Coral Reef

Coral reef
A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs

are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate.[1] Most coral
reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups.
Coral belongs to the class Anthozoa in the animal phylum Cnidaria, which includes sea
anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard carbonate
exoskeletons that support and protect the coral. Most reefs grow best in warm, shallow,
clear, sunny and agitated water. Coral reefs first appeared 485 million years ago, at the
dawn of the Early Ordovician, displacing the microbial and sponge reefs of the
Cambrian.[2]
Sometimes called rainforests of the sea,[3] shallow coral reefs form some of Earth's most
diverse ecosystems. They occupy less than 0.1% of the world's ocean area, about half the
area of France, yet they provide a home for at least 25% of all marine species,[4][5][6][7]
including fish, mollusks, worms, crustaceans, echinoderms, sponges, tunicates and
other cnidarians.[8] Coral reefs flourish in ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They
are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but deep water and cold
water coral reefs exist on smaller scales in other areas.
Shallow tropical coral reefs have declined by 50% since 1950, partly because they are
sensitive to water conditions.[9] They are under threat from excess nutrients (nitrogen
and phosphorus), rising ocean heat content and acidification, overfishing (e.g., from
blast fishing, cyanide fishing, spearfishing on scuba), sunscreen use,[10] and harmful
land-use practices, including runoff and seeps (e.g., from injection wells and cesspools).
[11][12][13]
Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services for tourism, fisheries and shoreline protection.
The annual global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated at anywhere from
US$30–375 billion (1997 and 2003 estimates)[14][15] to US$2.7 trillion (a 2020
estimate)[16] to US$9.9 trillion (a 2014 estimate).[17]
Though the shallow water tropical coral reefs are best known, there are also deeper
water reef-forming corals, which live in colder water and in temperate seas.
Formation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef#Coral 24/03/24, 11 27 AM
Page 1 of 60
:
Most coral reefs were formed after the Last Glacial Period when melting ice caused sea
level to rise and flood continental shelves. Most coral reefs are less than 10,000 years
old. As communities established themselves, the reefs grew upwards, pacing rising sea
levels. Reefs that rose too slowly could become drowned, without sufficient light.[18]
Coral reefs are also found in the deep sea away from continental shelves, around oceanic
islands and atolls. The majority of these islands are volcanic in origin. Others have
tectonic origins where plate movements lifted the deep ocean floor.
In The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs,[19] Charles Darwin set out his theory
of the formation of atoll reefs, an idea he conceived during the voyage of the Beagle. He
theorized that uplift and subsidence of Earth's crust under the oceans formed the atolls.
[20] Darwin set out a sequence of three stages in atoll formation. A fringing reef forms
around an extinct volcanic island as the island and ocean floor subside. As the
subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a barrier reef and ultimately an atoll
reef.
Darwin's theory starts As the island and As the subsidence

with a volcanic island ocean floor subside, continues, the
which becomes coral growth builds a fringing reef becomes
extinct fringing reef, often a larger barrier reef
including a shallow further from the shore
lagoon between the with a bigger and
land and the main deeper lagoon inside.
reef.
Page 2 of 60
:
Ultimately, the island
sinks below the sea,
and the barrier reef
becomes an atoll
enclosing an open
lagoon.
Darwin predicted that underneath each lagoon would be a bedrock base, the remains of
the original volcano.[21] Subsequent research supported this hypothesis. Darwin's theory
followed from his understanding that coral polyps thrive in the tropics where the water
is agitated, but can only live within a limited depth range, starting just below low tide.
Where the level of the underlying earth allows, the corals grow around the coast to form
fringing reefs, and can eventually grow to become a barrier reef.
Where the bottom is rising, fringing reefs can grow

