 12 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 6) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−2, −6}
𝑦 4 = −2 𝑂𝑅 𝑦 4 = −6
Neither of the equations above has a solution in real numbers.
Hence, the domain is
(−∞, ∞)
Part H
As before, substitute 𝑥 = 𝑦 4 :
𝑦 8 − 8𝑦 4 + 12 = 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 12 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 6) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {2,6}

Substitute 𝑦 4 = 𝑥 to solve the original equation:

4
𝑦 4 = 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = ± √2
4
𝑂𝑅 𝑦 4 = 6 ⇒ 𝑦 = ± √6
Hence, the domain is:
4 4
ℝ {± √2, ± √6}
Part I
Wrong Approach
Factor the quadratic in the denominator to get:
𝑥+3
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 7)
Now, you might feel like cancelling the 𝑥 + 3 in the numerator with the 𝑥 + 3 in the denominator to get:
𝑥+3 1
= ⇒ 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 ℝ\{−2, −7}
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 7) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 7)
But we cannot divide by zero. And we do not know that 𝑥 + 3 is not zero. In fact, 𝑥 + 3 is zero precisely when
𝑥 = −3.
Correct Approach
Factor the denominator and equate it to zero:
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 7) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−2, −3, −7}
D. Back Calculations
Given the domain of a function with a quadratic in the denominator, we can use the factored form of the
quadratic to determine the quadratic function.

Example 1.237
1
The domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = is (−∞, −3) ∪ (−2, ∞ ).
√𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
A. Use this to determine the domain of 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6.
B. Find the points in the domain of 𝑔(𝑥), which are not a part of the domain of 𝑓(𝑥).

Part A
The domain of 𝑔(𝑥) includes its endpoints, while the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) does not. Otherwise, the domains are the
same. Hence, the domain will be
(−∞, −3] ∪ [−2, ∞)
Part B: {−2, −3}

Example 1.238
Find 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 given that
1
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4,7) ∪ (7, ∞)
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

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From the domain, we can understand that the number which are not in the domain are:
−4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7

These numbers should be the roots of the quadratic:

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇔ (𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 ∈ {−4,7}

Substitute 𝛼 = −4, 𝛽 = 7 in (𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 0:

(𝑥 − (−4))(𝑥 − 7) = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 7) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 28 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −3, 𝑐 = −28
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1 − 3 − 28 = −30

Example 1.239
Find 𝑔(𝑥) given that:
1
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, 3 − √2) ∪ (3 − √2, 3 + √2) ∪ (3 + √2, ∞)
𝑔(𝑥)

(𝑥 − (3 + √2)) (𝑥 − (3 − √2))
Expand
= 𝑥 2 − 𝑥(3 − √2) − 𝑥(3 + √2) + (3 + √2)(3 − √2)
Expand further:
= 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + √2𝑥 − 3𝑥 − √2𝑥 + (9 − 2)
= 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 7

Challenge 1.240
1
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ \{−6, −3,2,5}
𝑔(𝑥)ℎ(𝑥)
Then find 𝑔(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥) given that they are each of the form:
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

We know that the roots in some order are:

{−6, −3,2,5}

And hence we can write 𝑔(𝑥)ℎ(𝑥) as:

(𝑥 + 6)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 5)

Now, we need to decide which of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 is negative. Since we used the convention that 𝑥 is positive, when we
multiply it out, we will get 𝑎 as positive.
Hence, we need to decide whether 𝑏 or 𝑐 is negative.

Suppose we pair the positive values with the positive values, and the negative values with the negative
values,then:
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 5) = 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 10 ⇒ 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒, 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒, 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 ⇒ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑠
(𝑥 + 6)(𝑥 + 3) = 𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 18 ⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ⇒ 𝑫𝒐𝒆𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌

Hence, we must pair a positive value with a negative value:

(𝑥 + 6)(𝑥 − 2) = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 12
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 5) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 15 ⇒ 𝑫𝒐𝒆𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌

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Hence, we need to pair a positive value with a negative value in such a way that 𝑏 is positive, but 𝑐 is negative:
(𝑥 + 6)(𝑥 − 5) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 30 = 𝑔(𝑥)
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 = ℎ(𝑥)

And the functions could also have been assigned the other way around.

Example 1.241
Find 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 given that
1
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝐷𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ \{0,2,5}
𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥

The roots of 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 must be:

{0,2,5}
Hence, we must have the following three equations satisfied when the denominator is zero:
𝑥=0
𝑥 =2⇒𝑥−2=0
𝑥 =5⇒𝑥−5=0

Use the zero-product property:

𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 5) = 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 10) = 𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −7, 𝑐 = 10
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1 − 7 + 10 = 4

E. Square Roots

1.242: Upward and Downward Parabolas

Based on the leading coefficient, a parabola 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 can be classified as:
➢ An upward parabola if 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎 > 0
➢ A downward parabola if 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎 < 0
➢ Also, recall that if 𝑎 = 0, the expression is not a quadratic.

1.243: Positive and Negative Intervals for an Upward Parabola

Positive Intervals
An upward parabola 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 with roots 𝑝 and 𝑞, 𝑝 < 𝑞 is positive
in the interval
(−∞, 𝑝) ∪ (𝑞, ∞)
Negative Intervals
(𝑝, 𝑞)

Recall that square roots must be positive, and this also applies to quadratics. Hence, to determine the domain of

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𝑦 = √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
We must find the interval where:
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 > 0

Example 1.244
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 1

Find the roots of the corresponding quadratic equation:

𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−1,1}
The positive interval is:
(−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞)
And the domain includes both the positive interval, and the points
where the expression is zero.
Hence, the domain is:
(−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)

Example 1.245
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 12

The expression in the square root must be positive, and hence we solve the inequality:
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 12 ≥ 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 3) ≥ 0
Solve the corresponding quadratic equation to find the critical points:
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−3,4}

Graph the upward parabola using the critical points. The intervals where the parabola is
non-negative is also the domain of the function:
𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, −3] ∪ [4, ∞)

F. Square Roots in the Denominator

When you have a square root in the denominator
➢ The original condition that the square root must be non-negative remains in place
➢ The additional condition that the square root cannot be zero gets added

These two conditions combine to require that

1
𝑓(𝑥) = ⇒𝑥>0
√𝑥

Example 1.246
1
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) =
√𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 12

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We have already solved this question when the expression was in the numerator, and
obtained
𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, −4] ∪ [3, ∞)
Here, the only change is that the expression in the denominator cannot be zero, and
hence we remove the points where the denominator is zero (which are the endpoints
of the intervals):
𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, −4) ∪ (3, ∞)

Example 1.247

Steps 1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) =
√𝑥 + 4 √𝑥 2
+ 5𝑥 + 6
Write and solve the inequality 𝑥 + 4 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > −4 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 > 0
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) > 0

Set Builder (Rule) 𝑥: 𝑥 is any real number greater than

{ }
−4
Set Builder (Algebraic) {𝑥: 𝑥 > −4, 𝑥 ∈ℝ} 𝑥 < −3 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 > −2
Interval Notation [−4, ∞) (−∞, −3) ∪ (−2, ∞ )

1.248: Positive and Negative Intervals for a Downward Parabola

A downward parabola reverses the intervals as compared to an upward
parabola.
The positive interval for a quadratic with 𝑦 = −𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑎 > 0 is:
(𝑝, 𝑞)
And the interval where it is negative is:
(−∞, 𝑝) ∪ (𝑞, ∞)

Example 1.249
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √−𝑥 2 + 1

Find the roots of the corresponding quadratic equation:

−𝑥 2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−1,1}
The positive interval is:
(−1, +1)
And the domain includes both the positive interval, and the points where
the expression is zero.
Hence, the domain is:
[−1,1]
G. Square Root in Numerator and Denominator

Example 1.250
Find the domain of the function

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√𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 20
𝑓(𝑥) =
√𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 20

Numerator
The expression in the numerator must be non-negative:
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 20 ≥ 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 4) ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 {−4,5} ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −4] ∪ [5, ∞)
Denominator
The expression in the denominator must be positive:
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 20 > 0 ⇒ (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 4) > 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 {−5,4} ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −5) ∪ (4, ∞)

And to find the domain, we must find the intersection of the above two intervals:
(−∞, −5) ∪ [5, ∞)

Find the largest integer not in the domain.

The domain is:
(−∞, −5) ∪ [5, ∞)

5 is in the domain, as are all integers larger than 5.

Hence, the largest integer not in the domain is
4

Find the smallest integer not in the domain

The domain is:
(−∞, −5) ∪ [5, ∞)

−6 is in the domain, and also all integers smaller than −6.

Hence, the smallest integer not in the domain is:
−5

Example 1.251
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
Find the domain of 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6

Bogus Solution
One way to look at this is:
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 1
= =1
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 1
Hence, the domain of the function is all real numbers.

Correct Solution
There is a problem with the reasoning above.
Consider
𝑥 = −2 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = (−2)2 + 5(−2) + 6 = 4 − 10 + 6 = 0
And then the expression becomes
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 0
= ⇒ 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 𝟎
In general, a denominator can never take the value zero.

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And remember that:

0 0 0
≠ 1, ≠ 0, 𝑖𝑠 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅
0 0 0
How do we know the values at which the denominator becomes zero.
This is as usual, by equating the denominator to zero.

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−2, −3}

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 − 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 3

H. Reducible to Quadratics

Example 1.252
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 2 + 14

Substitute 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 :
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑧 2 − 9𝑧 + 14
Solve the corresponding quadratic:
𝑧 2 − 9𝑧 + 14 = 0 ⇒ (𝑧 − 7)(𝑧 − 2) = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 ∈ {2,7}

𝑧 ∈ (−∞, 2] ∪ [7, ∞)
Substitute back 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 to get:
𝑥 2 ∈ (−∞, 2] ∪ [7, ∞)

Now split this into two parts:

𝑥 2 ∈ (−∞, 2] ⇒ 𝑥 2 ≤ 2 ⇒ −√2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ √2
𝑥 2 ∈ [7, ∞) ⇒ 𝑥 2 ≥ 7 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ √7 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 ≤ −√7

I. All Real Numbers in Domain

Example 1.253: Perfect Squares

Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9

Factoring and Cancellation

Notice that the expression inside the square root is a perfect square. Factor it:
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 = √(𝑥 + 3)2 = 𝑥 + 3
And hence
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

Solving the corresponding Quadratic Equation

Solve the equation of the corresponding quadratic:
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 + 3)2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −3
And hence the solution should be:
𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, −3] ∪ [−3, ∞)
But the endpoints of the interval are included and hence the two intervals can be merged to get:
(−∞, ∞)

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We can get a better picture of what is going on by graphing the quadratic.

Note that when we solved it algebraically, we got only one answer to the
equation. Technically, we have a single, repeated root, and this happens
only when the parabola
𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

And, since the leading coefficient is positive, the parabola is an upward

parabola, and hence
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

Example 1.254: Complex Solutions

Find the domain of
1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2 + 5𝑥 + 10

Equate the denominator to zero:

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 10 = 0

Apply the quadratic formula with 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 5, 𝑐 = 10:

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −5 ± √25 − (4)(1)(10) −5 ± √−15
𝑥= = =
2𝑎 2 2

Example 1.255
1
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ and one solution to 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is complex. Find all real
numbers not in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥).

Recall the solutions to quadratics are:

➢ Both Real
➢ OR Both Complex
(Specifically, if the solutions are complex, then one solution is the complex conjugate of the other)

Hence, there are no real solutions. Hence,

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

Example 1.256
What is the range of 𝑐 if
3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝐷 ∈ (−∞, ∞)
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑓

Domain of 𝑓 is all real numbers

⇒ Denominator ≠ 0
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑐 has no real solutions.
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑐 has only complex solutions
⇒ Discriminant is negative
⇒ 16 − 4𝑐 < 0 ⇒ 4 < 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 ∈ (4, +∞)

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Concept 1.257
1
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ and the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 does not intersect the 𝑥 axis.
Find all real numbers not in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥).

Since the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 does not intersect the x axis, there are no places where the expression
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is zero.
Hence, there are no real solutions to
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
Hence,
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

Example 1.258
1
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6.

The denominator is a quadratic. Equate to zero, and attempt to solve:

2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0

Factoring doesn’t work for “nice” numbers. Switch to the quadratic formula and
substitute 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 5, 𝑐 = 6 in
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −5 ± √25 − (4)(2)(6) −5 ± √−23
= = ⇒𝑥∈ℂ
2𝑎 2×2 4
The only solutions to the above quadratic are complex numbers.
Hence, there are no real solutions to the equation.
Hence, the denominator is never zero.
Hence, the domain is
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

We can also see this in the graph to the left, where quadratic does not intersect
the x-axis at all.

J. Back Calculations

Example 1.259
3𝑥+5
For what values of 𝑐 will 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 +3𝑥+𝑐 be defined for all values of 𝑥.

𝑓(𝑥) will be defined for all values of 𝑥 if the denominator is never zero.
Denominator will never be zero, if the expression in the denominator has no real roots. That is, if the expression
has only complex roots.
This will happen when
9 9
𝐷 < 0 ⇒ 9 − 4(2)(𝑐) < 0 ⇒ 9 − 8𝑐 < 0 ⇒ 9 < 8𝑐 ⇒ < 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 >
8 8
K. Vertex

1.260: Vertex
The lowest part of an upward parabola, and the topmost part of a downward parabola is its vertex.

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Example 1.261
Identify the coordinates of the vertex of each parabola drawn alongside.
Write your answer in the form
(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒)

𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = (−3,0)

𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = (3,4)

1.262: Vertex from Roots

If the roots of a quadratic are 𝛼 and 𝛽, then the
➢ 𝑥 coordinate of the vertex is the average of the roots.
➢ 𝑦 coordinate of the vertex is 𝑓(𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒).

We can see this from the symmetry of the parabola alongside.

Example 1.263
Find the coordinates of the vertex of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−3, −2}

The 𝑥 coordinate of the vertex is the

−3 − 2 5
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = =−
2 2
The 𝑦 coordinate of the vertex is found by substituting the 𝑥 coordinate in the function expression:
5 5 2 5 25 25 25 50 24 1
𝑦 = 𝑓 (− ) = (− ) + 5 (− ) + 6 = − +6 = − + =−
2 2 2 4 2 4 4 4 4

And hence the coordinates of the vertex are:

5 1
(− , − )
2 4

1.264: Finding the Vertex from Standard Form

If it is not easy to find the roots, then we use this method below.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
is a parabola with
−𝑏
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 =
2𝑎
𝑏
𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = 𝑓 (− )
2𝑎

Due to the symmetry of a parabola, the vertex is the average of the roots. From the quadratic formula, the roots
are:
−𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
,
2𝑎 2𝑎

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Hence, the sum of the roots is:

−𝑏 − √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −2𝑏 𝑏
+ = =−
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎
And hence the average of the roots is:
𝑏 𝑏 1 𝑏
− ÷2 = − × = −
𝑎 𝑎 2 2𝑎

And, if we know the x coordinate, we can find the y coordinate by substituting the x coordinate:
𝑏
𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑓 (− )
2𝑎

Example 1.265
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3
Find the coordinates of the vertex.

𝑏 6 3
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 = −
=− =−
2𝑎 2×2 2
2
3 3 3 9 3
𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑓 (− ) = 2 (− ) + 6 (− ) + 3 = − 9 + 3 = −1.5 = −
2 2 2 2 2

And hence the coordinates of the vertex are:

3 3
(− , − )
2 2
L. Range

1.266: Range of a Parabola

Given parabola 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 with 𝑦 coordinate of vertex
𝑦1 .
For an upward parabola, the vertex is the lowest point. Hence, the
range is:
[𝑦1 , ∞), 𝑎 > 0
For a downward parabola, the vertex is the highest point. Hence,
the range is
[−∞, 𝑦1 ), 𝑎 < 0

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2. COMPOSITE, INVERSE AND PIECE-WISE

FUNCTIONS
2.1 Composite Functions
A. Applying a Function to another function
If you apply a function to another function, you are nesting the function. This means that, for a function
𝑓(𝑥), you take the output of the function, and use it an input for another function.
This is called composition.

2.1: Function Composition

𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) means
➢ Apply the function 𝑔 to 𝑥
➢ And then apply the function 𝑓 to the output given by 𝑔.

B. Tabular

Example 2.2

C. Graphical

D. Algebraic

2.3: Composing a function with itself

𝑓(𝑓(𝑥))

Example 2.4
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4, evaluate:
A. 𝑓(𝑓(1))
B. 𝑓(𝑓(2))
C. 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥))
𝑥
D. 𝑓 (𝑓 (2))

𝑓(𝑓(1)) = 𝑓(3 + 4) = 𝑓(7) = 7(3) + 4 = 34

𝑓(𝑓(2)) = 𝑓(3(2) + 4) = 𝑓(10) = 10(3) + 4 = 34
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(3𝑥 + 4) = 3(3𝑥 + 4) + 4 = (9𝑥 + 12) + 4 = 9𝑥 + 16
𝑥 𝑥 3𝑥 3𝑥 9𝑥
𝑓 (𝑓 ( )) = 𝑓 (3 ( ) + 4) = 𝑓 ( + 4) = 3 ( + 4) + 4 = + 16
2 2 2 2 2

Example 2.5
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2, find
1
A. 𝑓 (𝑓 (2))
B. 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥))

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In this question, it is easier to do Part A first, and then use the result to calculate Part B:
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 2) = (𝑥 2 + 2)2 + 2 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 2 + 6

1 1 4 1 2 1 1
𝑓 (𝑓 ( )) = ( ) + 4 ( ) + 6 = +1+6=7
2 2 2 16 16

Example 2.6
𝑥 −1
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −1 + 1+𝑥−1 , what is 𝑓(𝑓(−2))? Express your answer as a common fraction (MathCounts
2000 Warm-Up 17)

1 1
1 −2 1 −2 1 3
𝑓(−2) = − + =− + =− −1=−
2 1 + −1 2 1 2 2
2 2

2 2
3 2 −3 2 −3 2 −2 8
𝑓(𝑓(−2)) = 𝑓 (− ) = − + =− + =− + =−
2 3 1+ −2 3 1 3 1 3
3 3

2.7: Commutative Property

𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) ≠ 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))

The order in which you apply functions matters

Function composition is not, in general, commutative.

Example 2.8
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 4, 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2
Find 𝑥 such that 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)).

𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(3𝑥 − 2) = 2(3𝑥 − 2) + 4 = 6𝑥 − 4 + 4 = 6𝑥

𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(2𝑥 + 4) = 3(2𝑥 + 4) − 2 = 6𝑥 + 12 − 2 = 6𝑥 + 10

6𝑥 = 6𝑥 + 10 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝜙 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

2.9: Notation: Function Composition

𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)

This has the same meaning, but has a different notation.

Example 2.10
Consider the functions:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5
A. Find (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥), and (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
B. Find the value of 𝑥 for which (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)

Part A

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𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 5) = (𝑥 + 5)2 = 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 25

𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑥 2 ) = 𝑥 2 + 5

Part B
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 25 = 𝑥 2 + 5
10𝑥 + 25 = 5
10𝑥 = −20
1
𝑥=−
2

Example 2.11
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , then for what value of 𝑥 does 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))? Express your answer as a
common fraction. (MathCounts 2014 State Team)

Use the definition to start simplifying 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)):

1
𝑓(𝑥 2 ) = 𝑔(𝑥 + 2) ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 2 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 ⇒ 4𝑥 = −2 ⇒ 𝑥 = −
2

Example 2.12
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴, where 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵. If 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) − 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝐵 − 𝐴, what is 𝐴 + 𝐵? (AOPS
Alcumus, Algebra, Function Composition)

We can’t do much with the RHS, so begin with the LHS, and simplify 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) − 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) by using the function
definitions:
𝑓(𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴) − 𝑔(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)
= 𝐴(𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴) + 𝐵 − [𝐵(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵) + 𝐴]
= 𝐴𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴2 + 𝐵 − [𝐴𝐵𝑥 + 𝐵2 + 𝐴]
= 𝐴2 + 𝐵 − 𝐵2 − 𝐴
And we know that 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) − 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝐵 − 𝐴 giving us:
𝐴2 + 𝐵 − 𝐵2 − 𝐴 = 𝐵 − 𝐴
2 2
𝐴 = 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 = ±𝐵 ⇒ 𝐴 = −𝐵 (𝑹𝒆𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆)

And we wish to find:

𝐴 + 𝐵 = −𝐵 + 𝐵 = 0

2.13: Extending Function Composition

𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) means 𝑓
⏟(𝑓(… 𝑓(𝑥))), where the function is applied to itself 𝑛 times.
𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠

Note that
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑛
Where
𝑓(𝑥)𝑛 = ⏟
𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ … ⋅ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠

Warning

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𝑓⏟𝑛 (𝑥) ≠ [𝑓(𝑥)]2

⏟
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example 2.14
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥, find 𝑓 5 (1)

𝑓(1) = 2
𝑓 2 (1) = 4
𝑓 3 (1) = 8
𝑓 4 (1) = 16
𝑓 5 (1) = 32

Example 2.15
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3, find 𝑓 4 (1)

𝑓(1) = 4
2 (1)
𝑓 = 𝑓(4) = 7
3 (1) 2 (1))
𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑓 = 𝑓(7) = 10
4 (1) 3 (1))
𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑓 = 𝑓(10) = 13

Example 2.16
𝑥
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 2, find 𝑓 5 (96)

𝑓 5 (96) = 𝑓 4 (48) = 𝑓 3 (24) = 𝑓 2 (12) = 𝑓(6) = 3

Example 2.17
𝑥+1
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = , find 𝑓 5 (33)
2

𝑓 5 (33) = 𝑓 4 (17) = 𝑓 3 (9) = 𝑓 2 (5) = 𝑓(3) = 2

2.18: Composition of Three Functions

The composition of three functions can be written as:
ℎ (𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))) = (ℎ ∘ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)

Similarly, this notation can be extended to four or more functions being composed as well.

Example 2.19
Given that:
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1, ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
A. Find (ℎ ∘ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(4)
B. Simplify: (ℎ ∘ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
C. For what integer values of 𝑥 will (ℎ ∘ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) have integer outputs?

Part A
ℎ (𝑔(𝑓(4))) = ℎ(𝑔(2)) = ℎ(3) = 9

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Part B
2
ℎ (𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))) = ℎ (𝑔(√𝑥)) = ℎ(√𝑥 + 1) = (√𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 + 2√𝑥 + 1

Part C
We want:
ℎ (𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))) = 𝑥 + 2√𝑥 + 1
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑀𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 2√𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒

Hence, (ℎ ∘ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) will have integer outputs when 𝑥 is a perfect square.

E. Back Calculations

Example 2.20
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , and 𝑔(𝑥) is a polynomial such that 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1. What are the possible values of
𝑔(𝑥)? (MathCounts 1993 Chapter Countdown)

[𝑔(𝑥)]2 = 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
𝑔(𝑥) = ±√4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 = ±(2𝑥 + 1)

Example 2.21
Find the largest prime divisor of 𝑛 given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1 and 𝑓 𝑛 (2021) = 1.

𝑓(2021) = 2020
𝑓 2 (2021) = 𝑓(𝑓(2021)) = 𝑓(2020) = 2019

In general, every time, we apply the function 𝑓, the number decreases by 1.

Hence, we can say that:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1
𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 1) = 𝑥 − 2
.
.
.
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑛

1 = 2021 − 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑛 = 2020 = 22 × 5 × 101 ⇒ 101 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟

2.22: Method of Undetermined Coefficients

The method of undetermined coefficients lets us find the coefficients for an expression for which we
➢ Know the form (for example, linear, quadratic, etc)
➢ But do not know the values of the coefficients

Example 2.23
Find 𝑔(𝑥) given that:
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 5, 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 6𝑥 + 3

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We have not been given the inside function. So, we will need to do back-calculation.

From the question, we can make out that 𝑔(𝑥) must also be a linear function.
Hence, let
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
Then,
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 6𝑥 + 3
𝟐𝒂
⏟ 𝒙+ ⏟𝟐𝒃 + 𝟓 = ⏟
𝟔 𝒙+ ⏟
𝟑
𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
Equate coefficients:
𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡: 2𝑎𝑥 = 6𝑥 ⇒ 2𝑎 = 6 ⇒ 𝑎 = 3
2𝑏 + 5 = 3 ⇒ 𝑏 = −1

𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 1

Alternate Solution

𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 2𝑔(𝑥) + 5 = 6𝑥 + 3
2𝑔(𝑥) = 6𝑥 − 2
𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 1

Example 2.24
Find 𝑓(𝑥) given that:
𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3, 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 7𝑥 − 4

We need to decide the form of 𝑓(𝑥). Since the output is linear (for a linear input), we can conjecture that 𝑓(𝑥) is
linear.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 7𝑥 − 4
𝑓(2𝑥 + 3) = 7𝑥 − 4
𝑎(2𝑥 + 3) + 𝑏 = 7𝑥 − 4
2𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 7𝑥 − 4

Compare Coefficients:
7
2𝑎 = 7 ⇒ 𝑎 =
2
7 8 21 13
3𝑎 + 𝑏 = −4 ⇒ 𝑏 = −4 + 3𝑎 = −4 + 3 ( ) = − + =
2 2 2 2

7 13
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 𝑥 +
2 2

Example 2.25
Find 𝑔(𝑥) given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4.

We determine that 𝑔(𝑥) is quadratic.

Let 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

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𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑎(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑏(𝑥 − 1) + 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + (𝑏 − 2𝑎)𝑥 + 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 = ⏟

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4
𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏
By the method of undetermined coefficients:
𝑎=1
𝑏 − 2𝑎 = −2 ⇒ 𝑏 − 2 = −2 ⇒ 𝑏 = 0
𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 4 ⇒ 1 − 0 + 𝑐 = 4 ⇒ 𝑐 = −3
F. Functions that “Cancel” and “Cycle”

2.26: Functions that “Cancel”

A function cancels if
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥

Example 2.27
1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥. Find:
A. 𝑓 2 (𝑥)
B. 𝑓 3 (𝑥)
C. 𝑓 4 (𝑥)

1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥
1
𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ( ) = 𝑥
𝑥
3 (𝑥) 2 (𝑥))
1
𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥
1
𝑓 4 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓 3 (𝑥)) = 𝑓 ( ) = 𝑥
𝑥

What is the pattern in the above?

The pattern that when we apply the function to itself, the function repeats, and we get:
1 1 1
,𝑥 , ,𝑥 , ,…
⏟
𝑥 ⏟
𝑥 𝑥
𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝟏 𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝟐

In other words, applying the function to itself cancels its previous application. And you get what you started
with.

Using the above, determine

A. 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥), 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
B. 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥), 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛: 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) =
𝑥
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛: 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑥

2.28: Functions that “Cycle”

A function cycles if
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) =

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Example 2.29
1
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥, and 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) means 𝑓 is applied to itself 𝑛 times, and 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑥, then find the value of 𝑛.

1 1 1 1 1−𝑥 1−𝑥
𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 𝑓 ( )= = = −𝑥 = =
1−𝑥 1 1−𝑥 1 −𝑥 −𝑥
1−1−𝑥 1−𝑥−1−𝑥 1−𝑥
1−𝑥 1 1 1 1
𝑓 3 (𝑥) = 𝑓 ( )= = = = =𝑥
−𝑥 1−𝑥 1−𝑥 𝑥+1−𝑥 1
1− 1+
−𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Example 2.30
Let 𝑓 be the function that applies the following rule to an input to get an output:
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Find:
A. 𝑓(𝑥)
B. 𝑓 (𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)))

𝑥−1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥
𝑥−1 1
𝑥−1 ( 𝑥 )−1 −𝑥 −1 1
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ( )= = = =
𝑥 𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1 1−𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
1 𝑥
1 ( )−1
𝑓 (𝑓(𝑓(𝑥))) = 𝑓 ( )= 1 − 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 =𝑥
1−𝑥 1 1
1−𝑥 1−𝑥

Example 2.31
1
For the reciprocal function, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, find:
A. 𝑓 2021 (𝑛)
B. 𝑓 2022 (𝑛)
C. 𝑓 𝑛 (2021)

1
𝑛
𝑛

This question is not asking for a specific value. It is asking for the general solution applicable to all 𝑛. Hence, we
divide into two cases, and present it using a piece-wise function:
1
𝑓 𝑛 (2021) = { 2021 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑂𝑑𝑑
2021, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛
G. Decomposing Functions
The idea behind decomposing a function is break it into its constituent parts.

sin 𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑥

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2.32: Decomposing Functions

Given a function, 𝑓(𝑥), if we can find two functions ℎ(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), such that
𝑓(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑔(𝑥))
Then we have successfully decomposed the function.

Example 2.33

Algebraic E. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝜋𝑥 J. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 sin 4𝑥

A. 𝑓(𝑥) = √2𝑥 + 4 Exponential and Logarithmic K. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin (log 𝑥)
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 5 F. 𝑓(𝑥) = log 7𝑥 L. 𝑓(𝑥) = log (sin 𝑥)
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 3 + 5)4 G. 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒𝑥 M. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin (sin 𝑥)
Trigonometric H. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 N. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin2 𝑥
D. 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 4𝑥 Mixed
I. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 sin 𝑥
Algebraic
𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 4, ℎ(𝑥) = √𝑥 ⇒ ℎ(𝑔(𝑥)) = ℎ(2𝑥 + 4) = √2𝑥 + 4
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5, ℎ(𝑥) = √𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 5, ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 4
Trigonometric
𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥, ℎ(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝜋𝑥, ℎ(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
Exponential and Logarithmic
𝑔(𝑥) = 7𝑥, ℎ(𝑥) = log 𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒𝑥, ℎ(𝑥) = log 𝑥

We can do 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 in two ways:

𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥, ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
Mixed
𝑔(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 , ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑔(𝑥) = log 𝑥 , ℎ(𝑥) = sin 𝑥

𝑔(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 , ℎ(𝑥) = log 𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 , ℎ(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 , ℎ(𝑥) = sin 𝑥

𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥, ℎ(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 , 𝑗(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

H. Domain and Range

2.34: Composite Functions

For a composite function, 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) we need to first find 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑎nd then only can we find 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)).
➢ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is defined only if the range of 𝑔(𝑥) is a subset of the domain of 𝑓(𝑥)
➢ The domain of 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑐annot be larger than the domain of 𝑔(𝑥).

Example 2.35

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𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3

A. Is 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) defined?
B. If we wish to define 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), determine its domain and range.

Part A
𝐷𝑓 : 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑅𝑔 : ℝ
From the above,
𝑅𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
For instance, consider
𝑓(𝑔(−10)) = 𝑓(−17) = √−17 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
Part B
Any output from 𝑔(𝑥) has to be a valid input for 𝑓(𝑥) in order for 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) to be defined.
Hence, the range of 𝑔(𝑥) must be a subset of the domain of 𝑓(𝑥).
3 3
𝐷𝑓 : 𝑥 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝑔 : 𝑦 ≥ 0 ⇒ 2𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ − ⇒ 𝐷𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) : 𝑥 ∈ (− , ∞)
2 2

Example 2.36
1
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 4
𝑥2 + 9𝑥 + 20
A. Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)).

