UNIT 1: MEANING IN LANGUAGE

LANGUAGE -------> a resource for construing and interpreting meaning in the context
in which they occur.
SPEAKERS/WRITERS -------> use language -------> depending on: the subject matter
making different linguistic -who they are talking /writing
choices depending on whether -status, proximity
the interlocutor is a friend -what the work language is doing in a
or an specialized person particular communicative situation

OM
LANGUAGE
● Structured for its use in context
● We represent the world, interact with others, creating and maintaining social
relations.

METAFUNCTIONS

.C
➔ Present in all languages
➔ to express ideas and to link them logically (ideational metafunction)
DD
➔ to assign speech roles and express judgements and attitudes (interpersonal
metafunction)
➔ to organize ideational and interpersonal meanings in texts which are coherent
and cohesive (textual metafunction)
LA

*Clause: always “text-clauses” (always part of a text)

Language >produced, exchange and received -----> as TEXT (not isolated clauses)

THE PLACE OF LEXICOGRAMMAR IN LANGUAGE

FI

LANGUAGE-----> Stratified system

strata: hierarchical system



● discourse-semantics
● lexicogrammar
● phonology/graphology

TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR (1st & 2nd year) vs FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR (3rd year)
-set of rules -System: language--->system of choices
-main concern: form -Function: languages → produced to do
-sentences in isolation (invented) do sth with a purpose or function
-grammatical vs ungrammatical -System of communication to make and
-sentences: correctness exchange meanings, set of choices.
-Concern:effectiveness (appropriate

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 choices to achieve a purpose.
-Appropriate choice (content, context,).
-Authentic texts in particular contexts.
KEY WORDS: text, context, cotext, appropriateness

SYSTEMIC-FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR: METAFUNCTIONS

EXPERIENTIAL/IDEATIONAL METAFUNCTION:

OM
● participants (s, o) represents our experience, reflect the
● processes (v) reality, actual facts.
● circumstances (adv)

INTERPERSONAL METAFUNCTION:

.C
● It shows the speaker’s position/opinion/judgement
● it shows how the speaker feels
● it shows the role the speaker takes and the one that she/he gives to the
DD
interlocutor (e.g. a question)

TEXTUAL METAFUNCTION:
● Change the organization of the text
● The way in which the facts (EM) and the speaker’s roles and attitudes (IM) are
LA

organized in the clause

● The context will call for the most appropriate choice of organization

*text/clauses in English express the three metafunctions simultaneously

FI

THE ORGANIZATION OF LEXICOGRAMMAR

LEXICOGRAMMAR -------> is the stratum of wording



➔ it provides us with the means to combine words to make different meanings

RANK SCALE: hierarchy of units based on composition. The units of one rank are
composed of the units of the rank immediately below.

English lexicogrammar rank scale

➢ CLAUSE (highest unit) it consist of groups or phrases
➢ GROUP/PHRASE (units of the rank below of clauses) are made up of words
➢ WORD

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Semantics > Lexicogrammar > phon./graph.
The stratum of meaning is realized by the stratum of wordings and their syntactic
arrangement; realized by sounds or graphic symbols.

TESTS FOR CONSTITUENCY (used to divide a clause into its constituents)

1. Movality: if an element is an immediate clause constituent, it is likely to be

independently movable. When an element is not an immediate clause

OM
constituent but a constituent of a group or phrase, you will find that it is
generally not independently movable.
2. Substitution: elements which are acting together as a single clause
constituent should be reducible to a single substituted item. (e.g: Nominal
group> pronoun)

.C
Variations on the typical constituent structure

We typically expect units of one rank to be made up of the next rank lower down.
DD
However, there are cases in which a unit of one rank is made up of a unit of the rank
above or of the same rank. These are cases of embedding or rank shift.
The clauses that are constituent of other clauses or groups are called embedded
(also called rank shifted clauses).
LA

❖ Same clause constituents can have different functions

e.g: Martin offers new insights in his new book
(NG) subject (NG) object
❖ GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS CAN HAVE DIFFERENT REALIZATIONS
FI

➢ Subject ---------------> NGs- some clauses

➢ Complement ----------------> NGs, nominal cl., ADJ Group., PP
➢ Object --------------> NGs
➢ Adjunct -------------> Adv Group, PP


*Constituents are components of a clause (NG, VG,...)

*Semicolons (;) are used to separate independent clauses

RANKING CLAUSES: They are clauses that retain their status as a clause. They can
be independent or dependent clauses, or finite or non-finite clauses.

EMBEDDED CLAUSES: They are clauses that have lost their rank, therefore they are
constituents. They can be immediate constituents or be inside an immediate
constituent.

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RANK SHIFTED: (from a higher level to a lower level) They are clauses that work as a
constituent of another clause (embedded clauses).

CLAUSE COMPLEX: (synonym of sentence)A sentence made up of more than one

ranking clause.

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES -----------> always ranking clauses

(must be separated by commas)

OM
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES ------------> always embedded clauses
(not placed between commas)

A relative clause is an adjective clause that describes a noun

A noun clause acts as the noun in the sentence

.C
FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB
● THE BASE: Used in the Indicative mood in the simple present tense (except
3rd person), in the Imperative mood and in the Subjective mood.
DD
● THE 3RD PERSON SINGULAR: Used in the Indicative mood in the simple
present tense with the 3rd person singular. It’s also used in subordinate
clauses with future time reference.
● THE PAST FORM: Used in the Indicative mood in the past simple tense to refer
to past actions and hypothetical situations in the present or the future. It’s
LA

also used in the Subjunctive mood with the form “were”. (were subjunctive)

NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERBS (NON-FINITE CLAUSES contain a verb which

does not have a tense.)
FI

❏ THE INFINITIVE:
❏ The “to” infinitive: it can have nominal, adjectival and adverbial function.
❏ The bare infinitive
❏ The perfect infinitive


❏ THE -ING FORM

❏ The gerund: it has nominal function (noun equivalent)
❏ The present participle: part of a finite verb phrase (progressive tense),
adjectival function, or adverbial function.
❏ THE -ED OR PAST PARTICIPLE
❏ Part of a finite verb phrase (perfect tenses)
❏ Part of a finite verb phrase (in passive voice)
❏ Adjectival function (pre modifier)
❏ Adverbial function

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* Modals are always finite, therefore all the forms beginning with modals are finite.