around the coast, but coral raised above sea level
dies. If the land subsides slowly, the fringing reefs
keep pace by growing upwards on a base of older,
dead coral, forming a barrier reef enclosing a lagoon
between the reef and the land. A barrier reef can
encircle an island, and once the island sinks below
sea level a roughly circular atoll of growing coral
continues to keep up with the sea level, forming a
A fringing reef can take ten
central lagoon. Barrier reefs and atolls do not usually thousand years to form, and an atoll
form complete circles but are broken in places by can take up to 30 million years.[22]
storms. Like sea level rise, a rapidly subsiding
bottom can overwhelm coral growth, killing the coral
and the reef, due to what is called coral drowning.[23] Corals that rely on zooxanthellae
can die when the water becomes too deep for their symbionts to adequately
photosynthesize, due to decreased light exposure.[24]
The two main variables determining the geomorphology, or shape, of coral reefs are the
nature of the substrate on which they rest, and the history of the change in sea level
relative to that substrate.
Page 3 of 60
:
The approximately 20,000-year-old Great Barrier Reef offers an example of how coral
reefs formed on continental shelves. Sea level was then 120 m (390 ft) lower than in the
21st century.[25][26] As sea level rose, the water and the corals encroached on what had
been hills of the Australian coastal plain. By 13,000 years ago, sea level had risen to
60 m (200 ft) lower than at present, and many hills of the coastal plains had become
continental islands. As sea level rise continued, water topped most of the continental
islands. The corals could then overgrow the hills, forming cays and reefs. Sea level on
the Great Barrier Reef has not changed significantly in the last 6,000 years.[26] The age
of living reef structure is estimated to be between 6,000 and 8,000 years.[27] Although
the Great Barrier Reef formed along a continental shelf, and not around a volcanic
island, Darwin's principles apply. Development stopped at the barrier reef stage, since
Australia is not about to submerge. It formed the world's largest barrier reef, 300–
1,000 m (980–3,280 ft) from shore, stretching for 2,000 km (1,200 mi).[28]
Healthy tropical coral reefs grow horizontally from 1 to 3 cm (0.39 to 1.18 in) per year,
and grow vertically anywhere from 1 to 25 cm (0.39 to 9.84 in) per year; however, they
grow only at depths shallower than 150 m (490 ft) because of their need for sunlight,
and cannot grow above sea level.[29]
Material
As the name implies, coral reefs are made up of coral skeletons from mostly intact coral
colonies. As other chemical elements present in corals become incorporated into the
calcium carbonate deposits, aragonite is formed. However, shell fragments and the
remains of coralline algae such as the green-segmented genus Halimeda can add to the
reef's ability to withstand damage from storms and other threats. Such mixtures are
visible in structures such as Eniwetok Atoll.[30]
In the geologic past

The times of maximum reef development were
in the Middle Cambrian (513–501 Ma),
Devonian (416–359 Ma) and Carboniferous
(359–299 Ma), owing to extinct order Rugosa
corals, and Late Cretaceous (100–66 Ma) and
Neogene (23 Ma–present), owing to order
Scleractinia corals.[31]
Not all reefs in the past were formed by corals: Ancient coral reefs
those in the Early Cambrian (542–513 Ma)
resulted from calcareous algae and
archaeocyathids (small animals with conical shape, probably related to sponges) and in
Page 4 of 60
:
the Late Cretaceous (100–66 Ma), when reefs formed by a group of bivalves called
rudists existed; one of the valves formed the main conical structure and the other, much
smaller valve acted as a cap.[32]
Measurements of the oxygen isotopic composition of the aragonitic skeleton of coral

reefs, such as Porites, can indicate changes in sea surface temperature and sea surface
salinity conditions during the growth of the coral. This technique is often used by
climate scientists to infer a region's paleoclimate.[33]
Types
Since Darwin's identification of the three classical reef formations – the fringing reef
around a volcanic island becoming a barrier reef and then an atoll[34] – scientists have
identified further reef types. While some sources find only three,[35][36] Thomas lists
"Four major forms of large-scale coral reefs" – the fringing reef, barrier reef, atoll and
table reef based on Stoddart, D.R. (1969).[37][38] Spalding et al. list four main reef types
that can be clearly illustrated – the fringing reef, barrier reef, atoll, and "bank or
platform reef"—and notes that many other structures exist which do not conform easily
to strict definitions, including the "patch reef".[39]
Fringing reef
Fringing reef
Fringing reef at Eilat at the southern

