EMG 2404 MECHANICS OF MACHINES III

Expected Outcomes

At the end of this course, students should be able to;

• Distinguish the different types of linkages and understand the special purpose mechanisms.

• Carry out kinematic synthesis of planar mechanisms.

• Design and analyze the Hookes (universal) joint.

• Carry out kinematic analysis of spatial mechanisms.

• Design the cams and analyze cam dynamics.

• Write computer programs to analyze and design linkages (Computer Aided Design and
Analysis of Linkages)

Course Outline

Review of analysis of planar mechanisms; Degrees of freedom, kinematic pair. Theoretical posi-
tion, velocity and acceleration analysis of a slider-crank mechanism; as an example.
Types of planar linkages and special purpose mechanisms: Crank-rocker, double crank and double
rocker mechanisms. Special purpose mechanisms; quick-return, straight-line motion, dwell motion
and toggle joint.
Synthesis of four bar linkages: Classification of synthesis; function generation, path generation
and motion generation. Freudenstein’s equation. Optimum transmission angle of a crank-rocker
mechanism. Cognates of linkages. Chebychev theorem. Computer aided design in linkage design.
Introduction to spatial linkages: Possible link connection types allowing for three-dimensional mo-
tion; revolute, prismatic slides, helix pair, cylindrical pair, spherical and plane joints. Kinematics
of a typical four-bar spatial linkage.
Hooke’s universal joint: Construction of Hooke’s universal joint. Input-output relationships of
angular position and velocity, coefficient of fluctuation of speed, arrangements to give equal input
and output speeds at all times. Acceleration of the output and condition for maximum accelera-
tion.
Cam dynamics and design: Cam profiles, displacement diagrams and derivatives of follower mo-
tion. Graphical design of cams. Analysis of cams; straight flanks, curved flanks. High speed and
standard cams. Polynoid cam design. Effect of sliding friction.
Practicals

Two computer programming exercise to

1. Classify the typical four-bar linkage and do position, velocity and acceleration analysis.

2. Use Freudensteins eqution to synthesize a four-bar linkage using three precision points and
also using more than three precision points (least square method to minimize structural
errors).

Prerequisites
• Engineering Mechanics

• Algebra - Trigonometry and Vectors

• Differential and Integral Calculus

• Mechanics of Machines I [EMG 2208]

Reference Textbooks
1. Hannah, J. and Stephens, R.C., Mechanics of Machines -Elementary Theory and Examples,
Arnold International Publishers.

2. Hannah, J. and Stephens, R.C, Mechanics of Machines -Advanced Theory and Examples,
Arnold International Publishers.

3. Ryder, G.H. and Bennett, M.D., Mechanics of Machines, McMillan Education Ltd Publish-
ers, 2nd Ed., 1990.

4. Hamilton, H.M and Charles F.R., Mechanics and Dynamics of Machinery,

5. Shigley J. and Uicker, Theory of Machines and Mechanisms,

6. Norton, R.L., Design of Machinery - An Introduction to the Synthesis and Analysis of Mech-
anisms and Machines, McGraw-Hill Publishers, 3rd Ed., 2004.

7. Grosjean, J., Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanisms, McGraw-Hill Book Co. (UK) Ltd,
1991.

8. Mabie, H. H., Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machines.

9. Prentice, J. M., Dynamics of Mechanical Systems.

Topics Coverage
1. Planar Linkages.

2. Kinematic Synthesis of Linkages.

3. Spatial Linkages.

4. Hooke’s Joint.

5. Cam Dynamics and Design.

Contents

Expected Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Course Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Practicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Reference Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Topics Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

1 Planar Linkages 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1.1 Linkage, Mechanism and Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Special Purpose Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2.1 Four bar mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2.2 Slider-crank mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Kinematic Synthesis 12

2.1 Classification of kinematic synthesis problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2.2 Input-output relationship of a standard four-bar linkage: Freudenstein’s equation . 13

2.2.1 Function generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.2.2 Structural error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Hooke’s (Universal) Joint 25

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.2 Angular Velocity ratio for Hooke’s Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

 3.3 Angular Acceleration of the Output Shaft in a Hooke’s Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.4 Double Hooke’s Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4 Spatial Linkages 34

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.2 Degrees of freedom of a spatial linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.2.1 Degree of freedom of a rigid body in space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.2.2 Kinematic constraints in spatial mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.2.3 Mobility criteria for spatial mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4.3 Review of Vector Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.3.1 Position Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.3.2 Scalar (Dot) Product of two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.3.3 Vector (Cross) Product of two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.4 Kinematics Analysis of Spatial Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.4.1 Kinematics of a rigid body in space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.4.2 Kinematics of a Typical 4-bar Spatial Linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5 Cam Design and Dynamics 47

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.1.1 Classification of Cams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.1.2 Cam Synthesis and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

5.1.3 Cam Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5.2 Graphical Design of Cams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.2.1 Analysis of Different Types of Follower Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.3 Dynamic Analysis of Cams with Straight Flanks and Roller Follower . . . . . . . . 63

5.3.1 Roller in contact with straight flank AB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

5.3.2 Roller in contact with nose BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Chapter 1

Planar Linkages

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Linkage, Mechanism and Machine

Linkages are the basic building blocks of all mechanisms. A linkage consists of rigid/flexible bodies
which are connected together by joints to form a closed network of links.

If one body of the linkage is fixed, then the linkage is termed as a mechanism and each body
produces a definite relative motion with respect to one another.

Hence, a mechanism can be defined a combination of several rigid bodies formed and connected so
that they produce a definite relative motion with respect to one another. For example the assembly
of piston, cylinder, connecting rod and crank forms a mechanism called slider-crank mechanism,
which converts reciprocating motion of piston into a rotary motion of crank or vice-versa.

If in addition of transmitting relative motion between the rigid bodies, the mechanism also trans-
mits force/couples from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome, then we have a
machine.

Kinematic link

A link is defined as a rigid body having two or more pairing elements which connect it to other
bodies for the purpose of transmitting force or motion. Therefore a linkage consists of links which
are joined together by use of mechanical joints (pairs).

A rigid body is one which does not change its physical form on application of forces. Although
a truly rigid body does not exist, many engineering components are assumed to be rigid because
their deformations and distortions are negligible in comparison with their relative movements.

In mechanisms two types of links, that is rigid and flexible links are most widely used.
A rigid link, depending upon its ends with which connection between the other links is formed,
can be classified into the following three categories,

(a) Binary link: A link which has two ends for connection.

(b) Ternary link: A link which forms three connections.

(c) Quaternary link: A link which has four ends for connection.

A ternary and quaternary links do not have any relative motion between the joints.

Kinematic pairs

A pair is a joint between the surfaces of two rigid bodies that keeps them in contact and relatively
movable. A kinematic pair can be classified according to the following criteria:

(a) Nature of contact between the links: Under this classification, a kinematic pair is either
lower or higher pair.

(i) When two links have a surface or area contact between them while in motion, such a
pair is called a lower pair. The relative motion in a lower pair is either purely turning
or sliding. Examples include, revolute, prismatic, cylindrical or spherical joints.
(ii) When two links have point or line contact between them while in motion, the pair so
formed is called a higher pair. The relative motion in a higher pair is a combination
of turning and sliding. Examples include contacts between , gears, cams and follower,
ball/roller bearings.

(b) Nature of relative motion between the links: A kinematic pair is classified into the following,

(i) Sliding pair: when two links are connected such that one is constrained to have a sliding
motion relative to the other. Example, prismatic joint.
(ii) Turning pair: when two links are connected in such a way that only a constrained
motion of rotation is possible between them. Example, revolute joints, which are further
categorized into,
• Rotational joints (R)- The rotation motion of one link is about an axis perpendic-
ular to the adjoining link.
• Twisting joint (T)- The rotation motion takes place about an axis that is parallel
to both links.
• Revolving joint (V)- The rotation motion takes place about an axis that is parallel
to one of the links. Usually the links are aligned perpendicular to one another ,
and the rotation involves revolution of one link about the other.
 is parallel to both adjoining links.

A revolving joint (V) is another rotational joint, where the rotation takes place about an axis
that is parallel to one of the adjoining links. Usually, the links are aligned perpendicular to
one another at this kind of joint. The rotation involves revolution of one link about another.

Types of Joints (a) linear joint, (b) rotational joint, (c) twisting joint, (d) revolving joint.
Figure 1.1: (a)Prismatic (b)Rotational (c)Twisting (d)Revolving joints

The Joint Notation:

(iii) Rolling pair: when two links have a rolling motion relative to each other. Example,
contact between ball or roller bearing, or pulley in a belt drive.
(iv) Spherical pair: when one link is in the form of a sphere which turns inside a fixed link.
Example, a ball and socket joint (spherical joint: in spatial mechanisms).

(c) Screw pair: A pair of screw and threads which has both turning and sliding motion between
them. Also called helical pair.

Kinematic chain

A kinematic chain is defined as a closed network of links connected by kinematic pairs so that the
motion between them is constrained. For motion to be constrained, the following three conditions
must be satisfied,

(i) A kinematic chain must have at least four links with four lower pairs.

(ii) The motion of each link relative to another should be definite.

Mathematically, these conditions can be fulfilled by satisfying the following Gruebler equation,
3n
j= −2 (1.1)
2
where,

j is the number of binary joints. (= (2n2 + 3n3 + 4n4 )/2 with n2 , n3 and n4 as number of binary,
ternary and quaternary links respectively).

n is the number of links in he kinematic chain. (= n2 + n3 + n4 ).

Examples 1.1

Examine the chains shown in figure below, and determine whether these are kinematic chains or
not.

Solution:
 (a ) (b) (c ) (d )

Figure 1.2:

(a) Number of links, n = 3, and number of binary joints, j = 3. Now check if equation 1.1 is
satisfied.
3n
j = −2
2
3×3
3 = −2
2
3 > 2.5

The LHS parameter is not equal to RHS, therefore the chain is locked and is called a
structure.

(b) Number of links, n = 4, and number of binary joints, j = 4. Now check if equation 1.1 is
satisfied.
3n
j = −2
2
3×4
4 = −2
2
4 = 4

Therefore the chain is a constrained kinematic chain.

2n2 +3n3
(c) Number of links, n = n2 + n3 = 4 + 2 = 6, and number of binary joints, j = 2
=
2×4+3×2
2
= 7. Now check if equation 1.1 is satisfied.
3n
j = −2
2
3×6
7 = −2
2
7 = 7

Therefore the chain is a constrained kinematic chain.

(d) Number of links, n = 5, and number of binary joints, j = 5. Now check if equation 1.1 is
satisfied.
3n
j = −2
2
3×5
5 = −2
2
5 > 2.5
 Therefore the chain is unconstrained. Although such a chain is non-kinematic, it is normally
referred to as unstrained kinematic chain.

A mechanism can also be defined as a kinematic chain in which one link is fixed. In a mechanism
when we say that one link is fixed, we mean that it is chosen as a frame of reference for all other
links and the motion of all other points on the links are measured with respect to this fixed link.