TEXTS AND GENRES

What distinguishes a text from a non-text is the property of TEXTURE

TEXTURE is what holds clauses of a text together to give them unity.

OM
TEXTURE

COHESION COHERENCE

A property related to the internal The way a sequence of clauses relates

semantic ties between different parts of to the context.
the text.

.C
It occurs where the interpretation of
some element in the text is dependent
There’s coherence when the stretch of
language has an identifiable purpose,
DD
on that of another. content, interactants, role of language
(spoken/written).

One element presupposes the other

(e.g: references).
LA

Definitions of text:
● Any unified piece of language that has the properties of texture (Eggins, S.)
● A unit of language in use. It’s not a grammatical unit like a clause or a
FI

sentence. It’s best regarded as a semantic unit, a unit not of form, but of
meaning. (H&H)
● A semantic unit of whatever length, spoken or written, and in which forms a
unified whole, with respect both to its internal properties and to the social


context in which it’s produced. (Downing & Locke)

When speakers/writers produce a text -----> they want to achieve a goal/purpose

(to make a claim, to share an experience,
to present results, etc.)
★ The purposeful activities we engage in as social beings are called GENRES.
★ The purpose of the social activity generates text texture or schematic
structure. As genres have different purposes, they display distinctive
structures.
★ Each genre has prototypical lexicogrammar choices.

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 ★ As members of a culture, we are able to identify the typical genres that
circulate in our contexts; we are acquainted with how they are organized and
the linguistic features they typically display.

THINGS TO ANALYZE IN THE TEXTS:

➔ purpose
➔ content
➔ text producer
➔ addressees

OM
➔ cohesive resources

FROM CLAUSE TO TEXT

clauses -------------> lexicogrammatical units ---------> realize texts

texts ----------------> not lexicogrammatical units but semantic units

.C
*Not any clause sequence constitutes a text.
A sequence of clauses creates a text when there is UNITY among them.
DD
GENRE

When we produce texts ------> we engage in an activity which involves the use of
language with a purpose in mind
LA

That activity is referred to as a genre

GENRES -----> are staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activities in which speakers

engage as members of a culture. (e.g: reports, book reviews, manuals, biographies)
FI

Schematic structure


GENRES ----> have predictable compositional structures.

The purpose we have in mind cannot be achieved all at once; it’s achieved in different
stages that contribute to fulfilling the purpose.

Stages
● predictable segments that contribute a part of the overall meanings
● they consist of one or more phrases that vary in relation to the subject matter

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Patterns of lexicogrammatical choices

GENRES ----> ways of achieving different communicative goals through language

SPEAKERS ----> make different lexicogrammatical choices according to the purposes

Texts of different genres will reveal different lexicogrammatical choices - words and
structures
If each genre is made up of a number of different stages, then we should find that
different elements of schematic structure will reveal different lexicogrammatical

OM
choices.

SPEECH AND WRITING

The meanings that we make -----> are realized through lexicogrammatical choices,
in context which are realized through a network of expressions

.C
EXPRESSION makes use of:
★ medium of sound (phonological system)
DD
★ graphic medium (graphological system)

chat with your friends note to your brother

doctor consultation an SMS
telephone conversation an e-mail to a friend
LA

oral presentation an expository essay

spoken medium written medium

FI

The variable of context that influences the role that language plays in an interaction
is called mode.

MODE ------> two dimensions



➔ The immediacy of feedback

➔ The role of language as action or as reflection

a. The immediacy of feedback

The continuum classifies situations according to the possibilities of immediate
feedback between participants.
continuum
casual chat with friends writing a book

interactants can see and hear each no contact between writer and reader
other

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feedback: immediate feedback: no immediate

they can ask for clarification in the

moment

additional ways: gestures, body

movement, paralinguistics features, ect.

phone calls, e-mails

feedback: not so much delayed
participants can hear but no see each other(phone calls)

OM
b. The role of language as action or as reflection
It ranges situations to whether language is used to accompany an activity
participants are engaged in or to reflect on experiences.

.C
Playing a game of cards
continuum
Writing an answer on an exam
DD
the role of language is almost a kind of language is all that there is
action

there’s a verbal action of making a bid, writer and reader have nothing else to
naming the cards to be played, etc. resort to in order to make and
understand meanings.
LA

language is just one of the means to

achieve the ongoing action
FI

MODE


SPOKEN WRITTEN

Interactive Non-interactive

Face-to-face Not face-to-face

Language as action Language as a reflection

Spontaneous Not spontaneous

Casual Not casual

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 SPOKEN vs WRITTEN

SPOKEN WRITTEN

Context-dependent Context independent

Dynamic structures (interactive staging, Synoptic structure (closed staging,

open-ended) rhetorical organization)

Spontaneity phenomena (false starts, No spontaneity (full sentences, complex

OM
hesitations, etc) clauses)

Everyday lexis Prestige lexis

Non-standard grammar Standard grammar

Lexically sparse Lexically dense (nominalizations)

.C
MEDIUM: the physical channel for the transmission of texts; it can be
sound/phonological or graphic (spoken medium or written medium)
DD
MEDIUM vs MODE

Note from a daughter to her mother medium: all same ---->written

Whatsapp message mode: different (1&2: informal language,
LA

News report no auxiliary verbs, spoken language; 3:

clear structure, complex syntax, nomin.)

LEXICAL DENSITY
FI

● It’s the proportion of lexical items (content words) to the total discourse.
● LD is closely related to whether the text is more active or reflective:
written language -------> reflective --------> LD higher


● LD increases in written texts because of the number of non-lexical items

(gram.words)
● In written texts the number of clauses goes down.
● In a text more spoken, the meanings get unpacked; therefore, there’s lower
lexical density.