Domain of 𝑓:
𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 20 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−5, −4}
𝐷𝑓 : ℝ − {−5, −4}

Range of 𝑔:
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑔 : 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
We need to restrict:
𝑅𝑔 : ℝ − {−5, −4}
9
𝑔(𝑥) = −5 ⇒ 5𝑥 + 4 = −5 ⇒ 5𝑥 = −9 ⇒ 𝑥 = −
5
8
𝑔(𝑥) = −4 ⇒ 5𝑥 + 4 = −4 ⇒ 5𝑥 = −8 ⇒ 𝑥 = −
5
9 8
𝐷𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) : ℝ − {− , − }
5 5

Example 2.37
Consider the functions
𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥
Which are graphed alongside, with restricted domains.
A. Find the domain and range of 𝑓(𝑥)
B. Find the domain and range of 𝑔(𝑥)
C. Find the domain and range of 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))
D. Find the domain and range of 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))

2
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = √4 − (√𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥

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Part A: 𝒇(𝒙)
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛:
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒:
Part B: 𝒈(𝒙)
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛:
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒:

Part C: 𝒈(𝒇(𝒙))

Part D: 𝒇(𝒈(𝒙))

I. Tabular Functions

Example 2.38
A. Find the domain and range of the function given below.
B. What is the number of values in 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝑅𝑓 ?
𝑥 3 7 3 2 1 𝜋
5 2
𝑓(𝑥) 6 1 9 0 3 𝑒
4

Part A
1 3
𝐷𝑓 = { , , 2,3, 𝜋, 7}
2 5
3
𝑅𝑓 = {0, , 1, 𝑒, 6,9}
4
Part B
𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝑅𝑓 = 𝜙

Example 2.39
Consider the invertible function given by the table below. Let
𝑑 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑓
𝑟 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑓
Find
𝑑+𝑟
𝑥 3 3.1 3.2 . . . 9
𝑓(𝑥) 𝜋 𝑒 3 . . . 12
4

𝐷𝑓 = {3,3.1,3.2, … ,9} → {30,31, … ,90} → 90 − 30 + 1 = 61 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 ⇒ 𝑑 = 61

Since the function is invertible, the number of distinct outputs is the same as the number of distinct inputs, and
hence:
𝑟 = 𝑑 = 61
Hence, the final answer is:
𝑑 + 𝑟 = 61 + 61 = 122

Example 2.40

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Consider the functions below:

𝑥 1 2 3 4
𝑔(𝑥) 5 9 0 2

𝑥 5 9 0 3
𝑓(𝑥) 8 9 1 4
A. Find (𝑔(1)), 𝑓(𝑔(2)), 𝑓(𝑔(3)), 𝑓(𝑔(4))
B. State whether 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is defined.
C. Determine the maximum domain of 𝑔(𝑥) such that 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is defined.

Part A
𝑓(𝑔(1)) = 𝑓(5) = 8
𝑓(𝑔(2)) = 𝑓(9) = 9
𝑓(𝑔(3)) = 𝑓(0) = 1
𝑓(𝑔(4)) = 𝑓(2) = 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

Part B
𝑓(𝑔(4)) = 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
Hence, 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is not defined in general.

Part C
The maximum domain is
𝐷𝑔 = {1,2,3}

Example 2.41

Part A Part C: 𝐷𝑝∘ℎ

𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 3 ⇒ 𝐷𝑓 = [−3, ∞) 𝑅ℎ = [0, ∞)
𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 ⇒ 𝐷𝑔 = (−∞, ∞) 𝑅ℎ ⊆ 𝐷𝑝 = (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)
1 We cannot have:
𝑝(𝑥) = ⇒ (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, ∞) ℎ(𝑥) = 3
𝑥−3
ℎ(𝑥) = √2 − 𝑥 ⇒ 𝐷ℎ = (−∞, 2] √2 − 𝑥 = 3
𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 ⇒ 𝐷𝑘 = ℝ 2−𝑥 =9
𝑚(𝑥) = √𝑥 ⇒ 𝐷𝑚 = [0, ∞) 𝑥 = −7
𝑗(𝑥) = |𝑥| ⇒ 𝐷𝑗 = ℝ 𝐷𝑝∘ℎ = (−∞, −7) ∪ (−7, −2)
Part B: 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 Part D: 𝐷𝑘∘𝑚
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼: 𝐷𝑔 = (−∞, ∞) 𝑘(𝑚(𝑥))
We need to also ensure that: 𝐷𝑚 = [0, ∞)
𝑅𝑔 ⊆ 𝐷𝑓 = [−3, ∞) 𝑅𝑚 ⊆ 𝐷𝑘 = ℝ
𝑔(𝑥) ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 [−3, ∞) There is no restriction on the domain of k. Hence,
𝑔(𝑥) ≥ −3 we retain the original domain of 𝑚(𝑥).
−𝑥 ≥ −3 𝐷𝑘∘𝑚 = [0, ∞)
𝑥≤3 Part E: 𝐷ℎ∘𝑗
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼: 𝐷𝑔 = (−∞, 3 ] ℎ(𝑗(𝑥))
Combine both the conditions: 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛: 𝐷𝑗 = ℝ
𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 = (−∞, 3 ] 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑗(𝑥) = [0, ∞)

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𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑅𝑗 ⊆ 𝐷ℎ = (−∞, 2] ℎ(𝑘(𝑥))

Combine the two: 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑘(𝑥) = ℝ
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑗 = [0,2] 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑘(𝑥) = [1, ∞)
0 ≤ 𝑗(𝑥) ≤ 2 𝑅𝑘 ⊆ 𝐷ℎ = (−∞, 2]
0 ≤ |𝑥| ≤ 2 Combine the two conditions:
−2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 𝑅𝑘 = [1,2]
𝐷ℎ∘𝑗 = [−2,2] 1 < 𝑥2 + 1 < 2
0 < 𝑥2 < 1
Part F: 𝐷ℎ∘𝑘 −1 < 𝑥 < 1
𝐷ℎ∘𝑘 = [−1,1]

2.2 Inverse Functions: Tabular

𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
A. Logical Inverses
A function provides an output for every valid input. Sometimes, we want to follow the reverse process. Given an
output, we want to determine the input that gave us the output.

𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ ⏟
⏟
𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
Mathematical Verbal Verbal Mathematical
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 Doubles Halves 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
2
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4 Adds four Subtracts four 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4
2 3𝑥 2 2 2𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ÷ = Divides by 3 Multiplies by 3 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
3 2 3
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5 Subtracts 5 Add five 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5

A reverse function is called an inverse function, denoted:

𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
⏟
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅:𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆
An inverse function is also a function, which means it must satisfy all the rules of functions, including having
only one output for every input. This creates restrictions on the functions that have inverses.

Example 2.42
Find the inverse of the following functions:
A. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥
B. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2
𝑞+2
C. 𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑞) = 3
5
D. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥+ 4

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Part A 𝑓 −1 (𝑞) = 3𝑞 − 2
𝑓(𝑥) multiplies by 4. Part C
Hence, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) divides by 4. 𝑓(𝑞)
𝑥 ➢ Adding 2
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
4 ➢ Dividing by 3
Part B
𝑓(𝑥) Hence, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
➢ multiplies by 3 ➢ Multiplying by 3
➢ subtracting 2 ➢ Subtracting 2
𝑥+2
Hence, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
3
➢ adding 2 Part D
➢ divide by 3

B. Inverses

Example 2.43: Expressions

Find the domain of the inverse of the function given by the ordered pairs below

𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: (−3,5)(4,8)(−6,9)(0, −3)

𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: (5, −3)(8,4)(9, −6)(−3,0)

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: {5,8,9, −3}

Example 2.44: Expressions

The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is given by the table below:

𝑥 5 9 12.5 0 7 2𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) 8 1 𝜋 7 0 5
3
For the expressions below, find the values, if they exist:
A. 𝑓(5), and hence, 𝑓 −1 (8)
1
B. 𝑓 −1 (3)
C. 𝑓 −1 (2𝜋)
D. 𝑓 −1 (𝜋)
E. 2𝑓 −1 (𝜋)

When finding the value of a function, we look for the output corresponding to the given input:

𝑓( ⏟
5 )= ⏟
8
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

𝑓 −1 ( ⏟
8 )= ⏟
5
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
When finding the value of an inverse function, we look for the input corresponding to the given output:

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1
𝑓 −1 ( )= ⏟9
⏟
3 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑓 −1 (2𝜋) = 𝐷𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
𝑓 −1 (𝜋) = 12.5
−1 (𝜋)
2𝑓 = 2 × 12.5 = 25
C. One to One Functions and Invertibility
Recall that a function is a rule that assigns an output for every input that it has.
We will start looking at the reverse process, which is finding the input given the output of the function.

Before we start looking at how to reverse a function, we need to first check for its feasibility. Not all functions be
reversed. This is related to the concept of one-to-one functions.

2.45: Test of One-to-One Function

A function is one-to-one, if for every input 𝒙, there is a distinct output 𝒇(𝒙).
OR
A function is one-to-one function, when the outputs are the same, the inputs are also the same.
𝒇(𝒂) = 𝒇(𝒃) ⇒ 𝒂 = 𝒃
One-to-one functions are invertible. Functions which are not one-to-one are not invertible.

Example 2.46
Determine if the table below represents a one-to-one function. If not, determine the reasons why.

Candidate for 𝑥 2 5 11 0 1 𝜋 1
2 2
Candidate for 𝑓(𝑥) 3 7 3 9 12 0 4

Checking for Functions

Before we investigate whether it is a one-to-one function, we need to first see if the relation above represents a
function.
1 1
𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) = 12, 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 ⇒ 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝒂 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
2 2

If one of the columns above is removed, then the relation will be a function. Hence, there are two ways that the
table above can be converted into a function.
Option I
Candidate for 𝑥 2 5 11 0 1 𝜋
2
Candidate for 𝑓(𝑥) 3 7 3 9 12 0

Option II
Candidate for 𝑥 2 5 11 0 𝜋 1
2
Candidate for 𝑓(𝑥) 3 7 3 9 0 4

Checking for One-to-One Functions

If you convert the table above into a function using either of the options above, then we can check that function

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whether it is one-to-one.

Suppose we consider Option I from above:

Candidate for 𝑥 2 5 11 0 1 𝜋
2
Candidate for 𝑓(𝑥) 3 7 3 9 12 0

There are two inputs that give an output of 3.

Hence, the function above is not one-to-one.

D. Finding Inverses

2.47: Graphical Inverse

To find the inverse of a function, we swap its 𝑥 and 𝑦 values.

Example 2.48: Graphing 𝑥 3 2 4

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 4 1 2
A. Graph the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) given by the table.
B. Graph its inverse 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) on the same set of axes.

𝑓(𝑥) is graphed in blue.

𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is graphed in purple.

E. Equations and Nested Expressions

Example 2.49: Nested Expressions

The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is given by the table below:

𝑥 5 9 12.5 0 7 2𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) 8 1 𝜋 7 0 5
3
For the expressions below, find the values, if they exist:

𝑓 −1 (𝑓 −1 (7))

𝑓 −1 (𝑓 −1 (7)) = 𝑓 −1 (0) = 7

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𝑓 −1 (𝑓 −1 (𝑓 −1 (8)))
2

𝑓 −1 (𝑓 −1 (𝑓 −1 (8))) 𝑓 −1 (𝑓 −1 (5)) 𝑓 −1 (2𝜋)

= = ⇒ 𝐷𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
2 2 2

−1
𝑓 −1 (𝑓 −1 (8))
𝑓 ( )
2

𝑓 −1 (𝑓 −1 (8)) 𝑓 −1 (5) 2𝜋
𝑓 −1 ( ) = 𝑓 −1 ( ) = 𝑓 −1 ( ) = 𝑓 −1 (𝜋) = 12.5
2 2 2

Define 𝑓 −𝑛 to be the inverse function of 𝑓, applied 𝑛 times. Find 𝑓 −2021 (7) + 𝑓 −2022 (7)

We look for a pattern:

𝑓 −1 (7) = 0
𝑓 −2 (7) = 7
𝑓 −3 (7) = 0 ⇒ 𝐼𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑, 𝑓 −𝑛 (7) = 0
𝑓 −4 (7) = 7 ⇒ 𝐼𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑓 −𝑛 (7) = 7

⏟−2021 (7) + 𝑓
𝑓 ⏟−2022 (7) = 0 + 7 = 7
2021 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 2022 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

Challenge 2.50: Equations

The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is given by the table below:

𝑥 5 9 12.5 0 7 2𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) 8 1 𝜋 7 0 5
3
If 𝑥 < 𝑦 and 𝑎 is an integer, then find the ordered triplets (𝑎, 𝑥, 𝑦) that satisfy (answer each separately):
A. 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑓 −1 (𝑦)
B. 𝑎𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)

Try to solve
5
5 = 9𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎 = ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
9
Part A
Consider 𝑓 −1 (𝑥):
1
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 {8, , 𝜋, 7,0,5} ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 {5,9,12.5,0,7,2𝜋}
3

The only solution that will work is if:

𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 7
𝑥 < 𝑦, 𝑦 = 8, 𝑎 = 0
(𝑎, 𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,7,8)

𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑓 −1 (𝑦)

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Substitute 𝑥 = 7, 𝑦 = 8
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑓 −1 (7) = 0
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 𝑎𝑓 −1 (8) = 0 × 5 = 0 = 𝐿𝐻𝑆 ⇒ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑

Part B

F. Self-Inverse Functions

2.3 Inverse Functions: Graphical

A. Horizontal Line Test
If you draw a horizontal line, the number of places in which it cuts the graph of a function tells the number of
inputs that give that output.

2.51: One to One Function: Graphical Test

➢ For a function to be invertible, any horizontal line should cut the graph of a function in a maximum of
one place.
➢ If a horizontal line cuts a graph of a function in more than one place, then, there are two or more inputs
associated with an output, and hence the function is not invertible.

Example 2.52
Decide whether the graphs below represent invertible functions.

A. Not Invertible
B. Invertible
C. Not Invertible

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B. Finding the Inverse Graphically

When we find the inverse of a function, we
➢ Swap its input and its output
➢ In other words, we swap the 𝑥 and the 𝑦 values

Graphically we can switch the positions of the 𝑥 and the 𝑦 coordinates by reflecting the graph of the function
across the line:
𝑦=𝑥

Example 2.53: Linear Functions

Find the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥

𝑦 = 4𝑥
𝑦
𝑥=
4
Swap 𝑥 and 𝑦:
𝑥
𝑦=
4
−1 (𝑥)
𝑥
𝑦=𝑓 =
4

Find the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2

𝑞+2
Find the inverse of 𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑞) =
3

5
Find the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 𝑥 + 4

Example 2.54
Draw the graph of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥), given that 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥

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Example 2.55
1
Draw the graph of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥), given that 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥

Note that taking the reciprocal of a reciprocal gives back the original
function.
We can see this graphically as well:
(2,0.5) → (0.5,2)
(0.5,2) → (2,0.5)

1
Hence, the function 𝑓(𝑥) = is its own inverse.
𝑥
Such a function is called a self-inverse function.

Example 2.56
The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 is drawn alongside, and some points are
marked. Draw the graph of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

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C. Odd and Even Functions

If the domain is not restricted, even functions are not invertible.
Even functions can be made invertible by restricting the domain.

It is not necessary that all odd functions are invertible.

Example 2.57
Consider the function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
A. Is the function even?
B. Is it invertible?
C. Can the function be made invertible by restricting its domain? If so, what are the possible options in
restricting its domain?

𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑥 2 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Since the function is even, the function is not invertible.

Yes, the function can be made invertible by restricting its domain.

The possible options are:
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≤ 0, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ

Example 2.58
Consider the function
𝑓(𝑥) = 0
A. Is the function odd?
B. Is it invertible?

D. Restricting the Domain

Before starting this section, you should have done the concept of domain of functions.

Example 2.59
Find 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) for the function below. Note that the definition of the function restricts its domain.
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥, 𝑥≥5

And we must apply this restriction to the domain of the inverse function.
𝑥 > 5 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 ≥ 10
Hence, the final answer is:
𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥, 𝑥 > 5 ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≥ 10
2

Example 2.60
Jared is a re-packer who takes cartons and packs them in smaller boxes (of half the size) for grocery stores.
Since he packs them in half the size, the ⏟
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑥𝑒𝑠 is double the ⏟
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠. Jared has a
𝑏 𝑐
minimum order size of five cartons.

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A. Find a function 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑐) which gives the number of boxes as an output when given the number of
cartons.
B. Find a function c= 𝑓 −1 (𝑏) which gives the number of cartons as an output when given the number of
boxes as an input.
𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑐) = 2𝑐, 𝑐 ≥ 5, 𝑐 ∈ ℤ
𝑏
𝑐 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑏) = , 𝑏 ≥ 10, 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
2

E. Restricting to make it one-to-one

Example 2.61
A. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (graphed alongside) does not have an inverse. Explain why
graphically, as well as algebraically.
B. What is the domain of 𝑓(𝑥)? Identify the largest subset of the domain of 𝑓(𝑥)
such that a new function 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) defined on this domain has an inverse.
(There are two possible answers).
C. Using the answer to Part B, find the inverses on the restricted domain, and
graph them.
Part A
Graphically
The blue horizontal line shown cuts the graph of the function in more than one place. Hence, there are two
inputs associated with one output.
Hence, the function does not have an inverse.
Algebraically
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = ±√𝑥 ⇒ 2 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦
Part B
Domain
The domain of 𝑓(𝑥) is
𝑥∈ℝ
Line of Symmetry
Note that 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 has a line of symmetry at 𝑥 = 0, and this gives us an idea for where we can restrict the domain
of the function so that it passes the horizontal line test. We can “divide” this function into two separate
functions, each of which individually pass the horizontal line test.

Restrictions on Domain
We can restrict the domain to be either
𝑥≥0
Or
𝑥≤0
And both of these pass the horizontal line test, and are hence invertible.

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Part C
𝑦 = √𝑥
𝑦 = −√𝑥

Example 2.62
Find the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 + 1|, which is graphed alongside, on a suitable
restricted domain. Use the same steps as in the previous example.

Restrictions on Domain
We can restrict the domain to be either
𝑥 ≥ −1 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [−1, ∞)
Or
𝑥 ≤ −1 ⇒ (−∞, −1]
And both of these pass the horizontal line test, and
are hence invertible.
Option I: 𝒙 ≥ −𝟏
Since we know that 𝑥 ≥ −1, we must have:
⇒ 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 𝟎 ⇒ |𝒙 + 𝟏| = 𝒙 + 𝟏
And now we can find the inverse function.
𝑦
⏟= 𝑥 + 1 → 𝑥 ⏟= 𝑦 + 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1 ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑤𝑎𝑝 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦
Where we need to put the condition that 𝑥 ≥ 0 since the absolute value
function cannot have a negative output.
Option II: 𝒙 ≤ −𝟏
Case II: 𝑥 ≤ −1 ⇒ 𝑥 + 1 ≤ 𝟎 ⇒ |𝒙 + 𝟏| = −(𝒙 + 𝟏)
𝑥 = −(𝑦 + 1) ⇒ 𝑦 = −𝑥 − 1 ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = −𝑥 − 1
𝑦 = −(𝑥 + 1) → ⏟
⏟
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑤𝑎𝑝 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦

2.4 Inverse Functions: Algebraic

A. Determine Invertibility Algebraically
We can look at the behaviour of a function to determine whether it is invertible.

Linear Functions
Linear Functions are functions of the form
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑚≠0
And such functions are always invertible.
Even Powers
Taking even powers is not an invertible operation.
Odd Powers
Taking odd powers is an invertible operation.

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Example 2.63
Determine whether the following functions are one-to-one/invertible. In other words, given 𝑓(𝑥), can we
determine the value of 𝑥:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3
D. 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|
E. 𝑓(𝑥) = √(|𝑥|)2

Part A
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) ⇒ 3𝑎 + 5 = 3𝑏 + 5 ⇒ 3𝑎 = 3𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑂𝑛𝑒 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑂𝑛𝑒
Part B
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) ⇒ 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 ⇒ ±√𝑎 = ±√𝑏 ⇒ 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑶𝒏𝒆 − 𝒕𝒐 − 𝑶𝒏𝒆
Logically
42 = (−4)2 = 16 ⇒ 𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ⇒ 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑶𝒏𝒆 − 𝒕𝒐 − 𝑶𝒏𝒆
Part C
3 3
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) ⇒ 𝑎3 = 𝑏 3 ⇒ √𝑎 = √𝑏 ⇒ 𝑂𝑛𝑒 − 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑂𝑛𝑒
Part D
|4| = |−4| = 4 ⇒ 𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ⇒ 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑶𝒏𝒆 − 𝒕𝒐 − 𝑶𝒏𝒆
Part E

𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) ⇒ √(|𝑎|)2 = √(|𝑏|)2 ⇒ |𝑎| = |𝑏| ⇒ 𝑎 = ±𝑏 ⇒ 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑶𝒏𝒆 − 𝒕𝒐 − 𝑶𝒏𝒆

2.64: One to One Function: Algebraic Test

A function is a one-to-one function, if for every input 𝒙, there is a distinct output 𝒇(𝒙).

It is important to understand that the definition of one-to-one functions is only applicable for functions.
Hence, before checking for a one-to-one function, you need to check whether a function exists in the first place.

Example 2.65
Read the information below and then answer the questions that follow:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , and 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
If 𝑛 is an even number, then how many of the following can hold true:
A. 𝑎 > 𝑏
B. 𝑎 = 𝑏
C. 𝑎 < 𝑏

Try some small numbers:

𝑎 = 𝑏 = 1 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −1 ⇒ 𝑎 > 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑎 = −1, 𝑏 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎 < 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
Hence, all three options can be true.
Answer is 3.

If 𝑛 is an odd number, then how many of the following can hold true:
A. 𝑎 > 𝑏

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B. 𝑎 = 𝑏
C. 𝑎 < 𝑏

Again, try some numbers:

𝑎 = 𝑏 = 1 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑎 = 𝑏 = −1 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)

From the above, if the inputs are the same, the outputs are also same.
We also that that this is a one-to-one or invertible function.

Hence, only option B is correct.

𝑎 > 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎𝑛 > 𝑏 𝑛 , 𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛

B. Finding Inverses
Review:
When we wanted to find the inverse of a function graphically, we swapped the value of 𝑥 and 𝑦. This can be
achieved by reflecting the graph of the function across the line
𝑦=𝑥
Algebraic Method:
The algebraic method is similar to the graphical method. We start by swapping 𝑥 with 𝑦.
Then we solve for the new 𝑦.

2.66: Finding an Inverse Function

The method to find an inverse function is:
Step I: Write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and then substitute the definition of 𝑓(𝑥)
Step II: Swap the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦
Step III: Solve for 𝑦
Step IV: Write the new 𝑦 as a function of the new 𝑥

Example 2.67
A. Find the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥
B. Find the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2
𝑞+2
C. Find the inverse of 𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑞) = 3
5
D. Find the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥+ 4
E. The inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 1 can be written in the form (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏) where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are non-zero
constants. Find 𝑎 + 𝑏.
3𝑥−8
F. Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3
, 𝑥 ≠ 3, find 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and comment on anything special.

Part A
Write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and then substitute the definition of 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 ⇒ ⏟
𝑦 = 4𝑥
𝑼𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Swap the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦:
𝑥 = 4𝑦
Solve for 𝑦:
𝑥
𝑦=
4

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Write the new 𝑦 as a function of the new 𝑥:

𝑥
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
4
Part B
𝑥+2 𝑥+2
𝑦
⏟= 3𝑥 − 2 ⇒ 𝑥
⏟= 3𝑦 − 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
⏟ 3 3
𝑼𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑺𝒘𝒂𝒑 𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚
𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒚
Part C

𝑞+2 𝑝+2
𝑝= ⇒ 𝑞= 𝑝 = 3𝑞 − 2 ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑞) = 3𝑞 − 2
⇒⏟
⏟ 3 ⏟ 3
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒑
𝑼𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑺𝒘𝒂𝒑 𝒑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒
𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Part D
5 5 2 2
𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 4 ⇒ (𝑥 − 4) = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = (𝑥 − 4)
⏟ 2 ⏟ 2 ⏟
5 5
𝑼𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑺𝒘𝒂𝒑 𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒚
𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Part E
𝑦 = √𝑥 + 1 ⇒ 𝑥 = √𝑦 + 1 ⇒ 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 + 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −1 ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0
Part F
Write the function, and swap 𝑥 and 𝑦:
3𝑥 − 8 3𝑦 − 8
𝑦= →𝑥=
𝑥−3 𝑦−3
Eliminate fractions, and collate all y terms on the RHS:
𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑥 = 3𝑦 − 8 ⇒ 8 − 3𝑥 = 3𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦
Factor 𝑦 in the RHS, and solve for 𝑦:
8 − 3𝑥 3𝑥 − 8
8 − 3𝑥 = 𝑦(3 − 𝑥) ⇒ 𝑦 = =
3−𝑥 𝑥−3

𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
C. Reciprocals versus Inverses

2.68: Reciprocals versus Inverses

Be careful of the difference between reciprocals and inverses.
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1
[𝑓(𝑥)]−1 = ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑓(𝑥)
1
[𝑓 −1 (𝑥)]−1 = −1 ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒
𝑓 (𝑥)

Example 2.69
4𝑥+1
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
what is the value of [𝑓 −1 (1)]−1 ? (Mathcounts 1999 National Sprint)

First, find the inverse function:

4𝑥 + 1 4𝑦 + 1 3𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 − 1
𝑦= ⇒𝑥= ⇒𝑦= ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
3 ⏟ 3 4 4
𝑆𝑤𝑎𝑝 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦

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3−1 2 1 1
𝑓 −1 (1) = = = ⇒ −1 =2
4 4 2 𝑓 (1)

D. Cancelling Functions

2.70: Functions and Inverses Cancel

𝑓 −1 ( 𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥

Let
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Apply the inverse function of 𝑓 to both sides:
𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑓 −1 ( 𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥
In other words, the function 𝑓 and the inverse function 𝑓 −1 cancel each other.

Example 2.71
Given that
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5, and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥), find 𝑓(𝑔(5))
𝑎 23 7𝑥 23
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 , 𝑎 = √𝑥 21 , 𝑏 = 4
find 𝑧 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑓 (… 𝑓 −1 (𝑓 {𝑓 −1 [𝑓 (21)]})))

Part A
𝑓(𝑔(5)) = 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (5)) = 5
Part B
The expression has precisely matched pairs of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥). Hence
23
𝑧=
21

Example 2.72
Without finding the inverse function, find 𝑏 given that:
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 4, 𝑓 −1 (𝑏) = 𝑓 −1 (2) + 3

Let
𝑓 −1 (2) = 𝑎
Apply 𝑓 to both sides:
𝑓(𝑓 −1 (2)) = 𝑓(𝑎) ⇒ 2 = 𝑓(𝑎) ⇒ 2 = 2𝑎 + 4 ⇒ 𝑎 = −1

We know that:
𝑓 −1 (𝑏) = 𝑓 −1 (2) + 3
−1 (2)
Substitute 𝑓 = −1:
𝑓 −1 (𝑏) = −1 + 3
𝑓 −1 (𝑏) = 2
Apply to both sides:
𝑏 = 𝑓(2) = 2(2) + 4 = 8

E. Proving Inverses

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2.73: Proving Inverses

If
𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓
−1
then 𝑓 is the inverse of the function 𝑓.

The definition of inverse functions can also be used to show that two functions are inverses of each other.

Example 2.74
A. Find 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 7
B. Prove that it is the inverse.

Part A
𝑥+7
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
3
Part B
(3𝑥 − 7) + 7 3𝑥
𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 −1 (3𝑥 − 7) = = = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅
3 3

Example 2.75
𝑥+6
A. Find 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) given that 𝑓(𝑥) =
3𝑥−4
B. Prove that it is the inverse.
Part A
𝑥+6 𝑥+6
𝑓(𝑥) = ⇒𝑦=
3𝑥 − 4 3𝑥 − 4
Swap 𝑥 and 𝑦 and solve for 𝑦:
𝑦+6 4𝑥 + 6
𝑥= ⇒ 3𝑦𝑥 − 4𝑥 = 𝑦 + 6 ⇒ 3𝑦𝑥 − 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 6 ⇒ 𝑦(3𝑥 − 1) = 4𝑥 + 6 ⇒ 𝑦 =
3𝑦 − 4 3𝑥 − 1
And this last is our inverse function:
4𝑥 + 6
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
3𝑥 − 1
Part B
𝑥+6 4𝑥 + 𝟐𝟒 + 18𝑥 − 𝟐𝟒
𝑥 + 6 4 (3𝑥 − 4) + 6 22𝑥
𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 −1 ( )= = 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟒 = =𝑥
3𝑥 − 4 𝑥+6 𝟑𝒙 + 18 − 𝟑𝒙 + 4 22
3 (3𝑥 − 4) − 1 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟒
F. Existence

Example 2.76

G. Even and Odd Functions

Example 2.77
Even Functions
Only possible when domain is 𝑥 = 0

2.78: Inverses of Odd Functions

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If 𝑓 is an odd invertible function, then its inverse is also odd.

Let:
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)
Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) in 𝑓 −1 (−𝑦):
𝑓 −1 (−𝑓(𝑥))
Since 𝑓 is odd, substitute −𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥), and note that the function and its inverse cancel:
𝑓 −1 (𝑓(−𝑥)) = −𝑥
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦):
−𝑓 −1 (𝑦)

Now, equate the first and the last step to get:

𝑓 −1 (−𝑦) = −𝑓 −1 (𝑦) ⇒ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

H. Composite Functions

Example 2.79
Suppose, in 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)), we know the “inner” function 𝑓(𝑥), and also the composite function 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)). We can make
use of the cancelling property of inverse functions to find 𝑔(𝑥).
A. Find 𝑔(𝑥) given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4.

𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1
Use the fact that 𝑔 (𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥))) = 𝑔(𝑥):
𝑔 (𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥))) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥 + 1)) = (𝑥 + 1)2 − 2(𝑥 + 1) + 4 = 𝑥 2 + 3 = 𝑔(𝑥)
Check:
𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑥 − 1) = (𝑥 − 1)2 + 3 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4 ⇒ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑠

Example 2.80
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 7, and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥, show that (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)−1 (𝑥) = (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 )(𝑥)

(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = √3𝑥 + 7
Find the inverses and their composition:
𝑥−7
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 7 ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
3
𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 ⇒ 𝑔−1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2
𝑥2 − 7
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 )(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥 2 ) =
3
Find the inverse of the composition:
𝑥2 − 7 𝑥2 − 7
𝑦 = √3𝑥 + 7 ⇒ 𝑥 = √3𝑦 + 7 ⇒ 𝑥 2 = 3𝑦 + 7 ⇒ = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)−1 (𝑥) =
3 3
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆 ⇒ 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑

2.81: Shoes and Socks Theorem (Informal)

Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be invertible functions, and their composition be defined. Then:
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)−1 (𝑥) = (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 )(𝑥)

𝑓 = 𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑠

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𝑔 = 𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑒𝑠

(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) = 𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑠, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑒𝑠

(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)−1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑠

This would consist of:

𝑔−1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑒𝑠
𝑓 −1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑠
Note that the inverse process proceeds in the reverse order as the original process.

2.82: Inverse of a Composite Function

Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be invertible functions, and their composition be defined. Then the inverse of the composite
function (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥), denoted (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)−1 (𝑥) is the composition of the inverse of the functions f and g, in the
reverse order of the original composition. That is:
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)−1 (𝑧) = (𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 )(𝑧)

I. Back Calculations

Example 2.83
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 7, then find the value of 𝑥 for which
2𝑓(𝑥) + 3(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 − 2

𝑥−7
2(3𝑥 + 7) + 3 ( )=𝑥−2
3
6𝑥 + 14 + 𝑥 − 7 = 𝑥 − 2
7𝑥 + 7 = 𝑥 − 2
6𝑥 = −9
3
𝑥=−
2

Example 2.84
2𝑥 + 𝑘, 𝑥 ≥ 4
A. Graph 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = { , where 𝑘 is an unknown constant.
3𝑥 − 2, 𝑥 < 4
B. Find the smallest value of 𝑘 such that 𝑓(𝑥) has an inverse.