A fringing reef, also called a shore reef,[40] is directly
tip of Israel
attached to a shore,[41] or borders it with an
intervening narrow, shallow channel or lagoon.[42] It
is the most common reef type.[42] Fringing reefs follow coastlines and can extend for
many kilometres.[43] They are usually less than 100 metres wide, but some are hundreds
of metres wide.[44] Fringing reefs are initially formed on the shore at the low water level
and expand seawards as they grow in size. The final width depends on where the sea bed
begins to drop steeply. The surface of the fringe reef generally remains at the same
height: just below the waterline. In older fringing reefs, whose outer regions pushed far
out into the sea, the inner part is deepened by erosion and eventually forms a lagoon.[45]
Fringing reef lagoons can become over 100 metres wide and several metres deep. Like
Page 5 of 60
:
the fringing reef itself, they run parallel to the coast. The fringing reefs of the Red Sea
are "some of the best developed in the world" and occur along all its shores except off
sandy bays.[46]
Barrier reef
Barrier reefs are separated from a mainland or island
shore by a deep channel or lagoon.[42] They resemble
the later stages of a fringing reef with its lagoon but
differ from the latter mainly in size and origin. Their
lagoons can be several kilometres wide and 30 to
70 metres deep. Above all, the offshore outer reef edge
formed in open water rather than next to a shoreline.
Barrier reef
Like an atoll, it is thought that these reefs are formed
either as the seabed lowered or sea level rose.
Formation takes considerably longer than for a fringing reef, thus barrier reefs are much
rarer.
The best known and largest example of a barrier reef is the Australian Great Barrier
Reef.[42][47] Other major examples are the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System and the
New Caledonian Barrier Reef.[47] Barrier reefs are also found on the coasts of
Providencia,[47] Mayotte, the Gambier Islands, on the southeast coast of Kalimantan, on
parts of the coast of Sulawesi, southeastern New Guinea and the south coast of the
Louisiade Archipelago.
Platform reef
Platform reefs, variously called bank or table reefs, can
form on the continental shelf, as well as in the open
ocean, in fact anywhere where the seabed rises close
enough to the surface of the ocean to enable the growth
of zooxanthemic, reef-forming corals.[48] Platform reefs
are found in the southern Great Barrier Reef, the
Swain[49] and Capricorn Group[50] on the continental
Platform reef
shelf, about 100–200 km from the coast. Some
platform reefs of the northern Mascarenes are several
thousand kilometres from the mainland. Unlike fringing and barrier reefs which extend
only seaward, platform reefs grow in all directions.[48] They are variable in size, ranging
from a few hundred metres to many kilometres across. Their usual shape is oval to
elongated. Parts of these reefs can reach the surface and form sandbanks and small
islands around which may form fringing reefs. A lagoon may form In the middle of a
platform reef.
Page 6 of 60
:
Platform reefs are typically situated within atolls, where they adopt the name "patch
reefs" and often span a diameter of just a few dozen meters. In instances where platform
reefs develop along elongated structures, such as old and weathered barrier reefs, they
tend to arrange themselves in a linear formation. This is the case, for example, on the
east coast of the Red Sea near Jeddah. In old platform reefs, the inner part can be so
heavily eroded that it forms a pseudo-atoll.[48] These can be distinguished from real
atolls only by detailed investigation, possibly including core drilling. Some platform
reefs of the Laccadives are U-shaped, due to wind and water flow.
Atoll
Atolls or atoll reefs are a more or less circular or
continuous barrier reef that extends all the way
around a lagoon without a central island.[51] They
are usually formed from fringing reefs around
volcanic islands.[42] Over time, the island erodes
away and sinks below sea level.[42] Atolls may also
be formed by the sinking of the seabed or rising of
the sea level. A ring of reefs results, which enclose a
lagoon. Atolls are numerous in the South Pacific, Formation of an atoll according to
where they usually occur in mid-ocean, for example, Charles Darwin
in the Caroline Islands, the Cook Islands, French
Polynesia, the Marshall Islands and Micronesia.[47]
Atolls are found in the Indian Ocean, for example, in the Maldives, the Chagos Islands,
the Seychelles and around Cocos Island.[47] The entire Maldives consist of 26 atolls.[52]
Other reef types or variants