NOMINALIZATION
It’s a process by means of which LD is achieved

NOMINALIZATION ----> the process of turning things that are not normally nouns into

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 nouns.
NOUNS: pre and post modified
➔ NOM ----> more information to be packed in the same clause
➔ LD higher
NOM: main parts of the clause ------> verbs and conjunctions -----> turned into nouns
(also adj. and advs.)
How LD is achieved?
❖ Nominalization
❖ Embedded clauses

OM
➢ sentences that have lost function
➢ can be constituents (part of itself)
➢ more packed information

UNIT 2: THE ORGANIZATION OF TIME IN THE TEXTUAL WORLD

.C
TENSE: is the linguistic expression of time relations that is realized by verb
DD
inflections. Tense systems are language-specific. (they vary from language to
language)
TIME: is a universal concept, common to all humankind and independent of
language. It has only one dimension and can be represented by one straight line
divided into three parts: TIME FRAMES.
LA

BEFORE ----------------------------------------------- NOW ------------------------------------------------------AFTER

(past) (speech time/present moment) (future)
FI

TENSE
● way of expressing events as occurring at points situated along the linear flow
of time
● the normal, universal and unmarked point of reference is the moment of


speaking (present)
*the same tense may refer to different time frames

Within the same time frame, we may need to use different tenses, but the time frame
remains the same. In this case we can speak of tense shift.

Many times we need to change from one time frame to another; these time-frame
shifts are generally signalled by an explicit time market to guide the reader/listener.

Reasons why we change time frames:

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 ➢ From the present to the past
○ To explain or support a general statement with past description or
elaboration on a topic
○ To support a claim about the present with examples from the past
○ To provide background information about a topic
○ To support a general statement about a change by comparing past and
present situations

➢ From the past time frame to the present

OM
○ To express a comment or an opinion about a topic

THE USE OF TENSES IN PARTICULAR GENRES

WRITTEN NARRATIVES
Typically used tense -------> simple past tense

.C
★ Writers often build a storyline using action progress verbs (look, put, give,
jump, run, etc.) to refer to various events or steps in the story.
★ They also resort to mental process verbs to what the actors in the story see,
DD
feel or think.
★ There may be a number of related actions and situations that can provide
background information, and these are often expressed by means of past
perfect and past progressive tenses. The former is used to locate events that
took place before the main events in the story, and the latter is mostly used to
LA

locate events that were simultaneous with the events in the main story.
★ Writers choose to begin a narrative by setting the scene for the reader by
establishing a link to the here and now. They do that using the simple present
tense. They may also use this tense to interrupt the basic storyline when they
FI

find it fitting to introduce a general statement.

WRITTEN DESCRIPTIONS


Description of objects, places, and people typically include present tense forms. The
simple present tense often provides the basic time frame. Present perfect form are
also used when writers want to indicate that an action that took place in an
unspecified time in the past has produced some effects in the present.
We can also find descriptions of things, places and people in the past and the basic
tense selection will be the past simple.

ORAL DISCOURSE

Conversation -----> oral discourse ------> two or more interlocutors

➔ everyday exchanges with friends, family, etc.

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 ➔ can be inserted as dialogues in fictional works or in our narrations of
events.

● Present progressive ------> to refer to future actions or actions that are

occurring at the moment of speaking
● Simple present ------> to refer to mental processes
● When we tell stories, jokes, and anecdotes, we often combine certain
discourse segments with certain tensense and certain aspects. We may begin
narrating an event in the past (simple past) and then shift to the present

OM
(“historic” present)
● Historic present -----> to add more vividness to actions and events in the past.
It can include changes from simple to progrssive aspect.
Changes ------> to emphasize or to signal suspense

UNIT 3: COHESION

.C
DD
Text ------> semantic unit -----> realized by clauses -----> related in different ways

<<A competent speaker of a language can decide whether a passage is a text or just
a collection of unrelated sentences>>
LA

One of the sources of texture unity is its generic structure

Structural continuity/schematic structure ------> not the only way of continuity

FI

Types of meaning relations between different parts of the text ----> internal unity

COHESION: a property related to the semantic ties between different parts of the text
These types of items -----> create semantic relations or “cohesive ties”


A tie implies a relation that cannot exist without two members

Cohesive tie: at least two semantically related items

COHESION
➔ relations of meaning that exist within the text and that define it as a text
➔ occurs where the INTERPRETATION of some element in the discourse is
dependent on that of another
The one presupposes the other
➢ A relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements (the
presupposing and the presupposed) are integrated into a text.

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Cohesion is part of the text-forming component in the linguistic system. It’s the
means whereby elements that are structurally unrelated to one another are linked
together.

Realization of cohesion

The semantic relation of cohesion is realized through the lexicogrammatical system.

This means that some forms of cohesion are realized through the grammar and
some others through the vocabulary (lexis).

OM
GRAMMATICAL types of cohesion -----> reference, substitution and ellipsis
LEXICAL cohesion -----> repetition, antonymy, hyperonymy
*conjunction is on the borderline of the two

GRAMMATICAL COHESION

.C
1. REFERENCE: Reference words are items which do not have a full meaning in
their own right. To work out what they mean, we have to refer to sth else.
DD
a. There are two ways to work out the full meaning of a reference word:
To look in the surrounding text or to look outside the text in the real
world.
ENDOPHORIC REFERENCE (referent inside the text)
➔ Anaphoric
LA

➔ Cataphoric
➔ Esphoric: e.g: The book that I bought last week...

EXOPHORIC REFERENCE (referent outside the text (non-cohesive)

FI

➔ referent: in the context of the situation

➔ referent: in the shared knowledge of the reader/writer (culture) HOMOPHORIC
REFERENCE


PERSONAL OR PRONOMINAL REFERENCE

The most common reference words are the personal pronouns I, you, she, he, it and
they along with their objective forms (me, him,etc) and their possessive pronouns.
❖ Since the first and second personal pronouns “I, you and we” involve the
speaker/writer and the hearer/reader, they are normally used for situation
reference.
❖ The third personal pronoun can be used for both types of reference. In speech,
these pronouns may involve situation reference, while text reference is more
common in writing.
DEMONSTRATIVE REFERENCE
The words this, that, these and those are called DEMONSTRATIVES.

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This and these normally point to something nearby, while that and those pick out
something further away. In their cohesive function they can be used with nouns or
without nouns.
COMPARATIVE REFERENCE
It’s realized by comparative reference items such as same, equal, such, similar, other
and adverbs in the comparative degree.