Example 2.85
A. Find all linear functions 𝑓(𝑥) such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑓 −1 (𝑥) + 27
B. Find all linear functions 𝑓(𝑥) such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑓 −1 (𝑥) + 𝑑, where 𝑐, 𝑑 are real numbers.
C. Substitute 𝑐 = 4, 𝑑 = 27 into the answer that you found in part B.

Part A
𝑥−𝑏
Substitute 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑎
in the given condition:
𝑥−𝑏 4𝑥 − 4𝑏 + 27𝑎
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 4 ( ) + 27 =
𝑎 𝑎
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 = 4𝑥 − 4𝑏 + 27𝑎

Use the method of undetermined coefficients.

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Equating coefficients:
𝑎2 = 4 ⇒ 𝑎 = ±2, 𝑎𝑏 = 27𝑎 − 4𝑏
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼: 𝑎 = 2 ⇒ 2𝑏 = 54 − 4𝑏 ⇒ 6𝑏 = 54 ⇒ 𝑏 = 9 ⇒ 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 9
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐼: 𝑎 = −2 ⇒ −2𝑏 = −54 − 4𝑏 ⇒ 2𝑏 = −54 ⇒ 𝑏 = −27 ⇒ 𝑓2 (𝑥) = −2𝑥 − 27
Part B
𝑥−𝑏
Substitute 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑎
in the given condition:
𝑥−𝑏 𝑐𝑥 − 𝑐𝑏 + 𝑑𝑎
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 𝑐 ( )+𝑑 =
𝑎 𝑎
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑐𝑥 − 𝑐𝑏 + 𝑑𝑎
Equating coefficients:
𝑎2 = 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑎 = ±√𝑐,
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑑𝑎 − 𝑐𝑏
𝑑 √𝑐 𝑑√𝑐
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼: 𝑎 = √𝑐 ⇒ √𝑐𝑏 = 𝑑√𝑐 − 𝑐𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏(√𝑐 + 𝑐) = 𝑑√𝑐 ⇒ 𝑏 = ⇒ 𝑓1 (𝑥) = √𝑐𝑥 +
√𝑐 + 𝑐 𝑐 + √𝑐
𝑑√𝑐 𝑑√𝑐
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐼: 𝑎 = −√𝑐 ⇒ −√𝑐𝑏 = −𝑑√𝑐 − 𝑐𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏(𝑐 − √𝑐) = 𝑑√𝑐 ⇒ 𝑏 = ⇒ 𝑓2 (𝑥) = −√𝑐𝑥 +
𝑐 − √𝑐 𝑐 − √𝑐

And we can combine the two functions in one expression:

𝑑√𝑐
𝑓(𝑥) = ±√𝑐𝑥 +
𝑐 ± √𝑐

Example 2.86
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎 with 𝑎 and 𝑏 real, what is the value of 𝑎 + 𝑏? (AMC 12B 2004/13)

𝑥−𝑏 𝑥 𝑏
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = = −
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
−1 (𝑥)
𝑓 = 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎

𝑥 𝑏
− = 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎
Use the method of undetermined coefficients.
Equating coefficients, we get:
1
𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚:
=𝑏
𝑎
𝑏
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: − = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑏 = −𝑎2
𝑎
Equate the two expressions for 𝑏:
1
= −𝑎2 ⇒ 𝑎3 = −1 ⇒ 𝑎 = −1
𝑎
Substitute 𝑎 = −1 in
1 1
=𝑏⇒ =𝑏
𝑎 −1
Hence,
𝑎 + 𝑏 = −1 − 1 = −2
Example 2.87
Suppose that the inverse of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is given by 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = −(𝑎 + 2)𝑥 2 + (2𝑏 + 1) for all 𝑥
satisfying 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ≥ 0. Find 𝑎 + 𝑏. (AOPS Alcumus, Intermediate Algebra, Inverse Functions)

1 2 𝑏
𝑦 = √𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 → 𝑥 = √𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑥 2 = 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 −
𝑎 𝑎

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Hence:
1 2 𝑏
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − = −(𝑎 + 2)𝑥 2 + (2𝑏 + 1)
𝑎 𝑎

Use the method of undetermined coefficients.

Comparing coefficients in the 𝑥 2 term:
1
= −(𝑎 + 2) ⇒ 1 = −𝑎2 − 2𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎2 + 2𝑎 + 1 = 0 ⇒ (𝑎 + 1)2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = −1
𝑎
Compare the constant term, and substitute 𝑎 = −1:
𝑏 𝑏
− = 2𝑏 + 1 ⇒ − = 2𝑏 + 1 ⇒ 𝑏 = 2𝑏 + 1 ⇒ 𝑏 = −1
𝑎 −1

𝑎 + 𝑏 = −1 − 1 = −2

Example 2.88
𝑎
Define the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥. If 𝑓(−1) = 𝑓 −1 (4𝑎 + 1), find the product of all possible values of 𝑎. (AOPS
Alcumus, Intermediate Algebra, Inverse Functions)

𝑎
Find the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = :
1−𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑦= ⇒𝑥= ⇒1−𝑦 = ⇒1− =𝑦 ⇒𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
1−𝑥 1−𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
By the given condition:
𝑎 4𝑎 + 1 − 𝑎 𝑎 3𝑎 + 1
𝑓(−1) = 𝑓 −1 (4𝑎 + 1) ⇒ = ⇒ =
1− (−1) 4𝑎 + 1 2 4𝑎 + 1
Eliminate fractions:
4𝑎2 + 𝑎 = 6𝑎 + 2 ⇒ 4𝑎2 − 5𝑎 − 2 = 0
By Vieta’s formulas, the product of the roots (solutions) for the above quadratic is:
𝑐 −2 1
𝑃= = =−
𝑎 4 2

2.5 Domain and Range

Example 2.89
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 4, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2

𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2) = √𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6

The range of the inside function has to be equal to, or a subset of the domain of the outside function.
𝑥 + 4 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ −4

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 ≥ −4
𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 6 ≥ 0
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2) ≥ 0

𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 {−2,3}

𝑥 < −2 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 > 3

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A. Basics

2.90: Domain and Range of Inverse Functions

Given a function 𝑓(𝑥) with Domain 𝐷𝑓 and Range 𝑅𝑓 , the inverse function 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) has:
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛: 𝑅𝑓 , 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: 𝐷𝑓

In other words:
➢ The domain of an inverse function is the range of the original function.
➢ The range of an inverse function is the domain of the original function.

𝑓(𝑥), 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛: 𝑥 ≥ 3, 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: 𝑦 ≤ 0

𝑓 −1 (𝑥): 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛: 𝑥 ≤ 0, 𝑦 ≥ 3

Example 2.91
For each function below, find the domain and range. Then, check for invertibility, find the inverse function, and
its domain and range.
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 3, 𝑥 > 5
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = ,𝑥 > 5

Part A
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛: 𝑥 > 5
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 3 > 4(5) + 3 = 20 + 3 = 23 ⇒ 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 > 23

𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦:
𝑓(𝑥) is a linear function, and all linear functions are invertible.
Hence, 𝑓(𝑥) is invertible.

𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝑥−3 𝑥−3
𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 3 ⇒ 𝑥 = 4𝑦 + 3 ⇒ 𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
4 4

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒:

For the inverse function, we need to interchange domain and range:
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛: 𝑥 > 23
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒: 𝑦 > 5
Part B
For th

Example 2.92
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3
A. Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥)
B. Find the domain such that 𝑓(𝑥) is invertible.

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Part A
To find the domain, determine the places where the denominator is not defined.
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {1,3}
𝐷𝑓 = (∞, 1) ∪ (1,3) ∪ (3, ∞)
Part B
We will determine for the number of solutions for
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3
=𝑘
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3
Eliminate fractions, then collate all terms on one side, and write in standard form:
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 = 𝑘𝑥 2 − 4𝑘𝑥 + 3𝑘
𝑥 2 (𝑘 − 1) + 𝑥(−4𝑘 − 4) + 3𝑘 − 3 = 0
The above expression is linear (not quadratic) when 𝑘 = 1:
Substitute 𝑘 = 1:
𝑥 2 (1 − 1) + 𝑥(−4 − 4) + 3 − 3 = 0 ⇒ −8𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0

When 𝑘 ≠ 1, the expression is a quadratic with discriminant:

(−4)2 (𝑘 + 1)2 − ⏟
⏟ (𝑘 − 1) ⏟
4⏟ (3𝑘 − 3)
𝑏2 4 𝑎 𝑐
Expand, factor out 4 and simplify
16(𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1) − 4(3𝑘 2 − 3𝑘 − 3𝑘 + 3) = 4(𝑘 2 + 14𝑘 + 1)
2
𝑘 + 14𝑘 + 1 is an upward parabola. To determine the zeroes, we use the quadratic formula:
−14 ± √142 − (4)(1)(1) −14 ± √192 −14 ± 8√3
𝑘= = = = −7 ± 4√3
2 2 2
Hence,
𝑁𝑜 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝑘 ∈ (−7 − 4√3, −7 + 4√3)
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝑘 ∈ {−7 − 4√3, −7 + 4√3, 1}
𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝑘 ∈ (−∞, −7 − 4√3) ∪ ( −7 + 4√3, ∞) − {1}

Hence, the range of 𝑓(𝑥) is the set of values of 𝑘 which have a solution (either one or two):
(−∞, −7 − 4√3] ∪ [ −7 + 4√3, ∞) ∪ {1}

Part C
{−7 − 4√3, −7 + 4√3, 0}

B. Restricted Domains / Inverses of Quadratics

2.93: Restricted Domain

If a function is not invertible, then it may be invertible on a restricted domain.
When looking to restrict the domain, the usual objective is to preserve as much of the original domain as
possible.

Example 2.94
Consider the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 .
A. Is it a function?
B. Is the function invertible?
C. Restrict the domain of the function so that it is invertible. Provide at least three ways to do so. For each
way, find the inverse function.

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Part A
The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is a parabola, and passes the vertical line test.
Algebraically, there is exactly one value of y associated with any value of 𝑥, and
hence, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is a function.

Part B
Any horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝑐, 𝑐 > 0 will intersect the graph at two places. Hence, the
function is not invertible.

𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±√𝑦
For any value of 𝑦 > 0, we get two values of 𝑥.
Hence, the function fails the test of invertibility.

Part C
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1: 𝐷𝑓 : 𝑥 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = √𝑥
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2: 𝐷𝑓 : 𝑥 ≤ 0 ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = −√𝑥

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3: (−∞, −𝑎) ∪ [0, 𝑎], 𝑎>0

Suppose, we take 𝑎 = 5:

Example 2.95: Restricting the Domain of a Quadratic

A. Find the maximum possible domain on which the quadratic 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7 has an inverse, if 0 is a part
of the domain.
11 2 3
B. Find the maximum possible domain on which the quadratic 𝑦 = − 13 𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 + 4 has an inverse, if 0 is a
part of the domain.
3
C. The maximum possible domain on which the quadratic 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 4 has an inverse is [− 7 , ∞).
𝑞
If 𝑎 + 𝑏 is 4, then 𝑓(2) can be written in the form 𝑝 𝑟 where 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 are integers and 𝐻𝐶𝐹(𝑞, 𝑟) = 1. Find
𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟.

Part A
Part B
Part C
𝑏 3 6
− =− ⇒ 𝑏= 𝑎
2𝑎 7 7
Substitute the above
6 13 28
𝑎+𝑏 =4⇒𝑎+ 𝑎 =4⇒ 𝑎=4⇒𝑎=
7 7 13
28 52 28 24
𝑏=4− = − =
13 13 13 13

28 24 136 6 6
𝑓(2) = 4𝑎 + 𝑏 + 4 = 4 ( )+ +4= + 4 = 10 + 4 = 14
13 13 13 13 13
𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 = 14 + 6 + 13 = 33

Example 2.96
Find the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4, and find its domain and range.
A. By using the quadratic formula

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B. By completing the square

Restricting the domain

𝑓(𝑥) is an upward parabola with a bilateral line of symmetry at its vertex, which is:
𝑏 2
𝑥=− =− = −1
2𝑎 2(1)
Hence, to make the function one-to-one/invertible, we restrict the domain to:
𝐷𝑓 = [−1, ∞)
Finding the range of 𝒇(𝒙)
Substitute 𝑥 = −1 in 𝑓(𝑥) to find the y coordinate of the vertex:
𝑦 = (−1)2 + 2(−1) − 4 = 1 − 2 − 4 = −5 ⇒ 𝑅𝑓 = [−5, ∞)
Finding the inverse
Swap 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the original function:
𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 − 4
Solve it for 𝑦 by using the quadratic formula. First, write it in standard form:
𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 − 4 − 𝑥 = 0
Apply 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = −4 − 𝑥:
−2 ± √4 − (4)(1)(−4 − 𝑥)
𝑦=
2(1)
−2 ± 2√1 − (−4 − 𝑥)
=
2
= −1 ± √𝑥 + 5
Because we have taken the domain [−1, ∞), we only take the positive square root:
𝑦 = −1 + √𝑥 + 5

𝐷𝑓−1 = 𝑅𝑓 = [−5, ∞)
𝑅𝑓−1 = 𝐷𝑓 = [−1, ∞)
Part B
𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 − 1 − 4
𝑥 + 5 = (𝑦 + 1)2
√𝑥 + 5 = 𝑦 + 1
𝑦 = √𝑥 + 5 − 1

Example 2.97
Find the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1

𝑏 1 1
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑥 = − =− =−
2𝑎 2(1) 2
1
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 [− , ∞)
2
Swap 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the original function:
𝑥 = 𝑦2 + 𝑦 + 1
Complete the square:
1 1
𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + − + 1
4 4
3 1 2
𝑥 − = (𝑦 + )
4 2

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3 1
√𝑥 − =𝑦+
4 2

3 1
𝑦 = √𝑥 − −
4 2
Example 2.98
Find the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1

𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1
𝑏 2 1
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑥 = − =− =−
2𝑎 2(3) 3
1
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 [− , ∞)
3
Swap 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the original function:
𝑥 = 3𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1
Factor out 3 in the first two terms on the RHS:
2 1
/𝑥 = 3 (𝑦 2 + 𝑦 + )
3 3
1
Add and subtract in preparation to complete the square:
9
2 1 1 3
𝑥 = 3 (𝑦 2 + 𝑦 + − + )
3 9 9 9
1
Complete the square, move − out of the brackets,
9
1 2 2
𝑥 = 3 (𝑦 + ) −
3 3
Move the constant to the LHS:
2 1 2
𝑥− = 3 (𝑦 + )
3 3
Divide both sides by 3:
𝑥 2 1 2
− = (𝑦 + )
3 9 3
Take square roots both sides:
𝑥 2 1
√ − = (𝑦 + )
3 9 3
1
Solve for 𝑦 by subtracting 3 from both sides:

𝑥 2 1
𝑦=√ − −
3 9 3

C. Given Domains

Example 2.99: Inverses on given Domains

A function cannot have an inverse on a domain where it does not pass the invertibility test. However, the
domain can be further restricted beyond what is required for it to pass the invertibility test.

Find the inverse of 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 < −1, and state its domain and range.

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Domain and Range of 𝒇(𝒙)

The above function is an upward parabola with 𝑥 coordinate of vertex
𝑏 4 1
𝑥=− =− =−
2𝑎 2(4) 2
1
The domain of the function could have been 𝑥 ≤ − . However, it has been
2
further restricted to start from left of the vertex.

Range of 𝑓(𝑥)
Substitute 𝑥 = −1 in 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(−1) = 4(−1)2 + 4(−1) + 1 = 4 − 4 + 1 = 1
𝑅𝑓 = [1, ∞)

Inverse Function
Swap 𝑥 and 𝑦 in 𝑓(𝑥):
𝑥 = 4𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 + 1 ⇒ 𝑥 = (2𝑦 + 1)2
Since the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) is to the left of the vertex, take the negative square root only:
−√𝑥 − 1 √𝑥 + 1
−√𝑥 = 2𝑦 + 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = =−
2 2

Recall that the domain of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is the range of 𝑓(𝑥)

𝐷𝑓−1 (𝑥) = 𝑅𝑓 = (1, ∞)
𝑅𝑓−1 = 𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, −1]

2.6 Self Inverse Functions

A. Basics

2.100: Self-Inverse Functions

If a function is its own inverse, then such a function is called a self-inverse function. In other words,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

We can apply the function f to both sides of the above equality to get an equivalent version that is sometimes
useful:
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥
That is, applying a self-inverse function twice to an input gives us the original input.

Example 2.101
Show that the following functions are self-inverse functions
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
1
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥
1
D. 𝑓(𝑥) = − , 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎𝑥

Part A
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 → 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒
The constant function is a (trivial) self-inverse function.

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Part B
1
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ( ) = 𝑥 → 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒
𝑥
The reciprocal function is a self-inverse function.
Part C
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑥 → 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒
Part D
1 1 1
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 (− )=− = 1 ÷ = 𝑥 → 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 − 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒
𝑎𝑥 1 𝑥
𝑎 (− 𝑎𝑥 )

B. Graphical Test

2.102: Self-Inverse Functions: Graphical Test

Graphically, to find the inverse of a function, we reflect it across the line:
𝒚=𝒙
If this reflection does not change the graph, then the function is a self-inverse function.

C. Linear Functions

Example 2.103
If 𝑓 is a linear function that is its own inverse, find 𝑓 given that
𝑓(3) = 5

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

𝑓(3) = 3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 5
𝑓(5) = 5𝑎 + 𝑏 = 3

2𝑎 = −2 ⇒ 𝑎 = −1
𝑏=8

𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 + 8

Example 2.104
Find all functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥, such that 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).
Definition of Self-Inverse Function
Because the function is a self-inverse function, it must satisfy:
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎𝑥) = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎2 𝑥 = 𝑥
If 𝑥 = 0:
𝐴𝑛𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
If 𝑥 ≠ 0:
𝑎2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎 = ±1

Equating the Inverse with the function

𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑓 1 (𝑥) =
𝑎

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𝑥
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑎𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑎2 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑎
And now the solution can proceed as in the previous method.

Example 2.105
Find all functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, such that 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).

We want to find all linear functions that are self-inverses:

𝑥−𝑏 𝑥−𝑏 𝑥 𝑏 1 𝑏
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = = − = 𝑥−
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

By the condition given in the question:

1 𝑏
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) ⇒ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 =
𝑥−
𝑎 𝑎
By the method of undetermined coefficients, both sides must have the same coefficients for the same terms
because of the equality:

The coefficient of the 𝑥 terms on the LHS has to equal the coefficient of the 𝑥 term on the RHS:
1
𝑎 = ⇒ 𝑎2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎 = ±1
𝑎
The constant term on the LHS has to equal the constant term on the RHS:
𝑏
𝑏=−
𝑎
There are two cases:
Case I: 𝒃 = 𝟎
0
0 = − ⇒ 0 = 0, 𝑎 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑦
𝑎

Case II: 𝒃 ≠ 𝟎
We can divide by 𝑏 both sides get:
1
1=− ⇒ 𝑎 = −1
𝑎

The final answer is

𝐼𝑓 𝑎 = −1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏 = 0
𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓
D. Functions3
𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓

Example 2.106
Show that 𝑓(𝑥) is a self-inverse function.
4𝑥 − 3
𝑓(𝑥) =
8𝑥 − 4

Example 2.107
Find the value of 𝑎 given that:

3
This topic is more challenging than the ones prior.

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2𝑥 − 5
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
3𝑥 − 𝑎

For a self-inverse function:

𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓

We compose 𝑓 to find 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)):

2𝑥 − 5 4𝑥 − 10 − 15𝑥 + 5𝑎
2𝑥 − 5 2 (3𝑥 − 𝑎) − 5 −11𝑥 − 5(2 + 𝑎)
𝑓( )= = 3𝑥 − 𝑎 =
3𝑥 − 𝑎 2𝑥 − 5 6𝑥 − 15 − 3𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎 2 (6 − 3𝑎)𝑥 − 15 + 𝑎2
3 (3𝑥 − 𝑎) − 𝑎
3𝑥 − 𝑎

Example 2.108
Find the condition such that the function below is self-inverse.
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑

For a self-inverse function:

𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓

We compose 𝑓 to find 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)):

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏𝑑
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎 ( ) + 𝑏 (𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑥 + 𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑑)
𝑓( )= 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 =
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑2 (𝑎 + 𝑑)𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑2
𝑐( )+𝑑
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑

For the last term to equal 𝑥, we must have the constant term in the numerator zero, and the 𝑥 term in the
denominator also zero:
𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑑) = 0 ⇒ 𝑏 = 0 𝑂𝑅 𝑑 = −𝑎
𝑐(𝑎 + 𝑑) = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 = 0 𝑂𝑅 𝑑 = −𝑎

The common condition in the above two is 𝑑 = −𝑎 giving us:

(𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑥
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = =𝑥
𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎2

And since the denominator cannot be zero, we must impose the condition:
𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0

Example 2.109
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑥+𝑑 , 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑 ≠ 0 and 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓, what is the value of 𝑎 + 𝑑? (MathCounts
2014 National Sprint)

We already know algebraically that

𝑎 = −𝑑

We now establish the same graphically.4

𝑓(𝑥) has vertical asymptote when the denominator is zero:

4
You can look at the chapter on Graphing for properties and examples that show how to find the asymptote of a function.

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𝑑
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −
𝑐

Since the numerator and the denominator of the function have the same degree, 𝑓(𝑥) has horizontal asymptote
which is the ratio of the leading coefficients:
𝑎
𝑦=
𝑐

Since the function is its own inverse, the function must remain same when reflected over the line 𝑦 = 𝑥, and so
must the asymptotes.
This will happen only when the asymptotes intersect at the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Hence, we must have
𝑑 𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑥 ⇒ − = ⇒ −𝑑 = 𝑎
𝑐 𝑐

Example 2.110
Find the domain of 𝑓:
𝜋√𝜋 + 𝑒 𝑒𝑥 − 𝜋
𝑝2 + 𝑝 ( ) + 𝑒√𝜋 = 0, 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
√𝜋 𝑝2 𝑥 − 𝑒

Find the value of 𝒑 from the quadratic:

𝑒
𝑝2 + 𝑝 (𝜋 + ) + 𝑒√𝜋 = 0
√𝜋
𝑒 𝑒
𝑆𝑢𝑚 = 𝜋 + , 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 𝑒√𝜋 = (𝜋) ( )
√𝜋 √𝜋
𝑒 𝑒
(𝑝 + ) (𝑝 + 𝜋) = 0 ⇒ 𝑝 ∈ {− , −𝜋}
√𝜋 √𝜋
Find the value of 𝒑 from the function:
We compose 𝑓 to find 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)):
𝑒𝑥 − 𝜋 𝑒 2 𝑥 − 𝑒𝜋 − 𝜋𝑝2 𝑥 + 𝑒𝜋
𝑒𝑥 − 𝜋 𝑒 ( ) − 𝜋 (𝑒 2 − 𝜋𝑝2 )𝑥
𝑝2 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑝2 𝑥 − 𝑒
𝑓( 2 )= = 2 = =𝑥
𝑝 𝑥−𝑒 𝑒𝑥 − 𝜋 𝑝 𝑒𝑥 − 𝜋𝑝2 − 𝑝2 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒 2 𝑒 2 − 𝜋𝑝2
𝑝2 ( 2 )−𝑒
𝑝 𝑥−𝑒 𝑝2 𝑥 − 𝑒
With the condition that the denominator cannot be zero:
2 2 2 2 2
𝑒2 𝑒
𝑒 − 𝜋𝑝 = 0 ⇒ 𝜋𝑝 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑝 = ⇒𝑝=±
𝜋 √𝜋
Find the value of p that satisfies both conditions:
𝑒
𝑝≠− ⇒ 𝑝 = −𝜋
√𝜋
Find the domain of 𝒇:
𝑒𝑥 − 𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 2
𝑝 𝑥−𝑒
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝑝2 𝑥 − 𝑒 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2 = 2
= 2
𝑝 (−𝜋) 𝜋
𝑒 𝑒
𝐷𝑓 = (−∞, 2 ) ∪ ( 2 , ∞)
𝜋 𝜋

2.7 Piece-Wise Functions

A. Definition
So far, we have seen functions defined in terms of tables, or terms of a single formula. But sometimes, a single

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formula or a single type of behavior is not enough to define a function.

In such a situation, the function can be defined piece-wise.

2.111: Piece-Wise Function

A piece-wise has different behavior depending upon the type of input.

You need to evaluate different cases, based on the definition given.

B. Signum Function
The signum function is of interest to engineers. It gives the sign of a quantity, and is defined as follows:

2.112: Signum Function

The signum function is defined as follows:
+1, 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑓(𝑥) = {
−1, 𝑥 < 0

The function has only two outputs.

It has an output of +1, if the input is zero or positive.
It has an output of −1, if the input is negative.

Example 2.113
+1, 𝑥 ≥ 0
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = { , find:
−1, 𝑥 < 0
A. 𝑓(3)
B. 𝑓(−3)
C. 𝑓(𝜋)
D. 𝑓(−𝜋)
E. 𝑓 2 (−𝜋)
F. 𝑓 2021 (4)

𝑓 2 (−𝜋)𝑓(−𝜋)
𝑓(3) = 1
𝑓(−3) = −1
𝑓(𝜋) = 1
𝑓(−𝜋) = −1
𝑓 2 (−𝜋) = 𝑓(−1) = −1
𝑓 2021 (4) = 1

Example 2.114
+1, 𝑥 ≥ 0
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = { , graph:
−1, 𝑥 < 0
A. 𝑓(𝑥)
B. 𝑓(𝑥) + 2
C. 𝑓(𝑥) − 3
D. 𝑓(𝑥 + 1)
E. 𝑓(𝑥 − 5)
F. 2𝑓(𝑥)
1
G. 3 𝑓(𝑥)

Part A

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This is the graph of the signum function.

Part B
Here, the graph moves up by 2 units.

Part C
Here, the graph moves down by 3 units.
Part D
Here, the graph moves left by 1 unit.
Part E
Here, the graph moves right by 5 units.
Part F
The graph is vertically scaled by a factor of 2.
Part G
1
The graph is vertically scaled by a factor of 3.

C. Absolute Value Function

When learning negative numbers, we encounter absolute value. For example:
|5| = 5, |−5| = 5

Example 2.115
Find:
A. |8|
B. |−8|
4
C. |− 3|
4
D. | |
3

8
8
4
3
4
3

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Example 2.116
Generalize the principle in the above example to define absolute value as a piece-wise function.

Strategy
We consider two cases:
Case I: The number is positive or zero.
The absolute value function does not change the number. Hence,
|𝑥| = 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0 (𝐸𝑔: |4| = 4 = 4
Case II: The number is negative
|𝑥| = −𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0 (𝐸𝑔: |−4| = − (−4)
⏟ = 4)
𝑥

Write a Function
We can combine the two cases above into a single piece-wise function as below:
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = {
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
The above notation using a single curly brace to bifurcate the behaviour based on the value of x is standard
notation for piece-wise notation.
Equivalent Definition
Equivalently, since
0 = −0
We could have defined the function as
𝑥, 𝑥 > 0
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = {
−𝑥, 𝑥 ≤ 0

2.117: Absolute Value Function

The absolute value function is defined as follows:
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = {
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0

Example 2.118
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = { , evaluate:
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
A. 𝑓(7)
B. 𝑓(−7)

7
7

Example 2.119
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡: 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡.
Simplify: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝜋) + 𝑓(−𝜋).
44
A. 7
B. 6.28
C. 2𝜋
D. 0

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𝑓(𝜋) + 𝑓(−𝜋) = 𝜋 + 𝜋 = 2𝜋

In everyday work/ school work, we use approximations to 𝜋. Two common approximations are
22
𝜋≈ , 𝜋 ≈ 3.14
7
However, 𝜋 is an irrational number and is hence, a
𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙
Hence, options A and B are incorrect.

Only Option C is correct.

D. Composition

Example 2.120
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
If 𝑓(𝑥) = { , find 𝑓 2021 (−0.3)
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑥) = 0.3
𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(0.3) = 0.3

After you apply the absolute function once, the number becomes positive.
No matter how many times you apply it, it remains positive.

𝑓 2021 (−0.3) = 0.3

Example 2.121
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
Given the definition 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = { , Vishal made the simplification below:
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑦) + 𝑓(−𝑦) = 𝑦 + 𝑦 = 2𝑦
State whether his steps were correct. If his steps were not correct, identify the mistake, and give the correct
answer.

The absolute value function is defined piece-wise. To analyze, we need to break it into cases:
Case I: 𝒚 > 𝟎
Take an example: 𝑦 = 5 > 0
𝑓(5) + 𝑓(−5) = 5 + 5 = 10 ⇒ 10 = 2 × 5
The logic above is correct:
𝑓(𝑦) + 𝑓(−𝑦) = 𝑦 + 𝑦 = 2𝑦
Case II: 𝒚 < 𝟎
Take an example: 𝑦 = −5
𝑓(−5) + 𝑓(5) = 5 + 5 = 10 ⇒ 10 ≠ 2 × (−5), 10 = −(2 × (−5))
The logic above is not correct. The corrected version is:

𝑓( ⏟
𝑦 ) + 𝑓 (−𝑦
⏟ ) = −𝑦 − 𝑦 = −2𝑦
−𝒗𝒆 +𝒗𝒆

Example 2.122
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
Given the definition 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = { , graph
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
A. 𝑓(𝑥)

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B. 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝜋)
C. 𝑓(𝑥 − 3)
D. 𝑓(𝑥) + 4
E. 𝑓(𝑥) − 5
F. 7𝑓(𝑥)
1
G. 2
𝑓(𝑥)

Part A
This is the graph of the absolute value function.
Part B
Here, the graph moves left by 𝜋 units.
Part C
Here, the graph moves right by 3 units.
Part D
Here, the graph moves up by 4 unit.
Part E
Here, the graph moves down by 5 units.
Part F
The graph is vertically scaled by a factor of 7.
Part G
1
The graph is vertically scaled by a factor of 2.

E. Collatz Conjecture

Example 2.123
The Collatz conjecture gives the process given below. State this process as a piece-wise function.
A. Start with any positive integer n
B. If 𝑛 is even, divide it by 2
C. If 𝑛 is odd, multiply it by 3, and then add 1

𝑥
, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = { 2
3𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

Example 2.124
𝑥
, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 .
3𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
Find:
A. 𝑓 8 (5)
B. 𝑓 2021 (5)

𝑓 8 (5) = 𝑓 7 (16) = 𝑓 6 (8) = ⏟

𝑓 5 (4) = 𝑓 4 (2) = 𝑓 3 (1) = ⏟
𝑓 2 (4) = 𝑓(2) = 1
𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 3

The above has a cycle of three:

𝑓 8 (5) = 1 𝑓 9 (5) = 4 𝑓 10 (5) = 2

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No. of Times function is 8 9 10

applied
Remainder when 8 9 10
𝑅( ) = 2 𝑅( ) = 0 𝑅( )=1
divided by 3 3 3 3

2021
𝑅( ) = 2 ⇒ 𝑓 2021 (5) = 1
3

Example 2.125
𝑥
,𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 ,
3𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
graph
A. 𝑓(𝑥)
B. 𝑓(𝑥 + 1)
C. 𝑓(𝑥 − 2)
D. 𝑓(𝑥) + 3
E. 𝑓(𝑥) + 4
F. 3𝑓(𝑥)
1
G. 2
𝑓(𝑥)

F. Linear Piece-Wise Functions

Till now, we looked at some mathematical functions that are important, in and of themselves. But, piece-wise
functions can be defined in whichever way you want. A function does not have to be important to be asked in
question.