When a mechanism is used to transmit forces/couples or to do some useful work it is called a

machine. Figure below illustrates how kinematic links make up a machine,

Figure 1.3:

1.2 Special Purpose Mechanisms

1.2.1 Four bar mechanism

A four bar (link) chain consists of four kinematic links of different lengths which are connected by
turning type of lower pairs. The fixed link is called the frame, and the link which is not connected
to frame is called coupler link. Among other two links hinged to the frame, one which receives
input is termed as the crank, and the output link is called follower link

The four bar chain is the most common kinematic chain and has a wide engineering applications.
Its skeleton outline is represented as shown in figure 1.4,

4
2

Figure 1.4: A four-bar kinematic chain

A variety of useful mechanisms can be formed from a four-link mechanism through slight variations,
such as changing the character of the pairs, proportions of links, etc. The majority of four-link
mechanisms fall into one of the following two classes, the typical four-bar linkage mechanism, the
slider-crank mechanism.

Inversions of a typical four bar linkage

Four different versions of four bar linkage can be obtained by fixing any one of the links 1, 2, 3
and 4. Such different versions of a mechanism obtained by fixing different links are called its
inversions. Inversions of the four bar linkage are shown in figure 1.5.

3 3

4 4
2 2

1 1

3 3

4 4
2 2

1 1

Figure 1.5: Inversions of a four-bar mechanism

Kinematically speaking all the four inversions above are identical. However by changing the
proportions of lengths of the links several mechanisms with practical applications are obtained as
illustrated below.

Classifications of a typical four bar linkage

Let the line segment between the joints on a given link as a bar. Let,

• s = length of shortest bar.

• l = length of longest bar.

• p, q = lengths of the other bars.

Grashof ’s theorem states that a four-bar mechanism has at least one revolving link if,

s+l ≤ p+q
otherwise the input and output links will only oscillate. Therefore, four-bar linkage can be classified
as,

(a) Double-crank mechanism: Both the input and output links make complete revolutions.
There are two different forms of this mechanism,

(i) Parallel crank mechanism: The length of the fixed link is equal to that of the coupler,
and also links 2 and 4 are of equal length, as shown in figure 1.6.

A 3
B

4
2

1
O2 O4

Figure 1.6: Parallel crank mechanism

(ii) Drag link mechanism: This is shown in figure 1.7. It is such that s + l ≤ p + q and the
fixed link is the shortest.

B
A 3

2
4

O2 O4

Figure 1.7: Drag-link mechanism

(b) Double-rocker mechanism: In this case both the links 2 and 4 can only oscillate. It is such
that s + l > p + q, that is the Grashof’s equation is not satisfied.
B
3 B2
A

2 A2
A1
4

B1
1
O2 O4

Figure 1.8: Double-rocker mechanism

(c) Crank-rocker mechanism: This mechanism is shown in figure 1.9. In this mechanism for
every complete revolution of link 2 (crank link), the link 4 (lever link) makes a complete
oscillation. It is such that s + l ≤ p + q and one of the side links is the shortest.

B
3 B2
A
B1
4
2
A2

1
O2 O4
A1

Figure 1.9: Crank-rocker mechanism

1.2.2 Slider-crank mechanism

The assembly of piston, cylinder, connecting rod and crank forms a mechanism called slider-crank
mechanism.

Inversions of a slider-crank mechanism

Four different versions of slider-crank mechanism can be obtained by fixing any one of the links
1, 2, 3 and 4.

Inversion 1

This inversion is the typical slider-crank mechanism which converts reciprocating motion of piston
into a rotary motion of crank or vice-versa. It is shown in figure below in which the crank 2 rotates
while the slider reciprocates. This is applied in internal combustion engines and in air compressors.

2 3
1

O
B
4

Inversion 2

In this inversion, the crank link 2 is fixed while leaving the other links free to move. The link
3 rotates while the slider (link 4) slides along link 1 which also rotates together with the slider.
Finds its application in crank shaper and Whitworth mechanisms which produce a slow working
stroke and a fast return stroke. It is shown in the figure below,

2 3

O B
4
1
Inversion 3

In this inversion, the connecting rod (link 3) is fixed while leaving the other links free to move.
The crank link 2 rotates, while the slider (link 4) only swivels as link 1 rotates and moves back
and forth through block 4. Finds its application in oscillating cylinder engines. It is shown in the
figure below,

3
2

O
B
1 4

Inversion 4

In this inversion, the sliding block (link 4) is fixed while the other links are free to move. The
crank link 2 rotates as link 1 slides back and forth through block 4. It is shown in figure below,
A

3
2

O
B
1 4

This inversion is kinematically equivalent to the inversion 1 but the functions of links 1 and link 4
are interchanged. Such arrangement finds its application in hand-operated well pump mechanisms.

Assignment 1

With well labeled diagrams, briefly describe the following mechanisms giving examples of their
applications. Clearly identify all the links.

(a) Exact Straight line Mechanisms

(i) Peaucellier mechanism

(ii) Hart’s mechanism

(b) Approximate Straight line Mechanisms

 (i) Watt mechanism
(ii) Modified Scott Russel mechanism

(c) Other special mechanisms

(i) Skotch Yoke mechanism

(ii) Geneva wheel mechanism
Chapter 2

Kinematic Synthesis

Synthesis of a mechanism refers to the procedure of starting with a required motion then propor-
tioning the mechanism to produce the required motion.

The following two types of errors are present in the design of linkages,

(a) Structural error - This is the difference between the motion that is desired and the motion
that is actually produced by the mechanism.

(b) Mechanical error - This comes from imperfect machining or manufacturing of the linkage
components, mechanical clearances and play in the joints, the elasticity of the links and
deformation due to loading

2.1 Classification of kinematic synthesis problems

Linkage synthesis may be classified into,

1. Function generation: The output motion is to be a specified function of the input motion.
For instance for a four-bar linkage, the function generation synthesis problem could be one
in which the displacement of the output link is a specified function of the displacement of
the input link.
Notably, for a four bar mechanism, it is possible to mechanize smooth continuous functions
with very small errors over a small range of input variables. Nevertheless, it is not possible
to produce the desired function with no errors for the entire range of interest. In this regard,
the mechanism is only required to produce zero error for a specified number of points called
the precision or accuracy points. For the rest of the range, the difference between the
desired mathematical function and the actual output function produced by the mechanism
is referred to as the structural error. The structural error is zero at the precision points.
The spacing of the precision points is based on the Chebyshev’s spacing formula to be
discussed later in the chapter.
 2. Path generation: The output motion requires a point on the mechanism to trace a particular
path. The mechanism designed is required to guide a point (called tracer point) along a
specified path. The Watt and Robert mechanisms are special path generator mechanisms
which produce an approximate straight line path for a specified coupler point.

3. Motion generation: An object is required to execute a specified motion. For example, the
landing mechanism of an aeroplane executes guided motion from the airframe to such a
position that the wheels contact the ground properly.

For each of these classes of synthesis, there are three stages,

1. Type synthesis: This involves definition of a proper type of mechanism best suited for the
kinematic problem. The mechanism type could be a cam and follower, gear, belt, pulley,
linkage.The choice of the mechanism type is based on the availability of space,technical and
manufacturing feasibility,economic feasibility, reliability and safety.

2. Number synthesis: This involves choosing the appropriate number of links, required to give
the desired motion and degrees of freedom.

3. Dimensional synthesis: This involves determining length of links necessary to accomplish

the desired motion.

2.2 Input-output relationship of a standard four-bar link-

age: Freudenstein’s equation

Consider a four-bar linkage whose links are drawn as position vectors which form a vector loop as
shown in figure 2.1. We are interested with input angle-output angle, that is θ2 and θ4

C
R3
b R4
B
θ3
R2
c
a θ4
θ2

d R1
A D

Figure 2.1: Position vector loop for a four-bar linkage

The loop closes on itself, and hence the sum of the vectors in the loop must be equal to zero.
Note that the directions of the position vectors are chosen so as to define their angles where we
want them to be measured. By definition, the angle of a vector is always measured at its root not
its head.

Therefore;
R2 + R3 − R4 − R1 = 0 (2.1)
Substituting the complex number notation for each position vector in equation 2.1, we get;

aeiθ2 + beiθ3 − ceiθ2 − deiθ1 = 0 (2.2)

Substituting the Euler-identity for the eiθ term, i.e., e±θ = cos θ ± i sin θ in the vector equation
2.2 and noting that θ1 = 0, we get;

0 = a(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) + b(cos θ3 + i sin θ3 ) − c(cos θ4 + i sin θ4 )

−d(cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) (2.3)
= a(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) + b(cos θ3 + i sin θ3 ) − c(cos θ4 + i sin θ4 ) − d (2.4)

Equation 2.4 can be split into its imaginary and real parts, and each equated to zero.

Real part;
0 = a cos θ2 + b cos θ3 − c cos θ4 − d (2.5)
Imaginary part;

0 = i(a sin θ2 + b sin θ3 − c sin θ4 )

= a sin θ2 + b sin θ3 − c sin θ4 (2.6)

The scalar equations 2.5 and 2.6 can be solved simultaneously for θ3 and θ4 . Lets first eliminate
θ3 to solve for θ4 by rewriting equations 2.5 and 2.6 as follows;

b cos θ3 = −a cos θ2 + c cos θ4 + d (2.7)

b sin θ3 = −a sin θ2 + c sin θ4 (2.8)

Square equations 2.7 and 2.8 and add them.

b2 (cos2 θ3 + sin2 θ3 ) = (−a cos θ2 + c cos θ4 + d)2 + (−a sin θ2 + c sin θ4 )2 (2.9)

Expand the right hand side of equation 2.9.

b2 = a2 sin2 θ2 + c2 sin2 θ4 − 2ac sin θ2 sin θ4 + a2 cos2 θ2 + c2 cos2 θ4 + d2 − 2ac cos θ2 cos θ4
−2ad cos θ2 + 2cd cos θ4
= a2 + c2 + d2 − 2ac(sinθ2 sin θ4 + cos θ2 cos θ4 ) − 2ad cos θ2 + 2cd cos θ4 (2.10)

Equation 2.10 can be rearranged as;

a2 − b2 + c2 + d2 d d
− cos θ2 + cos θ4 = sinθ2 sin θ4 + cos θ2 cos θ4 (2.11)
2ac c a
To further simplify the equation let;
 d
K1 = a

d
K2 = c

a2 −b2 +c2 +d2

K2 = 2ac

Which when substituted in 2.11 we get;

K1 cos θ4 − K2 cos θ2 + K3 = sin θ2 sin θ4 + cos θ2 cos θ4

K1 cos θ4 − K2 cos θ2 + K3 = cos(θ2 − θ4 ) (2.12)

Equation 2.12 is the form known as the Freudenstein’s equation. It relates the input to the output
as a function of the sizes of links and can be used in two ways,

• Given the required relationship between the input and output angles, the link length ratios
can be obtained

• Given θ2 , we can solve for the output angle θ4 if the link lengths are known. Hence by
differentiating it with respect to time, we obtain the the velocity and acceleration of the
output link.

Due to the geometry of the mechanism, a uniform input motion will be transformed into a non-
uniform output motion.