2. SUBSTITUTION
There are special words in English which contribute to cohesion by substituting for

OM
words that have already been used. The most important are one, do (all it forms) and
so. Instead of repeating the word, the substitute enables such repetition to be
avoided. Using a substitute creates a strong link between one part of a text and an
earlier part, and helps to make the text cohesive.
a. NOUN SUBSTITUTES
● When it substitutes a noun (one, ones, same)

.C ● It’s not strictly accurate to call ”one” a noun substitute, since a

noun is an individual word like centre or providers, not a pair of
words like a region.
DD
b. VERB SUBSTITUTES
● The verb substitutes are “do” or “do so”. Since do is a verb, and
an irregular one, it also has the form does, did, done, and doing.
We’ll use “do” to cover all five forms. It’s clear that do can
substitute for just a verb or a verb and some of its modifiers.
LA

c. CLAUSE SUBSTITUTES
● The word used to substitute for an entire clause is “so” or “not”.
● CLAUSE: a combination of at least a subject and a predicate.
● SENTENCE: (largest grammatical unit) one clause or many
FI

clauses.

3. ELLIPSIS (Nominal, verbal, or clausal ellipsis)

A common device in texts is to leave out a word or phrase rather than repeat it.


e.g: I’ll ask Jenny about laptops. I want to find out whether we have got any <>.
Ellipsis comes from the Greek “elleipen” meaning “to leave out” (not to be confused
with “ellipse”, the geometric shape).

LEXICAL COHESION
It comes about through the selection of items that are related in some way to those
that have gone before.
A. The most direct form of LC is the REPETITION of a lexical item. Used to make
emphasis or because that's what the writer wanted to talk about.

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 B. Instead of repeating the same word, some texts use a SYNONYM. It’s a word
that has the same meaning as another word or very close meaning.
C. Another way of linking words in a text is to refer back to a word by using a
SUPERORDINATE term. We have a general word called the superordinate
(hypernym), and a more specific one called a hyponym. (“types of”)
D. MERONYM is the relationship between a part and the whole. i.e: Ben saw a
chimney. He was close to the cottage now. (parts of)
E. We can also use words or phrases which are opposite in meaning. These are
called ANTONYMS. It allows the author to express a contrast.

OM
F. Texts often involve relations of meaning which are less easy to define. These
words have in common that they all have to do with the general area; they
come from the same SEMANTIC FIELD.

Something is cohesive when the referent and the reference form are in separate
clauses

.C
Double-cohesive: formed by a lexical and a grammatical device, both pointing out to
the same referent.
DD
UNIT 4: CLAUSE COMBINING AND THE USE OF JUNCTIVES

Logico-semantic relations
LA

Another source of textual unity ---------> the expression of logical relation between the
clauses
Logical meanings create continuity in texts by linking messages in terms of
FI

clarification, addition, time, consequence, and comparison.

*Logico semantic relations hold between clauses in a clause complex and across
sentences.


Types of logico-semantic relations

Words/phrases -------> express logico-semantic relations -------> through JUNCTIVES

or linking words
Main types of junctives
● coordinators (and, or but)
● subordinators (although, because)
● conjunct or sentence connectors (in other words, therefore, for instance)
● prepositional cluster (apart from, on account of)

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Wide range of meaning relations

➔ ELABORATE the message in another clause by restating it differently.

ELABORATION (=): restatement (in other words, that is to say)
exemplification (for example, for instance)
clarification (in fact, actually)
description (non-defining relative clauses)
➔ EXTEND the meanings in another clause by addition.
EXTENSION (+): addition ( and, besides, moreover, also, furthermore)

OM
alternative (or, alternatively)
➔ ENHANCE the meaning of another clause by providing circumstantial
information.
ENHANCEMENT (X): Time (while, meanwhile, before, after)
Space (where and there)
Manner (similarly, likewise, by)

.C Cause (because, as, since)

Effect (therefore, so, as a result, consequently)
Purpose (so that, in order to)
DD
Condition (if, otherwise)
Concession/ contrast (but, yet, although, however, even
though)

*Logico-semantic relations between clauses or clause complexes are not always

LA

explicitly signaled. In those cases, they need to be worked out by the reader/listener.

Suzanne Eggins. Chapter 2

FI

The word text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage spoken or written, of
whatever lengths, that does form a unified whole.

Halliday and Hassan introduced the concept of texture.



Texture: is the property that distinguishes text from non text. texture is what holds
the clauses of a text together to give them unity.
Texture involves the interaction of two components: coherence, the text’s
relationship to its extra-textual context, and cohesion, the way the elements within
the text bind it together as a unified whole.
The occurrence letters arranged in words, however, is not sufficient to constitute text
either.

The pivotal unit of lexico-grammatical structure, the unit at the highest rank, is the
clause, with the upper boundary of grammatical relations the clause complex or

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sentence. The only elements occurring within the same sentence can be
grammatically related.
The smallest unit which can enter into grammatical relations, the lowest rank in the
grammatical hierarchy, is the morpheme, as it is the smallest unit of meaning.

UNITS OF LEXICO-GRAMMAR

Highest rank
● clause

OM
● clause complex
● phrase/group
● word
Lowest rank
● morpheme

.C
DD
LA
FI


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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SECOND PART OF THE TERM TEST: THE TEXT

1) Lexical density
- a sentence
Explain what makes this sentence lexically dense
NOMINALIZATIONS

Option 1: The use of the noun/s... makes this sentence lexically dense. The noun is

OM
pre modified by “...” and post modified by “...” (embedded clause) so there is a lot of
information packed in a single noun group. The following can be an unpacked
version: “............”. The same information has been unpacked/decompressed in (3
ranking clauses). The noun x has been turned into the process x, and the embedded
clause became a ranking clause.