Example 2.126
Consider the following piece-wise function, both of whose parts are themselves linear functions.
−3𝑥 + 10, 𝑥≥1
𝑓(𝑥) = {
2𝑥 + 4, 𝑥<1
Find:
A. 𝑓(5)
B. 𝑓(−3)
C. 𝑓(𝑓(6))

𝑓(5) = −3(5) + 10 = −15 + 10 = −5

𝑓(−3) = 2(−3) + 4 = −6 + 4 = −2
𝑓(𝑓(6)) = 𝑓(−3(6) + 10) = 𝑓(−8) = −16 + 4 = −12

Example 2.127
−3𝑥 + 10, 𝑥 ≥ 1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = { . Graph
2𝑥 + 4, 𝑥 < 1
A. 𝑓(𝑥)
B. 𝑓(𝑥 + 5)
C. 𝑓(𝑥 − 1)
D. 𝑓(𝑥) + 2
E. 𝑓(𝑥) − 4
F. 2𝑓(𝑥)

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1
G. 3
𝑓(𝑥)

Example 2.128
−3𝑥 + 10, 𝑥 ≥ 1 8
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = { , find 𝑓 2021 ( )
2𝑥 + 4, 𝑥 < 1 3

8 8
𝑓 ( ) = −3 ( ) + 10 = −8 + 10 = 2
3 3
8
𝑓 2 ( ) = 𝑓(2) = −3(2) + 10 = 4
⏟ 3
𝟐 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟐 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝟑
8
𝑓 3 ( ) = 𝑓(4) = −3(4) + 10 = −12 + 10 = −2
⏟ 3
𝟑 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟎 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝟑
⏟4 (−2) = 𝑓(4) = 2(−2) + 4 = −4 + 4 = 0
𝑓
𝟒 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝟏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝟑
8
𝑓 5 ( ) = 𝑓(0) = 2(0) + 4 = 0 + 4 = 4
3

We have a cyclicity of three.

Hence, we want:
2021 8 8
𝑅𝑒𝑚 ( ) = 2 ⇒ 𝑓 2021 ( ) = 𝑓 2 ( ) = 4
3 3 3

Example 2.129
−3𝑥 + 10, 𝑥 ≥ 1
Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = { , find all values of that 𝑥 that satisfy 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 1
2𝑥 + 4, 𝑥 < 1

One-Stage Equation
We start by solving a simpler question
𝑓(𝑥) = 1
We do not know which of the above two cases for the piece-wise function was applicable to 𝑥. Hence, we must
solve both.
Case I: 𝒙 ≥ 𝟏
−9
−3𝑥 + 10 = 1 ⇒ −3𝑥 = −9 ⇒ 𝑥 = = 3 ⇒ 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒙 ≥ 𝟏
−3
Case II: 𝒙 < 𝟏
3
2𝑥 + 4 = 1 ⇒ 2𝑥 = −3 ⇒ 𝑥 = − ⇒ 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒙 < 𝟏
2

Part B
We know that
3
𝑓(3) = 1, 𝑓 (− ) = 1
2
Hence, to solve the nested function, we know that the value in the inside part must be one of the two values
above:
3
𝑓(𝒇(𝒙)) = 1 ⇒ 𝒇(𝒙) ∈ {− , 3}
2

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𝟑
Case I: 𝒇(𝒙) = −
𝟐
3 3 20 23 −23 23
−3𝑥 + 10 = − ⇒ −3𝑥 = − − =− ⇒𝑥= = ⇒ 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅, 𝒙 > 𝟏
2 2 2 2 −6 6
3 3 8 11 11
2𝑥 + 4 = − ⇒ 2𝑥 = − − = − ⇒𝑥=− ⇒ 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒙 < 𝟏
2 2 2 2 4
Case II: 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑
7
−3𝑥 + 10 = 3 ⇒ −3𝑥 = −7 ⇒ 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅, 𝒙 > 𝟏
3
1
2𝑥 + 4 = 3 ⇒ 2𝑥 = −1 ⇒ 𝑥 = − ⇒ 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒙 < 𝟏
2
Hence, combine the above to get:
3 11 1 7 23
𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 1 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ {− , 3} ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {− , − , , }
2 4 2 3 6

Example 2.130
A partner in a business has remuneration based on the following conditions:
A. Base Salary: $3000
B. A percentage of Net Profit (NP):
a. 0% of Net Profit upto $20,000
b. 20% of Net Profit( for NP $20,000 but below $40,000)
c. 25% of Net Profit, and 1% of square of NP ( for NP above $40,000)
Assume that profit will always be greater than or equal to zero and state the remuneration of the partner as a
function of the Net Profit of the business.

The behavior of this function changes depending upon the Net Profit.
Hence, a single definition will not do.

Part of Domain
Starting Point (included) Ending Point (not Value of function Type of Function
included)
Negative infinity Zero Zero Not Defined
Zero 20,000 3000 Constant
20,000 40,000 0.2NP + 3000 Linear
40,000 Infinity 0.01NP2 + 0.2NP + 3000 Quadratic

We can state the above in the more usual mathematical form as below
3,000 if 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 20,000
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) {0.2𝑥 + 3000 if 20,000 ≤ 𝑥 < 40,000
0.01𝑥 2 + 0.2𝑥 + 3000 if 20,000 ≤ 𝑥 < 40,000

G. Inverse Functions

Example 2.131
𝑥2, 𝑥 ≥ 0
Find 𝑓 −1 given that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = {
−𝑥 2 , 𝑥 < 0

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√𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑓(𝑥) = {
−√−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0

Example 2.132: Absolute Value Functions

Find the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑥|𝑥|

𝑥, 𝑥≥0
𝑓(𝑥) = { √
−√−𝑥, 𝑥<0

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3. GRAPHING FUNCTIONS
3.1 Horizontal Asymptotes
A. Polynomial Functions: Behaviour at ±∞

3.1: End Behavior

The end behavior of a function tracks the behavior of the function as it grows very large (either positive, or
negative).
In general, there are three things that can happen:
➢ 𝑦 value becomes very large (positive)
➢ 𝑦 value becomes very negative
➢ 𝑦 value approaches a particular value.

3.2: Polynomial of Even Degree

For a polynomial of even degree with positive leading coefficient as:
𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 = ∞
𝑥 → −∞, 𝑦 = ∞

➢ If the leading coefficient is negative, the results are reversed:

∞ 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 − ∞

3.3: Polynomial of Odd Degree

For a polynomial of even degree with positive leading coefficient as:
𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 = ∞
𝑥 → −∞, 𝑦 = −∞

Example 3.4
Determine the end behavior of the following polynomials:
A. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7
B. 𝑦 = −2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 + 27
C. 𝑦 = 4𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 + 27
D. 𝑦 = −4𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 + 27

Part A
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑂𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = +𝑣𝑒
Behavior as it goes to positive ∞:
𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚: 𝑥 3 = 13 = 1 = +𝑣𝑒
𝑥 = −1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚: 𝑥 3 = (−1)3 = −1 = −𝑣𝑒

𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → +∞
𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑦 → −∞
Part B

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𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑂𝑑𝑑
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = −𝑣𝑒

Behaviour as it goes to positive ∞:

𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚: −2𝑥 3 = 2 × 13 = −𝑣𝑒
𝑥 = −1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚: −2𝑥 3 = 2(−1)3 = +𝑣𝑒
𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → −∞
𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑦 → +∞
Part C

𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = +𝑣𝑒

Behaviour as it goes to positive ∞:

𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚: 4𝑥 3 = 4 × 14 = +𝑣𝑒
𝑥 = −1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚: 4𝑥 3 = 4 × (−1)4 = +𝑣𝑒

𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → ∞
𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑦 → ∞
Part D
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = −𝑣𝑒
Behaviour as it goes to positive ∞:
𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚: −4𝑥 4 = −4(1)4 = −𝑣𝑒
𝑥 = −1 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚: −4𝑥 4 = −4(−1)4 = −4(1) = −𝑣𝑒

𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → −∞
𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → −∞, 𝑦 → −∞

B. Rational Function: Horizontal Asymptotes

3.5: Rational Function

A rational function is a ratio of two polynomials.

3.6: Horizontal Asymptotes: Meaning

Horizontal asymptotes represent the behavior of a function as it approaches positive infinity, and negative
infinity.

3.7: Denominator has higher degree than Numerator

If the degree of the denominator is greater than the degree of the numerator, the asymptote will
𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑏𝑒 𝑦 = 0

Horizontal asymptotes represent the end behaviour of the graph of a function. That is, they represent the values
that the function will take at very large values, and very small values.

Example 3.8
Find the horizontal asymptotes of:

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5
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥

End Behaviour
𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
5 1 −5 −1
50 0.1 −50 −0.1
500 0.01 −500 −0.01

Asymptote Rule
⏟
0 < ⏟
1
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
Since the degree of the denominator is greater than the degree
of the numerator, the asymptote will be
𝑦=0

Example 3.9
Identify the end behavior of the following:
𝑥
A. 𝑥 2
B. 3𝑥 2

𝑥
→ 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒 0
𝑥2
3𝑥 2 𝑔𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 ∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ±∞ ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒

𝒏
3.10: Horizontal Asymptotes of
𝒙
𝑛
The horizontal asymptote of is 0.
𝑥

For example, see the graphs of

1
→ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑥
2
→ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑥
10
→ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛
𝑥
No matter how large the numerator, if it is a constant,
𝑛
𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑥

Example 3.11
1 1 1
Compare the graph of 𝑥 2 with the graph of 𝑥, and find the horizontal asymptotes of 𝑥 2.

Check the graph:

1
➢ Red Graph: 𝑦 = 𝑥
1
➢ Purple Graph: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2

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If 𝒙 is negative:
𝑥 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
1
Hence, while the graph of 𝑥 lies below the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 to the left of
1
the origin, the graph of 𝑥 2 lies above the 𝑥-axis.
If 𝒙 is positive:
For large values of x, 𝑥 2 is much larger than 𝑥, and hence the
1 1
value of 𝑥 2 is smaller than 𝑥.
This can be seen in the graph since the purple graph is closer to
the x-axis, as compared to the red graph.

𝒇(𝒙)
3.12: , 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇(𝒙) < 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒈(𝒙)
Given polynomial functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), such that 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔(𝑥), then the horizontal
asymptote of:
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 0
𝑔(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯
=
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏2 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯
Divide numerator and denominator by the highest power in the denominator, which is 𝑥 𝑛 :
𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑎2
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑛 +⋯ 𝑥 +⋯
= =
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛 𝑏2 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑏
𝑏1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯
𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑛 + ⋯
For large values of 𝑥, we can ignore all terms except the first term in the numerator, and the first term in the
denominator, giving us:
𝑓(𝑥) 0
= =0
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑏1

Example 3.13
Consider the function:
2𝑥 + 5
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 2
A. Graph the function and find the horizontal asymptotes.
B. Can the graph of a function cross its horizontal asymptote?

Part A
⏟
1 < ⏟
2
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
Since the degree of the denominator is greater than the degree of the numerator, the asymptote will be
𝑦=0
2𝑥 + 5
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 + 8𝑥 + 2

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1
Multiply both numerator and denominator by 𝑥 2:
2𝑥 5 2 5
2 + 2 𝑥 + 𝑥2
𝑓(𝑥) = 2 𝑥 𝑥 =
𝑥 8𝑥 2 8 2
2 + 2 + 2 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
As we saw in the previous example, if 𝑛 is a
constant:
𝑛
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑥
𝑛
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑥2

Hence, for large values of 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) is close to5:

2 5
𝑥 + 𝑥2 0+0 0
𝑓(𝑥) = = = =0
8 2
1+ + 2 1+0+0 1
𝑥 𝑥

Part B
As the graph shows, a function can indeed cross its horizontal asymptote.

Example 3.14
Find the horizontal asymptotes of:
2
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2 + 6𝑥 + 4

⏟
0 < ⏟
2
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

Since the degree of the denominator is less than the degree of the
numerator, the asymptote will be
𝑦=0

Example 3.15: Denominator has same degree as

Numerator6
Find the horizontal asymptotes of:
3𝑥 + 5
𝑓(𝑥) =
2𝑥 + 7

5
This is not a formal treatment. We will study this properly when doing Limits in Calculus
6
In Calculus, this is equivalent to finding the limit as the variable goes towards positive infinity and negative infinity.

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To find the equation of the horizontal asymptote, we divide

throughout by 𝑥:
3𝑥 5 5
𝑥 +𝑥 𝟑+𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = =
2𝑥 7 7
+ 𝟐+𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
We can ignore
5 7
,
𝑥 𝑥
Because as 𝑥 gets very large, these values will become very
close to zero.
Hence, the horizontal asymptote is:
3
𝑦=
2

𝒇(𝒙)
3.16: , 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒈(𝒙)
Given polynomial functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), such that 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔(𝑥), then the horizontal
asymptote of
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎
𝑖𝑠
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑏
Where:
𝑎 = 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑏 = 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯
=
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏2 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯
Divide numerator and denominator by the highest power in the expression, which is 𝑥 𝑛 :
𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯ 𝑎1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯
= =
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛 𝑏2 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑏
𝑏1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯
𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑛 + ⋯
For large values of 𝑥, we can ignore all terms except the first term in the numerator, and the first term in the
denominator, giving us:
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎1
=
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑏1

Example 3.17
Find the horizontal asymptotes of:
5𝑥 + 3
𝑓(𝑥) =
8𝑥 + 4

Ratio of leading coefficients:

5
=
8

Example 3.18: Denominator has lower degree than Numerator

Find the horizontal asymptotes, if any, of
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+2

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This case will not give any horizontal asymptotes. It will give oblique/slant asymptotes, which are considered in
the next section.
𝑥 2 5𝑥 7
2 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
𝑥 2
+
𝑥2 𝑥2
As the value of x becomes large, all terms expect the first term in the numerator becomes zero:
1+0+0 1
𝑓(𝑥) = =
0+0 0
(Note that we cannot divide by zero, so this is technically incorrect. Rather this is supposed to indicate that we
are dividing a number by a very small quantity, which gives us a very large answer).

𝒇(𝒙)
3.19: , 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇(𝒙) > 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒈(𝒙)
Given polynomial functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), such that 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔(𝑥), then
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥)
Has no Horizontal asymptote

3.20: Summary

Denominator(D)
versus Numerator
(N) (Degree)

D>N D=N D<N

Horizontal
Horizontal
Asymptote: Ratio of D+1=N Greater Difference
Asymptote: Zero
Leading Coefficients

Slant Asympote No Slant Asymptote

When finding the horizontal asymptote for a function, we need to compare the degree of the numerator with
the degree of the denominator. There are three possible cases:
Denominator(𝑫) has higher degree than Numerator(𝑵)
As the value of 𝑥 approaches ∞ or −∞, the overall expression becomes closer and closer to zero.
Hence, the horizontal asymptote in this case is always zero.
Denominator(𝑫) has same degree as Numerator(𝑵)
As the value of 𝑥 approaches ∞ or −∞, the overall expression is controlled by the leading coefficients. Since

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both have the same degree,

the value is determined by the ratio of the leading coefficients.
Denominator(𝑫) has lower degree compared to Numerator(𝑵)
As the value of 𝑥 approaches ∞ or −∞, the overall expression becomes does not become close to any single
value. It can potentially become ∞ or −∞.
If the degree of the denominator is one less than the degree of the denominator, than the function will have a
slant asymptote. (A slant asymptote is also called an oblique asymptote).

3.2 Vertical Asymptotes

A. Vertical Asymptotes and Intercepts

Asymptotes are lines which a graph approaches but does not touch. They represent one way to understand the
behavior of a function and its graph.

3.21: Vertical Asymptotes

𝑓(𝑥)
The vertical asymptotes of a function 𝑎re given by the zeros of 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥)
In other words, if
𝑔(𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }
Then the vertical asymptotes are
𝑥 = 𝑥1 , 𝑥 = 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑛

Vertical asymptotes occur when the denominator is not defined. Hence, to find the vertical asymptotes
➢ equate the denominator to zero
➢ The solution to the equations are the vertical asymptotes.

Example 3.22
1
Evaluate 𝑓(𝑥) = for values of 𝑥 very near to 0.
𝑥

Negative Values Positive Values

𝑥 1 𝑥 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 𝑥
−0.1 1 1 0.1 1 1
− =− = −1 × 10 = −10 = = 1 × 10 = 10
0.1 1 0.1 1
10 10
−0.01 1 1 0.01 1 1
− =− = −1 × 100 = −100 = = 1 × 100 = 100
0.01 1 0.01 1
100 100
−0.001 1 1 0.001 1 1
− =− = −1 × 100 = −100 = = 1 × 100 = 100
0.01 1 0.01 1
100 100
−0.0001 1 1 0.0001 1 1
− =− = −1 × 1000 = −1000 = = 1 × 1000 = 1000
0.001 1 0.001 1
1000 1000

Example 3.23: Finding Asymptotes

Find all vertical asymptotes for the following graphs.
1
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

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4
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+2
3
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
3𝑥+
2
3
D. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 2
𝑥−
4 7
2
E. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
6
F. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +10𝑥+21
2
G. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +9𝑥+14
2
H. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 +27𝑥2 +60𝑥

Part A
Equate the denominator to zero:
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0

Part B
Equate the denominator to zero:
𝑥 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −2 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −2

Part C
Equate the denominator to zero:
1
3𝑥 + = 0 ⇒ 6𝑥 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 6𝑥 = −1
2
1 1
𝑥 = − ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −
6 6

Part D
Equate the denominator to zero:
5 2 8
𝑥− =0⇒𝑥=
4 7 35
8
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 =
35

Part E

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Equate the denominator to zero:

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 6 = 0
𝑥(𝑥 + 2) + 3(𝑥 + 2) = 0
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2) = 0
𝑥 = {−2, −3}
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠: 𝑥 = −2, 𝑥 = −3

Part F
Equate the denominator to zero:
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 21 = 0
(𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 + 3) = 0
𝑥 = {−3, −7}
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠: 𝑥 = −3, 𝑥 = −7

Part G

Part H

Equate the denominator to zero:

3𝑥 3 + 27𝑥 2 + 60𝑥 = 0
Factor out the HCF from the LHS:
(3𝑥)(𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 20) = 0
Factor the quadratic:
(3𝑥)(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 4) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = {−5, −4,0}

Example 3.24: Modelling

Population of bacteria

B. Extended Example: Holes versus Vertical Asymptotes

Hole: Function is otherwise continuous, but has a gap, which can be filled by defining the function at a value.
Vertical Asymptote: A gap created because the denominator of the function is equal to zero at a value.

Example 3.25
𝑥+2
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2 + 5𝑥 + 6

For 𝑥 ≠ 0:
𝑥+2 𝑥+2 1
𝑓(𝑥) = = =
𝑥2 + 5𝑥 + 6 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 + 3

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−2, −3}

𝑥 = −3 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒
𝑥 = −2 ⇒ 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒

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Example 3.26
Find holes, and vertical asymptotes, if any, in
𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 15
𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 20

Domain
We can get the domain by equating the denominator:
𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 20 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−4, −5} ⇒ 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ − {−4, −5}

However, we can also simplify:

(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 5) 𝑥 + 3
𝑓(𝑥) = = , 𝑥 ≠ −4, −5
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 5) 𝑥 + 4

Vertical Asymptote
𝑥 = −4 is a vertical asympote. Even after we simplify the
function, 𝑥 = −4 is still a zero of the denominator.
Holes
𝑥 = −5 is a hole. The factor/zero 𝑥 = 5 can be simplify cancelled out from the expression, so long as 𝑥 ≠ −5.

In the above example, if the value 𝑥 = 7 is excluded, while defining the function, from the domain then at 𝑥 = 7
will you have:
A. Vertical Asymptote
B. Horizontal Asymptote
C. Hole
D. None of the above

𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒

Plug the holes in the function given in the prior example by defining the function piece-wise.

𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 15
, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ − {−5, −4,7}
𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 20
𝑥+3
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 = −5
𝑥+4
𝑥+3
{ ,𝑥 = 7
𝑥+4

C. Oblique/Slant Asymptotes
Oblique asymptotes occur when the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator.

Example 3.27
Find the oblique asymptotes of
3𝑥 2 + 5
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥
Break up the fraction
3𝑥 2 5 5
𝑓(𝑥) = + = 3𝑥
⏟ +
𝑥 𝑥 𝑂𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒
⏟
𝑥
𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚

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For very large values of 𝑥, the second term will be less and less important, since it will successively smaller
values.
Hence, the oblique asymptote of the function is
𝑦 = 3𝑥

3.28: Polynomial Long Division

𝑃(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑄(𝑥)
Using polynomial long division, we can rewrite the function as:
𝑃(𝑥) 𝑐
= 𝐿(𝑥) + , 𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)

As the value of 𝑥 becomes very large (infinity), or very small (negative infinity), 𝑄(𝑥) also has very large
absolute value. And hence,
𝑐
≈0
𝑄(𝑥)

Which means that the behaviour of 𝑓(𝑥) for very large and very small values depends only on
𝐿(𝑥)
And this is the oblique asymptote.

Example 3.29
Find the oblique asymptotes of:
3𝑥 2 + 6
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+4

Use polynomial long division

3𝑥 2 + 6 54
= 3𝑥 − 12 +
𝑥+4 𝑥+4
For very large values of x, the last term will be less and less important, since it will successively smaller values.
Hence, the oblique asymptote of the function is
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 12

3.3 Intercepts and Sign Diagrams

A. Intercepts

3.30: Some common rational functions

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐
, , ,
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐

While there is an infinite variety of rational function, the above four types are important, and worth knowing
separately.

Example 3.31
Classify each function if it is a common rational function. If it is not one of the common functions, say so.
2𝑥−5
A. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 +5𝑥+12

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sin 𝑥
B. 𝑦 = 2𝑥−12
√𝑥
C. 𝑦 =
5𝑥−7
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
D. 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥−𝑑
, 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑐 ≠ 0
2
𝑎𝑥 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐
E. 𝑦 = 𝑝𝑥+𝑟
, 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑝 ≠0
3𝑥 2 +5𝑥−9
F. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 +4𝑥

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝐴:
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝐵: 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙, sin 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝐶: √𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝐷:
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝐸:
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝐹:
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐

3.32: Finding the Intercepts

To find the
𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑦 = 0
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑥 = 0

Example 3.33
Classify each function below as a common linear function. Find its intercepts and asymptotes:
3𝑥+5
A. 𝑦 = 2𝑥−7
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
B. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 +8𝑥+7

Part A
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
The function is 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟.
The asymptotes are:
3 7
𝐻𝐴: 𝑦 = , 𝑉𝐴: 𝑥 =
2 2
The intercepts are:
3𝑥 + 5 5
= 0 ⇒ 3𝑥 + 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −
2𝑥 − 7 3
3(0) + 5 5
𝑦= =−
2(0) − 7 7
Part B
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐
The function is 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐.
The asymptotes are:
𝐻𝐴: 𝑦 = 1, 𝑉𝐴: 𝑥 = −7, 𝑥 = −1
The intercepts are:
6
𝑦=
7

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𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
= 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −2, 𝑥 = −3
𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 7

B. Sign Diagram

3.34: Critical Points

Sign diagram is based on critical points. Critical points include:
➢ 𝑥 intercept
➢ Vertical Asymptote

To make a sign diagram, divide the real number line into distinct intervals based on the critical points.

3.35: Intervals

Example 3.36
Find the critical points, and hence the intervals in each case.
A. The horizontal asymptote of a function is 𝑦 = 4. The 𝑥 intercepts occur at −7 and 7. The vertical
asymptote occurs at 3.
B. {±√2, 2}

Part A
The critical points are:
{±7,3}
The intervals are:
(−∞, −7) ∪ (−7,3) ∪ (3,7) ∪ (7, ∞)
Part B
(−∞, −√2) ∪ (−√2, √2) ∪ (√2, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)

3.37: Sign Diagram

Example 3.38
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 4)
𝑦=
1
(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 7)

Critical Points:
1
{−7, −4, −2, }
2

𝐻𝐴: 𝑦 = 1 > 0

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C. Graphing

Example 3.39
Classify the function below as a common linear function. Find its intercepts and asymptotes. Use a sign diagram
to determine where it is positive or negative. Then draw a rough sketch of the graph.
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
𝑦= 2
𝑥 + 8𝑥 + 7

𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐
The function is 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐.
The asymptotes are:
𝐻𝐴: 𝑦 = 1, 𝑉𝐴: 𝑥 = −7, 𝑥 = −1
The intercepts are:
6
𝑦=
7
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
= 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −2, 𝑥 = −3
𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 7
Critical Points are:
{−7, −3, −2, −1}

D. Graphing Functions
If a function belongs to one of the function categories specifically discussed in a separate chapter, such as:

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➢ Linear
➢ Quadratic
➢ Cubic
➢ Polynomial
➢ Absolute Value
➢ Rational
➢ Exponential
➢ Logarithmic
➢ Trigonometric
Then you will already have some idea as how to graph it based on its properties.

When we to draw the graph of a function we look at a few important things:

Intercepts This tells you where the function cuts the 𝒙 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕
axes. To find the 𝑥-intercept, substitute
This gives specific points that must lie on 𝑦=0
the graph of the function. 𝒚 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕
To find the 𝑦-intercept, substitute
𝑥=0
Asymptotes Vertical Asymptotes:
These are created by points that are not
defined in the domain of a graph. A
function will go near positive infinity or
negative or both near its vertical
asymptotes.

Horizontal Asymptotes
They tell us the end behaviour of a
function. In other words, how does a
function behave as the input value
approaches positive infinity or negative
infinity.

Oblique Asymptotes
Oblique asymptotes occur when the end
behaviour does not approach a particular
value, but behaves like a linear function.
Dominant Dominant terms tell us the term in the
Terms function that contributes the most to its
behaviour over a particular range of input
values.
Sign Sign Diagram tells us the places where the
Diagram function is positive and negative.

3.4 Transformations
A. Absolute Value Function
When considering transformations, we want to consider
➢ Shifting: Moving a graph without changing its shape
➢ Scaling: Changing the shape of a graph with reference to an axis
➢ Reflection: Taking a mirror image of the function across the x-axis or the y-axis or both.

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Look at the graph to the right. It has

𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒: 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒: 𝑦 = −𝑥

If we take:
➢ The blue to the right of zero on the x-axis,
➢ The green line to the left of zero on the x-axis,
Then we get the graph of
𝑦 = |𝑥|

We can write the definition of the absolute value function as a piece-wise function:
𝑥, 𝑥≥0
𝑓(𝑥) = {
−𝑥, 𝑥<0

Example 3.40
Let
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|
Draw the graph of 𝑓(𝑥):
A. If it is moved to the right by 1 unit
B. If it is moved to the left by 2 units
C. If it is moved up by 3 units
D. If it is moved down by 2 units

Four equations are given below. These match the graphs that you drew above. Match each equation to one of the
graphs using the properties of transformation of graphs:
1. 𝑦 = |𝑥 − 1|
2. 𝑦 = |𝑥 + 2|
3. 𝑦 = |𝑥| + 3
4. 𝑦 = |𝑥| − 2

Example 3.41: Translation

Identify the transformations applied to 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| to get the following graphs:
A. 𝑦 = |𝑥 + 1|
B. 𝑦 = |𝑥| + 2
C. 𝑦 = |𝑥 − 3|
D. 𝑦 = |𝑥| − 2

A. Moving left by 1 unit

B. Moving up by 2 Units
C. Moving right by 3 Units

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D. Moving down by 2 Units

𝑦 = 𝑘|𝑥| 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ

⏟
𝑘>1
OR ⏟
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘 by a factor of k
0<𝑘<1

𝑦 = |𝑘𝑥| 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘

⏟
𝑘>1
OR ⏟
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ
0<𝑘<1

Example 3.42: Scaling and Shifting

Draw the graph of |𝑥|:
A. Scaled vertically by a factor of 3
1
B. Scaled horizontally by a factor of 2
1
C. Scaled vertically by a factor of
2
D. Scaled horizontally by a factor of 3

The equations of the graphs of the above functions are given below. Match each equation to its graph:
A. 𝑦 = 3|𝑥|
B. 𝑦 = |2𝑥|
1
C. 𝑦 = |𝑥|
2
1
D. 𝑦 = |3 𝑥|

𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥) Reflection across the 𝑦-axis

𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥) Reflection across the 𝑥-axis
𝑦 = −𝑓(−𝑥) Reflection across the origin

Example 3.43

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Draw the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥| if it is:

A. Reflected across the 𝑦-axis
B. Reflected across the 𝑥-axis
C. Reflected across the origin

B. Piece-Wise Functions

Example 3.44
The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is given. The blue dots are points on the
graph, and are all lattice points. The rest of the graph
comprises straight line segments. Use this information to
graph:
A. 0.5𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥
B. 𝑓 ( ) + 3
2

Part A

Part B

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3.5 Shifts, Scales and Reflections

A. Summary

3.45: Vertical Shifting

Given 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑘, 𝑘 > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑢𝑝 𝑏𝑦 𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘, 𝑘 > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

➢ add 𝑘 to each 𝑦-value, you are effectively moving the graph up by 𝑘 units.
➢ Subtract 𝑘 from each 𝑦-value, you are effectively moving the graph down by 𝑘 units.

3.46: Horizontal Shifting

Given 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘), 𝑘 > 0 ⇒ 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑘), 𝑘 > 0 ⇒ 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Note the difference between vertical shifting and horizontal shifting.

➢ In vertical shifting, you add or subtract k after the function has been calculated. The function input does
not change.
➢ In horizontal shifting, you increase or decrease the input of the function.

3.47: Vertical Scaling

Given 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥), 𝑘 > 1 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑘
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥), 0 < 𝑘 < 1 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑘

The terminology can be confusing. Each transformation below is equivalent:

1
➢ Vertical Scale by 2⇔Vertical Stretch by 2⇔Vertical Shrink by 2
3 3 4
➢ Vertical Scale by 4 ⇔Vertical Stretch by 4 ⇔Vertical Shrink by 3

3.48: Horizontal Scaling

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Given 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥):
1
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑘𝑥), 𝑘 > 0 ⇒ 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓
𝑘
1
In order to scale by 𝑘, we replace every instance of 𝑥 in the function with 𝑥
𝑘

B. Background
The graph of a quadratic can be moved around, and can change shape while still remaining a parabola. We are
going to consider the following changes:
➢ Shifting: Moving up, down, left and right
➢ Scaling: Changing size without changing shape
➢ Reflection: Which, informally, is a mirror image

We will consider these changes on the

➢ y-axis: Vertical
➢ x-axis: Horizontal

The properties below are applicable to all functions, but we will learn them here in the context of quadratics.