Transmission angle

For smooth operation of any mechanism without jerky movements, it is important to ensure that
the transmission angle µ lies between 400 and 1400 . The ideal value is 900 but this cant remain
constant during a cycle.

The transmission angle for a four bar linkage as shown in figure 2.2 can be obtained as follows,

ABo2 = a2 + d2 − 2ad cos θ2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos µ

b2 + c2 − a2 − d2 + 2ad cos θ2
cos µ = (2.13)
2bc

Example 2.1

Design a four-bar linkage to coordinate rotation of two shafts whose input and output angles are
Input angle Output angle
300 150
given in the table below, and the length of the fixed link is to be 300mm.
450 400
0
60 650
Also check if the linkage will operate smoothly within the given range.
 B

b
A μ

c
a
θ2

d
Ao Bo
Figure 2.2:

Solution: Freudenstein’s equation is,

K1 cos θ4 − K2 cos θ2 + K3 = cos(θ2 − θ4 )

Which when applied at each pair of input and output angles we get three simultaneous equations
to solve for K1 , K2 and K3 as,

K1 cos 150 − K2 cos 300 + K3 = cos 150

K1 cos 400 − K2 cos 450 + K3 = cos 50
K1 cos 650 − K2 cos 600 + K3 = cos −50

Which reduces to,

0.966K1 − 0.866K2 + K3 = 0.966

0.766K1 − 0.707K2 + K3 = 0.996
0.423K1 − 0.500K2 + K3 = 0.996

Which can be solved by appropriate matrix manipulation, such as Cramer’s rule to get, K3 = 1.19,
K1 = 0.476, and K2 = 0.789.
Since d = 300mm, then,
d 300
a = = = 630.3mm
K1 0.476
d 300
c = = = 380.2mm
K2 0.789
b2 = a2 + c2 + d2 − 2acK3 = 630.32 + 380.22 + 3002 − 2 × 630.3 × 380.2 × 1.19
b2 = 61486.8
b = 248mm

To check if the mechanism operates smoothly within the given range, we use equation 2.13 to
determine if the transmission angle lies between 400 and 1400 .
θ2 ν
300 75.80
450 94.20
600 119.20

Since 400 < µ < 1400 , the quality of transmission should be good and the linkage will operate
smoothly even allowing for the inevitable presence of friction.

2.2.1 Function generation

One of the problems in kinematic synthesis is to find the dimensions of the linkage such that
θ4 = F (θ2 ), where F is the desired functional relationship between the output and input angles.

One of the simplest ways to calculate the link dimensions is to choose three arbitrary pairs of
θ2 and θ4 , and then use the Freudenstein’s equation to solve for K1 , K2 and K3 , but deviations
(structural errors) occur elsewhere.

We therefore need three pairs of θ2 and θ4 to solve for K1 , K2 and K3 which should be ideally
chosen to minimize the structural errors throughout the operating range.

The best spacing for the precision points for input angle is called Chebyshev’s spacing, which is
such that for n points in the range xo ≤ x ≤ xf , the precision points are,

1 1  π(2j − 1) 
xj = (xo + xf ) − (xf − xo ) cos (2.14)
2 2 2n
Where,

j = 1, 2.....n

xj ’s are the precision points.

Example 2.2

If y = x0.8 , determine three precision points for the range 1 ≤ x ≤ 3 using Chebyshev’s spacing.

Solution: The precision points are given by equation 2.14.

1 1  π(2j − 1) 
xj = (xo + xf ) − (xf − xo ) cos
2 2 2n

Where n = 3, xo = 1 and xf = 3, therefore the first precision point (when j = 1) is

1 1  π(2 × 1 − 1) 
x1 = (1 + 3) − (3 − 1) cos
2 2 2×3
π
= 2 − cos = 1.134
6

The second precision point (when j = 2) is

1 1  π(2 × 2 − 1) 
x2 = (1 + 3) − (3 − 1) cos
2 2 2×3
π
= 2 − cos = 2.000
2

The third precision point (when j = 3) is

1 1  π(2 × 3 − 1) 
x3 = (1 + 3) − (3 − 1) cos
2 2 2×3
5π
= 2 − cos = 2.866
6

Example 2.3

The functional relationship between the input and output angles of a four-bar linkage is required
to be
2400 (θ2 − 7.50 )
θ4 =
θ2 + 600
for 300 ≤ θ2 ≤ 1200 . Where θ2 and θ4 define the rotation angles of the input and output links
respectively. If it is required that the length of the fixed link be 200mm, determine the sizes of
the other three links. Use Chebyshev’s spacing to obtain the three precision points.

Solution: From the Chebyshev’s spacing formula,

1 1  π(2j − 1) 
θ2j = (θ2o + θ2f ) − (θ2f − θ2o ) cos
2 2 2n
Where n = 3, θ2o = 300 , and θ2f = 1200

The first precision point for the input angle (when j = 1) is

1 0 1  π(2 × 1 − 1) 
θ21 = (30 + 1200 ) − (1200 − 300 ) cos
2 2 2×6
π 0
= 75 − 45 cos = 36.03
6
The corresponding value for θ4 is
2400 (θ21 − 7.50 )
θ41 =
θ21 + 600
2400 (36.03 − 7.50 )
= = 71.30
36.03 + 600

The second precision point for the input angle (when j = 2) is

1 0 1  π(2 × 2 − 1) 
θ22 = (30 + 1200 ) − (1200 − 300 ) cos
2 2 2×6
3π
= 75 − 45 cos = 750
6
The corresponding value for θ4 is
2400 (θ22 − 7.50 )
θ42 =
θ22 + 600
2400 (75 − 7.50 )
= = 120.00
75 + 600

The third precision point for the input angle (when j = 3) is

1 0 1  π(2 × 3 − 1) 
0 0 0
θ23 = (30 + 120 ) − (120 − 30 ) cos
2 2 2×6
5π
= 75 − 45 cos = 113.970
6
The corresponding value for θ4 is
2400 (θ23 − 7.50 )
θ43 =
θ23 + 600
2400 (113.97 − 7.50 )
= = 146.90
113.97 + 600

Using the Freudenstein’s equation to solve for K1 , K2 and K3 ,

K1 cos 71.30 − K2 cos 36.030 + K3 = cos −35.270

K1 cos 120.00 − K2 cos 75.000 + K3 = cos −450
K1 cos 146.90 − K2 cos 113.970 + K3 = cos −32.930

Which reduces to,

0.321K1 − 0.809K2 + K3 = 0.816

−0.50K1 − 0.259K2 + K3 = 0.707
−0.838K1 + 0.407K2 + K3 = 0.839
Which can be used by appropriate matrix manipulation, such as Cramer’s rule to get, K1 = 0.402,
K2 = 0.402, and K3 = 1.012.

Since d = 200mm, then,

d 200
a = = = 497.5mm
K1 0.402
d 200
c = = = 497.5mm
K2 0.402
b2 = a2 + c2 + d2 − 2acK3 = 497.52 + 497.52 + 2002 − 2 × 497.5 × 497.5 × 1.012
b2 = 34059.85
b = 184.6mm

2.2.2 Structural error

To compute the structural error, we require the values of θ4 generated by the linkage constructed
with the link lengths obtained. These values can be obtained by solving for θ4 from the Freuden-
stein’s equation using the calculated link length ratios, K1 , K2 and K3 .

To reduce the equation 2.12 into a more tractable form for solution of θ4 , lets substitute half-angle
identities to convet convert the sin θ4 and cos θ4 to tan θ4 .
θ4
1 − tan2 2
cos θ4 = θ4
1 + tan2 2
2 tan θ24
sin θ4 =
1 + tan2 θ24

Substituting the identities in equation 2.12 and simplifying, we get an equation of quadratic form.
θ4 θ4
A tan2 + B tan + C = 0 (2.15)
2 2
Where;

A = (1 − K2 )cosθ2 − K1 + K3

B = −2sinθ2

C = K1 − (1 + K2 )cosθ2 + K3

Solving equation 2.15 we get;

√
−1 −B ± B 2 − 4AC
θ41,2 = 2 tan (2.16)
2A

Equation 2.15 is a quadratic equation having two solutions for (output angles) for every single
output angle. The solutions may be,
 • Real and equal : in this case we have one output angle.

• Real and unequal : this will refer to two branches of a linkage (open and closed configuration)

• Complex conjugate : this implies that the link lengths chosen are not capable of connection
for the particular input angle.

Example 2.4

In example 2.3 determine the structural errors through out the given for 300 ≤ θ2 ≤ 1200 and at
an increment of 100

Solution: The required output angles are given by;

2400 (θ2 − 7.50 )

θ4R =
θ2 + 600

and the generated output angles are given by,

√
−B ± B 2 − 4AC
θ4g = 2 tan −1
2A
where;

A = (1 − K2 )cosθ2 − K1 + K3
= 0.598 cos θ2 + 0.61
B = −2 sin θ2
C = K1 − (1 + K2 ) cos θ2 + K3
= 1.414 − 1.402 cos θ2

The desired and the generated values for θ4 together with the structural errors are tabulated
below,
 Table 2.1:
S/NO. Input angle, θ 2 Required Generated Error= θ 4R − θ 4G
output output angle, θ 4G
angle, θ 4R
1.0 30.00 60.0000 60.4334 -0.4334
2.0 40.00 78.0000 78.0976 -0.0976
3.0 50.00 92.7273 92.7521 -0.0249
4.0 60.00 105.0000 105.0273 -0.0273
5.0 70.00 115.3846 115.4127 -0.0280
6.0 80.00 124.2857 124.3058 -0.0200
7.0 90.00 132.0000 132.0209 -0.0209
8.0 100.0 138.7500 138.8003 -0.0503
9.0 110.0 144.7059 144.8252 -0.1193
10.0 120.0 150.0000 150.2220 -0.2220

Assignment 2

The functional relationship between the input and output angles of a four bar linkage is required
to be,
18000
θ4 = 70 −
θ2
Given that the initial value of input angle, θ2o = 1800 , final value of input angle, θ2f = 1200 and
the length of crank is required to be 600mm, write a computer program in any language to,

(a) Evaluate the link lengths ratios K1 , K2 and K3 using three precision points, and hence deter-
mine the lengths of the other links. Use Chebyshev’s spacing. Determine the transmission
angles for the given range of input angles and at an increment of 50 , and plot the variation
of the transmission angles with the input angles. Comment on the quality of transmission
of the linkage.

(b) Evaluate the link lengths ratios K1 , K2 and K3 using the least square method for five
precision points, and hence determine the length of the other links. Use Chebyshev’s spacing.

(c) Calculate the structural errors throughout the given range of input angles and at an incre-
ment of 50 for the two cases in (a) and (b). Plot the variation of the structural errors as a
function of the input angles for the two cases and in the same axis. Comment on the results.

Minimizing the structural error

We have seen that the four-bar linkage can be used to generate functions, that is, θ4 = F (θ2 ), but
there will be structural errors between the desired and generated functions.

To reduce the structural errors throughout the range of operation, more than three precision points
are considered.
This will lead to more equations than the unknowns which can be solved by the method of least
squares.