.C
Option 2: The example is lexically dense since, by using nominalizations (..x...), a
high number of content words has been packed in a single clause. The noun is
premodified….and post modified…
DD
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

STRUCTURAL RELATIONS BETWEEN CLAUSES (it only occurs between clause

complex)
When two or more clauses are combined, they form clause complexes.
LA

Two basic kinds of structural relationships: parataxis and hypotaxis

Paratactically related clauses -----> in relation of equality

FI

They can be:

● Juxtaposed (comma, colon, semicolon, or dash)
● joined by a coordinator (and, but, or)
● joined by a correlative pair (not only... but also, either... or)


● joined by a conjunct (moreover, in addition, similarly, yet, on the

contrary)

E.g: We have to find it | ; this is the hard part sentences of the same
| and status: dep-dep/ ind-ind

Hypotactically related clauses ------> in a relation of inequality

➔ they are structurally dependent on an independent clause
Dependent clauses may be marked by:
● subordinators (although, because, unless, until, if, while)
● relatives (who, which, whose, when)

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 ● subject operator inversion
● by being a non-finite clause (with no other marking or preceded by a
conjunction or a preposition /prep cluster)

E.g: When I was walking home, I was shot in the back

I gave the ticket to my son, who promptly lost it
Were she here, she would support the motion

*Only ranking clauses can be syntactically related with other clauses. Embedded

OM
clauses DO NOT enter into the system of TACTIC RELATIONS.

.C
DD
LA

Traditional approach: embedded clauses -----> are types of subordinate clauses

TRADITIONAL TRADITIONAL
FI

Main clause Independent clause (dominant)

Subordinate clause: Dependent clause:

● relative ● I met his brother, who lives in NY


● nominal ● Don’t come if you don’t feel well

● nominal relative ● Though feeling unwell, he made
● adverbial an effort to appear cheerful

Embedded clause (no tactic relation):

➢ The only person who was kind to
her was Peter. (Postm. NGr.)
➢ I met his brother who lives in New
York. (postm. NGr)
➢ What caused the accident is not
clear. (head in a NGr-S)

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 ➢ I want to check what you’ve done,
(head in a Ngr.-Od)

* The embedded clauses function as a constituent of another unit. That is, they are
not clauses which are combined with other clauses, but they are clauses which are
part of another clause or part of a group within the clause.

OM
Sometimes two or more dependent clauses may be paratactically related.
E.g: The lady refused to answer because she felt ashamed and didn’t want to show her
true feelings.

PUNCTUATION PROBLEMS

.C
1. COMMA SPLICE: when a comma separates two independent clauses (they
should be separated by a semicolon)
2. RUN-ON SENTENCE: when no punctuation at all separates independent
DD
clauses.
3. SENTENCE FRAGMENT/INCOMPLETE SENTENCE: when the subject or the
verb is missing or when the independent clause is missing in a clause
complex.
LA

CLAUSE REDUCTION

Reduced clauses are non-finite or verbless clauses created by reducing or

contracting a finite clause.
FI

They are used to compress information and they may be structurally dependent on
another clause or embedded in it.

Dependent reduced clauses:



I can’t give an opinion without having read the book

When ripe, the apples are picked and sorted
Having passed the exam, we all relaxed
Embedded reduced clauses:
A farmer is interested in how to apply the practice
The green hills ringing the town are now covered with colorful flowers

*When the subject is not present in a non-finite or verbless clause, it is assumed to

be identical in reference to the subject of the main clause
e.g: Driving home after work, I accidentally went through a red light.

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DANGLING CONSTRUCTIONS

Sometimes the subject of the reduced clause is different from the subject of the
main clause, but it is not explicitly stated. In those cases, the reduced clause
becomes a dangling construction, because the subject is still assumed to be the
subject of the main clause, but it isn’t.

e.g: Reading the evening paper, a dog started barking.

OM
Following the recipe carefully, my cake was a great success.
These constructions are considered to be ungrammatical, so they should be fixed.

Exceptions: There are cases in which the subjects of the reduced and the main
clause are different and even so the reduced clauses are not considered dangling
constructions.

.C
Style disjuncts (in which the speaker is implied):
Judging from his expression, he is in a bad mood
Fixed expressions:
DD
Give the circumstances, the economy appears strong

UNIT 5: INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

LA

The organization of information in individual clauses contributes to the organization

of the larger text.
The constituents in a clause may be arranged in different ways giving rise to different
grammatical structures. [TEXTUAL METAFUNCTION]
FI

The freedom in the arrangement of clause constituents is restricted by the textual

context.

THEME -----> 1st participant in the clause ----> first experiential element


➔ the point of departure the speaker has chosen for his/her clause
➔ indicates what the message will be about and takes initial position in the
clause
*The rest of the clause is the Rheme

E.g: My sister has flown to Europe (participant)

Come here! (process)
In July, trees are naked (circumstances)
marked

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 THEMATIC STRUCTURE

Themes ----> unmarked (prototypical)

-----> marked (unusual)

Type of clause Unmarked themes (prototypical) Example

Declarative Theme= subject My sister has gone...

Imperative Theme= predicator (lexical verb) Come here!

OM
Yes-No interrogative Theme= finite (aux.)+subject Has Mark arrived?

Wh- interrogative Theme= Wh-word/element Where do we go?

*If the theme DOES NOT coincide with the prototypical theme, then it is marked
theme

.C
When we have a D. Obj, in initial position in declarative sentences, we call it highly
DD
marked theme because it is really rare to find it in initial position.

e.g: “The --------and -------- help organize the -------- and are thus part of ------”
multiple unmarked theme
LA

*A whole dependent clause can function as marked theme when it is a

circumstance. e.g: When I called Rachel, she was not feeling well.
circumstance = marked theme
If we have a clause complex that is made up of two independent clauses that are
FI

PARATACTICALLY related, we have to mark the theme in the first clause, and then the
theme in the second clause.

SIMPLE vs MULTIPLE THEMES



Themes: Simple ------> are made up only by the experiential element

Multiple -------> before the experiential element, we can find interpersonal
or textual elements.

Textual (discourse markers, junctives) or interpersonal (vocatives, modal adjuncts,

etc) themes are optional and can be combined to create multiple themes
But, it is the topical (experiential) theme that anchors the starting point of the
message. This means that the theme will extend up to the first topical element of the
clause.

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 E.g: Well, probably, Mike, Geography is not your main interest
Well, probably, Mike, Geography is not your main
interest

Textual theme Interpersonal Interpersonal Experiential Rheme

theme theme theme

Multiple theme Rheme

OM
INFORMATION STRUCTURE

It is concerned with the distribution of GIVEN and NEW information in a clause.

Sentence: Given info._____________New info. } UNMARKED INFORMATION STRUCT.