3.49: Vertical Shifting

Given 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑘, 𝑘 > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑢𝑝 𝑏𝑦 𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘, 𝑘 > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

If you:
➢ add 𝑘 to each 𝑦-value, you are effectively moving the graph up by 𝑘 units.
➢ Subtract 𝑘 from each 𝑦-value, you are effectively moving the graph down by 𝑘 units.

Example 3.50
Consider the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥. What is the translation that will give you each graph:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3
1
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝜋

𝐴: 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑝 𝑏𝑦 3 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
1
𝐵: 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
2
𝐶: 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑝 𝑏𝑦 𝜋 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Example 3.51
Find the new graph, if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 is:
A. Shifted up 3 units
B. Shifted down 4 units

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Part A
To move the graph up by 3 units, we add 3 to 𝑓(𝑥) giving us:
𝑓(𝑥) + 3 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 + 3 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 9

Part B
To move the graph up by 3 units, we add d to 𝑓(𝑥) giving us:
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 − 4 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 2

C. Vertical Scaling

3.52: Vertical Scaling

Given 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥), 𝑘 > 1 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑘
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥), 0 < 𝑘 < 1 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑘

The terminology can be confusing. Each transformation below is equivalent:

1
➢ Vertical Scale by 2⇔Vertical Stretch by 2⇔Vertical Shrink by 2
3 3 4
➢ Vertical Scale by ⇔Vertical Stretch by ⇔Vertical Shrink by
4 4 3

Example 3.53
Identity the transformation applied to the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 to get the graphs below:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥
𝑥
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 6
𝜋𝑥
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 6
2𝑥
D. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒

𝐴: 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 3

1
𝐵: 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓
6
𝜋
𝐶: 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓
6
2
𝐷: 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓
𝑒

Example 3.54
Answer each part independently. Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7.
Find the new graph, if 𝑓(𝑥) is:
A. Stretched vertically by a factor of 2
B. Shrunk vertically by a factor of 3

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Part A
To stretch the graph vertically by a factor of 2, we multiply the function
by 2:
2𝑓(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7) = 2𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 14

Part B
To shrink the graph vertically by a factor of 3, we multiply the
1
function by 3:
1 2 5 7
(𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 7) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 +
3 3 3

D. Horizontal Shifting and Scaling

3.55: Horizontal Shifting

Given 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘), 𝑘 > 0 ⇒ 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑘), 𝑘 > 0 ⇒ 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Note the difference between vertical shifting and horizontal shifting.

➢ In vertical shifting, you add or subtract k after the function has been calculated. The function input does
not change.
➢ In horizontal shifting, you increase or decrease the input of the function.

Example 3.56
Given the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, identify the transformation applied to the graph to obtain the function given
below:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3
1
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2𝜋

Example 3.57
Compare the three functions:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = (𝑥 + 1)2
ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 1) = (𝑥 − 1)2

𝑥 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝑓(𝑥) 4 1 0 1 4

𝑥+1 −1 0 1 2 3 Shifted
𝑔(𝑥) 1 0 1 4 9 to the
Right

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𝑥−1 −3 −2 −1 0 1 Shifted
𝑔(𝑥) 9 4 1 0 1 to the
Left

Example 3.58
Answer each part independently. Let 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1.
Find the graph of 𝑔(𝑥) if it is:
A. Shifted right 1 unit
B. Shifted left 2 units

Part A
2(𝑥 − 1)2 + 3(𝑥 − 1) + 1
= 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 + 3𝑥 − 3 + 1
= 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥
Part B
2(𝑥 + 2)2 + 3(𝑥 + 2) + 7
= 2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 8 + 3𝑥 + 6 + 7
= 2𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 15

3.59: Horizontal Scaling

Given 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥):
1
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑘𝑥), 𝑘 > 0 ⇒ 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓
𝑘
1
In order to scale by 𝑘, we replace every instance of 𝑥 in the function with 𝑘 𝑥

Example 3.60
Given the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, identify the transformation applied to the graph to obtain the function given
below:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥
𝑥
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝜋𝑥

Example 3.61
Compare the three functions
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(2𝑥) = 4𝑥 2
𝑥 𝑥2
ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓 ( ) =
2 4

𝑥 −2 −1 0 1 2
𝑓(𝑥) 4 1 0 1 4

2𝑥 −4 −2 0 2 4 Shrunk By a

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𝑔(𝑥) 16 4 0 4 16 Factor of Two

𝑥 −1 1 0 1 1 Stretched By
2 − a Factor of
2 2
ℎ(𝑥) 1 1 0 1 1 Two
4 4

Example 3.62
Answer each part independently. Let 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2. Find the equation of the new graph, if 𝑔(𝑥) is:
A. Horizontally stretched by a factor of 2
B. Horizontally shrunk by a factor of 3
1 2 1
𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝑨: 4 ( 𝑥) + 2 ( 𝑥) + 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2
2 2
𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝑩: 4(3𝑥)2 + 2(3𝑥) + 2 = 36𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 2
E. Reflections

3.63: Reflections
Given 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥):
𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥) ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

In order to reflect across the

➢ 𝑥-axis, negate the entire expression
➢ 𝑦-axis, replace every instance of 𝑥 with −𝑥.

Example 3.64
Answer each part independently. Let 𝑦 = 𝑝(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5. Find the graph of 𝑝(𝑥) if it is:
A. Reflected across the 𝑥-axis
B. Reflected across the 𝑦-axis
𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝑨: − (2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 5) = −2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 5
𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝑩: 2(−𝑥)2 + 3(−𝑥) + 5 = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5

F. Order of Transformations
Order of transformations
➢ does not matter for shifting

Example 3.65
Answer each question independently. Let 𝑦 = 𝑠(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 7. Find the new graph, if the graph of 𝑠(𝑥) t is:
A. First moved to the right by 3 units, and then down by 2 units
B. First moved down by 2 units, and then moved right by 3 units
Is your answer to both the parts the same? Can you justify graphically?

(𝑥 − 3)2 + 2(𝑥 − 3) + 7 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 + 2𝑥 − 6 + 7 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 10 →
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴: ⏟ ⏟2 − 4𝑥 + 8
𝑥
𝑴𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒃𝒚 𝟑 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝑴𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝟐 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
2 (𝑥 2 2 2
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐵: 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5
⏟ → ⏟ − 3) + 2(𝑥 − 3) + 5 = 𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 9 + 2𝑥 − 6 + 5 = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 8
𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑏𝑦 2 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑏𝑦 3 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

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3.6 Preparing for Calculus

A. Turning Points

B. Positive and Negative Intervals

C. Maxima and Minima

D. Endpoints

E. Local versus Global Maxima and Minima

F. Bringing it together

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4. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
4.1 Graphing Rational Functions
𝟏
A. Parent Function: 𝒙

Mark
➢ Vertical Asymptotes
➢ Horizontal Asymptotes
➢ X intercept
➢ Y intercept

𝟏
4.1: Graph of 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙

Example 4.2
1
A. Graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

4.3: Horizontal Shift

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘),
𝑘 > 0, 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝑘 < 0, 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Example 4.4
1
Graph 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+2

4.5: Vertical Shift

𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑘
𝑘 > 0, 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑢𝑝
𝑘 < 0, 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛

Example 4.6
1
+2
𝑥

4.7: Horizontal Dilation

4.8: Vertical Dilation

𝑘𝑓(𝑥)
𝑘 > 1 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ
0 < 𝑘 < 1 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘

Example 4.9
2
𝑥

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B. Combining Transformations

Example 4.10
2
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1
3
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2 + 1

C. Graphing

Example 4.11
Consider the function
𝑥+3
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥+2
Determine:
A. the intercepts of the function
B. the asymptotes (horizontal, vertical, oblique) of the function
C. Dominant Terms
D. Sign Diagram of the function

Hence, draw a sketch of the graph, labelling intercepts, asymptotes and any other points of interest.

Intercepts
𝒙-intercept
To find the 𝑥-intercept, substitute 𝑦 = 0:
𝑥+3
0= ⇒ 𝑥 = −3
𝑥+2
𝒚-intercept
To find the 𝑦-intercept, substitute 𝑥 = 0:
0+3 3
𝑦= = = 1.5
0+2 2

Asymptotes
Horizontal Asymptote
Since the degree of the denominator is the same as the degree of the numerator, the horizontal asymptote is the
ratio of the leading coefficients of the function
𝟏𝑥 + 3 1
𝑓(𝑥) = ⇒ 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒 = = 1
𝟏𝑥 + 2 1
Vertical Asymptote
To find the vertical asymptote, equate the denominator to zero:
𝑥 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −2
Dominant Terms
Oblique Asymptote
Since the degree of the numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator, there is no oblique asymptote.
However, we can use the same process used to find an oblique asymptote to find the dominant terms:
𝑥 + 3 (𝑥 + 2) + 1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = = =1+
𝑥+2 𝑥+2 𝑥+2
Values near positive and negative infinity
1
As 𝑥 goes to ∞, the second term of 1 + 𝑥+2 becomes very small.

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1
Similarly, as 𝑥 goes to −∞, the second term of 1 + 𝑥+2 has a very small absolute value.
Hence, at values near ∞ and −∞, the first term will dominate, which gives us the expression
1
𝑓(𝑥) = ⏟
1 +
𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
𝑥+2
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒕𝒐
𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒆
𝑥 → ±∞ ⇒ 𝑦 = 1
Values near 𝒙 = −𝟐
As 𝑥 near values close to its vertical asymptote, the second term has a very large absolute value.
Hence, at values near 2, the second term will dominate, which gives us the expression:
1
𝑥→2⇒𝑦=
𝑥+2
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 1 +
⏟
𝑥+2
𝑫𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒕𝒐
𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒆

Sign Diagram
𝑥+3
𝑥+2
To find the sign diagram, equate each term of the expression above to zero:
𝑥 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −2
𝑥 + 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −3

Split the graph into different intervals based on its roots.

(−∞, −3) (−3, −2) (−2, ∞)

Value −4 −2.5 0
−4 + 3 −𝑣𝑒 −4 + 3 −𝑣𝑒
= = +𝑣𝑒 =
−4 + 2 −𝑣𝑒 −4 + 2 −𝑣𝑒
= +𝑣𝑒
+𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒

4.2 Method of Undetermined Coefficients

A. Solving Equations to Find Variables
Usually, algebra questions ask us to find the value of a variable given an equation. Equations can be of various
types:
➢ Linear Equation: The highest power of the variable is one.
𝑥+5=7⇒𝑥 =2
➢ Quadratic Equation: The highest power of the variable is two.
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−2, −3}
➢ Cubic Equation: The highest power of the variable is three.
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−1, −2, −3}
➢ Biquadratic Equation: The highest power of the variable is four.
(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 7)(2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4) = 0

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Example 4.12
Find the sum of the roots of 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 = 0.

Solution:
Divide both sides by 𝑥:
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 21 = 0 ⇒ ⏟
⏟ 𝑥 ∈ {−3,7} ⇒ −3 + 7 = 4
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 7) = 0 ⇒ ⏟
𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒑 𝑰 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒑 𝑰𝑰 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒑 𝑰𝑰𝑰

The answer is correct. Explain whether the method is also correct. If the method is not correct, then state the
incorrect step and the flaw in that incorrect step.

Mistake in the Above Solution

In Step I of the solution, we divide by 𝑥. However, we do not know the value of 𝑥.
In particular, if 𝑥 = 0, then we cannot divide 0, which means we cannot divide by 𝑥 unless we ensure that 𝑥 ≠ 0.

Correct Solution
We ensure that 𝑥 ≠ 0 by taking up some casework.
𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 = 0
Consider two cases:
Case I: 𝑥 = 0
𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 = 03 − 4 ∙ 02 − 21 ∙ 0 = 0 ⇒ 0 = 0 ⇒ 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑠 ⇒ 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡

Case II: 𝑥 ≠ 0
Now we are in a position to divide by zero, and the solution given in the question is now correct (for this case):
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 21 = 0 ⇒ ⏟
⏟ (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 7) = 0 ⇒ ⏟ 𝑥 ∈ {−3,7} ⇒ −3 + 7 = 4
𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒑 𝑰 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒑 𝑰𝑰 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒑 𝑰𝑰𝑰

And hence the roots are:

𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 ∈ {−3,0,7} ⇒ 𝑆𝑢𝑚 = 3 + 0 + 7 = 4

Example 4.13
Find the sum of the roots of 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 = 0 using factoring and the zero-product property.

Factor:
𝑥(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 21) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 7) = 0
Apply the zero-product property:
𝑥 = 0 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 + 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −3 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 − 7 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 7
And hence the roots are:
𝑥 ∈ {−3,0,7}

Example 4.14
A. I have zero apples, which I share among five people. How many apples will each person get?
B. I have five apples, which I share among zero people. How many apples will each person get?
C. I have zero apples, which I share among zero people. How many apples will each person get?

0
=0
5
5
𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 (𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜)
0

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0
𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
0

B. Determining Coefficients
In certain situations, our objective is not to find the value of a variable by solving an equation. Instead, we want
to find the values of the coefficients of an expression.
This is often done using the method of undetermined coefficients, which is explained next. This method is the
focus of this entire chapter.

4.15: Method of Undetermined Coefficients

The method of undetermined coefficients lets us find the values of coefficients in two expressions that we know
are equal.
Suppose we know that the equality below is true for all values of 𝑥:
𝐴𝑥 4 + 𝐵𝑥 3 + 𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸 = 𝑃𝑥 4 + 𝑄𝑥 3 + 𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑆𝑥 + 𝑇

This will only happen, when the coefficients of each term are equal. Then we can conclude:
𝐴𝑥 4 = 𝑃𝑥 4 ⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑃
𝐵𝑥 3 = 𝑄𝑥 3 ⇒ 𝐵 = 𝑄
𝐶𝑥 2 = 𝑅𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝐶 = 𝑅
𝐷𝑥 = 𝑆𝑥 ⇒ 𝐷 = 𝑆
𝐸=𝑇

What we have done is equated the coefficients on each side of the equality.

➢ This is a broad technique and has many powerful uses. We will use it in partial fraction decomposition,
for example, but its use is not restricted to any chapter.
➢ Learning to recognize and use this technique is key to many “difficult” questions where it plays a part.

Example 4.16
Find the values of 𝐴 and 𝐵, given that the equality below is true for all values of 𝑥:
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 = 5𝑥 + 4

The coefficient of the 𝑥 term on the LHS must equal the coefficient of the 𝑥 term on the RHS:
𝐴𝑥 = 5𝑥 ⇒ 𝐴 = 5

Similarly, the constant term on the LHS must equal the constant term on the RHS:
𝐵=4

So, the final answer is

𝐴 = 5, 𝐵=4

4.17: Applicability of Method of Undetermined Coefficients

The method is applicable when we want to find coefficients such that the equality is always true, independent of
the value of the variable.

This can be expressed in a number of ways, which are all equivalent, and mean the same thing:
➢ Given that the equation 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 = 5𝑥 + 4 is true for all values of 𝑥.
➢ Given that the equation 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 = 5𝑥 + 4 holds independent of the value of 𝑥.
➢ Given that 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 = 5𝑥 + 4 is an identity. (Identity means always true)
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➢ Given that 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 ≡ 5𝑥 + 4 . (where ≡ is the symbol for identity)

Example 4.18
Find the values of 𝐴 and 𝐵, given that the below equality is true for all values of 𝑥:
(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 + 𝐵 = 2𝑥 − 6

Equate the coefficients on both sides:

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 2
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: 𝐵 = −6

𝐴+𝐵 =2⇒𝐴−6=2⇒𝐴=8

Example 4.19
The equality below holds independent of the value of 𝑥:
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 3𝑥 + 2
A. Write the above in a form that makes it possible to compare coefficients
B. Compare coefficients to find the values of A, and B.

(𝑨 + 𝑩)𝑥 + (𝑨 − 𝑩) = 𝟑𝑥 + 𝟐

𝐴+𝐵 =3
𝐴−𝐵 =2
Add the two equations:
5 1
𝐴= ⇒𝐵=
2 2

4.20: Number of Solutions

In a system of equations,
➢ if the number of variables equals the number of “useful” equations, then we will have
➢ if the number of variables is more than the number of “useful” equations, then we will have infinite
solutions.
➢ if the number of variables is less than the number of “useful” equations, then we will have no solutions.

The term useful equation here means that equations do not repeat information. For example:
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3 ⇒ 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 6
Are essentially the same equation since multiplying the first equation by two gives the second equation.
Hence, we have only one useful equation.

As the above shows, the existence of solutions is not guaranteed. Hence, in a question, it is your responsibility to
ensure that a solution can be found.

𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑥 + 2 = 3 ⇒ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑥 + 2 = 3, 𝑥 + 2 = 5 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example 4.21
Determine the number of solutions for 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 given that:
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 ≡ 7𝑥 + 2
Note: ≡ here represents an identity and not mod arithmetic.

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(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 + 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 ≡ 7𝑥 + 2

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚: 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 2
𝐴+𝐵 =7

Substitute 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 7 in 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 2:
7 + 𝐶 = 2 ⇒ 𝐶 = −5 ⇒ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

But
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 7 ⇒ 𝐴 = 7 − 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

(Continuation) Example 4.22

In the above, if we add the restriction that 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are positive integers, then what are the solutions for
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶). Write each set of solutions as an ordered triplet, or write 𝜙 if there are no solutions.

From the above:

𝐶 = −5 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

(Continuation) Example 4.23

In the above, if we add the restriction that 𝐴 and 𝐵 are positive integers, then what are the solutions for
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶). Write each set of solutions as an ordered triplet.

𝐶 = −5
𝐴+𝐵 =7

{1,6, −5}, {2,5, −5}, {3,4, −5}, {4,3, −5}, {5,2, −5}, {6,1, −5}
C. Finding Functions
The method of undetermined coefficients has great use in finding functions that meet certain conditions. This is
often very important in modelling situations, though we will see it in the context of mathematical problems.

Example 4.24
Find 𝑓(𝑥) given that 𝑓(𝑥) is a linear function such that:
𝑓(2) = 4, 𝑓(4) = 7

Since 𝑓(𝑥) is a linear function, it must be of the form:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵

Substitute the given values and compare:

𝑓(2) = ⏟
2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 4
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
𝑓(4) = ⏟
4𝐴 + 𝐵 = 7
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

We now have two equations in two variables, which we solve.

Multiply Equation I by 2 giving us, and then subtract Equation II from it:
4𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 8
4𝐴 + 𝐵 = 7
𝐵=1

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Substitute 𝐵 = 1 in Equation I:
3
2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 4 ⇒ 2𝐴 + 1 = 4 ⇒ 𝐴 =
2

Now, we can find the function by substituting the values of A and B in the form of the equation:
3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 = 𝑥 + 1
2
D. Higher Powers
It is not necessary that the function be linear. If you know that the expression only has two non-zero
coefficients, then also you can

Example 4.25
Given that:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵, 𝑓(1) = 2, 𝑓(2) = 3
𝑎
𝑓(3) can be written in the form 𝑏 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are natural numbers, and 𝐻𝐶𝐹(𝑎, 𝑏) = 1. Find 𝑎 + 𝑏.

𝑓(1) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 2
𝑓(2) = 4𝐴 + 𝐵 = 3

4𝐴 + 4𝐵 = 8
4𝐴 + 𝐵 = 3
5
3𝐵 = 5 ⇒ 𝐵 =
3

5 1
𝐴+𝐵 = 2⇒ 𝐴 = 2−𝐵 = 2− =
3 3

Now that we have found A and B, we can substitute to find the function:
1 5
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵 = 𝑥 2 +
3 3
And
1 5 9 5 14
𝑓(3) = (32 ) + = + =
3 3 3 3 3

Example 4.26
Find 𝑓(2), given that:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥 3 + 𝐵, 𝑓(3) = 1, 𝑓(1) = 3

𝑓(3) = 27𝐴 + 𝐵 = 1
𝑓(1) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 3

1
26𝐴 = −2 ⇒ 𝐴 = −
13

1 40
𝐵 = 3 − 𝐴 = 3 − (− )=
13 13

1 3 40
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥 3 + 𝐵 = − 𝑥 +
13 13

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1 40 32
𝑓(2) = − ×8+ =
13 13 13
E. Quadratics: Revision

4.27: Factored Form

𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽)

𝑎 and 𝛽 are the roots.

𝑎 is the scaling factor
𝑎+𝛽
𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 =
2

Example 4.28
Consider the graph drawn alongside of:
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1)
A. What are the 𝑥-intercepts?
B. What is the 𝑥 coordinate of the vertex?
C. What is the 𝑦 coordinate of the vertex?
D. What is the 𝑦-intercept?
E. When 𝑥 = 4, what is 𝑦?
F. When 𝑦 = 1, what is 𝑥?
G. Is it an upward parabola or downward parabola?

Part A
To find the 𝑥-intercept, equate 𝑦 = 0:
2(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {1,3}

Part B
1+3 4
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = = =2
2 2

Part C
To find the 𝑦 coordinate of the vertex, substitute the 𝑥 coordinate of the vertex in the equation of the graph:
𝑦 = 2(2 − 3)(2 − 1) = 2(−1)(1) = −2

Part D
To find the y-intercept, substitute 𝑥 = 0 in the equation:
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 2(0 − 3)(0 − 1) = 2(−3)(−1) = 6

Part E
Substitute 𝑥 = 4 in the equation of the graph:
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 2(4 − 3)(4 − 1) = 2(1)(3) = 6

Part F
Substitute 𝑦 = 1 in the equation of the graph:
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) ⇒ 1 = 2(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1)

This needs to solved as a quadratic in 𝑥:

0 = 2(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3) − 1

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2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 5 = 0

Substitute 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −8, 𝑐 = 5 in the quadratic formula:

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 8 ± √64 − 4(2)(5) 8 ± √24 8 ± 2√6 4 ± √6
𝑥= = = = =
2𝑎 4 4 4 2

4.29: Vertex Form

𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘

𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = (ℎ, 𝑘)
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎

Example 4.30
Consider the graph drawn alongside of:
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 2)2 − 1
A. What are the 𝑥-intercepts?
B. What are the coordinates of the vertex?
C. What is the 𝑦-intercept?
D. When 𝑥 = 4, what is 𝑦?
E. When 𝑦 = 1, what is 𝑥?
F. Is it an upward parabola or downward parabola?

Part A: Using the Quadratic Formula

To find the 𝑥-intercepts, substitute 𝑦 = 0 in the equation of the graph:
0 = 2(𝑥 − 2)2 − 1
0 = 2(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) − 1
0 = 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 7

Substitute 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −8, 𝑐 = 7 in the quadratic formula:

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 8 ± √64 − 4(2)(7) 8 ± √8 8 ± 2√2 4 ± √2
𝑥= = = = =
2𝑎 4 4 4 2

Part A: Method II: Completing the Square

0 = 2(𝑥 − 2)2 − 1
2(𝑥 − 2)2 = 1
1
(𝑥 − 2)2 =
2
1
𝑥 − 2 = ±√
2

1 ±√1 ±√2 4 ± √2
𝑥 = ±√ + 2 = +2= +2=
2 √2 2 2
Part B
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 2)2 + (−1)
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = (2, −1)

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Part C
To find the y-intercept, substitute 𝑥 = 0 in the equation:
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 2)2 − 1 = 2(0 − 2)2 − 1 = 8 − 1 = 7

Part D
Substitute 𝑥 = 4 in the equation:
𝑦 = 2(𝑥 − 2)2 − 1 = 2(4 − 2)2 − 1 = 8 − 1 = 7

Part E
Substitute 𝑦 = 1 in the equation:
1 = 2(𝑥 − 2)2 − 1

4.31: Standard Form

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

To find the y-intercept, substitute 𝑥 = 0 in the equation:

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑎(0)2 + 𝑏(0) + 𝑐 = 𝑐

Example 4.32
Consider the graph drawn alongside of:
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
A. What are the 𝑥-intercepts?
B. What are the coordinates of the vertex?
C. What is the 𝑦-intercept?
D. When 𝑥 = 4, what is 𝑦?
E. When 𝑦 = 1, what is 𝑥?
F. Is it an upward parabola or downward parabola?

Part A
Substitute 𝑦 = 0:
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {−2, −3}

Part B
−2 − 3 5
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = =−
2 2
5
Substitute 𝑥 = − 2 in the equation:
5 2 5 25 20 1
𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = (− ) + 5 (− ) + 6 = − +6 = 7
2 2 4 4 4

Part C
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 02 + 5 × 0 + 6 = 6
Shortcut:
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 6 𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

F. Determining Quadratic Equations using Given Equations

In this section, we look at how to uniquely identify the equation of a quadratic given algebraic information
about in terms of equations.

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Example 4.33
Find the values of 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶, given that:
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 ≡ 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 12

𝐴 = 2, 𝐵 = 3, 𝐶 = −12

Example 4.34
𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 2 + 𝑥) + 𝐶(𝑥 + 1) = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4
1. Write the above in a form that makes it possible to compare coefficients
2. Use the method of undetermined coefficients to find the values of 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶.

𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐶 = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4
(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 2 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑥 + 𝐶 + 𝐴 = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 4

Equate coefficients:
𝐴+𝐵 =3
⏟
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼
𝐵+𝐶 =5
⏟
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼
𝐶 + 𝐴 = −4
⏟
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼𝐼

We can exploit the symmetry/cyclicity in the equations by adding the three of them:
2(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶) = 4 ⇒ ⏟ 𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 =2
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑉

Now, subtract Equation I from IV:

𝐶 = −1

Now, subtract Equation II from IV:

𝐴 = −3

Now, subtract Equation III from IV:

𝐵=6

G. Determining Quadratic Equations using Graphs

In this section, we look at how to uniquely identify the equation of a quadratic given
➢ points on the graphs
➢ the graph itself
➢ information about the graph
➢ any combination of the above

Given information about the graph of a quadratic recall that there are 3 forms of the quadratic that you can use
to determine the equation:
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚: 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) ⇒ ⏟
𝑎 , 𝛼,
⏟ 𝛽
𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒔
2
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚: 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑘 ⇒ 𝑎, ℎ,
⏟ 𝑘
𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒙
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏, ⏟
𝑐
𝒚−𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕

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Factored Form Vertex Form Standard

Roots / 𝛼, 𝛽 Convert to Standard Factor
𝑥 −intercept Form Use Quadratic Formula
Complete the Square
𝑦 Substitute 𝑥 = 0 Substitute 𝑥 = 0 𝑐
− 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡
Vertex 𝛼+𝛽 (ℎ, 𝑘) 𝑏
𝑥: 𝑥: −
2 2𝑎
𝛼+𝛽 𝑏
𝑦: 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦: 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2 2𝑎
Upward or 𝑎 > 0 ⇒ 𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎 > 0 ⇒ 𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎 > 0 ⇒ 𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
Downward 𝑎 < 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎 < 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎 < 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑

If we know the intercepts that a parabola makes with the axes, that is sufficient to find the equation of the
parabola.

Example 4.35
The 𝑦-intercept of a quadratic function is 1, and the 𝑥-intercepts are 2 and 3. Find the function using the
factored form.

Strategy
𝑥 intercepts are also the roots. Hence, we already know 2 out of 3 coefficients that we need for the factored
form. If we are able to find the third coefficient, then we have found the equation:

Execute
Substitute 𝛼 = 2, 𝛽 = 3, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,1) in 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽):
1
1 = 𝑎(0 − 2)(0 − 3) ⇒ 1 = 6𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎 =
6

1
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)
6

In the above, find the function using the standard form.

Substitute 𝑐 = 1 in the standard form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐:

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 1

Now we have two 𝑥-intercepts given by (2,0) and (3,0).

Substitute (2,0):
0 = 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 1
Substitute (3,0):
0 = 9𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 1

As you can see, this method is lengthier than the other method.
So, choice of method is important.

Example 4.36
The 𝑦-intercept of a quadratic function is 1, and the 𝑥-intercept is 2. Find the function using the factored form.

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Root of multiplicity 2.
The factored form of a quadratic is
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽)
Substitute 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 2, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,1) in the above:
1
𝑎(0 − 2)(0 − 2) = 1 ⇒ 4𝑎 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎 =
4
And, hence the final answer is:
1
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 2)2
4

The 𝑦-intercept of a function is 1, and the 𝑥-intercept is 2. Find the simplest form of the function.

The simplest form of a function that passes through two points is a line.
Hence, we use the linear function
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

1
𝑦 = − 𝑥+1
2

The 𝑦-intercept of a cubic function is 1, and the 𝑥-intercept is 2. Find the function.

Substitute 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 2, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,1) in the factored form of a

quadratic 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽)(𝑥 − 𝛾):

1
𝑎(0 − 2)(0 − 2)(0 − 2) = 1 ⇒ −8𝑎 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎 = −
8

And, hence the final answer is:

1
𝑦 = − (𝑥 − 2)3
8

The 𝑦-intercept of a polynomial of degree 𝑛 function is 1, and the 𝑥-intercept is 2. Find the function.

1
𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)𝑛 ⇒ 1 = 𝑎(0 − 2)𝑛 ⇒ 𝑎 =
(−2)𝑛

Example 4.37: Vertex and 𝒙-intercept

The vertex of a parabola is at (3,5). The 𝑥-intercept is 5. Find the equation of the parabola.

Substitute (ℎ, 𝑘) = (3,5) in the vertex form of a parabola:

𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 3)2 + 5

Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (5,0) in the above:

5
0 = 𝑎(5 − 3)2 + 5 ⇒ 0 = 4𝑎 + 5 ⇒ 𝑎 = −
4

5
𝑦 = − (𝑥 − 3)2 + 5
4

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Example 4.38: Vertex and additional point

The vertex of a parabola is at (3,5). (1,6) lies on the parabola. Find the equation of the parabola.

Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,6) in 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 3)2 + 5:

1
6 = 𝑎(1 − 3)2 + 5 ⇒ 6 = 4𝑎 + 5 ⇒ 𝑎 =
4

1
𝑦 = (𝑥 − 3)2 + 5
4

H. Cubic Equations

I. Self-Inverse Functions

4.3 Partial Fractions

A. Basics
Partial fraction decomposition is an Algebra technique.

4.39: Partial Fraction Decomposition

Writing a function with a denominator of quadratic (or higher degree) so that it is expressed as the sum of
fractions of lower degree is partial fraction decomposition.
For example:
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏

The above is abstract, so let’s look at an example of what we mean.

4.40: Simultaneous Equations Method

To find values A and 𝐵 such that:
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏
➢ Multiply by (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏)
➢ Expand and simplify the RHS
➢ Equate coefficients
➢ Solve the resulting system of equations to find the values of 𝐴 and 𝐵.

Example 4.41
Split using partial fraction decomposition:
1
2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 5

Factor the quadratic in the denominator (𝑆𝑢𝑚 = −3, 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = −10 = (−5)(+2)):
1 1 1
= =
2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 5 𝑥(2𝑥 − 5) + 1(2𝑥 − 5) (2𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 1)

We wish to write the above expression as a sum in the following way. There are some constants 𝐴 and 𝐵 for
which the equation below is an identity:

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1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(2𝑥
⏟ − 5)(𝑥 + 1) 2𝑥 − 5 𝑥 + 1
𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰

To determine 𝐴 and 𝐵, begin by eliminating fractions. Multiply both sides by (2𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 1):
1 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(2𝑥 − 5)

Use the distributive property

1 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴 + 2𝐵𝑥 − 5𝐵

Collate like terms and factor:

0𝑥 + 1 = (𝐴 + 2𝐵)𝑥 + 𝐴 − 5𝐵

Use the method of undetermined coefficients. Since we know (from Identity I) that the equation is always true,
equate coefficients on the left with coefficients on the right:
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡: ⏟ 𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 0
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡: ⏟
𝐴 − 5𝐵 = 1
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

We now have a system of equations with two variables and two equations. Subtract Equation II from Equation I:
1
7𝐵 = −1 ⇒ 𝐵 = −
7

Substitute the above value of 𝐵 in Equation I:

1 2
𝐴 + 2 (− ) = 0 ⇒ 𝐴 =
7 7
2 1
Substitute 𝐴 = 7 , 𝐵 = − 7 in Identity I
2 1
1 −
= 7 + 7
(2𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 1) 2𝑥 − 5 𝑥 + 1

Example 4.42
5𝑥 + 1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 12 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏
If the above is an identity, find constants 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑎, and 𝑏.