If θ4R (θ2i ) is the required function, and θ4G (θ2i ) is the generated function using a four bar linkage
having link ratios K1 , K2 and K3 , then the structural error ei for any value θ2i of the input is
given by,
ei = θ4R (θ2i ) − θ4G (θ2i )
for i = 1, 2, 3....N

This error is a function of the link ratios and hence a function of the three parameters K1 , K2
and K3 .

The sum of the square of the errors is given by

N
X N 
X 2
S = e2i = θ4R (θ2i ) − θ4G (θ2i ) (2.17)
i=1 i=1

The values of K1 , K2 and K3 which make S a minimum are given by the following conditions,
∂S
= 0
∂K1
∂S
= 0
∂K2
∂S
= 0
∂K3

The simplest way of applying this principle of least squares to the design of a four bar linkage
to generate functions, is to minimize the error in Freudenstein’s equation. For any θ2i and θ4i ,
Freudenstein’s equation is,

K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 = cos(θ2i − θ4i )

A measure of error is therefore given by,

ei = K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i )

The sum of the squares of the errors for N points is,

XN XN  2
2
F = ei = K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i )
i=1 i=1

For F to be minimum, then,

∂F
= 0
∂K1
∂F
= 0
∂K2
∂F
= 0
∂K3
 ∂F
For ∂K1
= 0 we have,
N h
X  i
2 cos θ4i K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i ) = 0
i=1
XN h  i
cos θ4i K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i ) = 0 (2.18)
i=1

∂F
For ∂K2
= 0 we have,
N h
X  i
− 2 cos θ2i K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i ) = 0
i=1
N h
X  i
cos θ2i K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i ) = 0 (2.19)
i=1

∂F
For ∂K3
= 0 we have,
N h 
X i
2 K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i ) = 0
i=1
N h
X i
K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 − cos(θ2i − θ4i ) = 0 (2.20)
i=1

Expanding each of equation 2.18, 2.19 and 2.20 we get,

N
X N
X N
X N h
X  i
2
K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i cos θ4i + K3 cos θ4=
i
cos θ4i cos(θ2i − θ4i ) (2.21)
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
N
X N
X N
X N h
X  i
K1 cos θ4i cos θ2i − K2 cos2 θ2i + K3 cos θ2=
i
cos θ2i cos(θ2i − θ4i ) (2.22)
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
N
X N
X XN h i
K1 cos θ4i − K2 cos θ2i + K3 N= cos(θ2i − θ4i ) (2.23)
i=1 i=1 i=1

Equations 2.21, 2.22 and 2.23 can written in matrix form as,
 PN
− N
PN
cos2 θ4i
P  
i=1 i=1 cos θ2i cos θ4i i=1 cos θ4i K1
 N cos θ4 cos θ2 − N
PN
cos2 θ2i
P P
  K2  =
i=1
PN i i
PN i=1 i=1 cos θ2i
i=1 cos θ4i − i=1 cos θ2i N K3
 PN 
cos θ4i (cos(θ2i − θ4i ))
Pi=1
 N cos θ2 cos(θ2 − θ4 ))  (2.24)
i=1
PN i i i

i=1 cos(θ2i − θ4i )

Equation 2.24 can be solved for K1 , K2 and K3 using any matrix manipulation method, such as
Cramer’s rule, or Gaussian elimination method.

Once K1 , K2 and K3 are obtained then the link lengths can be found.
Chapter 3

Hooke’s (Universal) Joint

3.1 Introduction

This joint is designed to transmit rotary motion between two co-planar, and non-parallel shafts.

Hooke’s joints find applications in manual steer wheels of automobiles, coupling between the
gearbox and the differential of automobiles, transmission of of power to different spindles of multi-
spindle drilling machines, among others.

It consists of 2-yokes (forks) which are attached to the driving and driven members and a cross
(spider) which is the connecting link, as shown in figure 3.1. Angle δ is the inclination angle
between the axes of the driving shaft A and the driven shaft B.

Figure 3.1:

Figure 3.2(ii) & (iii) shows the plan and end elevations of the joint viewed in the direction along
the axis of shaft A. Lines aa and bb on figure 3.2(ii) shows the forks on A and B respectively.

When the shafts are rotated, aa trace out a circle, while bb trace out the dotted ellipse.

When line aa turns to a1 a1 through an angle α, then the projection of bb will also turn through
 b
a1
(ii ) β b2
b1
b α
(i )
α
a a
a c1 c2

b1 O

δ ωB
O B a1
b

B
(iii )
δ
a b1 '
c1 c2
a a
b O δ
A

ωA
b1 '
A

Figure 3.2:

angle α to b1 b1 . The angle β turned by shaft B is obtained by finding the true position of b1 b1
when viewed along the axis of B.

Since c1 and c2 represent the projections of b1 and b2 on aa respectively, then,

Oc1
tan α =
b 1 c1
Oc2 Oc2
tan β = =
b 2 c2 b1 c 1
tan α Oc1
=
tan β Oc2

But from the plan view (figure 3.2(iii)),

Oc1 Oc1
cos δ = 0
=
Ob1 Oc2
tan α
= cos δ
tan β
tan α = tan β cos δ (3.1)

3.2 Angular Velocity ratio for Hooke’s Joint

Angular velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of the angular speed of the output shaft to that of
the input shaft, that is for a single Hooke’s joint, V.R = ωωBA .
dα
Differentiating both sides of the equation 3.1 above with respect to time, and noting that dt
= ωA
 dβ
and dt
= ωB , then,
dα dβ
sec2 α = sec2 β cos δ
dt dt
ωA sec2 α = ωB sec2 β cos δ
= ωB (1 + tan2 β) cos δ
tan2 α
But from equation 3.1, tan2 β = cos2 δ
, then,
tan2 α
ωA sec2 α = ωB (1 + ) cos δ
cos2 δ
cos2 δ + tan2 α
= ωB ( ) cos δ
cos2 δ
cos2 δ + tan2 α
= ωB ( )
cos δ
1
ωB sec2 α cos δ cos2 α
cos δ
= = 2
ωA cos2 δ + tan2 α cos2 δ + sin 2 α
cos α
cos δ
=
cos2 δ cos2 α + sin2 α
cos δ
=
(1 − sin δ) cos2 α + sin2 α
2

cos δ
=
cos α − sin δ cos2 α + sin2 α
2 2

ωB cos δ
= (3.2)
ωA 1 − sin2 δ cos2 α

From equation 3.2, it is seen that,

1. The angular velocity ratio depends on angle α. This implies that, if only one joint is used,
the velocity ratio is not constant, that is, if the driving shaft is rotated with uniform angular
velocity, the angular velocity of the driven shaft varies throughout each revolution. This is
the main disadvantage of Hooke’s joint.
This limitation is addressed by using two Hooke joints which are designed to operate at
about the same inclination angle. For instance in automotive application, uniform velocity
is transmitted to the rear wheels by use of two Hooke joints one at the transmission and the
second at the rear axle.

2. The maximum velocity ratio occurs when cos α = 1, that is when α = 00 , 1800 .
ω  cos δ cos δ 1
B
= 2 = 2
=
ωA max 1 − sin δ cos δ cos δ

3. The minimum velocity ratio occurs when cos α = 0, that is when α = 900 , 2700 .
ω  cos δ
B
= = cos δ
ωA min 1
 4. Both the driving and driven shafts will have the same angular velocity if,
cos δ
1 =
1 − sin2 δ cos2 α
cos δ = 1 − sin2 δ cos2 α
sin2 δ cos2 α = 1 − cos δ
1 − cos δ
cos2 α =
sin2 δ
1 − cos δ
=
1 − cos2 δ
1 − cos δ 1
= =
(1 − cos δ)(1 + cos δ) 1 + cos δ
1
2
= 1 + cos δ = sec2 α
cos α
1 + tan2 α = 1 + cos δ
tan2 α = cos δ
√
tan α = ± cos δ

This gives four values of α during each revolution for the speed of the driving and driven
shafts to be equal.

The above comments can be illustrated by plotting a curve to show the angular velocity ratio
variation with the input shaft rotation angle given the inclination angle to be 150 . A simple
M-File program D:\My
shown below gives the
Documents\TEACHING output in2410-Mechanics
MATERIAL\EME figure 3.3. of Machines IV\velocity_ratio.m Page 1
December 31, 2008 3:52:14 AM

%TO PLOT VARIATION OF ANGULAR VELOCITY RATIO FOR A SINGLE

%HOOKE'S JOINT GIVEN DELTA=15degrees

pi=3.14;
delta=15*pi/180;
alpha=0:1*pi/180:360*pi/180;
VR=cos(delta)./(1-(sin(delta)).^2.*(cos(alpha)).^2);
plot(alpha*180/pi,VR)
ylabel('Velocity ratio (\omega_B/\omega_A)')
xlabel('Input shaft rotation angle (\alpha)')
grid on
 1.05

1.04

1.03

1.02
Velocity ratio (ω /ω )
A
B

1.01

0.99

0.98

0.97

0.96
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Input shaft rotation angle (α)

Figure 3.3: Variation of angular velocity ratio with input shaft rotation angle

3.3 Angular Acceleration of the Output Shaft in a Hooke’s

Joint

From equation 3.2 we have,

h cos δ i
ωB = ωA
1 − sin2 δ cos2 α
If ωA and δ are constants, then the acceleration of output shaft B is,
 
dα 2
dωB − cos δ dt sin δ × 2 cos α sin α ωA
ΩB = =
dt (1 − sin2 δ cos2 α)2
−ωA2 cos δ sin2 δ sin 2α
=
(1 − sin2 δ cos2 α)2

For maximum angular acceleration of the output shaft we have,

dΩB
= 0
dα
d h −ωA2 cos δ sin2 δ sin 2α i
= 0
dα (1 − sin2 δ cos2 α)2
d h sin 2α i
= 0
dα (1 − sin2 δ cos2 α)2
Using quotient rule, and on simplification we get,

cos 2α(1 − sin2 δ cos2 α)2 ) = sin2 2α sin2 δ

Substituting cos2 α = 21 (1 + cos 2α) and sin2 2α = 1 − cos2 2α in equation above, gives
h 1 i
cos 2α 1 − sin2 δ(1 + cos 2α) = (1 − cos2 2α) sin2 δ
2
2 cos 2α − sin2 δ cos 2α − sin2 δ cos2 2α = 2 sin2 δ − 2 sin2 δ cos2 2α
2 cos 2α sin2 δ cos 2α = 2 sin2 δ − sin2 δ cos2 2α
cos 2α(2 − sin2 δ) = sin2 δ(2 − cos2 2α)
sin2 δ(2 − cos2 2α)
cos 2α = (3.3)
2 − sin2 δ
For practical values of δ which are up to about 300 for which sin2 δ can be approximated to zero
and noting that cos2 2α is very small compared to 2, the solution to the above equation gives,
0
cos 2α = =0
2
2α = 900
α = 450

Therefore,
2 sin2 δ
cos 2α = (3.4)
2 − sin2 δ
Equation above is an approximate equation and is normally used in design of Hooke’s joints.

