EE 467

Power Systems Operation & Control

UNIT 4 – Maintaining Optimum Power Routing
Dr E. K. Anto

Jan 2014

[email protected]//0208201565; 0243225858
 Learning Objectives
• Explain the objectives of load flow studies
• Understand the effect of reactive power compensation on
reducing power system losses
• Appreciate the effect of shunt compensation on reactive
power generations, as well as voltage profiles
• Understand how compensation affects the direction of VAR
flows
• Undertake simple exercises on shunt compensation

2
 •Start of UNIT 4

3
 4.1: Objectives of Load Flow Studies
• Load flow analysis (LFA) is the collective term for a number of
computer-aided analysis procedures aimed at determining the actual
real and reactive power flow patterns in a given system and, more
importantly, how to control these patterns in a given systems
• Load flow studies are performed to investigate the following:

1) Flow of real and reactive power (MW and MVAr) in the branches of
the network - based on certain assumptions or specifications regarding
loads and generations.
2) Voltage levels (magnitude and angle) at all system buses.
3) Checking the extent of overloading in a transmission line.
NOTE: Overload” can mean operation too close to the transmission limit of
4 the line or overheating (in the case of underground cables).
 4.1: Objectives of Load Flow Studies (2)
4) Effect of rearranging circuits and incorporating new circuits on
system loading
5) Effect of temporary loss of generation and transmission circuits on
system loading
6) Effect of injecting in-phase and quadrature boost voltages on system
loading
7) The optimum system running conditions and load distribution
8) The optimum system losses
9) The optimum rating and tap range of transformers
10) The rerouting of power in case of emergencies.
11) The improvement from change of conductor size and system
voltage.
5
 4.2 Basic features of LFA for a SIMPLE, hypothetical
2-bus system

Fig: (a) Simple Two-Bus System (b) Its Equivalent Network Model
6
 •Load Flow Analysis Using The
ANALYTICAL APPROACH

7
 4.3 Load Flow Analysis-Using The Analytical
Approach
• Example 1:

• Let us demonstrate the above type of situation by performing a

load flow study of the previous SIMPLE, hypothetical 2-bus system
under the following set of assumptions:
•
• 1) The voltage of bus 2 must be kept at constant magnitude of

• 2) The load demand from bus 2 is

• .
• 3) The line impedance equals

8
 4.3 Load Flow Analysis-Using The Analytical
Approach (2)
• Solution 1:
• We have the following relationships between line current , load bus
voltage , and the load power .

• The two bus voltages are related in the following way:

• Substituting for the current, we obtain

9
 4.3 Load Flow Analysis-Using The Analytical
Approach (3)
• Solution 1(2)
• All variables on the right hand side of the last Eqn. are specified.
• Choosing as the reference phasor, the voltage at bus 1 can be
solved as:

• Once is known, we can compute the power injected into bus 1

10
 4.3 Load Flow Analysis-Using The Analytical
Approach (4)
• SUMMARY OF RESULTS:

11
 4.3 Load Flow Analysis-Using The Analytical
Approach (5)
• NOTES on summarized results – Example 1:
• There is a significant increase in the generator bus V1 from 1.00 p.u. to
1.209 p.u, an increment of about 20.9 %. This percentage increment is
not good; it’s too high (far above the +/-5 % threshold)

• The voltage drop is expressed as a difference between r.m.s. values of

the two bus voltages equals:

• The power loss in the line is

12
 •Load Flow Analysis Using The
ITERATIVE COMPUTATION

13
 4.4 Load Flow Analysis-Using The Iterative
Computation
• Example 2:

• Let us rework Example 1 under the following slightly changed

specifications.
• 1) The load demand from bus 2 is unchanged, that is, .
• 2) The voltage of bus 1 rather is kept at , instead of 1.209 p.u.
(that is, a reduction in the generator bus voltage)
• 3) The line impedance remains

NOTE: Compared with Example 1, the voltages and have changed

roles as known and unknown, that is, (load bus voltage) must now be
determined for the same load
14
 4.4 Load Flow Analysis-Using The Iterative
Computation (2)
• Solution 2:
• We make an initial reasonable guess at . Let us call this . Using the
current Eqn, we can now solve for .