(focus: climax)

.C
*There should be a good reason to alter this order

GIVEN
DD
● Information presented as recoverable from: - what has been said before
- the context of situation/ culture
● Optional (not every message contains given information
● If given information is conveyed, it tends to be presented in initial position
LA

NEW
● Information mentioned for the first time in the text, or presented as
non-recoverable.
● Information presented in a new light (the speaker mentions again sth but from
FI

a different perspective)
● Obligatory (every message should contain new information)

PRINCIPLES OF END WEIGHT AND END FOCUS



End-weight -----> the principle by which longer structures (thus carrying more info.)
tend to occur later in a clause
End-focus -------> the principle by which the most newsworthy information in the
message is placed towards the end of the clause
When the ladies removed after dinner. Elizabeth ran up to her sister, and seeing her well
guarded from cold, attended her into the drawing-room…

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SYNTACTIC STRATEGIES TO MANAGE INFORMATION

1. FRONTING: the thematization of a clause constituent that is not typically

placed in initial position.
Functions: - to correct or contrast information
- to keep the principles of end focus and/or end weight
- to contribute to a desire textual organization
e.g: John’s painting the bathroom yellow. The kitchen he is painting blue
focus (unmarked)

OM
Lying on the floor was the ring I had lost many days before focus on time
The ring I had lost many days before was lying on the floor focus on place

2. POSTPONEMENT: existential clauses (existential there) and anticipatory “it”

Function: - to introduce new participants into the text in rheme position
- to follow the principles of end focus/end weight

.C
e.g: There are many people who believe that the recent warming of the climate
is due to the greenhouse effect.(unmarked experiential theme)
It is unfortunate that many doctors who came to Finland in the 1960s had
DD
to start their medical studies over from the beginning in order to be licensed to
practice here. (unmarked experiential theme)

3. CLEFTING: It- clefts (predicated theme)

To single out one experiential element in the clause that will serve as both:
LA

Theme (predicated theme) & New (marked focus)

Function: - to correct or contrast
Structure: It+ be+ focused info. (pred. theme) + that/who clause
Basic sentence: Mary keeps a pig in the garden shed. unmarked theme and focus
FI

a. It is Mary who | keeps a pig in the garden shed (marked focus)

b. It is a pig that she…| (marked focus)
c. It is in the garden shed that she…| (marked focus)


CLEFTING: Wh- clefts (thematic equatives)

Functions: - to signal exclusiveness
- to contrast, emphasize, or correct information
- to introduce new information or new topics in final position
Structure: Wh-clause + be ´focused information
Basic sentence: I want a country of real opportunity
e.g: What I want is a country of real opportunity
theme new information
thematic equative info. structure: unmarked (final position)
(unmarked)
*The structure can be reversed -----> A country of real opportunity is what I want

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 thematic equative
(marked) + marked info. structure

PREDICATED THEMES AND THEMATIC EQUATIVES

Basic sentence ----> Endophoric reference creates cohesion

PREDICATED THEME
a. It is endophoric reference that creates cohesion (marked focus)

OM
pred. theme + focus
b. It is cohesion that endophoric reference creates (marked focus)
pred. theme + focus

THEMATIC EQUATIVES
a. What creates cohesion is endophoric reference

.C
unmarked them. eq. unmarked info. structure
b. Endophoric reference is what creates cohesion
marked them. eq.
DD
marked info. structure

4. PASSIVIZATION
Functions:
● to focus on the agent
LA

This book was written by Dickens

theme focused info.
● To avoid an undesired theme
This was achieved thanks to the population
FI

compare: People (avoided) achieved this thanks to the effort of all the population
● To keep the principles of end-focus and end-weight
The house has been bought and remodeled by the only remaining member of
the family info.


METHOD OF THEMATIC PROGRESSION AND METHOD OF DEVELOPMENT

METHOD OF THEMATIC PROGRESSION

➔ the sequencing of themes and the way in which they are related to previous
themes and rhemes in the text.
➔ contributes to the production of text connexity and facilitates the reading
process.
Types:
a. Topic continuity
b. Linear thematic progression

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 c. Derived themes
d. Themes with divided rheme

TOPIC CONTINUITY (=theme reiteration/constant theme)

Most of the themes refer to the same participant and new information is added in
rhemes. The same theme is repeated in different clauses and new rhemes are
added.
Th.1 --------- Rh. 1
Th. 1 -------- Rh. 2

OM
Th. 1 -------- Rh. 3
e.g: The French and Indian War was the North American conflict in a larger… It began
in 1754 and ended with the...The war provided Great Britain enormous territorial
gains…

LINEAR THEMATIC PROGRESSION

.C
Part of the information contained in the Rheme of a clause becomes the Theme of
the following clause.
T1 ------ R1
DD
T2 (=R1) ----- R2
T3 (=R2) ----- R3

DERIVED THEMES
There is a hypertheme from which the subsequent themes derive.
LA

Hypertheme
TH TH TH
e.g: St. Vincent is small, mountainous and lush. Banana plantations cinge to
steep...Coconut palms sway in the brisk trade winds...The people are warm,
FI

friendly...Unemployment…

THEME WITH DIVIDED RHEME/ SPLIT RHEME PATTERN

The rheme is made up of two or more elements that are taken up as themes of


subsequent clauses.
e.g: You need some fat in your diet...There are two types of fat: saturated and
unsaturated. Saturated fat is found… Too much saturated fat…
Unsaturated fats are defined…

METHOD OF DEVELOPMENT
The way in which choices of themes function as organizing principles of text.
Types:
a. Chronological
b. Topographical
c. From whole to part

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 d. From general to particular

CHRONOLOGICAL
e.g: On January 24, 1848
At that time Most of the themes are time adjuncts
Days after Marshall’s discovery,

TOPOGRAPHICAL
e.g: Behind the…

OM
Directly west of the… Most of the themes are place adjuncts
Beyond…
To the south of…

FROM WHOLE TO PARTS

e.g: The Statue of Liberty is one of the most… --------> The whole

.C
The torch represents…
The tablet or book of laws…
The chains…
The parts
DD
The seven spikes…

FROM GENERAL TO PARTICULAR

e.g: Your position in the family can affect… --------> General
Eldest children…
LA

Second and middle children… Particular

Youngest children…
FI

UNIT 6: INTERPERSONAL MEANINGS. MOOD AND MODALITY

We use language -----> to interact with others

-----> to express interpersonal meanings ------> speaker’s judgement


The semantics of interaction

When we interact -----> we establish a relationship between ourselves and our

interlocutor
we take up different speech roles ----> we assign roles to our interlocutors

BASIC ROLES
● giving something
● demanding something
EXCHANGE:

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 ● information
● goods and services

SPEECH FUNCTIONS
information goods & services

giving statement offer

demanding question command

OM
*These semantic categories are realized by grammatical MOOD choices.