3.4 Double Hooke’s Joint

As earlier shown, if two shafts are connected by a single Hooke’s joint, then the angular velocity
ratio is not constant.

If an intermediate shaft and two Hooke’s joints are used in combination as shown in figure 3.4,
then the speed of the output shaft remains constant provided that the inclination angles at the
joints is the same.

Let α, γ and β be the angle turned by shaft A, C and B respectively in the same time. Applying
equation 3.1 to each pair of connected shafts, that is shafts A − C and shafts C − B.

For shafts A − C, we have,

tan α = tan γ cos δ (3.5)

For shafts A − C, we have,

tan β = tan γ cos δ (3.6)

 ωA δ

ωB

Figure 3.4:

Equations 3.5 and 3.6 its seen that,

tan α = tan β
α = β

This shows that driving shaft A and driven shaft B turn through the same angle in the same time,
hence,

ωA = ωB

Example 3.1

A Hooke’s joint is used to connect two non parallel intersecting shafts, whose axes are inclined at
300 . The driving shaft runs at a uniform speed of 250rev/min and the driven shaft carries a rotor
of I = 1.25kg/m2 . Find the torque on the driving shaft due to the acceleration of the driven shaft
at the instant when the acceleration is a maximum.

Solution; Angular velocity of the input shaft is,

2πNA 2π × 250
ωA = = = 26.18rad/s
60 60
At maximum acceleration,
2 sin2 δ
cos 2α =
2 − sin2 δ
2 sin2 300
= = 0.2857
2 − sin2 300
2α = 73.40
α = 36.70

The two shafts transmit the same power, that is,

TA ωA = TB ωB
ωB
TA ωA = TB
ωA
ωB
TA ωA = IB ΩB
ωA
But,
ωB cos δ cos 300
= = =
ωA 1 − sin2 δ cos2 α 1 − sin2 300 cos2 36.70
−ωA2 cos δ sin2 δ sin 2α
ΩB =
(1 − sin2 δ cos2 α)2
−26.182 cos 300 sin2 300 sin 2(36.70 )
= 2 0 2 0 2
= −202rad/s2
(1 − sin 30 cos 36.7 )
Therefore torque at the input shaft due to inertia of the output shaft is,
ωB
TA ωA = IB ΩB
ωA
cos 300 h i
= 1.25 × 202 = 261N m
1 − sin2 300 cos2 36.70

Example 3.2

Three shafts A, B and C are supported in bearings and are connected end to end by two Hooke’s
joints. The axis of A and C are parallel but not in the same line, and the axis of B makes angles
of 200 this the axes of A and C. The two joints are arranged in an appropriate relation possible so
that the rotational speeds of A and C are equal. The moments of inertia of shafts A, B and C are
0.9gm2 , 0.15gm2 and 1.2gm2 respectively. If the shafts are set in motion and allowed to rotate
freely without friction, what is the percentage fluctuation of speed of the shafts A and C.

Solution: The total kinetic energy of the system which is a constant is given by,
h 0.9 0.15 2 1.2 2 i
U = 2
ω + ω + ω × 10−3
2 A 2 B 2 C

But,

ωC = ωA
h cos δ i
ωB = ωA
1 − sin2 δ cos2 α
Therefore,

ωA2 h  cos 200 2 i

U = 0.9 + 0.15 + 1.2 × 10−3
2 1 − sin2 200 cos2 α
ω2 h 0.1325 i
= A 2.1 + × 10−3
2 (1 − 0.1169 cos2 α)2
2U × 103
ωA2 = h i
0.1325
2.1 + (1−0.1169 cos2 α)2
C
ωA = q
0.1325
2.1 + (1−0.1169 cos2 α)2

From equation above, the maximum value of ωA occurs when α = 900 , that is,
C
ωA |max = √ = 0.6694C
2.1 + 0.1325

and the minimum value of ωA occurs when α = 00 , that is,

C
ωA |min = q = 0.6637C
0.1325
2.1 + 0.88312

Over this small range of speed, the mean speed may be obtained as,
1 
ωA |mean = 0.6694C + 0.6637C = 0.66655C
2
Therefore % fluctuation (f) of speed is,

ωA |max − ωA |min
f = × 100%
ωA |mean
0.6694C − 0.6637C
= × 100% = 0.855%
0.66655C
The small fluctuation is due to the small inertia of shaft B in relation to those of shafts A and C.
Chapter 4

Spatial Linkages

4.1 Introduction

As previously seen, the links of a planar mechanism are constrained to move in a single plane or
in parallel planes. Hence the graphical and analytical kinematic analysis of planar mechanisms is
simple. The motion of spatial mechanisms on the other hand are 3-D, and hence their graphical
and analytical kinematic analysis is more complicated.

Previously also, the operations which were too difficult to automate with planar mechanisms were
relegated to humans, often without regard to the boring or dangerous nature of the work. However,
with the current advances in computer and electronic technology many of the obstacles that once
prevented the design and use of spatial linkages and robotic manipulators have been removed.

4.2 Degrees of freedom of a spatial linkage

4.2.1 Degree of freedom of a rigid body in space

Consider figure 4.1.

An unrestrained rigid body in space has six degrees of freedom: three translating motions along
the x, y and z axes and three rotary motions around the x, y and z axes respectively.

Therefore a rigid body in space has six degrees of freedom.

4.2.2 Kinematic constraints in spatial mechanisms

In spatial mechanisms, in addition to the prismatic and revolute joints, cylindrical and spherical
joints are used in connecting the links.
 Figure 4.1: Degree of freedom of a rigid body in space

A spherical pair as shown in figure 4.2 keeps two spherical centers together. Two rigid bodies
connected by this constraint will be able to rotate relatively around x, y and z axes, but there
will be no relative translation along any of these axes. Therefore, a spherical pair removes three
degrees of freedom in spatial mechanism.

Figure 4.2: Kinematic constraint introduced by S-joint in spatial mechanisms

A cylindrical pair as shown in figure 4.3 keeps two axes of two rigid bodies aligned. Two rigid
bodies that are part of this kind of system will have an independent translational motion along
the axis and a relative rotary motion around the axis. Therefore, a cylindrical pair removes four
degrees of freedom from spatial mechanism.

Figure 4.3: Kinematic constraint introduced by C-joint in spatial mechanisms

A revolute pair keeps the axes of two rigid bodies together. Two rigid bodies constrained by a
revolute pair as shown in figure 4.4 have an independent rotary motion around their common axis.
Therefore, a revolute pair removes five degrees of freedom in spatial mechanism.

A prismatic pair as shown in figure 4.5 keeps two axes of two rigid bodies align and allow no
relative rotation. Two rigid bodies constrained by this kind of constraint will be able to have an
 Figure 4.4: Kinematic constraint introduced by R-joint in spatial mechanisms

independent translational motion along the axis. Therefore, a prismatic pair removes five degrees
of freedom in spatial mechanism.

Figure 4.5: Kinematic constraint introduced by P-joint in spatial mechanisms

4.2.3 Mobility criteria for spatial mechanisms

In spatial kinematics, the configuration of a rigid body in space is identified using six coordinates,
that is, three angular coordinates θ, φ, and ρ each about the xy, xz and yz planes respectively,
as well as three linear coordinates x, y, z.

If the system consists of nb bodies, the mobility criterion in the spatial analysis can be represented
as shown in equation 4.1.
nd = 6nb − nc (4.1)
Kutzbach represented the above equation in a more simpler form as,

nd = 6(nb − 1) − 5n1 − 4n2 − 3n3 − 2n4 − n5 (4.2)

where,

nb is the total number links including the ground

n1 is the number of 1-dof joints

n2 is the number of 2-dof joints

n3 is the number of 3-dof joints

 n4 is the number of 4-dof joints

n5 is the number of 5-dof joints

This equation should be considered as an aid in predicting the mobility of a spatial mechanism
and not a rule for defining the mobility.

Examples 4.1

Determine the number of dofs of a RSSR spatial mechanism shown in figure 4.6 below;

3
B 4

A D

Figure 4.6: Example 3: RSSR mechanism

Solution: The mechanism consists of four bodies, that is link OA, link AB, link BC and the fixed
link denoted as OC. Therefore nb = 4

The system has two revolute joints at O and C. Each revolute joint reduces the number of dofs
by 5, hence these joints reduce the dofs by 2 × 5 = 10.

The system has two spherical joints at A and B. Spherical joints reduce the dofs by 3, hence these
joints reduce the system’s dof by 2 × 3 = 6.

The fixed joint constraints are 6 since in spatial motion three conditions are required in order to
eliminate the freedom of the body to translate along any axis, and three conditions are required
to eliminate the freedom of the body to rotate about any plane.

Therefore the the constraints reduce the number of system’s dofs by nc = 10 + 6 + 6 = 22. Using
equation 4.1 we get;

nd = 6 × 4 − 22
= 2

The system therefore is a two dof system.

4.3 Review of Vector Algebra

4.3.1 Position Vector

Consider point P in space relative to a fixed point o which is the origin of xyz coordinate system,

P
RP

y X
z

Z
x

Figure 4.7:

RP is the position vector of point P.

A vector may be expressed in terms of its components and the 3 unit vectors i, j and k whose
directions are along X, Y and Z axes respectively.

If x, y and z are the components of the position vector on the X, Y and Z axes respectively, then
we have,

RP = xi + yj + zk

The magnitude of the position vector RP is,

p
|RP | = x2 + y 2 + z 2

If the particle P is moving, then x, y and z are functions of time, and hence

RP = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k

The velocity and acceleration of the particle are respectively given as,

ṘP = ẋ(t)i + ẏ(t)j + ż(t)k

R̈P = ẍ(t)i + ÿ(t)j + z̈(t)k

since i, j and k are constants

4.3.2 Scalar (Dot) Product of two Vectors

If A and B are vectors originating from point O as shown in figure 4.8, and if θ is the angle
between the vectors, then the dot product of the two vectors is,

A.B = |A||B| cos θ

θ
A

Figure 4.8:

Hence we have,

• i.i = j.j = k.k = 1 cos 00 = 1

• i.j = j.k = k.i = 1 cos 900 = 0

Therefore if,

A = ax i + ay j + az k
B = bx i + by j + bz k

Then,

A.B = (ax i + ay j + az k)(bx i + by j + bz k)

= ax b x + ay b y + az b z

Dot product gives a scalar quantity.

4.3.3 Vector (Cross) Product of two Vectors

If A and B are vectors originating from point O as shown in figure 4.8, and if θ is the angle between
the vectors, then the cross product of the two vectors which is a vector always perpendicular to
the two vectors is given by,

A × B = |A||B| sin θ

Hence we have,
 • i × i = j × j = k × k = 1 sin 00 = 0

• i × j = k, j × i = −k

• j × k = i, k × j = −i

• k × i = j, i × k = −j

Therefore if,

A = ax i + ay j + az k
B = bx i + by j + bz k

Then,

A × B = (ax i + ay j + az k)(bx i + by j + bz k)
= 0 + ax b y k − ax b z j − ay b x k + 0 + ay b z i + az b x j − az b y i + 0
= (ay bz − az by )i + (az bx − ax bz )j + (ax by − ay bz )k

This result can be simply represented by means of a determinant as,

 
i j k
A × B = det  ax ay az 
bx by bz

Cross product gives a vector quantity.