Factor the denominator:

𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 12 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 4)

If we use the values on the RHS in the denominators, then our denominators will match when we add by taking
the LCM. We want:
5𝑥 + 1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 4) 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 4

Eliminate fractions by multiplying both sides by (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 4):

5𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 4) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 3)

Expand and simplify the right-hand side:

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5𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴𝑥 − 4𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 + 3𝐵

Collate like terms together:

5𝑥 + 1 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 − 4𝐴 + 3𝐵

Use the method of undetermined coefficients. Since the value on the left must equal the value on the right, the
coefficients must be equal:
5=𝐴+𝐵
1 = −4𝐴 + 3𝐵

This is a system of equations in two variables. Multiply the first equation by 4, and add it to the second
equation:
20 = 4𝐴 + 4𝐵
1 = −4𝐴 + 3𝐵
We get:
21 = 7𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = 3
Substituting 𝐵 = 3 in 5 = 𝐴 + 𝐵, we get:
5=𝐴+3⇒𝐴 =2

And hence, the final answer is:

5𝑥 + 1 2 3
= +
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 4) 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 4

4.43: Substitution Method

To find values A and 𝐵 such that:
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏
➢ Multiply by (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏)
➢ Substitute Values to make some terms zero
➢ Simplify the remaining equations

Example 4.44
5𝑥 + 1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 12 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏
If the above is an identity, find constants 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑎, and 𝑏.

We did this same question earlier, so we know that:

5𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 4) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 3)

If we substitute 𝑥 = 4, then the term with 𝐴 will “vanish”:

5(4) + 1 = 𝐴(4 − 4) + 𝐵(4 + 3)
21 = 7𝐵
𝐵=3

Similarly, if we substitute 𝑥 = −3, then the term with 𝐵 will “vanish”:

5𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 4)
−14 = −7𝐴
𝐴=2
And hence the values are

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𝐵 = 3, 𝐴=2

4.45: Degree of Numerator and Denominator

For partial fraction decomposition to work
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 > 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

If this is not the case, we polynomial long division7 to reduce the fraction so that the degree of the denominator
is less than the degree of the numerator.

Example 4.46
Find the partial fraction decomposition of:
2𝑥 + 13
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2 + 13𝑥 + 30

2𝑥 + 13 𝑥 + 3 + 𝑥 + 10 1 1
= = +
𝑥2 + 13𝑥 + 30 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 10) 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + 10
Partial Fractions Method:
2𝑥 + 13 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 10) 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + 10
Multiply both sides by 𝑥 + 3:
2𝑥 + 13 𝐵(𝑥 + 3)
=𝐴+
(𝑥 + 10) 𝑥 + 10
Substitute 𝑥 = −3 in the above:
2(−3) + 13 𝐵(−3 + 3)
=𝐴+
(−3 + 10) 𝑥 + 10

The term with 𝐵 will become zero:

7 𝐵(0)
=𝐴+
7 𝑥 + 10
Hence, we can get the value of A:
𝐴=1
Shortcut
To find the value of 𝐴, substitute 𝑥 + 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −3 after covering up the 𝑥 + 3 term:
2𝑥 + 13 2(−3) + 13 7
→ = =1
(𝒙 + 𝟑)(𝑥 + 10) (𝒙 + 𝟑)(−3 + 10) 7
To find the value of 𝐵, substitute 𝑥 + 10 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −3 after covering up the 𝑥 + 3 term:
2𝑥 + 13 2(−10) + 13 −7
→ = =1
(𝑥 + 3)(𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎) (−10 + 3) −7

B. Three Linear Factors

If the number of factors increases, the method does not change, though the calculations do increase.

Example 4.47
Find the partial fraction decomposition for:
3
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5)

7
Recall that Synthetic Division only works if the divisor is linear.

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We are looking for constants 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 such that:

3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5) (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 − 5)

Multiply both sides by (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5):

3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 5) + 𝐶(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)

Substitute 𝑥 = −3. The 𝐵 term become zero. So does the 𝐶 term:

3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5)
3 = 𝐴(−3 + 4)(−3 − 5) = 3 = 𝐴(1)(−8)
3
𝐴=−
8

Substitute 𝑥 = −4. The C term becomes zero. So does the A term:

3 = 𝐵(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 5)
3 = 𝐵(−4 + 3)(−4 − 5) ⇒ 3 = 𝐵(−1)(−9)
1
𝐵=
3

Substitute 𝑥 = 5. The A term become zero. So does the B term:

3 = 𝐶(5 + 3)(5 + 4) ⇒ 3 = 𝐶(8)(9)
1
𝐶=
24

And hence we can say that:

3 −3 1 1
= + +
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5) 8(𝑥 + 3) 3(𝑥 + 4) 24(𝑥 − 5)

3
3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 5) ⇒ 3 = 𝐴(−3 + 4)(−3 − 5) = 3 = 𝐴(1)(−8) ⇒ 𝐴 = −
8

Shortcut Method
3 3 3
= =−
(𝒙 + 𝟑)(−3 + 4)(−3 − 5) (1)(−8) 8
3 3 3 1
= = =
(−4 + 3)(𝒙 + 𝟒)(−4 − 5) (−1)(−9) 9 3
3 3 1
= =
(5 + 3)(5 + 4)(𝒙 − 𝟓) 8(9) 24

Example 4.48
Find the partial fraction decomposition of
6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 1
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)

6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 2

Example 4.49
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Let 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 be the distinct roots of the polynomial 𝑥 3 − 22𝑥 2 + 80𝑥 − 67. It is given that there exist real
numbers 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 such that
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑠 3 − 22𝑠 2 + 80𝑠 − 67 𝑠 − 𝑝 𝑠 − 𝑞 𝑠 − 𝑟
1 1 1
for all 𝑠 ∉ {𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟} . What is + + ? (AMC 10A 2019/24)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶

Multiply both sides by (𝑠 − 𝑝)(𝑠 − 𝑞)(𝑠 − 𝑟):

1 = 𝐴(𝑠 − 𝑞)(𝑠 − 𝑟) + 𝐵(𝑠 − 𝑝)(𝑠 − 𝑟) + 𝐶(𝑠 − 𝑝)(𝑠 − 𝑞)

Substitute 𝑠 = 𝑝:
1
1 = 𝐴(𝑝 − 𝑞)(𝑝 − 𝑟) ⇒ = (𝑝 − 𝑞)(𝑝 − 𝑟) = 𝑝2 − 𝒑𝒓 − 𝒑𝒒 + 𝒒𝒓
𝐴
Substitute 𝑠 = 𝑞:
1
1 = 𝐵(𝑞 − 𝑝)(𝑞 − 𝑟) ⇒ = (𝑞 − 𝑝)(𝑞 − 𝑟) = 𝑞 2 − 𝒒𝒓 − 𝒑𝒒 + 𝒑𝒓
𝐵
Substitute 𝑠 = 𝑟
1
1 = 𝐶(𝑟 − 𝑝)(𝑟 − 𝑞) ⇒ = (𝑟 − 𝑝)(𝑟 − 𝑞) = 𝑟 2 − 𝒒𝒓 − 𝒑𝒓 + 𝒑𝒒
𝐶

Add the above three:

1 1 1
+ + = 𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 + 𝑟 2 − (𝑝𝑟 + 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞𝑟)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶

Make the substitution 𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 + 𝑟 2 = (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟)2 − 2(𝑝𝑞 + 𝑝𝑟 + 𝑟𝑞)

= (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟)2 − 3(𝑝𝑞 + 𝑝𝑟 + 𝑟𝑞)

𝑏 −22
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 = − =− = 22
𝑎 1
𝑐 80
𝑝𝑟 + 𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞𝑟 = = = 80
𝑎 1

= 222 − 3(80) = 484 − 240 = 244

C. Linear Repeated Factors
When you have a factor repeated twice, you will need to find a constant for:
➢ the factor repeated once
➢ the factor repeated twice

4.50: Numerator for Factor

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
2
= +
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2

𝐶 𝐷 𝐶(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝐷 𝐶𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 + 𝑑
+ = + =
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2

Example 4.51
Find the partial fraction decomposition for:
3
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)2

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3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)2 (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 + 4)2

Multiply both sides by (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)2 :

3(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)2 𝐴(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)2 𝐵(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)2 𝐶(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)2
= + +
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)2 (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 + 4)2

Simplify:
3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 4)2 + 𝐵(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4) + 𝐶(𝑥 + 3)

Substitute 𝑥 = −3:
3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 4)2 ⇒ 3 = 𝐴(−3 + 4)2 ⇒ 3 = 𝐴

Substitute 𝑥 = −4. The 𝐴 and 𝐵 terms become zero:

3 = 𝐶(𝑥 + 3) ⇒ 3 = 𝐶(−4 + 3) ⇒ 𝐶 = −3

Now we don’t have any more values to substitute, and hence we must fall back on the simultaneous equations
approach.
3 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 4)2 + 𝐵(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4) + 𝐶(𝑥 + 3)
Expand the terms to get:
0𝑥 + 3 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 𝟏𝟔) + 𝐵(𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 𝟏𝟐) + 𝐶(𝑥 + 𝟑)

Expanding the entire RHS would be a task, but we don’t need to. Use the method of undetermined coefficients
and compare 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚:
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝐻𝑆
3 − 16𝐴 − 3𝐶 3 − 16(3) − 3(−3) −36
3 = 16𝐴 + 12𝐵 + 3𝐶 ⇒ 𝐵 = = = = −3
12 ⏟ 12 12
𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑨=𝟑,𝑪=−𝟑
And hence we can say that:
3 3 3 3
2
= − −
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 + 4)2

4.52: Factor repeated 𝒏 times

When you have a factor repeated 𝑛 times, you will need to find a constant for:
➢ the factor repeated once
➢ the factor repeated twice
➢ and so on till
➢ the factor repeated 𝑛 times

Example 4.53
Write the split form of the partial fraction decomposition of the following fractions. (Do not find the actual
constants, just write the form).
2𝑥+5
A. (𝑥+1)(𝑥−5)2 (𝑥+2)3

2𝑥 + 5 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 𝐸 𝐹
2 3
= + + 2
+ + 2
+
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 5) (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 5 (𝑥 − 5) 𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 2)3

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D. Irreducible Quadratic Factors

4.54: Irreducible Quadratic Factors

Quadratic expressions that cannot be factored over the real numbers are irreducible for us.
They can be factored over the complex numbers, but that is not useful for us.

4.55: Degree of Numerator and Denominator

For partial fraction decomposition to work
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 > 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

Example 4.56
𝑥2
𝑥4 − 1

𝑥2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
2
= + + 2
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 1

Multiply by the denominator of the LHS:

𝑥 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)

Substitute 𝑥 = 1:
1
1 = 𝐵(2)(2) ⇒ 𝐵 =
4
Substitute 𝑥 = −1:
1
1 = 𝐴(−1 − 1)(1 + 1) ⇒ 𝐴 = −
4
1 1
Substituting 𝑥 = 0, 𝐴 = − , 𝐵 = :
4 4
1 1
0 = − (−1)(1) + (1)(1) + (𝐷)(1)(−1)
4 4
1 1
0= + −𝐷
4 4
1
𝐷=
2

Use the method of undetermined coefficients, and compare the coefficients of the 𝑥 3 term:

1 1
0=𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 ⇒0=− + +𝐶 ⇒𝐶 =0
4 4

4.4 Wavy Curve: Polynomials

A. Basics

4.57:Roots
➢ At a root, the function has value zero.
➢ At a root, the function 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 the x-axis OR the function
𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 at the x-axis

It will:

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➢ 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 if the root has odd multiplicity

➢ 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒 if it has even multiplicity.

Example 4.58
In the diagram alongside, classify each graph on whether it cuts, or it
bounces at the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ: 𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑠

𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑦 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ: 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠

4.59: Change of Sign

➢ A 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 function can only change sign if it crosses the 𝑥 axis.
➢ If it crosses the 𝑥 axis, then the function has a root at the 𝑥 axis.
➢ Hence, we only need to check the intervals created by the roots.

➢ This is a consequence of the intermediate value theorem.

4.60: Test Points in Intervals

➢ The roots divide the real number line into intervals. We use a test point in each interval.
➢ The value of the point does not matter, so long as it within the interval. Hence, we usually the point to be
easy for calculations.

Example 4.61
Solve 𝑥(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 7) ≤ 0

Use the zero-product property to determine the roots of the LHSL

𝑥=0
𝑥 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −2
𝑥−7=0⇒𝑥 =7
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 ∈ {−2,0,7}

(−∞, −𝟐) (−2,0) (𝟎, 𝟕) (7, ∞)

𝑥 = −3 𝑥 = −1 𝑥=1 𝑥=8
𝑥+2 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒
𝑥 −𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒
𝑥−7 −𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒

−𝒗𝒆 +𝑣𝑒 −𝒗𝒆 +𝑣𝑒

No. of 3 2 1 0
Negative
Signs

We want the regions where the expression is less than zero. This means we want the negative regions:
(−∞, −2) ∪ (0,7) ⇔ ⏟
⏟ 𝑥 < −2 𝑂𝑅 0 < 𝑥 < 7
𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
We also want the values where the expression is zero, which are:
{−2,0,7}

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And, we incorporate these values in our final answer:

(−∞, −2] ∪ [0,7] ⇔ ⏟
⏟ 𝑥 ≤ −2 𝑂𝑅 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7
𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

4.62: Wavy Curve / Snake Method

The wavy curve focuses 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 of the expression and uses the multiplicity to determine the regions
where the expression is positive and negative.
Instead of using test points, we can use the properties related to even and odd multiplicity:
➢ Odd multiplicity: Cross
➢ Even Multiplicity: Bounce

Example 4.63
Solve 𝑥(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 7) ≤ 0

𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 ∈ {−2,0,7}

We still need one test point, say in the leftmost interval.

𝑥 = 3: 𝑥(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 7) = 3(3 + 2)(3 − 7) < 0

Example 4.64
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 9) > 0

𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠: 𝑥 ∈ {−5,2,9}
The intervals are:
(−∞, −5) ∪ (−5,2) ∪ (2,9) ∪ (9, ∞)
The leftmost interval is:
(−6 − 2) ⏟
𝑥 = −6 ⇒ ⏟ (−6 + 5) ⏟
(−6 − 9)
−𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒

The final answer is the union of the positive intervals:

(−5,2) ∪ (9, ∞) ⇒ −5 < 𝑥 < 2 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 > 9

B. Polynomial Properties
The leading coefficient determines the behavior of the polynomial for very
large values (∞) and very negative values (−∞).

4.65: Polynomials of even degree

If the leading coefficient is
➢ positive, then the polynomial is positive at ±∞
➢ negative, then the polynomial is negative at ±∞

For convenience, you can multiply both sides by −1, and flip the sign of the inequality to make the leading
coefficient positive.

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Example 4.66
(2𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 − 5)(7𝑥 + 4)(3𝑥 − 1) ≥ 0

4 1 1 5
𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠: 𝑥 ∈ {− , − , , }
7 2 3 3
Polynomial of degree four, with positive leading coefficient, hence it is positive at ±∞.

The final answer is the union of the positive intervals:

4 1 1 5
(−∞, − ) ∪ (− , ) ∪ ( , ∞)
7 2 3 3

4 1 1 5
Since it is a ≥ inequality, add the roots {− 7 , − 2 , 3 , 3}:
4 1 1 5
(−∞, − ] ∪ [− , ] ∪ [ , ∞)
7 2 3 3

4.67: Factoring
If the expression given to you is not factored, you will need to factor it before you proceed with the rest of the
solution.

Example 4.68
(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3) ≤ 0

(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) ≤ 0

𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠: 𝑥 ∈ {−3, −1, +1, +3}

(−3, −1) ∪ (1,3) ⇔ −3 < 𝑥 < −1 𝑂𝑅 1 < 𝑥 < 3

Add the roots {−3, −1, +1, +3}

[−3, −1] ∪ [1,3] ⇔ −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ −1 𝑂𝑅 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3

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4.69: Polynomials of odd degree

If the leading coefficient is
➢ positive, then the polynomial is positive at ∞, and negative at −∞
➢ negative, then the polynomial is negative at ∞, and positive at −∞

For convenience, you can multiply both sides by −1, and flip the sign of the
inequality to make the leading coefficient positive.

Example 4.70
(−𝑥 + 2)(−𝑥 + 5)(−𝑥 − 9) > 0

Rather than dealing with negative coefficients for 𝑥, factor out the negative sign:
(−1)(𝑥 − 2)(−1)(𝑥 − 5)(−1)(𝑥 + 9) > 0
(−1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 9) > 0
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 9) < 0

𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 ∈ {−9,2,5}

We want the negative intervals, and hence the final answer is:
(−∞, −9) ∪ (2,5)

Example 4.71
(𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥 − 1)3 ≥ 0

Find the critical points by equating each factor to zero:

(𝑥 + 2)2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −2 ⇒ 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ⇒ 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒
(𝑥 − 1)3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ⇒ 𝐶𝑢𝑡

Check the sign by substituting 𝑥 = −3:

(−3 + 2)2 (−3 − 1)3 = (−3 + 2)2 (−4)3 ⇒ −𝑣𝑒

The answer, from the above number line is:

[1, ∞)

𝑥5
= 𝑥2
𝑥3
(𝑥 − 5)5
= (𝑥 − 5)2
(𝑥 − 5)3

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C. Quadratic Formula
If a quadratic does not factor easily, then it may be necessary to use the quadratic formula to factor it.

Example 4.72
Find the solution set for the inequality:
2𝑥 2 4
− >− +𝑥
3 3

2𝑥 2 4
< −𝑥
3 3
2
2𝑥 < 4 − 3𝑥
2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 < 0

Substitute 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 3, 𝑐 = −4 into the quadratic formula to find the roots of the quadratic:
−3 ± √9 − (−32) −3 ± √41
𝑥= =
2(2) 2(2)

This is a polynomial of even degree with leading positive coefficient, and hence the first region will be positive.
−3 − √41 −3 + √41
( , )
4 4

Example 4.73
The expression 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is never negative. Find, in terms of 𝑐, the interval in which 𝑏 must lie.

Consider quadratics with positive leading coefficient:

If the discriminant of a quadratic is positive, then:
➢ Refer Red Graph: It has two real roots. Hence, it will intersect the x-axis
in two different places. And, hence, it will be negative at some point in its
domain.
➢ Refer Green Graph: It has a single, repeated, real root, and the
discriminant is zero.
➢ Refer Blue Graph: It has no real roots, and its discriminant is negative.

For the expression above:

➢ Red graph is ruled out. Hence, discriminant cannot be positive.
➢ Green graph is possible. Discriminant can be zero.
➢ Blue Graph is possible. Discriminant can be negative.

Consider the discriminant of the quadratic 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐:

𝐷≤0
2
𝑏 ≤ 4(1)(𝑐)
𝑏 2 ≤ 4𝑐
−2√𝑐 ≤ 𝑏 ≤ 2√𝑐

𝑏 ∈ [−2√𝑐, 2√𝑐]

D. Irreducible Quadratics

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4.74: Irreducible Quadratics

When the discriminant of a quadratic is less than zero, it has no real solutions. Such a quadratic will not have
any real zeroes.

Since an irreducible quadratic will not have any real zeros, it will not result in any critical points/zeroes of the
expression.

Example 4.75
𝑥3 < 1

You may already know the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 . But we will

solve it using the techniques of this chapter.

𝑥3 − 1 < 0
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) < 0
For the quadratic 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1, calculate

𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 1 − (4)(1)(1) = 1 − 4 = −3 ⇒ −𝑣𝑒 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Critical Points:
1

And hence, the final solution is

(−∞, −1)
E. Challenge Questions

Challenge 4.76
Define 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 12 )(𝑥 − 22 ) … (𝑥 − 1002 ). How many integers 𝑛 are there such that 𝑃(𝑛) ≤ 0? (AMC 10A
2020/17)

(𝑥 − 12 )(𝑥 − 22 ) … (𝑥 − 1002 ) ≤ 0
Find the critical points:
𝑥 − 12 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 12
𝑥 − 22 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 22
𝑥 ∈ {12 , 22 , … , 1002 } ⇒ 100 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

If we multiply, this will give me a 100 degree polynomial.

Since this is a polynomial of even degree, with leading positive coefficient, it will be positive at −∞.

From the number line, we can pick up the intervals where the polynomial is less than zero:

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(12 , 22 ) ∪ (32 , 42 ) ∪ (52 , 62 ) ∪ … ∪ (992 , 1002 ) ⇒ 50 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠

Add the roots:

[12 , 22 ] ∪ [32 , 42 ] ∪ [52 , 62 ] ∪ … ∪ [992 , 1002 ]

Find the number of integers in this solution set:

[12 , 22 ] ⇒ {1,2,3,4} ⇒ 4 − 1 + 1 = 4
[3 , 42 ] ⇒ {9,10, … ,16} ⇒ 16 − 9 + 1 = 8
2

[52 , 62 ] ⇒ {25,26, … ,36} ⇒ 36 − 25 + 1 = 12

𝑛2 − (𝑛 − 1)2 + 1 = 𝑛2 − 𝑛2 + 2𝑛 − 1 + 1 = 2𝑛

And hence the above is an arithmetic sequence:

50 × 51
4 + 8 + 12 + ⋯ + 200 = 4(1 + 2 + ⋯ + 50) = 4 ( ) = 5100
2

4.5 Wavy Curve: Rational

A. Factors in the Denominator

4.77: Roots of the Denominator

➢ When calculating roots, include the roots of the denominator also.
➢ Expressions change sign (as per multiplicity rules) for denominator roots also
➢ Remove the denominator roots from the final answer.

Example 4.78

(𝑥 − 2)3
>0
𝑥

Find the zeroes of the numerator and the denominator:

𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 ∈ {0,2}

Degree is 2. Hence, it is positive at −∞.

(−∞, 0) ∪ (2, ∞)

Example 4.79
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
Find the region where the expression is non-negative.
𝑥−1

(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2)
≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠: 𝑥 ∈ {−3, −2,1}
𝑥−1

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Degree is 1(odd). At −∞, it will be −𝑣𝑒.

(−3, −2) ∪ (1,

⏟ ⏟ ∞)
+𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒
𝐴𝑡 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 ⇒ 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 1
𝐴𝑡 − 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 − 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 3

[−3, −2] ∪ (1, ∞)

B. “Cancelling” Factors

Example 4.80
Solve:
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5
≥0
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5

(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 1)
≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠: 𝑥 ∈ {−5, −1,1}
(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 1)

𝐴𝑡 − 5 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑: 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒

𝐴𝑡 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑. 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 ≥: 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒

(−∞, −5) ∪ (−5, −1) ∪ [1, ∞]

4.81: Cancelling Factors

➢ If you have a common factor in the numerator and the denominator, you can “cancel”.
➢ However, the expression is not defined for any value that makes the denominator zero. Hence, you need
to remove the zeros of the “cancelled” expression from the final solution set.

Example 4.82
Solve:
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5
≥0
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 5

For 𝑥 ≠ −5, −1, we get:

(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥−1
≥0⇒ ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠: 𝑥 ∈ {−1,1}
(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥+1

(−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞)

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Remove the roots from the denominator since the function is not defined at those points. Include +1 since the
function is defined there, and the inequality is ≥
(−∞, −5) ∪ (−5, −1) ∪ [1, ∞]

Example 4.83
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
>𝑥
𝑥−2

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 1
−𝑥 >0⇒ >0
𝑥−2 𝑥−2

𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠: 𝑥 = 2

This is of odd degree.

(2, ∞) ⇔ 𝑥 > 2
C. Repeated Zeroes

Example 4.84
Find the interval that satisfies
(𝑥 − 5)5 (𝑥 + 2)7
≤0
(𝑥 + 3)4 (𝑥 − 7)2

𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠: 𝑥 ∈ { −3
⏟ , −2
⏟ , ⏟
5 , ⏟
7 }, 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 {−3,7}
𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 5 + 7 − 4 − 2 = 6 ⇒ 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 ⇒ +𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 − ∞

(−2,5)

We want to exclude {−3,7}, and they are not in the above region.
We want to include −2 and 5, and hence, the final answer is:
[−2,5]

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5. FLOOR, CEILING AND FRACTIONAL

FUNCTIONS
5.1 Basics
A. Floor Operator

5.1: Floor / Greatest Integer Operator

⌊𝑥⌋
⏟ = The largest integer ≤ 𝑥
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

➢ The floor operator “rounds down” a number. It gets rid of any value after the decimal point.
➢ On the number line, the floor function finds the first integer that we encounter if go left from 𝑥. If the
starting point is itself an integer, then we encounter 𝑥.

Example 5.2
Evaluate:
A. ⌊5.6⌋
91
B. ⌊ 6 ⌋
C. ⌊𝜋⌋

⌊5.6⌋ = 5

91 1
⌊ ⌋ = ⌊15 ⌋ = 15
6 6
⌊𝜋⌋ = ⌊≈ 3.14⌋ = 3

5.3: Floor Operator for Integers

For any integer 𝑥:
⌊𝑥⌋ = 𝑥

The floor operator never changes the value of an integer.

5.4: Floor Operator for Negative Numbers

The floor operator rounds a number “down”.
It always makes the smaller, which means the output of the floor operator will be at the same place, or to the left
of the input, on the number line.
It will be never be on the right.

Example 5.5
Evaluate:

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81
A. ⌊27⌋
B. ⌊−99⌋

81
⌊ ⌋ = ⌊3⌋ = 3
27
⌊−99⌋ = −99

Example 5.6
Evaluate:
A. ⌊−4.6⌋
B. ⌊−9.99⌋
12
C. ⌊− ⌋
5
89
D. ⌊− 7 ⌋
E. ⌊−𝜋⌋, 𝜋 ≈ 3.14
F. ⌊−2𝜋⌋
𝜋
G. ⌊− ⌋
2
H. ⌊−𝑒⌋, 𝑒 ≈ 2.71
I. ⌊−2𝑒⌋
𝑒
J. ⌊− 2⌋
1002
K. ⌊− 11
⌋

⌊−4.6⌋ = −5

⌊−9.99⌋ = −10
12 2
⌊− ⌋ = ⌊−2 ⌋ = ⌊−3⌋
5 5

89 5
⌊− ⌋ = ⌊−12 ⌋ = −13
7 7
⌊−𝜋⌋ = ⌊≈ −3.14⌋ = −4
⌊−2𝜋⌋ = ⌊≈ −6.28⌋ = −7
𝜋 3.14
⌊− ⌋ = ⌊≈ − ⌋ ⌊≈ −1.57⌋ = −2
2 2
⌊−𝑒⌋ = ⌊≈ −2.71⌋ = −3
⌊−2𝑒⌋ = ⌊≈ −5.42⌋ = −6

Example 5.7
The greatest integer function of 𝑥 is expressed as [𝑥] and is defined to be the greatest integer less than or equal
to x. Find [𝜋 − 4] (MathCounts 1995 Warm-Up 7)

[𝜋 − 4] = [≈ −0.86] = −1

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B. Real Life Application

Example 5.8
A packet of biscuits costs Rs. 10. How many packets can the following people buy, and how much money will
they have left over?
A. Dave has 73 Rs.
B. William has 89 Rs and 50 Paise.

Dave can buy 7 packets for:

7 × 10 = 70 𝑅𝑠 ⇒ 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 𝑅𝑠. 3

Dave can buy 8 packets for:

8 × 10 = 80 𝑅𝑠 ⇒ 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 𝑅𝑠. 9.50

The above question was solved using logic, and the realization that the number of packets bought must be a
natural number.
The same logic can be expressed in terms of the floor function. Do that.

One packet costs Rs. 10. Hence, if you have Rs. 𝑥, the number of packets that you can buy should be:
𝑥
10
𝑥
However, 10 may not be an integer, and we want to round down, hence, we apply the floor operator, giving us:
𝑥
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡 = ⌊ ⌋
10

𝑥 73
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ⌊ ⌋ = ⌊ ⌋ = ⌊7.3⌋ = 7
10 10

89.5
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑚 = ⌊ ⌋ = ⌊8.95⌋ = 8
10
C. Floor Function

Example 5.9
Does the floor operator represent a function? That is, is
𝑦 = ⌊𝑥⌋
A function?

Yes, because every input has exactly one output.

Example 5.10
Consider the function
𝑦 = ⌊𝑥⌋
What are its
A. Domain (Recall that domain is valid 𝑥 values.)
B. Range (Recall that range is valid 𝑦 values.)

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ℝ = (−∞, ∞)
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = ℤ = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠

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Example 5.11
The graph of the floor function is also called the stair function. (𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑤ℎ𝑦? ) Graph
𝑓(𝑥) = ⌊𝑥⌋
A. Does it pass the vertical line test? (The vertical line test is a test that says that if no vertical line
intersects a graph more than once, than the graph is a function).
B. What is the significance?

Vertical Line Test

Yes, any vertical line intersects the graph of the function at most once.
Note that at integers, there should be a “hole”, which is not shown in the
graph.
For example, every line should have
𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
Significance
The vertical line test is the graphical test for whether a graph is a function.
This confirms that the floor operator is a function.

C. Does it pass the horizontal line test? (The horizontal line test is a test that says that if no horizontal line
intersects a function more than once, than the function is an invertible function).
D. What is the significance?

Horizontal Line Test

If you draw a horizontal line at
𝑦 = 0,1,2,3, …
It intersects the graph of the function in an infinite number of places.

Hence, the graph fails the horizontal line test.

Significance
The horizontal line test is the graphical test for whether a function has an inverse. Since the test fails, the floor
function does not have an inverse.

5.12: Continuous Function

A continuous function is one that can be drawn without lifting your pencil.

5.13: Types of Discontinuity

There are three types of discontinuity:
➢ Jump Discontinuity: The graph jumps from one value to another.
➢ Infinite Discontinuity: The graph becomes infinite next to a value, and is not defined at
that value.
➢ Removable Discontinuity: The graph has a hole.

Example 5.14
The graph of
𝑓(𝑥) = ⌊𝑥⌋
Is

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A. Continuous
B. Not continuous with an infinite discontinuity
C. Not continuous with a jump discontinuity
D. Not continuous with a removable discontinuity

Example 5.15
𝑓(𝑥) = ⌊𝑥⌋, −3 ≤ 𝑥 < 7
What is the number of jump discontinuities that the graph of the above function has?

{−2, −1,0,1,2,3,4,5,6} ⇒ 6 − (−2) + 1 = 6 + 2 + 1 = 9

Example 5.16
The floor function can be defined piece-wise. Consider:
𝑓(𝑥) = ⌊𝑥⌋, 𝐷𝑓 = [0,3)
A. Graph the function.
B. Write this as a piece-wise function.