Modality
Expressions that allow the speaker to establish certain interpersonal, social relations
(power, influence, control) and also to show how a speaker interpretes reality in

.C
terms of certainty or likelihood.
*Choices related to speaker’s judgements and attitudes towards what they say and
towards their interlocutors.
DD
EPISTEMIC -----> Likelihood ----> certainty
Requirement
Inclinations/volition/ willingness
LA

NON-EPISTEMIC Frequency
Ability
Potentiality

EPISTEMIC MODALITY
FI

➢ Likelihood
Judgement of reality in terms of certainty
This is so ----------------MODALS---------------------This is not so
(Paul is silly) ------------------------|------------------------------ (Paul is not silly)


It is certain that I think… Paul might be…

HIGH MID LOW
-degrees of certainty-
*The different modal expressions indicate DEGREES of certainty or likelihood.

NON-EPISTEMIC MODALITY

➢ Requirement
Do so --------------------------------------------- Don't do so
(Come here) -----------------------|--------------------- (Do not come here)

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 You have to come || You should come || You can come
here HIGH here MID here LOW

degrees of requirement
HIGH requirement expresses obligation, prohibition and necessity
MID requirement expresses advice
LOW requirement expresses permission or lack of necessity

➢ Inclination

OM
It has to do with your willingness to do something
e.g: I would like to go to the movies
e.g: There’s something strange with the dog. He’s not willing to eat.
not degree
degrees high, mid and low: determination, intention, willingness

➢ Frequency

.C
When I was a child, I would stay hours listening to my grandad
habit in the past
DD
not degree
➢ Ability
Sorry, I can't type fast (physical or intellectual capacities)
not degree
➢ Potentiality
LA

Don’t worry if you can’t go to the meeting; I can do it (external circumstances)

not degree

Modal Expressions
FI

Modal and semi-modal auxiliary verbs -----> may, might, can, should, must, will, would
have to, need to, ought to, etc.
Mental process clauses ------------> I believe, he thinks, I consider, etc


Attributive clause ---------------> It’s admissible that, I’m sure that, It’s impossible that,
(adjectives) They are likely to, It’s usual/unusual that,
Modal verbs -----------------> Demand, order, request, seem, look, appear, intend, etc
Modal adjuncts -------------> Possibly, certainly, perhaps, always, sometimes, never,etc
(adverbs)

I’m thinking about this problem -----> not modal/ experiential meaning
I think Paul is silly ----> modal/ interpersonal meaning

It seems, it looked like/as, I think…-----> mid degree of likelihood (epistemic mod)

exam response:

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Mood
Choices related to the role language users take in the interaction (what they do when
they take turns). It belongs to the interpersonal metafunction
● A grammatical resource related to the structure of the clause
● It can be determined by looking at the presence/absence and position of the
subject and finite

He wrote a nice poem ----------> declarative mood

What a nice poem he wrote -------> declarative mood

OM
Did he write a nice poem? --------> interrogative mood
What did he write? --------> interrogative mood

Write a nice poem? -------> imperative mood (no presence of subject nor finite)

MOOD TYPE
INDICATIVE .C declarative non-exclamatory
MOOD STRUCTURE
Subj - Finite
DD
exclamatory Wh- Subj- Finite

interrogative Yes/No Finite - Subj

Wh- Wh- Finite- Subj

LA

IMPERATIVE

FUNCTION
● Mood is a linguistic resource used to realize interaction
FI

● When we use language to interact, we take up speech roles and by doing so,
we assign roles to our interlocutors
● Each major mood in English (Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative) is typically
associated with a type of interaction


SPEECH FUNCTIONS
something information goods & services
speech role

giving statement offer

(declarative mood) (various)

demanding question command

(interrogative mood) (imperative mood)

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*The grammatical realizations of the speech functions shown above are congruent
(typical)
However, the same speech functions can be realized by means of other mood
structures which are not the typical ones (metaphorical)
e.g: Close the door -----> demand, imperative mood
Would you close the door? ------> demand, interrogative mood

SPEECH FUNCTIONS CONGRUENT METAPHORICAL

Statement Declarative Interrogative

OM
Jack fixed the car Didn’t you know that Jack
fixed the car?

Question Interrogative Declarative

Did Jack fix the car? I was wondering whether
Jack fixed the car

Demand

.C Imperative
Fix the car, Jack
Declarative
The car has broken down,
Jack
DD
Metaphorical realizations may have different motivations, such as politeness, irony,
etc.
The context and the relationship between participants is essential to understand the
LA

intended meaning of metaphorical, indirect forms

The same mood can realize different speech functions
declarative ----> statement
-----> question
-----> command
FI

The same speech function may be realized by different moods

question ----> interrogative
----> imperative
-----> declarative


*There is no ONE-TO-ONE relation between mood and sp. functions

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EXAM POSSIBLE ANSWERS TO PART B

Modality and mood

Epistemic modality: it is realized by the modal verbs (looked, seems) which express
mid degree of likelihood and a mental process clause (I think), also expressing mid
degree of likelihood. This modal meaning prevails because the writer provides an
opinion about the acquittal of a person and tries to tone down his/her point of view
so as not to sound too categorical

OM
In this text both modal meanings are exploited. Again, epistemic modality has
been used to express judgements of likelihood about the same issue (Goetz’s
public judging). It is realized through a mental process clause (I believe), which
expresses mid degree of likelihood and two modal adjuncts (undoubtedly,
expressing high degree and perhaps, expressing low degree). Non epistemic

.C
modality is realized by modal auxiliaries: ‘can’ (potentiality) and ‘should’ (mid
degree of requirement). In this case, the writer is in a position to give
recommendations/advice to journalists.
DD
Epistemic modality: it is used to make predictions
couldn’t (modal auxiliary ‐ high degree of likelihood)
you’ll x 2 (modal auxiliary ‐ high degree likelihood)
will (modal auxiliary ‐ high degree likelihood)
LA

surely (modal adjunct‐high degree likelihood)

seem (modal verb‐mid degree likelihood)
who are not very likely (attributive clause – mid degree likelihood)
Non‐epistemic modality
FI

Can’t/can: Potentiality

a) It must be nighttime.
b) It must have been nighttime.