4.4 Kinematics Analysis of Spatial Linkages

4.4.1 Kinematics of a rigid body in space

Consider a rigid body in space and rotating about a fixed point A with an angular velocity of ω.
Let AX be the instantaneous axis about which the body rotates.

The angular velocity ω may be represented by a vector ω~ directed along AX (axis about which
the body rotates about) and in accordance with the right-hand rule
~ P A , the the velocity vector of point
If P is a point on the body whose position vector from A is R
P relative to point A (V~P A ) is,

V~P A = ω ~PA
~ ×R

If point A about which the velocity of point P is referenced is fixed, then V~P A is referred to as
absolute velocity vector of point P simply denoted as V~P .
Point A need not be always a fixed point, but can be moving with a velocity relative to the fixed
frame. In this case, the absolute velocity vector for point P is obtained using the velocity difference
equation as,

V~P = V~A + V~P A = V~A + ω ~PA

~ ×R

Acceleration of any point of a rigid body is the time derivative of the velocity, hence from equation
V~P = V~A + ω
~ ×R~ P A , the absolute acceleration of point P is,

d ~ d
~aP = (VP ) = (V~A + ω
~ ×R ~ P A)
dt dt
= V̇~A + ω̇
~ ×R~PA + ω ~
~ × ṘPA

~
But Ṙ ~ ~ P A , hence,
~ ×R
P A = VP A = ω

~aP = V̇~A + ω̇ ~PA + ω

~ ×R ~ P A)
~ × (~ω × R

Examples 4.2

Two sliders A and B are constrained to move in slots at right angles to each other as shown in
figure below and are connected by the rigid link AB of length 450mm. At the instant when θ = 300 ,
slider A is moving with a velocity of 0.6m/s and an acceleration of 1.2m/s2 in the direction shown.
Using the vector method, calculate the velocity & acceleration of slider B at that instant and the
angular velocity & acceleration of link AB.

θ
X
O VA , a A
A

Figure 4.9:
Solution: Let ωAB , αAB be the angular velocity & acceleration of link AB, VB and aB be the
velocity & acceleration of slider B.

Since block A is moving along the X-axis, then,

V~A = 0.6i
~aA = 1.2i

Since block B is moving along the Y-axis, then,

V~B = VB j
~aB = aB j

Since link AB is rotating about the Z-axis, then

ω
~ AB = ωAB k
α
~ AB = αAB k

The absolute velocity vector of point B when considered as a point on link AB is,

V~B = V~A + V~BA = 0.6i + ω ~ BA

~ AB × R
= 0.6i + ωAB k × (−0.45 cos 300 i + 0.45 sin 300 j)
 
i j k
= 0.6i + det  0 0 ωAB 
−0.3897 0.225 0
= 06i − ωAB (0.225i + 0.3897j)
VB j = (0.6 − 0.225ωAB )i − 0.3897ωAB j

Equating components with i on both sides, we get the magnitude of angular velocity of link AB
as

0 = 0.6 − 0.225ωAB
0.6
ωAB = = 2.67rad/s
0.225

Equating components with j on both sides, we get the magnitude of velocity of slider B as,

VB = −0.3897ωAB = −0.3897(2.67) = −1.04m/s

The absolute acceleration vector of point B is,

~aB = V̇~A + ω̇ ~ BA + ω
~ AB × R ~ BA )
~ AB × (~ωAB × R
= ~aA + α ~ BA + ω
~ AB × R ~ BA )
~ AB × (~ωAB × R

= 1.2i + αAB k × (−0.3897i + 0.225j) + 2.67k × 2.67k × (−0.3897i

+0.225j)
   
i j k i j k
= 1.2i + det  0 0 αAB  + 2.67 × det  0 0 2.67 
−0.3897 0.225 0 −0.3897 0.225 0
= 1.2i − 0.225αAB i − 0.3897αAB j + 2.67 × (−0.60075i − 1.0405j)
 
i j k
= 1.2i − 0.225αAB i − 0.3897αAB j + det  0 0 2.67 
−0.60075 −1.0405 0
= 1.2i − 0.225αAB i − 0.3897αAB j + 2.778i − 1.604j
aB j = (3.978 − 0.225αAB )i + (−1.604 − 0.3897αAB )j

Equating components with i on both sides, we get the magnitude of angular acceleration of link
AB as

0 = 3.978 − 0.225αAB
3.978
αAB = = 17.68rad/s2
0.225

Equating components with j on both sides, we get the magnitude of acceleration of slider B as,

aB = −1.604 − 0.3897αAB = −1.604 − 0.3897(17.68) = −8.49m/s2

These values can be verified by using graphical method of velocity & acceleration analysis of plana
linkages. (Ref. EME 2301)

4.4.2 Kinematics of a Typical 4-bar Spatial Linkage

Figure 4.10 shows a typical 4-bar spatial linkage whose crank Ao A rotates about the Y-axis, that
is, link Ao A moves in XZ plane. The output link Bo B rotates about an axis parallel to the X-axis
in the YZ plane.

We can replace the links by the vectors ~a, ~b, ~c and d~ as shown in figure 4.11.

Writing vector-loop equation,

~a + ~b − ~c − d~ = 0
~a + ~b = ~c + d~
 A Z

φ B

Ao ψ
ω2

Bo
X

ω4

Figure 4.10:
Z
A

a
~
b
~
B
c
~

Y
ω2 j
Ao

Bo ( X o , Yo )
X d
~

ω4i

Figure 4.11:

which when differentiated with respect to time and noting that d~ is a constant magnitude and
direction vector, we have

~ȧ + ~ḃ = ~ċ

Velocity vector of point A as a point on link Ao A is,

V~A = ω
~ 2 × ~a = ω2 j × ~a

Velocity vector of point B as a point on link Bo B is,

V~B = ω
~ 4 × ~c = ω4 i × ~c

Velocity vector of point B as a point on coupler link AB is,

~ 3 × ~b
V~B = V~A + V~BA = ω2 j × ~a + ω
~ 3 × ~b = ω4 i × ~c − ω2 j × ~a
ω

where ω~ 3 is the angular velocity vector of the coupler link AB, and can be expressed in terms of
its components ω3x , ω3y and ω3z as,

ω
~ 3 = ω3x i + ω3y j + ω3z k

Since V~BA is always perpendicular to link AB, then

V~BA .~b = 0
(ω4 i × ~c − ω2 j × ~a).~b = 0

Expressing ~a, ~b, ~c and d~ in terms of unit vectors,

~a = a sin φi + a cos φ
~c = −c sin ψj + c cos ψk
d~ = Xo i + Yo j
~b = ~c + d~ − ~a
= (Xo − a sin φ)i + (Yo − c sin ψ)j + (c cos ψ − a cos φ)k

Therefore,
 
(ω4 i × ~c − ω2 j × ~a). Xo − a sin φ)i + (Yo − c sin ψ)j + (c cos ψ − a cos φ)k = 0

 
ω4 i × ~c = ω4 i × − c sin ψj + c cos ψk
 
i j k
= det  ω4 0 0 
0 −c sin ψ c cos ψ
= −ω4 c cos ψj − ω4 c sin ψk
 
ω2 j × ~a = ω2 j × a sin φi + a cos φk
 
i j k
= det  0 ω2 0 
a sin φ 0 a cos φ
= ω2 a cos φi − ω2 a sin φk
ω4 i × ~c − ω2 j × ~a = −ω2 a cos φi − −ω4 c cos ψj + (ω2 a sin φ − ω4 c sin ψ)k
Hence we have,
 
0 = − ω2 a cos φi − −ω4 c cos ψj + (ω2 a sin φ − ω4 c sin ψ)k . (Xo − a sin φ)i

+(Yo − c sin ψ)j + (c cos ψ − a cos φ)k
= −ω2 a cos φ(Xo − a sin φ) − ω4 c cos ψ(Yo − c sin ψ)(ω2 a sin φ − ω4 c sin ψ)(c cos ψ − a cos φ)
= −ω2 aXo cos φ + ω2 a2 cos φ sin φ − ω4 cYo cos ψ + ω4 c2 cos ψ sin ψ + ω2 ac cos ψ sin φ
−ω2 a2 cos φ sin φ − ω4 c2 cos ψ sin ψ + ω4 ac cos φ sin ψ
h i h i
= ω2 ac cos ψ sin φ − aXo cos φ + ω4 ac cos φ sin ψ − cYo cos ψ
h i h i
= −ω2 a Xo cos φ − c cos ψ sin φ + ω4 c a cos φ sin ψ − Yo cos ψ

Hence the velocity ratio becomes,

h i
ω4 a X o cos φ − c cos ψ sin φ
= h i
ω2 c a cos φ sin ψ − Yo cos ψ
Chapter 5

Cam Design and Dynamics

5.1 Introduction

A cam mechanism usually consists of two moving elements, the cam and the follower, mounted
on a fixed frame. Cam devices are versatile, and almost any arbitrarily-specified motion can be
obtained. In some instances, they offer the simplest and most compact way to transform motions.

A cam may be defined as a machine element having a curved outline or a curved groove, which, by
its oscillation or rotation motion, gives a predetermined specified motion to another element called
the follower . The cam has a very important function in the operation of many classes of machines,
especially those of the automatic type, such as printing presses, shoe machinery, textile machinery,
gear-cutting machines, and screw machines. In any class of machinery in which automatic control
and accurate timing are paramount, the cam is an indispensable part of mechanism. The possible
applications of cams are unlimited, and their shapes occur in great variety

5.1.1 Classification of Cams

Cams can be classified according to the following,

1. Follower Configuration - Depending on the type of follower, cam mechanisms can be classified
as,

(a) Knife-edge follower - This is theoretically the best as it does not involve any side thrust
between the follower and its guides, but it is rarely employed because of the high stresses
and rapid wear. It is shown in Figure 5.1(a)
(b) Roller follower - The roller provides a rolling contact between the follower and the cam
face. It gives considerable side thrust to the follower and its guides, but it is the one
commonly used. It is shown in Figure 5.1(b)
 Figure 5.1:

(c) Flat faced follower - This follower has a flat surface as shown in Figure 5.1(c). Wear
is minimized unlike in the knife-edge follower. Except for friction it eliminates the side
thrust between contact surfaces.

2. Cam-Follower Arrangement - Under this cam mechanisms can be classified as,

(a) In-line follower - The center line of the follower passes through the center line of the
camshaft.

Figure 5.2:

(b) Offset follower - The center line of the follower does not pass through the center line
of the cam shaft. The amount of offset is the distance between these two center lines.
The offset causes a reduction of the side thrust present in the roller follower.