0, 0≤𝑥<1
𝑓(𝑥) = {1, 1≤𝑥<2
2, 2≤𝑥<3

Extend the piece-wise definition to include all real numbers.

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛, 𝑛 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑛 + 1, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ

Example 5.17
Let
𝑓(𝑥) = ⌊𝑥⌋
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
Find
𝑓 2021 (2020.2019)

Build up the logic

𝑓(2020.2019) = 2020
𝑓 2 (2020.2019) = 𝑓(2020) = 2020
𝑓 3 (2020.2019) = 𝑓 2 (2020) = 𝑓(2020) = 2020
And from the above, we can see the pattern.

Hence, we can conclude that:

𝑓 2021 (2020.2019) = 𝑓 2020 (2020) = 2020

Example 5.18
Note: For this question, we need the range of 𝑥, which refers to the set of values that 𝑥 can take. Do not confuse
it with the range of 𝑓(𝑥).
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑥) = ⌊𝑥⌋
Determine the range that 𝑥 can take if:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛

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[3,4)
[𝑛, 𝑛 + 1)
D. Ceiling Operator

5.19: Ceiling Operator / Least Integer Operator

⌈𝑥⌉
⏟ = The smallest integer ≥ 𝑥
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

➢ The ceiling function is very similar to the floor function in terms of its idea.
➢ Instead of going to the left on the number line, we go to the right on the number line, or stay at the same
position.

In other words, the floor function “rounds up” a number.

Example 5.20
Evaluate:
A. ⌈5.6⌉
91
B. ⌈ 6 ⌉
C. ⌈𝑒⌉, 𝑒 ≈ 2.71

⌈5.6⌉ = 6
91 1
⌈ ⌉ = ⌈15 ⌉ = 16
6 6
⌈𝑒⌉ = ⌈≈ 2.71⌉ = 3

Example 5.21
Evaluate:
A. ⌈23⌉
B. ⌈−54⌉

⌈23⌉ = 23
⌈−54⌉ = −54

Example 5.22
Evaluate:
A. ⌈−5.6⌉
89
B. ⌈− ⌉
7
C. ⌈−𝑒⌉, 𝑒 ≈ 2.71

⌈−5.6⌉ = −5
89 5
⌈− ⌉ = ⌈−12 ⌉ = −12
7 7
⌈−𝑒⌉ = ⌈≈ −2.71⌉ = −2

Example 5.23
I have a party, and each person present is expected to eat 3 slices of pizza. Each pizza has 4 slices. I have 2
friends coming over (and I will also be eating). What is the number of pizzas that I should order?

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𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 3 × 3 = 9

9 1
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑠 = = 2 ⇒ 3 𝑃𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑠
4 4

𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 × 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 3×3 9 1

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑠 = ⌈ ⌉=⌈ ⌉ = ⌈ ⌉ = ⌈2 ⌉ = 3
𝑆𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑖𝑧𝑧𝑎 4 4 4

5.24: Floor and Ceiling for Integers

⌊𝑥⌋ = ⌈𝑥⌉ ⇔ 𝑥 ∈ ℤ

➢ Graphically, the only point of intersection of the graphs

𝑦 = ⌊𝑥⌋, 𝑦 = ⌈𝑥⌉
Is at the integers
➢ If the floor of a number has the same value as the ceiling of a number,
then the number must be an integer. It cannot have a decimal part
which is non-zero, since then the floor function will have an output
which is one number less than the output of the ceiling function.

Example 5.25
What kind of number is 𝑥 if:
⌊𝑥⌋ = ⌈𝑥⌉ = 𝑥

Consider 4.2 ⇒ ⌊4.2⌋ = 4, ⌈4.2⌉ = 5

∴ Any number with a value after the decimal point will not work.
∴ {𝑥} = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ ℤ

5.26: Floor and Ceiling for non-Integral Values

⌈𝑥⌉ − ⌊𝑥⌋ = 1, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ − {ℤ }
⏟
𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏,
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒓

If 𝑥 is not an integer, then the difference between⌊𝑥⌋, and ceiling of ⌈𝑥⌉ is one.

Example 5.27
Let
𝑓(𝑥) = ⌊𝑥⌋, 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑔(𝑥) = ⌈𝑥⌉, 𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Evaluate:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥), if 𝑥 is a fraction
B. 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥), if 𝑥 is an integer
C. 3𝑔(𝑥) − 2𝑓(𝑥), if 𝑥 is a fraction

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟 − 𝐶𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = −1

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
3𝑔(𝑥) − 2𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) + 2[𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)] = ⌈𝑥⌉ + 2
E. Function, Graph, Domain and Range
We have already seen the graph of the floor function, and analyzed its domain and range. This is similar for the
ceiling function, and hence we see it in one go.

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Example 5.28
Graph
𝑦 = ⌈𝑥⌉
A. Show that it is a function, algebraically.
B. Show that it is a function, graphically.
C. What is the domain and range of the function?
D. Compare the graph of the ceiling function with that of the floor function.
E. Discuss the continuity of the ceiling function.

Part A
Every input to ⌈𝑥⌉ has precisely one output.
Hence, it is a function.
Part B
Any vertical line will intersect the graph in a maximum of one place.
Hence, it is a function.
Part C
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ℝ
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = ℤ
Part D
⌈𝑥⌉ = ⌊𝑥⌋ + 1
Hence, the graph of the ceiling function is the same as the graph of the floor function, moved up by 1 unit.

Example 5.29
Note: For this question, we need the range of 𝑥, which refers to the set of values that 𝑥 can take. Do not confuse
it with the range of 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑓(𝑥) = ⌈𝑥⌉
Determine the range that 𝑥 can take if:
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛

(2,3]
(𝑛 − 1, 𝑛]
F. Fractional Part Operator

5.30: Fractional Part Operator

{𝑥}
⏟ = The fractional part of 𝑥 = 𝑥 − ⌊𝑥⌋, 𝑥 > 0
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
{𝑥}
⏟ = The fractional part of 𝑥 = 𝑥 − ⌈𝑥⌉, 𝑥 < 0
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

Example 5.31
Evaluate the below using the definition of fractional part function
A. {5.6}
91
B. { }
6

{5.6} = 5.6 − ⌊5.6⌋ = 5.6 − 5 = 0.6

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Example 5.32
Evaluate the below using the definition of fractional part function
A. {−5.6}
89
B. {− 7 }

{−5.6} = −5.6 − ⌈−5.6⌉ = −5.6 − (−5) = −5.6 + 5 = −0.6

5.33: Fractional Part of Irrational Numbers

➢ An irrational number does not have a fractional part that can be written as a fraction.
➢ Hence, the fractional part of an irrational number is an irrational number (not a fraction).

⏟
𝜋 − ⏟
3 =⏟
0. 𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

Example 5.34
Arshi does the following calculation. Comment on whether she is correct.
22 1 1
{𝜋} = { } = {3 } =
7 7 7

𝜋 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 ⇒ {𝜋} 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

But
1
𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
7
The contradiction happened because the calculation was wrong.
Hence, the above working by Arshi is not correct.

5.35: Rational Number

A rational number is a number that can be written
➢ In the form of a fraction
➢ Where the numerator and the denominator are integers
➢ And the denominator is not zero

𝑝
ℚ = (𝑥|𝑥 = , 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℤ, 𝑞 ≠ 0)
𝑞

𝑝 22 22
𝜋 is irrational ⇒ It cannot be written as , 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℤ ⇒ 𝜋 ≈ ⇒ {𝜋} ≠ { }
𝑞 7 7

1
= 0. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
142857 ⇒ Non − terminating, repeating decimal
7
𝜋 ⇒ Non − terminating, non − repeating decimal
G. Fractional Part Function

Example 5.36
Graph
𝑦 = {𝑥}
A. Show that it is a function, algebraically.
B. Show that it is a function, graphically.

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C. What is the domain and range of the function?

D. Compare the graph of the fractional part function with that of the floor function.
E. Discuss the continuity of the fractional part function.

Part A
For every input, {𝑥} has exactly one output. Hence, it is a
function.
Part B
The fractional part graph is drawn alongside.
Any vertical line crosses the graph in exactly one place.
Hence, the graph passes the vertical line test, and hence it is
a function.
Part C
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ℝ = (−∞, ∞)
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = (−1,1)

Example 5.37
A. Graph the floor function and the fractional part function on the same axes. In how many places do the
graph of the floor function and the fractional part function intersect?
B. What does this tell you about the solution to ⌊𝑥⌋ = {𝑥}

The only place that the graphs intersect is when

𝑥=0
Because
⌊0⌋ = {0} = 0

𝑥 = 1 ⇒ ⌊1⌋ = 1, {1} = 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑥 = −1 ⇒ ⌊−1⌋ = −1, {−1} = 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
H. Ceiling Function (Alternate Definition)
We can define the ceiling function in terms of the fractional function.

5.38: Ceiling and Fractional Part

⌈𝑥⌉ = 𝑥 − {𝑥} + 1

Example 5.39
Verify that ⌈𝑥⌉ = 𝑥 − {𝑥} + 1 holds for:
A. 7.2
71
B. 9
72
C. − 11

I. Mixed Review

Example 5.40
99
𝑋 = {3.4, 𝜋, 𝑒, , 1}
100
Let
𝑌 be the sum of the result of applying the floor function to each number in 𝑋.

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𝑍 be the sum of the result of applying the ceiling function to each number in 𝑋.
𝑃 be the sum of the result of applying the fractional part function to each number in 𝑋.

Find the:
A. product of 𝑌 and 𝑍
B. positive difference between 𝑌 and 𝑍
C. Find 𝑃

99
𝑌 = ⌊3.4⌋ + ⌊𝜋⌋ + ⌊𝑒⌋ + ⌊ ⌋ + ⌊1⌋ = 3 + 3 + 2 + 0 + 1 = 9
100
99
𝑍 = ⌈3.4⌉ + ⌈𝜋⌉ + ⌈𝑒⌉ + ⌈ ⌉ + ⌈1⌉ = 4 + 4 + 3 + 1 + 1 = 13
100
𝑌𝑍 = 13 × 9 = 117

99 99
𝑍 − 𝑌 = ⌊3.4⌋
⏟ − ⌈3.4⌉ + ⌊𝜋⌋
⏟ − ⌈𝜋⌉ + ⌊𝑒⌋
⏟ − ⌈𝑒⌉ + ⌊ ⌋−⌈ ⌉ + ⌊1⌋
⏟ − ⌈1⌉ = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 0 = 4
⏟100 100
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
𝟏

99 22 1
𝑃 = {3.4}
⏟ +{ } + {1}
⏟ + { } = 0.4 + 0.99 + 0 +
⏟100 ⏟7 7
𝟑+𝟎.𝟒 𝟏+0
𝟎+𝟎.𝟗𝟗 𝟏
𝟑+
𝟕

J. Expressions

Example 5.41
Simplify:
A. ⌈3.43⌉ − ⌊3.43⌋
B. ⌈−7.12⌉ − ⌊−7.12⌋

5.42: Floor and Ceiling

⌈𝑥⌉ − ⌊𝑥⌋ = 1, 𝑥 ≠ ℤ
⌈𝑥⌉ − ⌊𝑥⌋ = 0, 𝑥 = ℤ

Example 5.43
Simplify:
2⌊𝑥⌋ − 3⌈𝑥⌉
(Ensure you cover all possible cases)

Case I: x is not an integer

2⌊𝑥⌋ − 3⌈𝑥⌉ = 2(⌊𝑥⌋ − ⌈𝑥⌉) − ⌈𝑥⌉ = −2 − ⌈𝑥⌉

Case II: x is an integer

2⌊𝑥⌋ − 3⌈𝑥⌉ = 2(⌊𝑥⌋ − ⌈𝑥⌉) − ⌈𝑥⌉ = −⌈𝑥⌉

Example 5.44
Absolute Value

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Example 5.45
Evaluate:
A. ⌊3.12 ⌋ − ⌊3.1⌋⌊3.1⌋
B. ⌊13.22 ⌋ − ⌊13.2⌋⌊13.2⌋

⌊3.12 ⌋ − ⌊3.1⌋⌊3.1⌋ = ⌊9.61⌋ − 3 × 3 = 9 − 9 = 0

⌊13.22 ⌋ − ⌊13.2⌋⌊13.2⌋ = ⌊174.24⌋ − 13 × 13 = 174 − 169 = 5

5.46: Interchanging Operations

In general, the floor/ceiling functions cannot be interchanged with squares and square roots.
⌊𝑥 2 ⌋ ≠ ⌊𝑥⌋ ∙ ⌊𝑥⌋

K. Square Roots

Example 5.47

L. Nested Expressions

Example 5.48

5.2 Transformations
A. Horizontal Shift

Example 5.49
Graph 𝑦 = ⌊𝑥⌋. Then solve the equations. Make sure you are able to see the connection between the graph and
the equations.
A. ⌊𝑥⌋ = 0
B. ⌊𝑥⌋ = 1

Part A
From the graph, we can see that:
⌊𝑥⌋ = 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ 𝑦 < 1
We need to be careful about the endpoints. The left endpoint is included,
but the right is not.

Part B
𝑥=1⇒1≤𝑦<2

Example 5.50
Evaluate 𝑓(𝑥) = ⌊𝑥 + 2⌋ for
A. 𝑥 = 0.5
B. 𝑥 = −0.5

𝑥 = 0.5 ⇒ ⌊𝑥 + 2⌋ = ⌊0.5 + 2⌋ = ⌊2.5⌋ = 2

𝑥 = −0.5 ⇒ ⌊𝑥 + 2⌋ = ⌊−0.5 + 2⌋ = ⌊1.5⌋ = 1

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Example 5.51
Graph 𝑦 = ⌊𝑥 + 2⌋. Then, solve the following equations:
A. ⌊𝑥 + 2⌋ = 0
B. ⌊𝑥 + 2⌋ = 1

Part A
⌊𝑥 + 2⌋ = 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ 𝑥 + 2 < 1
Solving the inequality gives us:
−2 ≤ 𝑥 < −1 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [−2, −1)

Part B
⌊𝑥 + 2⌋ = 1 ⇒ 1 ≤ 𝑥 + 2 < 2 ⇒ −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [−1,0)
Example 5.52
The adjoining diagram has, on the same axes:
𝑦 = ⌊𝑥⌋ ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ, 𝑦 = ⌊𝑥 + 2⌋ ⇒ 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
What is the relation between the two graphs?

The red graph is the same as the green graph shifted to the left by 2 units.

5.53: Horizontal Shift

𝑦 = ⌊𝑥 + 𝑘⌋
𝑘 > 0: 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑘 < 0: 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Note the peculiarity here:

Adding k shifts the graph left (and not right).

Example 5.54
Solve the following:
A. ⌊𝑥 + 5⌋ = 3
B. ⌊𝑥 − 4⌋ = 7
C. ⌊𝑥 + 9⌋ = −2
1 1
D. ⌊𝑥 − 2⌋ + = −4
3 3

B. Vertical Shift

5.55: Vertical Shift

𝑦 = ⌊𝑥⌋ + 𝑘
𝑘 > 0: 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑝 𝑏𝑦 𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑘 < 0: 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

Example 5.56
Graph 𝑦 = ⌊𝑥⌋ + 𝑘. Use that to solve:
A=

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C. No Solutions

5.57: No Solutions
The equation
⌊𝑥⌋ = 𝑛, 𝑛 ≠ ℤ

Notice that the graph of 𝑦 = ⌊𝑥⌋ is a graph with jumps.

It has lines at the integers, but nothing in between.

Example 5.58
Two equations are given below. One of them has a solution, while the other does not. Write the solution set for
the one that does, and explain why the other does not.
A. ⌊𝑥 + 5⌋ = 3.5
B. ⌊𝑥 + 5⌋ + 0.5 = 3.5

Example 5.59
Two equations are given below. One of them has a solution, while the other does not. Write the solution set for
the one that does, and explain why the other does not.
1
A. ⌊𝑥 + 2⌋ + = 3. 3̅
3
1
B. ⌊𝑥 + 2⌋ + = 3.33
3

D. Horizontal Stretch

Example 5.60
𝑥
Evaluate 𝑦 = ⌊ ⌋ when 𝑥 = {0,1,2, … ,10}
3

𝑥 0
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ ⌊ ⌋ = ⌊ ⌋ = ⌊0⌋ = 0
3 3
1 1
𝑥=1⇒⌊ ⌋=⌊ ⌋=1
3 3
.
.
.

Summary:
𝑥
𝑥 = {0,1,2} ⇒ ⌊ ⌋ = 0
3
𝑥
𝑥 = {3,4,5} ⇒ ⌊ ⌋ = 1
3
𝑥
𝑥 = {6,7,8} ⇒ ⌊ ⌋ = 1
3

Example 5.61
𝑥
Graph y = ⌊ ⌋. Hence find the values that satisfy:
3
𝑥
⌊ ⌋ = 𝑎, 𝑎 = {1,2,3}
3
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𝑥
⌊ ⌋=0⇒0≤𝑥<3
3
𝑥
⌊ ⌋=1⇒3≤𝑥<6
3
𝑥
⌊ ⌋=2⇒6≤𝑥<9
3

5.62: Horizontal Stretch

𝑥
𝑦=⌊ ⌋
𝑘
𝑘 > 1 ⇒ 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝑘

Example 5.63
𝑥
Use the graph of y = ⌊5⌋ to find the solution
for:
𝑥
⌊ ⌋ = 𝑎, 𝑎 = {0,1}
5
𝑥
⌊ ⌋ = 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 5 ⇔ [0,5)
5
𝑥
⌊ ⌋ = 1 ⇒ 5 ≤ 𝑥 < 10 ⇔ [5,10)
5
E. Horizontal Shrink

5.64: Horizontal Shrink

𝑦 = ⌊𝑘𝑥⌋
𝑘 > 1 ⇒ 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑘

Example 5.65
Use the graph of 𝑦 = ⌊5𝑥⌋ to find the values that satisfy:
⌊5𝑥⌋ = 𝑎, 𝑎 = {0,1}
1
⌊5𝑥⌋ = 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ 𝑥 <
5
2
⌊5𝑥⌋ = 1 ⇒ 0.2 ≤ 𝑥 <
5

Example 5.66
Graph ⌊3𝑥⌋. Hence find the range of values that satisfies:
A. ⌊3𝑥⌋ = 0
B. ⌊3𝑥⌋ = 1

1
⌊3𝑥⌋ = 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ 𝑥 <
3
2
⌊3𝑥⌋ = 1 ⇒ 0.2 ≤ 𝑥 <
3
F. Vertical Stretch/Shrink

5.67: Vertical Stretch/Shrink

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𝑦 = 𝑘⌊𝑥⌋
𝑘 > 1 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ
0 < 𝑘 < 1 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘

Example 5.68
Graph 𝑦 = 2⌊𝑥⌋ and use it to solve
2⌊𝑥⌋ = 𝑎, 𝑎 = {0,1,2}

2⌊𝑥⌋ = 0 ⇒ ⌊𝑥⌋ = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [0,1)

1
2⌊𝑥⌋ = 1 ⇒ ⌊𝑥⌋ = ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
2
2
2⌊𝑥⌋ = 2 ⇒ ⌊𝑥⌋ = = 1
2

Solve
2⌊𝑥⌋ = 𝑛

𝑛
2⌊𝑥⌋ = 𝑛 ⇒ ⌊𝑥⌋ =
2
If
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ⌊𝑥⌋ = ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [ , + 1)
2 2 2
𝑛
𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ⇒ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
2

Example 5.69
Solve:
A. 3⌊𝑥⌋ = 6
B. 3⌊𝑥⌋ = 7

6
3⌊𝑥⌋ = 6 ⇒ ⌊𝑥⌋ = = 2 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [2,3)
3
7
3⌊𝑥⌋ = 7 ⇒ ⌊𝑥⌋ = ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝜙
3
5.3 Equations
A. A Simple Property

5.70: Simple Floor Equations

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑛, ⌊𝑥⌋ = 𝑛 ⇔ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑛 + 1

If 𝑛 is not an integer, the equation has no solution.

Example 5.71
Find the solution set that 𝑥 can take.
A. ⌊𝑥⌋ = 0
B. ⌊𝑥⌋ = 3
C. ⌊𝑥⌋ = −27
D. ⌊𝑥⌋ = 3.5

⌊𝑥⌋ = 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 1 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [0,1)

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⌊𝑥⌋ = 3 ⇒ 3 ≤ 𝑥 < 4 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [3,4)

⌊𝑥⌋ = −27 ⇒ −27 ≤ 𝑥 < −26 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [−27, −26)
⌊𝑥⌋ = 3.5 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝜙

5.72: Simple Ceiling Equations

⌈𝑥⌉ = 𝑛 ⇔ 𝑛 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑛

Note that 𝑛 must be an integer, else the equation above has no solution.

Example 5.73
Solve
A. ⌈𝑥⌉ = 0
B. ⌈𝑥⌉ = 4
C. ⌈𝑥⌉ = −3
D. ⌈𝑥⌉ = 2.5
E. ⌈𝑥⌉ = 𝑒, 𝑒 ≈ 2.71
F. ⌈𝑥⌉ = 12
G. ⌊𝑥⌋ = 5
H. ⌊𝑥⌋ = 𝜋
I. 2⌈𝑥⌉ + 1 = 3

⌈𝑥⌉ = 0 ⇒ −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 0 ⇒ (−1,0]

⌈𝑥⌉ = 4 ⇒ 3 < 𝑥 ≤ 4 ⇒ (3,4]
⌈𝑥⌉ = −3 ⇒ −4 < 𝑥 ≤ −3 ⇒ (−4, −3]
⌈𝑥⌉ = 2.5 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
⌈𝑥⌉ = 𝑒 ⇒ ⌈𝑥⌉ ≈ 2.71 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
⌈𝑥⌉ = 12 ⇒ 11 < 𝑥 ≤ 12 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (11,12]
⌊𝑥⌋ = 5 ⇒ 5 ≤ 𝑥 < 6 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [5,6)
⌊𝑥⌋ = 𝜋 ≈ 3.14 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Example 5.74
Solve:
2⌈𝑥⌉ + 1 = 3

We will isolate the ceiling operator by “solving” for it, just like we solve for a variable.
Subtract 1 from both sides:
2⌈𝑥⌉ = 2
Divide both sides by 2:
⌈𝑥⌉ = 1 ⇒ 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 1 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (0,1]

5.75: Connecting Ceiling with Floor

If x is not an integer, then the ceiling of x is always one more than the floor of x. That is:
𝑥 ∉ ℤ ⇒ ⌈𝑥⌉ = ⌊𝑥⌋ + 1

If x is an integer, than the floor and ceiling of x have the same value:
𝑥 ∈ ℤ ⇒ ⌈𝑥⌉ = ⌊𝑥⌋

Example 5.76
Suppose

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⌊𝑥⌋ = 34
Find ⌈𝑥⌉ if:
A. 𝑥 is an integer
B. 𝑥 is not an integer

Part A
The only integer for which
⌊𝑥⌋ = 34
Is
𝑥 = 34 ⇒ ⌈𝑥⌉ = 34
Part B
𝑥 ≠ 34 ⇒ 34 < 𝑥 < 35 ⇒ ⌈𝑥⌉ = 35

B. Addition and Subtraction

Example 5.77
A. ⌊𝑥 + 3⌋ = 0
B. ⌊𝑥 − 6⌋ = 0
C. ⌊𝑥 + 3⌋ + 3 = 5

Part A
⌊𝑥 + 3⌋ = 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ 𝑥 + 3 < 1 ⇒ −3 ≤ 𝑥 < −2 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [−3, −2)
Part B
⌊𝑥 − 6⌋ = 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ 𝑥 − 6 < 1 ⇒ 6 ≤ 𝑥 < 7 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [6,7)
Part C
⌊𝑥 + 3⌋ = 2 ⇒ 2 ≤ 𝑥 + 3 < 3 ⇒ −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [−1,0)

Example 5.78
A. ⌈𝑥 + 7⌉ = 4
B. ⌈𝑥 − 2⌉ = 9
C. ⌈𝑥 − 2⌉ + 3 = 1
D. 2⌊𝑥 − 3⌋ + 1 = 7
E. 2⌈𝑥 + 7⌉ + 2 = 5

Part A
⌈𝑥 + 7⌉ = 4 ⇒ 3 < 𝑥 + 7 ≤ 4 ⇒ −4 < 𝑥 ≤ −3 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (−4, −3]
Part B
⌈𝑥 − 2⌉ = 9 ⇒ 8 < 𝑥 − 2 ≤ 9 ⇒ 10 < 𝑥 ≤ 11 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (10,11]
Part C
⌈𝑥 − 2⌉ = −2 ⇒ −3 < 𝑥 − 2 ≤ −2 ⇒ −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (−1,0]
Part D
2⌊𝑥 − 3⌋ = 6 ⇒ ⌊𝑥 − 3⌋ = 3 ⇒ 3 ≤ 𝑥 − 3 < 4 ⇒ 6 ≤ 𝑥 < 7 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [6,7)
Part E
3
2⌈𝑥 + 7⌉ = 3 ⇒ ⌈𝑥 + 7⌉ = ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
2

C. Multiplication and Division

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Example 5.79
𝑥
A. ⌊ ⌋ = 0
4
𝑥
B. ⌊5⌋ = 3
𝑥
C. 2 ⌊ ⌋ + 4 = 10
3
𝑥
D. ⌈7⌉ = 4
𝑥
E. 3 ⌈ ⌉ + 2 = 7
5

𝑥 𝑥
⌊ ⌋ = 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ < 1 ⇒ 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 4 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [0,4)
4 4
𝑥 𝑥
⌊ ⌋ = 3 ⇒ 3 ≤ < 4 ⇒ 15 ≤ 𝑥 < 20 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [15,20)
5 5
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
2 ⌊ ⌋ = 6 ⇒ ⌊ ⌋ = 3 ⇒ 3 ≤ < 4 ⇒ 9 ≤ 𝑥 < 12 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [9,12)
3 3 3
𝑥 𝑥
⌈ ⌉ = 4 ⇒ 3 < ≤ 4 ⇒ 21 < 𝑥 ≤ 28 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (21,28]
7 7
𝑥 𝑥 5
3 ⌈ ⌉ = 5 ⇒ ⌈ ⌉ = ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
5 5 3

D. Combining Transformations

Example 5.80
Solve:
A. ⌊3𝑥 − 8⌋ = 5
𝑥
B. 3 ⌊3 − 8⌋ + 8 = 2
13 14 13 14
5 ≤ 3𝑥 − 8 < 6 ⇒ 13 ≤ 3𝑥 < 14 ⇒≤ 3𝑥 < ⇒𝑥∈[ , )
3 3 3 3
𝑥 6 𝑥 𝑥
⌊ − 8⌋ = − = −2 ⇒ −2 ≤ − 8 < −1 ⇒ 6 ≤ < 7 ⇒ 18 ≤ 𝑥 < 21 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [18,21)
3 3 3 3

E. Equating Transformations
We have already seen transformations

Example 5.81
Find the values of 𝑥 that make the equality true:
1 1
⌊𝑥 + ⌋ = ⌊𝑥 + ⌋ = 1
2 3

Equate the first and the third term:

1 1 1 3 1 3
⌊𝑥 + ⌋ = 1 ⇒ 1 ≤ 𝑥 + < 2 ⇒ ≤ 𝑥 < ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [ , )
2 2 2 2 2 2

Equate the second and the third term:

1 1 2 5 1 5
⌊𝑥 + ⌋ = 1 ⇒ 1 ≤ 𝑥 + < 2 ⇒ ≤ 𝑥 < ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [ , )
3 3 3 3 3 3

Now to find the value that satisfies the above, we need to find the intersection of the solution sets that we
already found:

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1 3 1 5 1 3
[ , )∩[ , ) = [ , )
2 2 3 3 2 2

Example 5.82
Solve
1 1
⌊𝑥 + ⌋ = ⌊𝑥 + ⌋ = 𝑛
2 3

This will only make sense if 𝑛 is an integer.

Hence, we solve for integer values of 𝑛.

Equate the first and the third term:

1 1 1 1 1 1
⌊𝑥 + ⌋ = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑥 + < 𝑛 + 1 ⇒ 𝑛 − ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑛 + ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑛 − , 𝑛 + )
2 2 2 2 2 2

Equate the second and the third term:

1 1 1 2 1 2
⌊𝑥 + ⌋ = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑥 + < 𝑛 + 1 ⇒ 𝑛 − ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑛 + ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑛 − , 𝑛 + )
3 3 3 3 3 3

Intersection of above:
1 1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛: [𝑛 − , 𝑛 + )
3 2
F. Square Roots

Example 5.83
Determine the two integers between which each square root lies.
A. √10
B. √27

√9 < √10 < √16 ⇒ 3 < √10 < 4

√25 < √27 < √36 ⇒ 5 < √27 < 6

Example 5.84
Solve the equations below to find the range of values that satisfy the equation. Then, find the number of integers
that satisfy the equation.
A. ⌊√𝑥⌋ = 1
B. ⌊√𝑥⌋ = 12
C. ⌊√𝑥⌋ = 4

Part A
⌊√𝑥⌋ = 1 ⇒ 1 ≤ √𝑥 < 2 ⇒ 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 4 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [1,4)
{1,2,3} ⇒ 3 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

Part B
⌊√𝑥⌋ = 12 ⇒ 12 ≤ √𝑥 < 13 ⇒ 144 ≤ 𝑥 < 169
𝑛{144,145, … ,168} ⇒ 168 − 144 + 1 = 25

Part C

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We solve this using a different method

⌊√𝑥⌋ = 4 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ 16 and 𝑥 < 25 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ [16,25)
𝑛{16,17, … ,24} ⇒ 24 − 16 + 1 = 9

5.85: Floor of a Square Root

For integers values of 𝑛:
⌊√𝑥⌋ = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑛2 ≤ 𝑥 < (𝑛 + 1)2

⌊√𝑥⌋ = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑛 ≤ √𝑥 < 𝑛 + 1 ⇒ 𝑛2 ≤ 𝑥 < (𝑛 + 1)2

5.86: Integer Solutions

The number of integer solutions of
⌊√𝑥⌋ = 𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
Is
2𝑛 + 1

⌊√𝑥⌋ = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑛 ≤ √𝑥 < 𝑛 + 1 ⇒ 𝑛2 ≤ 𝑥 < (𝑛 + 1)2 ⇒ {𝑛2 , 𝑛2 + 1, … , (𝑛 + 1)2 − 1}

The number of elements in the above is:

[(𝑛 + 1)2 − 1] − 𝑛2 + 1 = [𝑛2 + 2𝑛] − 𝑛2 + 1 = 2𝑛 + 1

Example 5.87
Solve the equations below to find the range of values that satisfy the equation. Then, find the number of integers
that satisfy the equation.
A. ⌈√𝑥⌉ = 5

⌈√𝑥⌉ = 5 ⇒ 𝑥 > 16 and 𝑥 ≤ 25 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (16,25]

𝑛{17,18, … ,25} ⇒ 25 − 17 + 1 = 9
G. Squares

Example 5.88
Find the values of 𝑥 that satisfy:
⌊𝑥 2 ⌋ = 144

⌊𝑥 2 ⌋ = 144 ⇒ 144 < 𝑥 2 < 145

Take Square Roots:
12 ≤ |𝑥| < √145
Remove the absolute value sign:
12 ≤ 𝑥 < √145 𝑂𝑅 − √145 < 𝑥 ≤ −12
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥 ∈ (−√145, −12] ∪ [12, √145)

H. Powers

Example 5.89

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Given that:
𝑓(𝑛) = 3𝑛
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓 = {𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ⌊𝑛⌋ = 3}
Find the range of 𝑓.