Apron reef – short reef resembling a fringing
reef, but more sloped; extending out and
downward from a point or peninsular shore. The
initial stage of a fringing reef.[40]
Bank reef – isolated, flat-topped reef larger than
a patch reef and usually on mid-shelf regions
and linear or semi-circular in shape; a type of
platform reef.[47] A small atoll in the Maldives
Patch reef – common, isolated, comparatively
small reef outcrop, usually within a lagoon or
embayment, often circular and surrounded by sand or seagrass. Can be considered
as a type of platform reef or as features of fringing reefs, atolls and barrier reefs.[47]
The patches may be surrounded by a ring of reduced seagrass cover referred to as
Page 7 of 60
:
a grazing halo.[53]
Ribbon reef – long, narrow, possibly winding
reef, usually associated with an atoll lagoon.
Also called a shelf-edge reef or sill reef.[40]
Drying reef – a part of a reef which is above
water at low tide but submerged at high tide[54]
Habili – reef specific to the Red Sea; does not
reach near enough to the surface to cause
visible surf; may be a hazard to ships (from the
Arabic for "unborn")
Microatoll – community of species of corals;
vertical growth limited by average tidal height; Inhabited cay in the Maldives
growth morphologies offer a low-resolution
record of patterns of sea level change; fossilized
remains can be dated using radioactive carbon dating and have been used to
reconstruct Holocene sea levels[55]
Cays – small, low-elevation, sandy islands formed on the surface of coral reefs from
eroded material that piles up, forming an area above sea level; can be stabilized by
plants to become habitable; occur in tropical environments throughout the Pacific,
Atlantic and Indian Oceans (including the Caribbean and on the Great Barrier Reef
and Belize Barrier Reef), where they provide habitable and agricultural land
Seamount or guyot – formed when a coral reef on a volcanic island subsides; tops
of seamounts are rounded and guyots are flat; flat tops of guyots, or tablemounts,
are due to erosion by waves, winds, and atmospheric processes
Zones
Coral reef ecosystems contain distinct zones that
host different kinds of habitats. Usually, three
major zones are recognized: the fore reef, reef
crest, and the back reef (frequently referred to
as the reef lagoon).
The three zones are physically and ecologically

interconnected. Reef life and oceanic processes
create opportunities for the exchange of
The three major zones of a coral reef: the seawater, sediments, nutrients and marine life.
fore reef, reef crest, and the back reef
Most coral reefs exist in waters less than 50 m
deep.[56] Some inhabit tropical continental
shelves where cool, nutrient-rich upwelling does not occur, such as the Great Barrier
Page 8 of 60
:
Reef. Others are found in the deep ocean surrounding islands or as atolls, such as in the
Maldives. The reefs surrounding islands form when islands subside into the ocean, and
atolls form when an island subsides below the surface of the sea.
Alternatively, Moyle and Cech distinguish six zones, though most reefs possess only
some of the zones.[57]
The reef surface is the shallowest part of the reef.