3. Modes of Input/Output Motion: Under this classification, a cam mechanism can be classified
as,

(a) Rotating cam-translating follower - the rotary motion of the cam is transformed into a
translating motion of the follower. Example is shown in figure 5.4(a),
(b) Rotating cam-rotating follower - the rotary motion of the cam is transformed into a
rotary motion of the follower. Example is shown in figure 5.4(b),
(c) Translating cam-translating follower - Both the cam and follower have translation mo-
tion. Example is shown in figure 5.4(c),
 Figure 5.3:

Figure 5.4:

(d) Stationary cam-rotating follower: The follower system revolves around a stationary
cam profile.

4. Cam Shape - Under this classification we have,

(a) Plate (disk or radial) cam - The follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the axis of
rotation of the camshaft. These are most popular as their design and manufacture is
simple and many problems can be solved by using them.
(b) Grooved (or closed) cam - This is a plate cam with the follower riding in a groove in
the face of the cam.
(c) Cylindrical (or barrel) cam - The roller follower operates in a groove cut on the surface
of a cylinder. The follower may translate or oscillate. If the cylindrical surface is
replaced by a conical one, a conical cam results.
(d) End cam - This has two versions,
i. The cam is stationary and the follower revolves around the cam profile as it os-
cillates. This principle is applied in rotary bottling machines, where the follower
pushes a bottle against a push valve.
ii. The cam rotates and the follower oscillates
 Page 1 of 1
Figure 5.5:

Figure 5.6:

The end cam is rarely used because of the cost and the difficulty in cutting its contour

5. Constraints on the Follower

(a) Gravity constraint - In this case the weight of the follower system is sufficient to main-
tain contact between the follower and the cam face.
(b) Spring constraint - In this case a properly designed spring must is used use to maintain
contact between the follower and the cam face.
(c) Positive mechanical constraint - In this case a groove is machined on the cam face to
maintains positive contact between the follower and the cam face.

5.1.2 Cam Synthesis and Analysis

As the case with linkages, two cases are considered in cams,

(a) Synthesis: For a desired motion of the follower, the synthesis problem is to determine the
profile of the cam either graphically or analytically.

(b) Analysis: Given a cam profile, we need to calculate either graphically or analytically, the
follower displacement, velocity, acceleration or jerk.

http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/mechanisms/figures/camcylend.gif 2/23/2009
5.1.3 Cam Nomenclature

Figure 5.7:

1. Trace point: A theoretical point on the follower, corresponding to the point of a fictitious
knife-edge follower. It is used to generate the pitch curve. In the case of a roller follower,
the trace point is at the center of the roller.

2. Pitch curve: The path generated by the trace point if the follower is rotated about a
stationary cam.

3. Pitch circle: A circle from the cam center through the pitch point. The pitch circle radius
is used to calculate a cam of minimum size for a given pressure angle.

4. Prime circle (reference circle): The smallest circle from the cam center through the
pitch curve.

5. Base circle: The smallest circle from the cam center through the cam profile curve.

6. Pressure angle: The angle at any point between the normal to the pitch curve and the
instantaneous direction of the follower motion. This angle is important in cam design because
it represents the steepness of the cam profile. As this value increases, the side thrust between
the cam and the follower also increases. Decreasing the pressure angle, increases the cam
size.

7. Follower travel (Stroke or throw): The greatest distance or angle through which the
follower moves or rotates.
5.2 Graphical Design of Cams

The problem here is to graphically determine the profile of the cam that will transmit the desired
motion to the follower.

The construction is simplified by holding the cam stationary and then rotating the follower in the
opposite direction to the true cam rotation, thus preserving the correct sequence when motion of
the cam takes place.

When the cam turns through one motion cycle, the follower executes a series of events consisting
of rises, dwells and returns. Rise is the motion of the follower away from the cam center, dwell is
the motion during which the follower is at rest; and return is the motion of the follower towards
the cam center.

By placing the follower in a number of successive positions, the profile of the cam can be drawn.
A decent cam profile can be obtained by using many positions.

5.2.1 Analysis of Different Types of Follower Motions

In many cam mechanism applications, the follower is required to dwell once or several times during
one rotation of the cam as shown in figure 5.8.

θ
0
0 360 0

Figure 5.8:

Such a diagram is called a displacement diagram which is plotted with the follower motion y as
the ordinate and the cam rotation angle as the abscissa.
The displacement y of the follower after a rotation θ of the cam can be expressed as,

y = f (θ)

Hence by successive differentiation we get,

1. Velocity of the follower,

dy df (θ) df (θ) dθ df (θ)

V = = = =ω
dt dt dθ dt dθ
where ω is angular velocity of the cam

2. Acceleration of the follower is,

dV d  df (θ)  df (θ) d2 f (θ)

A = = ω = ω̇ + ω2
dt dt dθ dθ dθ2
If the cam rotates at a constant speed as in many practical situations, then ω̇ = 0 and the
acceleration of the follower becomes
d2 f (θ)
A = ω2
dθ2

3. The jerk of the follower is therefore,

dA d  2 d2 f (θ)  d2 f (θ) 3
3 d f (θ)
3
3 d f (θ)
J = = ω = 2ω ω̇ + ω = ω
dt dt dθ2 dθ2 dθ3 dθ3

Constant Velocity Motion of the Follower

Let T be the time taken for the follower to rise to h, and β be the angle rotated by the cam for
the follower to rise to h.

O β ,T
θ,t
θ,t

Figure 5.9:
From the displacement diagram for the constant velocity motion of the follower, we have,
h y
=
β θ
h y
=
T t
Hence the instantaneous follower displacement is,
hθ ht
y = =
β T
Then the velocity of the follower is,
dy h dy dθ h
v = = = . =ω
dt T dθ dt β
The acceleration of the follower is zero (a = 0) except at O and A where it is infinitely large.

This type of motion is undesirable except at very low speeds of cam rotation because the acceler-
ation of of the follower at transition points are infinitely large and hence large dynamic forces.

Example 5.1

To illustrate the construction, lets design a cam that will impart a constant velocity to the follower
along a straight line passing through the center of the cam. Hence the design is to ensure that
one complete revolution of the cam is to give one rise and one fall to a roller follower.

Let,

O be the center of the cam

the lift and the fall of the follower be h = 60mm

the radius of the shaft that carries the cam be R = 20mm

the minimum distance from the camshaft to the roller be, L = 60mm

the radius of the roller be r = 10mm

Therefore,

Radius of the base circle is RBC = R + L = 20 + 60 = 80mm

Minimum radius of the pitch circle, Rmin = RBC + r = 80 + 10 = 90mm

Maximum radius of the pitch circle, Rmax = Rmin + h = 90 + 60 = 150mm

To determine the cam profile, use the following procedure,

1. Draw circles of radii OB = Rmax and OA = Rmin

2. Divide AB into a number of equal intervals since the velocity is constant. Six have been
used in this case. In practice such a number should be a minimum

3. Divide the cam circle into 12 equal parts in this case, and label the radial lines as 1,2...12
in the anticlockwise direction since the cam is assumed to rotate clockwisely.

4. From point O, draw arc from point 1 in line AB anticlockwisely to intersect radial line 1.
Label the point of intersection as 1’. Similarly locate points 2’,3’....12’. Points 1’,2’,3’....12’
lie on the pitch curve of the cam.

5. With each of these points as centers draw circles having a radius equal to that of the roller
(r=10mm). Finally draw a curve as accurately as possible to touch these circles tangentially.
This curve is the required profile of the cam.

Figure 5.10:
Example 5.2

To draw a cam profile for an offset follower is a bit complicated since the follower is not inline
with the cam center. Lets draw a cam profile for example 1 above, but the follower offset is 10mm
to the right. Use the following procedure;

1. Draw the base circle

2. From the cam center, draw a circle of radius equal to the offset of the follower, and divide
into 12 equal parts.

3. Proceed as in example 1 above, but the follower centers will always be tangential to the
circle drawn in step 2.

Example 5.3

Design a cam to give a swinging link with a roller follower a uniform angular velocity about a
fixed pivot during its rise and fall. Use the following data; shaft diameter=10mm, base circle
diameter=23mm, roller diameter=7mm, position of the swinging link pivot from the cam cen-
ter=(30mm, 15mm) and the total angular movement of the swinging link=300 . The rotation of
the cam is clockwise and there is no eccentricity between the center lines of the roller follower and
the cam.

Solution:

1. Choose an arbitrary center O and draw the shaft diameter and the base circle.

2. Plot the position P of the pivot and draw the length PA of the swinging link.

3. Draw a circle of radius OP in order to locate successive positions of the pivot.

4. From point P, draw arc AB and such that ∠AP B = 300 and subdivide it into six equal parts
numbered 1,2,3...6.

5. Divide the cam circle into 12 equal parts in this case, and label the radial lines as 1,2...12
in the anticlockwise direction since the cam rotates clockwise.

6. From point O, draw arc from point 1 in arc AB anticlockwisely to intersect radial line 1.
Label the point of intersection as 1’. Similarly locate points 2’,3’....12’. Points 1’,2’,3’....12’
lie on the pitch curve of the cam.

7. With each of these points as centers draw circles having a radius equal to that of the roller.
Finally draw a curve as accurately as possible to touch these circles tangentially. This curve
is the required profile of the cam.

8. The successive positions of the pivot are located by drawing a line of length PA=30mm from
the center of the roller to the the circumference of the circle drawn in step 3 above.
 Figure 5.11:

Simple Harmonic Motion of the Follower

To reduce the problem of impact in parabolic motion, simple harmonic motion is employed to
ensure that the velocity and acceleration of the follower are always smooth and no discontinuities.

For SHM, the instantaneous displacement of the follower is,

h πt  h  πθ 
y = 1 − cos = 1 − cos
2 T 2 β
The velocity of the follower is,
πh πt πhω πθ
v = sin = sin
2T T 2β β

The acceleration of the follower is,

π2h πt π 2 hω 2 πθ
a = 2
cos = 2
cos
2T T 2β β
 Y

h B

O β ,T
θ,t
θ,t

Figure 5.12:

The jerk of the follower is,

−π 3 h πt −π 3 hω 3 πθ
J = sin = sin
2T 3 T 2β 3 β

The velocity and acceleration profiles are as shown in figure below,

y , v, a

O
θ,t

Figure 5.13:

For SHM, the velocity and acceleration are both smooth and no discontinuities. Unfortunately
there are abrupt changes in acceleration at O and A resulting in jerks which will lead to vibrations,
noise and wear. Nevertheless, SHM is useful when the speeds involved are not too high.

Construction of SHM
This is based on the idea that the projection of the diameter of a point, say P which moves along
a circle with constant angular velocity represents SHM.

To construct a SHM, the following steps are followed,

1. Draw the horizontal and vertical axes which represent the cam rotation angle and the follower
displacement respectively. β is the angle the cam is to rotate to give a total rise h to the
follower.

2. Divide the horizontal axe into a number of equal divisions, say 6 numbered as 1, 2..6.

3. Draw the total rise h on the vertical axis and construct a semicircle of radius h/2.

4. Divide the semicircle into equal parts using the same number that was used along the
horizontal line (6 in this case) and label as 1,2..6 in the direction which corresponding to
the follower motion.