I. Quadratics

Example 5.90
Find the values of 𝑥 that satisfy:
⌊𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6⌋ = 0
State your answer as an exact value, not an approximation. (However, you may find √5 ≈ 2.23 useful).

Using the property that ⌊𝑦⌋ = 0 ⇒ 0 ≤ 𝑦 < 1, we get:

0 ≤ 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 < 1

First Inequality
0 ≤ 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) ≥ 0
𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −3] ∪ [−2, ∞)
⏟
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒆𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚

Second Inequality
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 < 1 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 5 < 0
Find the roots of the corresponding quadratic equation.
Apply the quadratic formula with 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 5, 𝑐 = 5:
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −5 ± √25 − (4)(1)(5) −5 ± √5
𝑥= = =
2𝑎 2(1) 2

−5 − √5 −5 + √5
𝑥∈( , ) ≈ (−3.62, −1.39)
⏟ 2 2
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒆𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓
𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚

Merging the Two Inequalities

Our solution set must satisfy both inequalities, so we take the intersection of the two.
−5 − √5 −5 + √5
( , −3] ∪ [−2, )
2 2

Alternate Solution

For 0 ≤ 𝑘 < 1,we must have:

𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 𝑘
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 − 𝑘 = 0

Apply the Quadratic Formula with 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 5, 𝑐 = 6 − 𝑘:

−5 ± √25 − (4)(1)(6 − 𝑘) −5 ± √1 + 4𝑘
𝑥= =
2 2

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−5 + √1 −5 + 1
𝑘 = 0: 𝑥 = = ⇒ {−3, −2}
2 2
−5 ± √5 −5 − √5 −5 + √5
𝑘 = 1: 𝑥 = ⇒𝑥∈{ , }
2 2 2

−5 − √5 −5 + √5
( , −3] ∪ [−2, )
2 2

J. Counting and Probability

Example 5.91: Counting Integer Solutions

Find the solution set and the number of integer solutions to the following:
𝑥
A. ⌊7 + 2⌋ = 1
𝑥
B. ⌊11 − 3⌋ = 2
2𝑥 3
C. ⌊23 − 2⌋ = 3

Part A 𝑥
2≤ −3 < 3
Convert into an inequality: 11
𝑥 𝑥
1 ≤ +2 < 2 5≤ <6
7 11
Subtract 2 throughout: 55 ≤ 𝑥 < 66
𝑥 𝑥 ∈ {55,56, … ,65} ⇒ 11 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
−1 ≤ < 0 Part C
7
Multiply throughout by 7: 2𝑥 3
3≤ − <4
−7 ≤ 𝑥 < 0 23 2
Convert to interval notation 9 2𝑥 11
≤ <
𝑥 ∈ [−7,0) 2 23 2
And the integer solutions from the above are: 207 253
≤𝑥<
{−7, −6, … , −1} ⇒ 7 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 4 4
3 3
Part B 51 ≤ 𝑥 < 63
4 4
𝑥 ∈ {52,53, … ,63} ⇒ 63 − 52 + 1 = 12 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Example 5.92: Counting Rational Solutions

𝑎
Find the number of rational solutions of the form 𝑏 where 𝐻𝐶𝐹(𝑎, 𝑏) = 1 and 𝑏 is a single digit prime number.
𝑥
A. ⌊7 − 2⌋ = 4

Solving the Inequality 𝑏 ∈ {2,3,5,7}

𝑥
4 ≤ −2 < 5
7 Case I: 𝒃 = 𝟐:
𝑥
6≤ <7 𝟖𝟒 85 𝟖𝟔 87
7 , ,
{ , ,…}
𝑥 𝟐 2 𝟐 2
42 ≤ < 49 84 42 86 43
Note that = and = do not work. If we
7 2 1 2 2
𝑎
𝑥 ∈ [42,49), 𝑥= , 𝐻𝐶𝐹(𝑎, 𝑏) = 1 remove the numbers that are not valid, we are left
𝑏 with:
85 87 97
Since 𝑏 is a single digit prime number: { , ,…, }
2 2 2
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Note that between every two integers, there is one valid solutions.
valid solution.
Case II: 𝒃 = 𝟑: In total, between every two integers, there are:
1 2 1 2 2 1 + 2 + 4 + 6 = 13 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
{42 , 42 , 43 , 43 , … ,48 }
3 3 3 3 3
Note that between every two integers, there are two Finding the number of integer gaps
valid solutions. (42,43)(43,44), … (48,49)
Case II: 𝒃 = 𝟓: The above are the seven gaps between two integers
Note that between every two integers, there are where we can have valid solutions.
four valid solutions.
Case II: 𝒃 = 𝟕: The final answer is:
Note that between every two integers, there are six 13 × 7 = 91 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Example 5.93: Probability with Real Numbers

A. Carrie picks a random real number 𝑥 from 2 to 7. Find the probability that ⌊𝑥⌋ = 3.
B. Carrie picks a random real number 𝑥 from 𝑎 to 𝑏 where 𝑎 < 𝑏. Find the probability that ⌊𝑥⌋ = 𝑐.
(Assume that 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are integers).
C. Carrie picks a random real number 𝑥 from 2.5 to 7.5. Find the probability that ⌊𝑥⌋ = 7.
D. Carrie picks a random real number 𝑥 from 3 to 90. Find the probability that
2𝑥 2
E. Carrie picks a random real number 𝑥 from 2 to 10. Find the probability that ⌊ 5 − 5⌋ = 1.

Part A 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 = 7.5 − 2.5 = 5

3 ≤ 𝑥 < 4 ⇔ (3,4] 0.5 1
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 = 7 − 2 = 5 5 10
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 = 4 − 3 = 1 Part D
𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 1 0 ≤ 3𝑥 + 1 < 1
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = −1 ≤ 3𝑥 < 0
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 5
1
− ≤𝑥<0
3
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 0
Part E
2𝑥 2
Part B 1≤ − <2
Case I: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐 < 𝑏 5 5
7 2𝑥 12
1 ≤ <
5 5 5
|𝑏 − 𝑎| 7 12
Case II: 𝑐 < 𝑎 𝑂𝑅 𝑐 ≥ 𝑏 ≤𝑥<
2 2
0 12 7 5
Part C 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 = − = = 2.5
2 2 2
7≤𝑥 <8⇒8−7=1 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 = 10 − 8 = 2
But from this, numbers above 7.5 are not
achievable: 2.5 5
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 = 7.5 − 7 = 0.5 8 16

Example 5.94: Probability with Rational Numbers

𝑥
A. If I pick an integer solution at random from the solutions to ⌊22 − 1⌋ = 3, what is the probability that it
is a prime number?

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𝑥
3≤ −1<4
22
𝑥
4≤ <5
22
88 ≤ 𝑥 < 110
𝑥∈ {88,89, … ,109} ⇒ 109 − 88 + 1 = 22
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 88 𝑡𝑜 109 𝑎𝑟𝑒: {89,97,101,103,107,109}
6 3
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
22 11
5.4 More Equations
A. Addition and Subtraction

Example 5.95
Graph
𝑥 + ⌊𝑥⌋

𝑥 + ⌊𝑥⌋ = ⌊𝑥⌋ + {𝑥} + ⌊𝑥⌋ = 2⌊𝑥⌋ + {𝑥}

𝑥 = 1.5 ⇒ 𝑥 + ⌊𝑥⌋ = 1.5 + 1 = 2.5

𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 (𝑂𝑑𝑑. 𝑥) cannot be achieved

Odd Integers also cannot be achieved.

Example 5.96
Solve
𝑧 + ⌊𝑧⌋ = 16.2

Logically
16
= 8 ⇒ 𝑇𝑟𝑦 8.2 ⇒ 8.2 + ⌊8.2⌋ = 8.2 + 8 = 16.2
2

Algebraically
Write 𝑧 = ⌊𝑧⌋ + {𝑧}, and simplify:
⌊𝑧⌋ + {𝑧} + ⌊𝑧⌋ = 16.2 ⇒
Now, we can equate the fractional and floor parts to get:
2⌊𝑧⌋ = 16 ⇒ ⌊𝑧⌋ = 8, {𝑧} = 0.2 ⇒ 𝑧 = 8 + 0.2

Example 5.97
Solve
𝑧 + ⌊𝑧⌋ = 17.6

2⌊𝑧⌋ + {𝑧} = 17 + 0.6

2⌊𝑧⌋ = 17 ⇒ ⌊𝑧⌋ = 8.5 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⇒ 𝑧 = {𝜙}

5.98: Equation Pattern

𝑧 + ⌊𝑧⌋ = 𝑛. 𝑚
Has a solution when
𝐻𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

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𝐷𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

Example 5.99
Graph
𝑥 + ⌈𝑥⌉

𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 + ⌈𝑥⌉ = 1 + 1 = 2
𝑥 = 1.1 ⇒ 𝑥 + ⌈𝑥⌉ = 1.1 + 2 = 3.1
𝑥 = 1.5 ⇒ 𝑥 + ⌈𝑥⌉ = 1.5 + 2 = 3.5

𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 (𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛. 𝑥) cannot be achieved

Even Integers can be achieved.
Odd Integers cannot be achieved.

Example 5.100
Solve:
A. 𝑧 + ⌈𝑧⌉ = 15.4
B. 𝑧 + ⌈𝑧⌉ = 14.8

𝑧 + ⌈𝑧⌉ = 15.4 ⇒ 𝑧 + ⌊𝑧⌋ + 1 = 15.4 ⇒ 𝑧 + ⌊𝑧⌋ = 14.4

𝑧 + ⌈𝑧⌉ = 14.8 ⇒ 𝑧 + ⌊𝑧⌋ + 1 = 14.8 ⇒ 𝑧 + ⌊𝑧⌋ = 13.8 ⇒ 𝑧 = {𝜙}

B. Multiplication and Division

Example 5.101
Graph the functions below. Comment on any interesting properties.
A. 𝑥⌊𝑥⌋
B. 𝑥⌈𝑥⌉

Example 5.102
Solve
𝑥⌊𝑥⌋ = 50

72 = 49, 82 = 64 ⇒ 7 < 𝑥 < 8 ⇒ ⌊𝑥⌋ = 7

50
7𝑥 = 50 ⇒ 𝑥 =
7

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Example 5.103
Solve
𝑥⌈𝑥⌉ = 82

𝑥 = 8 ⇒ 𝑥⌈𝑥⌉ = 8⌈8⌉ = 64
𝑥 = 9 ⇒ 𝑥⌈𝑥⌉ = 9⌈9⌉ = 81
𝑥 = 10 ⇒ 𝑥⌈𝑥⌉ = 10⌈10⌉ = 100

Hence:
⌈𝑥⌉ = 10 ⇒ 9 < 𝑥 ≤ 10

C. Number of Solutions

Example 5.104
What is the number of nonnegative integers solution for:
𝑥 𝑥
⌊ ⌋=⌊ ⌋
5 7
PRMO

𝑥 𝑥
𝑦=⌊ ⌋=⌊ ⌋
5 7

𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 No. of Solutions

⌊ ⌋ ⌊ ⌋
5 7
0 {0,1,2,3,4} {0,1,2,3,4,5,6} {0,1,2,3,4} 5
1 {5,6,7,8,9} {7,8,9,10,11,12,13} {7,8,9} 3
2 {10,11,12,13,14} {14,15,16,17,18,19,20} {14} 1
3 {15,16,17,18,19} {21, … } 𝜙 0

Example 5.105
What is the number of nonnegative integer solutions for:
𝑥 𝑥
⌊ ⌋=⌊ ⌋
99 100

𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 No. of Solutions

⌊ ⌋ ⌊ ⌋
99 100
0 {0,1, … ,98} {0,1, … ,99} {0,1, … ,98} 99
1 {99, … ,197} {100, … ,199} {100, … ,197} 98

99(98)
99 + 98 + 97 + ⋯ + 1 = = 4851
2
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
𝑛 + (𝑛 − 1) + (𝑛 − 2) + ⋯ + 1 =
2
D. Equations

Example 5.106
Simultaneous Equations
Quadratic Equations

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5.5 Expressions
A. Square Roots

Example 5.107
Evaluate
⌊√12⌋ + ⌈√12⌉ + ⌊√13⌋ + ⌈√13⌉ … + ⌊√34⌋ + ⌈√34⌉

Collect floor terms together:

⌊√12⌋ + ⌊√13⌋ + ⋯ + ⌊√15⌋ + ⏟
⏟ ⌊√16⌋ + ⌊√17⌋ + ⋯ + ⌊√24⌋ + ⏟
⌊√25⌋ + ⌊√27⌋ + ⋯ + ⌊√34⌋ = 103
⏟
𝑬𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎=𝟑 𝟗 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔=𝟒×𝟗=𝟑𝟔 𝟏𝟎 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔=𝟓×𝟏𝟏=𝟓𝟓 𝟏𝟐+𝟑𝟔+𝟓𝟓
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔=𝟒
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍=𝟑×𝟒=𝟏𝟐
Similarly, evaluate all the ceiling terms together:
⌈√12⌉ + ⌈√13⌉ + ⋯ + ⌈√16⌉ + ⏟
⏟ ⌈√17⌉ + ⌈√18⌉ + ⋯ + ⌈√25⌉ + ⏟
⌈√26⌉ + ⌈√27⌉ + ⋯ + ⌈√34⌉ = 103
⏟
𝟓 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔=𝟒×𝟓=𝟐𝟎 𝟗 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔=𝟓×𝟗=𝟒𝟓 𝟗 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔=𝟔×𝟗=𝟓𝟒 𝟐𝟎+𝟒𝟓+𝟓𝟒

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6. RELATIONS
6.1 Relations
A. Relation versus Functions

Example 6.1
Consider the relation between 𝑥 and 𝑦 (and 𝑟 is a constant)
𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 = 25
Determine whether the relation is a function:
A. By drawing a graph of the relation
B. Algebraically

Graphically

𝑥 0 0 5 −5 3
𝑦 5 −5 0 0 4

Algebraically
𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 = 25
Isolate 𝑦 2 and take square roots:
𝑦 2 = 25 − 𝑥 2
𝑦 = ±√25 − 𝑥 2

Example 6.2
Consider the relation
𝑦 = √𝑥

𝑥 = 9 ⇒ 𝑦 = √9 = ±3
Hence, the above relation is not a function.
Is the above argument correct, or incorrect? If incorrect, find the flaw.

𝑥 = 9 ⇒ 𝑦 = √9 = 3

Example 6.3
Consider the relation
𝑥 = √𝑦
Square the relations:
𝑥2 = 𝑦
Take square roots
𝑥 = ±√𝑦
Hence, the above relation is not a function.
Is the above argument correct, or incorrect? If incorrect, find the flaw and the step at
which it occurred.

When you square an equation, you have to be careful about introducing extraneous roots.

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For example:
𝑥 = ±√𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦 = 9 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±3

If you substitute 𝑥 = −3 in the original equation, it is not satisfied:

−3 ≠ √9

The problem happened because squaring the equation introduced an extra root.

Example 6.4
Is the statement
√𝑥 2 = 𝑥
Always true?

No. Consider the counterexample below:

𝑥 = −5 ⇒ 𝑥 2 = 25 ⇒ √𝑥 2 = 5

𝑥 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 ⇒ √𝑥 2 = 𝑥
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒 ⇒ √𝑥 2 = −𝑥
6.2 Relations
A. Ordered Pair
A pair of elements is called an ordered pair. It is called an ordered pair because the order is important.
(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖,
⏟ 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ) ≠ (𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ,⏟ 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖)
𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒊 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒊

Example 6.5
𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = {𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖
⏟ , 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑠ℎ
⏟ , 𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑠ℎ
⏟ , 𝐴𝑟𝑦𝑎
⏟ }
𝑷 𝑵 𝑺 𝑨

𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 = {𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ

⏟ , 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠
⏟ , 𝑆𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
⏟ , 𝐻𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
⏟ }
𝑬 𝑴 𝑺 𝑯

We can write the combination of (𝑺𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕) as a pair. For example, Pari studying English can be
written:
(𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖, 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ) → (𝑃, ⏟ 𝐸)
𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎
Represent the information below as a set of ordered pairs:
➢ Pari is studying English and Maths
➢ Nitish is studying all subjects except Humanities
➢ Santosh is not studying any subject
➢ Arya is studying only English.
S1: ⏟(𝑃, 𝐸)(𝑃, 𝑀) ⏟
(𝑁, 𝐸)(𝑁, 𝑀)(𝑁, 𝑆) (𝐴,
⏟ 𝐸)
𝟐 𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝟑 𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝟏 𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕

6.6: Cartesian Product

The Cartesian product of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵.

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Example 6.7
Find the Cartesian product of the sets 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝐵 = {𝑥, 𝑦}.

{(1, 𝑥)(2, 𝑥)(3, 𝑥)(1, 𝑦)(2, 𝑦)(3, 𝑦)}

Example 6.8
Set 𝐴 has 𝑚 elements. And Set 𝐵 has 𝑛 elements. Find the number of elements in the Cartesian product of sets 𝐴
and 𝐵.

Picking an element from set A

= 𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Picking an element from set B
= 𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
And the total number of ways
=𝑚×𝑛

6.9: Relation
Any subset of the Cartesian Product of two sets is a relation between the two sets.

6.10: Domain of Relation

The set of all first elements of a relation is called the domain.

6.11: Range of Relation

The set of all second elements of a relation is called the range.

Example 6.12: Using Sets

Find the domain and range of the Cartesian product of the sets 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝐵 = {𝑥, 𝑦}.

{(1, 𝑥)(2, 𝑥)(3, 𝑥)(1, 𝑦)(2, 𝑦)(3, 𝑦)}

Set of first elements of the Cartesian product is:

{1,2,3,1,2,3}
But since repetition does not matter in a set, we have:
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = {1,2,3}

Set of second elements of the Cartesian product is:

{𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑦}
But since repetition does not matter in a set, we have:
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {𝑥, 𝑦}

B. Linear Relationships

Example 6.13: Using a Linear Relationship

A relation is defined by the rule 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 4, for 𝑥 ∈ {0,1,2,4}.
A. Find the range of the relation.

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B. Express the relation as a set of ordered pairs.

C. Quadratic Relationships

Example 6.14: Using a Quadratic Relationship

A relation is defined by the rule 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
A. Find the domain of the relation.
B. Find the range of the relation.

There are no restrictions on the value of 𝑥. Hence,

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ℝ

The graph of the given relation is an upward parabola with

−2 − 3 5
𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = 𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = =−
2 2
1
𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑥 = 𝑦 5 =−
𝑥=−
2 4
1
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = [− , ∞)
4

D. Cubic Relationships

Example 6.15: Using a Cubic Relationship

A relation is defined by the rule 𝑦 = 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 5
A. Find the domain of the relation.
B. Find the range of the relation.

There are no restrictions on the value of 𝑥. Hence,

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ℝ

The main thing to understand is that the value of x is dominated by the 𝑥 3 for values which are very large, and
very small.
𝑥 → +∞, 𝑥 3 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 ⇒ 𝑦 → +∞
𝑥 → −∞, 𝑥 3 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑥 3 | 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 ⇒ 𝑦 → −∞

Since the given relation is continuous, it will take all values in between. Hence
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = ℝ

E. Exponential Relationships

Example 6.16: Using a Exponential Relationship

A relation is defined by the rule 𝑦 = 3𝑒 𝑥 + 4
A. Find the domain of the relation.
B. Find the range of the relation.

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F. Logarithmic Relationships

Example 6.17: Using a Logarithmic Relationship

A relation is defined by the rule 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 + 4
A. Find the domain of the relation.
B. Find the range of the relation.

G. Circle

Example 6.18
Consider the relationship
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 7
Find the domain

Isolate 𝑦 2 :
𝑦2 = 7 − 𝑥2
Take the square root of both sides:
𝑦 = ±√7 − 𝑥 2
Find the domain:
7 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 7 ≥ 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑥 2 ≤ 7 ⇒ −√7 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ √7

Find the range by considering the relation in the form 𝑦 = ±√7 − 𝑥 2 derived above.

We know that
−√7 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ √7
2
Also, 𝑥 ≥ 0 which means that
𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠, √7 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠

The value of √7 − 𝑥 2 will be

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ √7 − 𝑥 2 = √7
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = √7 ⇒ √7 − 𝑥 2 = √0 = 0
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 √7 − 𝑥 2 = (0,7)
Similarly, the value of −√7 − 𝑥 2 will be
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ −√7 − 𝑥 2 = −√7
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = √7 ⇒ √7 − 𝑥 2 = √0 = 0
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 − √7 − 𝑥 2 = (−7,0)

Combining the two, we get:

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ± √7 − 𝑥 2 = (−7,7)

Find the range of 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 7 by solving for 𝑥.

In general, if we solve for 𝑥, and find the set of values that 𝑦 can take, that gives us the range of 𝑦.

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Isolate 𝑥 2 :
𝑥2 = 7 − 𝑦2
Take the square root of both sides:
𝑥 = ±√7 − 𝑦 2
Find the domain:
7 − 𝑦 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 7 ≥ 𝑦 2 ⇒ 𝑦 2 ≤ 7 ⇒ −√7 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ √7

Alternate Method:
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 7
Note that the above expression is symmetric in 𝑥 and 𝑦. What we mean by symmetric is that replacing x with y,
and y with x does not change the relationship.

Hence, the same process that we followed for y can also be done for x.
Hence, in general, the domain and the range are the same.

H. Hyperbola

Example 6.19
Find the domain of the hyperbola 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 , 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Solve for 𝑦:
𝑦 2 = √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 ⇒ 𝑦 = ±√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
The expression inside the square root must be non-negative:
𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 ≥ 𝑎2 ⇒ 𝑥 > 𝑎 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 < −𝑎
And hence the domain of 𝑥 is:
(−∞, 𝑎] ∪ [𝑎, ∞)

Find the range of the hyperbola in the example above.

To find the range, solve for 𝑥:

𝑥 2 = 𝑦 2 + 𝑎2 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±√𝑦 2 + 𝑎2
We know that:
𝑦 2 ≥ 0, 𝑎2 ≥ 0
Hence, the expression inside the square root is never negative.
Hence, there are no restrictions on the value of y.

Hence, the range is

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = ℝ

Example 6.20
Find the domain of 𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 − 𝑥 = 𝑎

Collate all 𝑦 terms on one side:

𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑥
Solve for 𝑦:

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𝑎+𝑥
𝑦(𝑎𝑥 + 1) = 𝑎 + 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 =
𝑎𝑥 + 1

The denominator cannot be zero

1
𝑎𝑥 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −
𝑎
The domain is
1
ℝ\ {− }
𝑎

Find the range of 𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 − 𝑥 = 𝑎

Solve for 𝑥:
𝑎𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 𝑦
𝑥(𝑎𝑦 − 1) = 𝑎 − 𝑦
𝑎−𝑦
𝑥=
𝑎𝑦 − 1

1
𝑎𝑦 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 =
𝑎

1
ℝ \{ }
𝑎
6.3 Relations on the Coordinate Plane
A. Basics
When graphing relations on the coordinate we assume, by default, that
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

Example 6.21
A relation is defined by the rule 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 4, for 𝑥 ∈ {0,1,2,4}. Express this relation on the coordinate plane.

B. Discrete Relations

Example 6.22
Find the domain and range of the relation graphed alongside.

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = {1,2,3}
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = {1,3,2} = {1,2,3}

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C. Continuous Relations
So far, we have been looking at sets with discrete values. If we create a relation
between the variable 𝑥, and the variable 𝑦, then we can get continuous values.

Example 6.23
The relation 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 = 4 is graphed alongside. Find the domain and range of the
relation.

𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = [−2,2]
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = [−2,2]

For example, the association of students with subjects that we looked at above is an example of a relation.
Properties of Relations
➢ An element of Set A can be associated with zero or more elements of Set B.
✓ Pari is associated with two subjects. Nitish is associated with three subjects. Arya is associated
with one subject.
➢ It is not necessary that all elements of Set A have an association.
✓ Santosh is not studying any subject .
➢ It is not necessary that all elements of Set B have an association.
✓ No one is studying Humanities.

Domain
The set of values of the originating set is called the domain

Range
The set of values of the destination is called the range.

D. Relations using Inequalities

Example 6.24
Consider the relation 𝑦 > 𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 and both 𝑥 and 𝑦 are
less than 5. Find the set of ordered pairs that satisfy this relation.

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Relations
6.25: Types of Relations
One-One: Each element of Set A is mapped to exactly one
element of Set B
Not Functions Functions
Many-One: Many elements of Set A are mapped to one
element of set B.
One-Many: At least one element of Set A is mapped to Invertible Non Invertible
One-Many
many elements of Set B. Function Function
Many-Many: At least one element of Set A is mapped to
more than one element of Set B. And at least one element
of Set B is mapped to more than one element of Set A. Many-Many One-One Many-One

6.26: Relation: Definition 2

A relation is a set of ordered pairs from set A to set B. Each element of A can be associated with zero or more
elements of B.

6.4 Counting Arguments

6.1: Number of Ordered Pairs
Let Set A have m elements and Set B have n elements.

𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐫𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐚𝐢𝐫𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐂𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐚𝐧 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐀 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐁 = 𝒎 × 𝒏 = 𝒎𝒏

⏟
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇
𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆

Example 6.27: Counting Ordered Pairs

Example 6.28: Back Calculations

6.2: Number of Relations from A to B

𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐀 𝐭𝐨 𝐁 = ⏟
1𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 × ⏟ 𝑚𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝟐𝒎𝒏
2𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 × … × ⏟
𝟐 𝑪𝒉𝒐𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝟐 𝑪𝒉𝒐𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝟐 𝑪𝒉𝒐𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔

Example 6.29: Counting Number of Relations

Example 6.30: Back Calculations

6.3: Number of Functions 𝒇: 𝑨 → 𝑩

An arbitrary element in A can be associated with any of the n elements in B, giving us n choices.
Each of the elements in A is independent of the other elements in terms of its mapping.
Hence, total number of 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵
=⏟𝑛 × 𝑛 × … × 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑚
𝑚 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠

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6.5 Function as a type of Relation

A. Definition
A relation between 𝐴 and 𝐵 is called a function if every element of Set A is associated with 𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒍𝒚 𝒐𝒏𝒆
⏟
𝒏𝒆𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔
element of Set B.
Some important parts of the definition:
➢ There can be not an element of set A which is not associated with an element of Set B.
➢ An element of Set A cannot be associated with more than one element of Set B.

Example 6.31
𝐴 = {𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖
⏟ , 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑠ℎ
⏟ , 𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑠ℎ
⏟ , 𝐴𝑟𝑦𝑎
⏟ } , 𝐵 = {𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ
⏟ , 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠
⏟ , 𝑆𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
⏟ , 𝐻𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
⏟ }
𝑃 𝑁 𝑆 𝐴 𝐸 𝑀 𝑆 𝐻

𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: (𝑃,

⏟ 𝐸)(𝑃, 𝑀) , (𝑁,
⏟ 𝐸)(𝑁, 𝑀)(𝑁, 𝑆) , (𝐴,
⏟ 𝐸)
2 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 3 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 1 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
Is the relation above also a function? Give reasons why or why not?

Let’s write the relation as an input-output table

Input Pari Nitish Santosh Arya
Output 1 English English English
Output 2 Maths Math
Output 3 Science
No. of Outputs 2 3 0 1
>𝟏 >𝟏 <𝟏 =𝟏

➢ Pari and Nitish do not meet the conditions. They have more than one output associated with the input.
➢ Santosh does not meet the conditions. He has no output associated with the input.
➢ Arya meets the conditions. She has exactly one output associated with the input.
Hence, the above relation is not a function.
Even one input that does not meet the rules means the relation is not a function.

Example 6.32
𝐴 = {𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖
⏟ , 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑠ℎ
⏟ , 𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑠ℎ
⏟ , 𝐴𝑟𝑦𝑎
⏟ } , 𝐵 = {𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ
⏟ , 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠
⏟ , 𝑆𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
⏟ , 𝐻𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
⏟ }
𝑃 𝑁 𝑆 𝐴 𝐸 𝑀 𝑆 𝐻

𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: (𝑃,

⏟ 𝐸) , (𝑁,
⏟ 𝐸) , (𝑆,
⏟ 𝑀) , (𝐴,
⏟ 𝐸)
1 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 1 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 1 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 1 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
Is the relation above also a function? Give reasons why or why not?

Let’s write the relation as an input-output table

Input Pari Nitish Santosh Arya
Output 1 English English Maths English

➢ Each of the above inputs (students) is associated with precisely one output.
➢ All inputs have outputs
Hence, the above relation is a function.

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B. Relations as Functions
The following relations are functions
➢ One-One
➢ Many-One
The following relations are not functions:
➢ One-Many
➢ Many-Many

6.6 Types of Function

A. Surjective
A surjective function is one where the range of the function is the same as its co-domain.
A surjective function is one where every element of Set B is mapped to at least one element of Set A.
B. Injective
An injective function is one where every element of Set B has at most one corresponding element of Set A.
An injective is a one-one function.
C. Bijective
If a function is both surjective and injective, then it is bijective. A bijective function is invertible. This is because:
Every element in Set B is mapped to exactly one element in Set A. Hence, we have a single output for every
input.

6.7 More about Relations

A. Equivalence Relation

Reflexive: A relation is reflexive if it relates every element to itself.

𝑎~𝑎
∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: 𝑥𝑅𝑥
Transitive: A relation is transitive if for all elements 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 in X, whenever R relates a to b and a to c, it relates
a to c.
If 𝑎~𝑏 and 𝑏~𝑐, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎~𝑐
This can also be written as:
𝑎~𝑏 and 𝑏~𝑐 ⇒ 𝑎~𝑐

Symmetric A relation R is symmetric if for all elements 𝑎, and 𝑏 X, whenever R relates a to b, it also relates b to
a
𝑎~𝑏 if and only if 𝑏~𝑎
𝑎~𝑏 ⇔ 𝑏~𝑎

B. Equivalence Classes
Equivalence Relations can be used to split a set into equivalence classes. Elements a and b belong to the
same equivalence class if and only if they are equivalent.

Algebraic Operations on Functions

(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑓 + 𝑔) ∙ (𝑥)

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Domain resulting from Algebraic Operations of Functions

𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓 ± 𝑔) = 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) ∩ 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑔)
Example 6.33
1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥. Then, find the domain of (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥).
1
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 +
𝑥
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ }
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑔) = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 0}
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓 + 𝑔) = {𝑥: 𝑥 > 0}
Example 6.34
1
1 𝑥−
2
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥
. Then, find the domain of (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥).
1
1 𝑥 − 2 1 + 2𝑥 − 1 2𝑥
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = + = = =1
2𝑥 𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 0 }
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑔) = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 0}
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓 + 𝑔) = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 0}
Be careful when evaluating a sum/difference, etc of functions. If the sum/difference is defined, but the original
functions are not, then the evaluation is not valid.
Composition of Function
In composition of functions, we evaluate the inner function, and then substitute it in the inner function.
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
Composition of functions is not commutative in general.
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)

Example 6.35
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1, and ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥.
A. Find ℎ(𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)))

Find and compare(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) with (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥). Are they the same?

36 Examples

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