• We obtain:

• From the voltage Eqn, we are then able to compute a new value for .
Let us call it .

• Thus

15
 4.4 Load Flow Analysis-Using The Iterative
Computation (3)
• Solution 2 (2):
• This equation represents a computational rule or algorithm, and needs a
number of iterations in solving it.
• Let us make an initial guess:
Number of Bus Voltage
Iterations V2
• It converges after 14 iterations 0 1.000 + j0.000
1 0.810 – j0.215
2 0.715 – j0.190
3 0.677 – j0.215
. .
. .
. .
12 0.619 –j0.215
13 0.618 –j0.215
16
14 0.618 –j0.215
 4.4 Load Flow Analysis-Using The Iterative
Computation (4)
• SUMMARY of results

17
 4.4 Load Flow Analysis-Using The Iterative
Computation (5)
• NOTES on summarised results – Example 2
• There is a significant reduction in load bus voltage V2, from 1.00 pu to
0.654 p.u., a decrease of about 34.6 % . Again, this percentage decrease
is also not good; it’s again too high.

• This reduced voltage needs to be boosted using reactive compensation

(i.e., injection of VAR at the bus using capacitor – see Example 3)

• The new voltage drop is ,

• This value of 0.346 p.u. is an obvious increase compared with a voltage

drop of 0.209 p.u. in the previous Example 1
18
 4.4 Load Flow Analysis-Using The Iterative
Computation (6)

• NOTES on summarised results – Example 2 (2)

• The new loss power is

• The new loss power of p.u. also represents an increase.

• NOTE how it compares with a loss power of p.u. in the

previous example

19
 •Load Flow Analysis – Involving REACTIVE
POWER INJECTION Using Shunt Capacitor
Banks

20
 4.5 Load Flow Analysis – Involving Bus Reactive
Power Injection Using Shunt Capacitor Banks
• Example 3:

• The capacitor delivers p.u. MVAr to load bus 2.

• If exceeds the load demand of 5 p.u. MVAr, then the surplus
reactive power will be flowing into the line.
• It is desired to have flat voltage profile (ideal), that is,
• Demand is unchanged, that is,
21
 4.5 Load Flow Analysis – Involving Bus Reactive
Power Injection Using Shunt Capacitor Banks (2)
• Solution 3 (2):
• With the injection of at load bus 2, the line flow to bus 2 to meet
demand there will reduce, and is equal to

• Applying the complex power equation,

• The line current (after shunt compensation) is

• The voltage relationships are

•
22
 4.5 Load Flow Analysis – Involving Bus Reactive
Power Injection Using Shunt Capacitor Banks (3)
• Solution 3 (3):
• Choosing as the reference value, we obtain

• The desire is for equal to unity. Hence

• Solving by separating parts,

• Or,
23
 4.5 Load Flow Analysis – Involving Bus Reactive
Power Injection Using Shunt Capacitor Banks (4)
• Solution 3 (4):
• The line current is calculated as:
•

• NOTE that the current is leading (positive angle of 16.76 deg)

• The generator bus voltage is found as
• Hence sending-end power is

24
 4.5 Load Flow Analysis – Involving Bus Reactive
Power Injection Using Shunt Capacitor Banks (5)
• SUMMARY of results:

• NOTES on summarized results

i. All of the reactive power demand at Bus 2 is supplied locally by the shunt
capacitor.
ii. As a result, the reactive power flow on the line has been drastically reduced;
in fact, reversed (-j2.41), and move towards the generator bus
iii. This reversed reactive power must be absorbed by the generator
iv. In order to absorb, the generator must operate in under-excited mode (as
seen in the negative value of the Q generation of –j0.315 p.u.);
25
 •SELF ASSESSMENT

26
 4.6 SELF ASSESSMENT
Consider the Fig below where a generator supplies the load
through a transmission line of impedance
. If the voltage at load bus is to be kept at a
magnitude , determine the following:
a) reactive compensation at the load bus such that
b) generation

27
 Thank You – End of Unit 4

For any concerns, please contact

[email protected]
[email protected]
0322 191132
Jan 2014