5. Project the horizontal point 1 vertically and vertical point 1 horizontally and call the point
of intersection as 1’. Similarly locate points 2’...6’ and then connect these points with a
smooth curve. This gives out a SHM curve.

θ
β

Figure 5.14:

Example 5.4

A cam rotating clockwise with constant angular speed operates an oscillating follower through a
roller of radius 5mm. The base circle is of diameter 50mm. The follower moves outwards 60mm
with SHM during the first 1800 of the cam rotation, dwells for the next 600 and returns with SHM
during the last 1200 of the cam rotation. Draw the cam profile.

To determine the cam profile, use the following procedure,

1. Draw the base circle centered at O and locate the lowest and highest roller center points
and label them as A and B respectively.
 Figure 5.15:

2. Divide the base circle into 12 equal parts in this case, and label the radial lines as 1,2...12
in the anticlockwise direction since the cam is assumed to rotate clockwisely.

3. Draw a horizontal line equal to one revolution of the cam, that is 3600 , and then subdivide
the first 1800 into 6 equal parts numbered as 1, 2...6.

4. From the start point of the horizontal line drawn in step above, draw a vertical line equal
to the cam rise of 60mm and draw on it draw a semicircle of diameter h=60mm.

5. Subdivide the semicircle into 6 equal parts an project the points horizontally to cut line AB.
Number the points as 1,2..6.

6. From point O, draw arc from point 1 in line AB anticlockwisely to intersect radial line 1.
Label the point of intersection as 1’. Similarly locate points 2’,3’....6.

7. Since the cam dwells for the next 600 , points 7, and 8’ lie on the same pitch circle as point
6’.

8. Now divide the other 1200 of the cam rotation into for equal parts, and project the points
horizontally to cut line AB and number the points of intersection as 9, 10..12.

9. Using the concept in step 6, locate points 9’,10’ and 11’

10. With each of the points 1’,2’....11’ as centers draw circles having a radius equal to that of
the roller (r=5mm). Finally draw a curve as accurately as possible to touch these circles
tangentially. This curve is the required profile of the cam.

Parabolic Motion of the Follower (Uniform Acceleration and Retardation)

To reduce the dynamic forces in constant velocity motions as described above, the motion is
modified by introducing curved parabolic portions in order to produce constant acceleration from
O to B followed by constant deceleration from B to A, as shown in figure below,

h B

O β ,T
θ,t
θ,t

Figure 5.16:

The instantaneous displacement of the follower is,

 t 2  θ 2
y = 2h = 2h
T β

Then the velocity of the follower is,

dy t dy dθ θ
v = = 4h 2 = . = 4hω 2
dt T dθ dt β

The acceleration of the follower is,

dv 4h dv dθ 4hω 2
a = = 2 = . =
dt T dθ dt β2

The jerk of the follower is zero (J = 0) except at O, B and A where it is infinitely large.

The velocity and acceleration profiles are as shown in figure below,

This type of motion has a positive constant acceleration from O to B, and a negative constant
deceleration from B to A. The disadvantage of this motion is that the impact will occur due to
the effect of jerk at O, B and A where the acceleration increases from zero to maximum rapidly,
changes from positive to negative and decreases rapidly from maximum to zero.

The spring force required to keep the follower in contact to the cam surface is,
 4hω 2 
F = ma = m
β2
where m is the effective mass of the follower.
 y , v, a

O
θ,t

Figure 5.17:

Construction of Parabolic Motion of the Follower

Figure 5.18:

Example 5.5

A cam rotating clockwise with constant angular speed operates an offset oscillating follower
through a roller of radius 6mm. The centerline of the follower is offset by 25mm to the left
of the cam centerline. The base circle is of diameter 60mm. The follower moves outwards 66mm
with uniform acceleration and retardation (parabolic) motion during the first 1800 of the cam
rotation, dwells for the next 300 and then returns with simple harmonic motion during the last
1500 of the cam rotation. Draw the cam profile.
 Figure 5.19:

5.3 Dynamic Analysis of Cams with Straight Flanks and

Roller Follower

Let the base circle and nose circle radii be R and r respectively, the roller radius be ro and the
center distance be d as shown in figure 5.20

Figure 5.20:
 Figure 5.21:

5.3.1 Roller in contact with straight flank AB

When the cam has rotated through an angle θ from the lowest position of the follower center Q,
the follower displacement is;

y = OQ1 − OQ

OQ
But OQ = R + ro and OQ1 = cos θ
= OQ sec θ = (R + ro ) sec θ, hence;

y = (R + ro ) sec θ − (R + ro )

The velocity of the follower is thus;

dy dy dθ dy
v = = . =ω
dt dθ dt dθ
= ω(R + ro ) sec θ tan θ (5.1)

At A, where θ = 0 then v|A = 0, while at B where θ = θmax then v|B = vmax . Therefore velocity
of the follower increases from 0 at A to a maximum at B.

If the cam rotates with a constant speed, then the acceleration of the follower is;
dv dv dθ dv
a = = . =ω
dt dθ dt dθ
= ω (R + ro )[tan θ sec θ + sec3 θ]
2 2

= ω 2 (R + ro )[sec3 θ + tan2 θ sec θ]

But tan2 θ = sec2 θ − 1, then;

h i
2 3 2
a = ω (R + ro ) sec θ + sec θ(sec θ − 1)
= ω 2 (R + ro )[sec3 θ + sec3 θ − sec θ]
= ω 2 (R + ro )[2 sec3 θ − sec θ] (5.2)
At A, where θ = 0 then a|A = ω 2 (R + ro ) = a|min , while at B where θ = θmax then a|B = amax .
Therefore the acceleration of the follower increases from minimum value at A to a maximum value
at B.

If β is the angle turned through by the cam, while the roller moves from A to B as shown in figure
5.22, then;
QQ2 QQ2 d sin α
tan β = = =
OQ R + ro R + ro

Figure 5.22:

Hence the maximum velocity and acceleration of the follower at the flank are obtained by substi-
tuting θ = β = dR+r
sin α
o
in equations 5.1 and 5.2.

5.3.2 Roller in contact with nose BC

Figure 5.23:
When the cam has rotated through an angle φ from the highest position of the follower, the
displacement of the follower is;

y = OQ3 − OQ
h i
= (OT + T Q3 ) − OQ = d cos φ + (r + ro ) cos γ − (R + ro )

But

d sin φ = (r + ro ) sin γ
d sin φ sin φ
sin γ = =
r + ro n
r+ro
where n = d
. Therefore;
r r
2
sin φ n2 − sin2 φ
q
cos γ = 1 − sin2 γ = 1 − =
n2 n2
Hence;
r
h n2 − sin2 φ i
y = d cos φ + (r + ro ) − (R + ro )
n2
r + ro
h q i
= d cos φ + n2 − sin2 φ − (R + ro )
h qn i
= d cos φ + d n2 − sin2 φ − (R + ro )
h q i
= d cos φ + n2 − sin2 φ − (R + ro )

The velocity of the follower at the nose is;

dy dy dφ dy
v = = . =ω
dt dφ dt dφ
h sin 2φ i
= −ωd sin φ + p (5.3)
2 n2 − sin2 φ

The larger the value of φ, the large the velocity, hence the velocity decreases from a maximum at
B to zero at C.

If the cam rotates with a constant speed, then the acceleration of the follower at the nose is;
dv dv dφ dv
a = = . =ω
dt dφ dt dφ
h sin4 φ + n2 cos 2φ i
= −ω 2 d cos φ + 3 (5.4)
(n2 − sin2 φ) 2

Acceleration of the follower at the highest point, that is, at C where φ = 0 is,
h n2 i h n2 i h 1i
a|C = −ω 2 d 1 + 3 = −ω 2
d 1 + = −ω 2
d 1 +
(n2 ) 2 n3 n

The maximum value of the acceleration may occur at either B or C, depending on the values of d
and n.
Example 5.3

A straight ended cam has both sides tangential to the base circle which is 25mm radius and the
total angle of action is 1200 . A lift of 10mm is given to a roller 20mm diameter, the center of
which moves along a straight line passing through the axis of the cam. The camshaft has a speed
of 240rev/min. Determine;

(a) The radius of the nose arc

(b) The speed of the roller center when the roller is in contact with the cam at the end of one
of straight flanks adjacent to the nose

(c) The greatest acceleration of the roller center.

Solution

1200
(a) Consider figure 5.24, where R = 25mm, ro = 10mm, h = 10mm and α = 2
= 600 .

Figure 5.24:

h + ro + R = d + r + ro
d = (h + R) − r = (10 + 25) − r = 35 − r
 But,
R−r
cos α =
d
25 − r
cos 600 =
35 − r
17.5 − 0.5r = 25 − r
r = 15mm

The radius of the nose arc is thus, r = 15mm

(b) Velocity of the roller when in contact with the straight flank is;

v = ω(R + ro ) sec θ tan θ

At the end of one of straight flanks adjacent to the nose, that is, in our convection, point B
where θ = β;

d sin α
tan β =
R + ro
But d = 35 − r = 35 − 15 = 20mm, then;

20 sin 600
tan β =
25 + 10
β = 26.330

Therefore the velocity is;

2π × 240
v = (0.025 + 0.01) sec 26.330 tan 26.330 = 0.486m/s
60

(c) To determine the greatest acceleration, we need to find the acceleration at B and C and
choose the one which is large.
At B, there are two values of acceleration, that is;

(i) Acceleration when the follower is just about to leave the straight flank.

a|fB = ω 2 (R + ro )[sec3 β + tan2 β sec β]

= 25.1330 (0.035)[sec3 26.330 + tan2 26.330 sec 26.330 ] = 1.5m/s2
 Figure 5.25:

(ii) Acceleration when the follower has just left the straight flank, that is, when it has just
started moving on the nose.
h sin4 φ + n2 cos 2φ i
a|nB 2
= −ω d cos φ + 3
(n2 − sin2 φ) 2

where,

φ = α − β = 60 − 26.33 = 33.670
r + ro 15 + 10
n = = = 1.25
d 20
Therefore
h sin4 33.670 + 1.252 cos 233.670 i
a|nB = −25.1332 (0.02) cos 33.670 + 2 3 = −16.5m/s2
2 0
(1.25 − sin 33.67 ) 2

Acceleration at C, where φ = 00 is;

2
h 1i 2
h 1 i
a|C = −ω d 1 + = −25.133 (0.02) 1 + = −22.74m/s2
n 1.25

Therefore the greatest acceleration of the follower is the deceleration at the peak point C,
which is amax = 22.74m/s2 .

Example 5.4

A valve is operated by a cam which has a base circle diameter of 42mm and a lift of 15mm. The
cam has tangent flanks, a circular nose and a total angle of action of 1200 . The follower which
has a roller of diameter 18mm moves along a straight line passing through the cam axis. Find the
maximum load to be exerted by the spring to maintain contact between the cam and the roller
at all times while rotating at 1000rev/min. The effective mass of the valve tappet and spring is
0.6kg. (ANS=946.5N)

Hint: The maximum load required on the spring to maintain contact between the cam and follower
always is; F = mamax . Therefore determine the greatest acceleration of the follower during one
revolution of the cam.