Both modal auxiliaries express high degree of likelihood but the time reference is
different (present time frame in a, past time frame in b).

a) Will you help me with this problem?

b) Would you help me with this problem?
The modal meaning expressed is inclination in both. ‘Will’ is more direct and gives
less freedom to act. ‘Would’ is more polite, tentative, or a softer form of ‘will’.

a) The ground is wet. It may have rained last night.

b) The ground is wet. It must have rained last night.
The degree of likelihood is low in a and high in b.

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a) You should do your homework.
b) You’d better do your homework.
The modal meaning is requirement. ‘Should’ expresses mid degree (advice) and ‘had
better’ expresses high degree (similar to an obligation or a warning).

a) That might not be important.

b) That couldn’t be important.
The degree of likelihood is low in a and high in b.

OM
a) Sam should introduce the guest speaker.
b) Sam is supposed to introduce the guest speaker.
‘Should’ expresses mid degree of requirement (it is Sam’s duty). The modal verb
‘suppose’ expresses a high degree of requirement (an external obligation, like a rule
imposed by somebody else).

once.
.C
a) If anything goes wrong with the washing machine, contact the manufacturer at

b) If anything should go wrong with the washing machine, contact the manufacturer
DD
at once.
Option a is categorical (no modality). Option b expresses low degree of likelihood
through the auxiliary ‘should’ (a remote possibility).

a) By working hard we were able to succeed.

LA

b) By working hard we could succeed.

Option a expresses ability in the past. Option b expresses low degree of likelihood or
potentiality.
FI

NOMINALIZATION
Find four examples of nominalizations in the following text and illustrate how they
contribute to compress information. Write a text of 80-100 words


Technology use in adolescents can increase creativity, identity development, social

group connection, and improvements in self-esteem and well-being. However, there
are numerous potential risks, such as cyberbullying, sending sexual content,
excessive use, and compromised privacy.

The example is lexically dense since more information has been packed in the same
clause through the use of the nominalization of several words that are not normally
used as nouns such as "use", "development", "connection" and "improvements''.
The noun "use" is premodified by "technology" and post modified by "in adolescents'',
so there is a lot of information packed in only one noun group. The nominalization
"development" has a premodifier that is "identity", and the noun "connection" is

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premodified by "social group". Finally, the nominalization "improvements" is
postmodified by "in self-esteem and well being". All these cases of nominalization
illustrate how information can be packed in fewer clauses, making the text lexically
dense.

MODALITY AND MOOD

Read the text carefully and analyze the writer’s purpose and how it is achieved
through choices of mood and modality. Explain and illustrate making reference to
mood choices and all the modal realizations, which should be thoroughly classified.

OM
Write a text of about 15 lines.
How to write an effective essay
You may have your topic assigned, or you may be given free reign to write on the
subject of your choice. If you are given the topic, you should think about the type of
paper that you want to produce. Should it be a general overview of the subject or a
specific analysis? Narrow your focus if necessary. If you have not been assigned a

.C
topic, you have a little more work to do. However, this opportunity also gives you the
advantage to choose a subject that is interesting or relevant to you. First, define your
purpose. Is your essay to inform or persuade? Once you have determined the
DD
purpose, you will need to do some research on topics that you find intriguing. Think
about your life. What is it that interests you? Jot these subjects down. Finally,
evaluate your options. If your goal is to educate, choose a subject that you have
already studied. If your goal is to persuade, choose a subject that you are passionate
about. Whatever the mission of the essay, make sure that you are interested in your
LA

topic.

The writer's purpose is to give advice on how to write an essay correctly and gives
some instructions to follow along the process. As regards modal realizations, there
FI

is an instance of epistemic modality when the writer chooses to use the modal
auxiliary verb "may" in "You may have your topic assigned, or you may be given free
reign to ..." which expresses low degree of likelihood. Then, the writer uses the modal
auxiliary verb "should" in "you should think about the type of paper that you want to


produce" to give advice to the reader. This is a case of non-epistemic modality with
mid degree of requirement. Later on, in “you will need to do some research on topics
that you find intriguing”, the modal auxiliary verb “will”, which expresses high degree
of likelihood, is a case of epistemic modality. Also, in the same clause, the
semi-modal auxiliary verb “need to”...
As regards mood, in the sentence "Should it be a general overview of the subject or a
specific analysis?" there is an instance of a congruent interrogative mood clause
chosen by the writer to make the reader ask himself the same question. Then, there
are several instances of congruent imperative mood clauses such as in "Narrow
your focus if necessary", " define your purpose", "evaluate your options", " choose a

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subject that..." to give directions that the reader should follow in order to write a good
essay.
Finally, there are also many congruent declarative mood clauses; for instance:
“However, this opportunity also gives you the advantage to choose a subject that is
interesting or relevant to you.” to give explanations…

MOOD:

TEXT IN WRITTEN MOOD

OM
To start with, the text is written in mode and it has certain linguistic features that
make it a written text.
Firstly, the text has no spontaneity. It has no false starts, interruptions or incomplete
clauses.
In contrast, it has complete sentences such as "Genres are identified according to

.C
their purpose", "While it is the whole text, [...] to construct the experience for the
reader." or "This is easily seen in a procedural genre like the report of a science
experiment, or in a historical recount, where there is a relation between the meanings
DD
expressed in different stages and chronological time."
Secondly, the writer uses technical lexis rather than everyday lexis. Examples of
prestige lexis are: "academic activity", "hortatory exposition", "thesis", "science
experiment", "procedural genre", "report" or "historical recount".
Thirdly, the text is lexically dense, which means that it has many lexical items or
LA

content words (per clause) throughout the text. Examples of lexical density are: "the
causes of a historical event", "the results of an experiment", or "the experience for the
reader" (how do these examples illustrate lexical density?).
Finally, when talking about syntax, the text has complex clauses (examples?) and
FI

uses standard grammar as all sentences are grammatically correct.



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