It is subject to surge and tides. When waves pass
over shallow areas, they shoal, as shown in the
adjacent diagram. This means the water is often
agitated. These are the precise condition under
which corals flourish. The light is sufficient for
photosynthesis by the symbiotic zooxanthellae, and Water in the reef surface zone is
agitated water brings plankton to feed the coral. often agitated. This diagram
represents a reef on a continental
The off-reef floor is the shallow sea floor shelf. The water waves at the left
surrounding a reef. This zone occurs next to reefs on travel over the off-reef floor until
they encounter the reef slope or fore
continental shelves. Reefs around tropical islands
reef. Then the waves pass over the
and atolls drop abruptly to great depths and do not shallow reef crest. When a wave
have such a floor. Usually sandy, the floor often enters shallow water it shoals, that
supports seagrass meadows which are important is, it slows down and the wave
foraging areas for reef fish. height increases.
The reef drop-off is, for its first 50 m, habitat for

reef fish who find shelter on the cliff face and plankton in the water nearby. The drop-off
zone applies mainly to the reefs surrounding oceanic islands and atolls.
The reef face is the zone above the reef floor or the reef drop-off. This zone is often the
reef's most diverse area. Coral and calcareous algae provide complex habitats and areas
that offer protection, such as cracks and crevices. Invertebrates and epiphytic algae
provide much of the food for other organisms.[57] A common feature on this forereef
zone is spur and groove formations that serve to transport sediment downslope.
The reef flat is the sandy-bottomed flat, which can be behind the main reef, containing
chunks of coral. This zone may border a lagoon and serve as a protective area, or it may
lie between the reef and the shore, and in this case is a flat, rocky area. Fish tend to
prefer it when it is present.[57]
The reef lagoon is an entirely enclosed region, which creates an area less affected by
wave action and often contains small reef patches.[57]
Page 9 of 60
:
However, the "topography of coral reefs is constantly changing. Each reef is made up of
irregular patches of algae, sessile invertebrates, and bare rock and sand. The size, shape
and relative abundance of these patches change from year to year in response to the
various factors that favor one type of patch over another. Growing coral, for example,
produces constant change in the fine structure of reefs. On a larger scale, tropical storms
may knock out large sections of reef and cause boulders on sandy areas to move."[58]
Locations
Coral reefs are estimated to cover
284,300 km2 (109,800 sq mi),[59] just
under 0.1% of the oceans' surface area.
The Indo-Pacific region (including the
Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia
and the Pacific) account for 91.9% of this
Locations of coral reefs
total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3%
of that figure, while the Pacific including
Australia accounts for 40.8%. Atlantic
and Caribbean coral reefs account for
7.6%.[5]
Although corals exist both in temperate

and tropical waters, shallow-water reefs
form only in a zone extending from
approximately 30° N to 30° S of the
equator. Tropical corals do not grow at Boundary for 20 °C isotherms. Most corals live
depths of over 50 meters (160 ft). The within this boundary. Note the cooler waters
optimum temperature for most coral caused by upwelling on the southwest coast of
Africa and off the coast of Peru.
reefs is 26–27 °C (79–81 °F), and few
reefs exist in waters below 18 °C (64 °F).
[60] When the net production by reef building corals no longer keeps pace with relative
sea level and the reef structure permanently drowns a Darwin Point is reached. One
such point exists at the northwestern end of the Hawaiian Archipelago; see Evolution of
Hawaiian volcanoes#Coral atoll stage.[61][62]
However, reefs in the Persian Gulf have adapted to temperatures of 13 °C (55 °F) in
winter and 38 °C (100 °F) in summer.[63] 37 species of scleractinian corals inhabit such
an environment around Larak Island.[64]
Page 10 of 60
:
Deep-water coral inhabits greater depths
and colder temperatures at much higher
latitudes, as far north as Norway.[65]
Although deep water corals can form
reefs, little is known about them.
The northernmost coral reef on Earth is

located near Eilat, Israel.[66] Coral reefs
are rare along the west coasts of the
Americas and Africa, due primarily to
upwelling and strong cold coastal This map shows areas of upwelling in red. Coral
currents that reduce water temperatures
in these areas (the Peru, Benguela and reefs are not found in coastal areas where colder
and nutrient-rich upwellings occur.
Canary Currents respectively).[67] Corals
are seldom found along the coastline of
South Asia—from the eastern tip of India (Chennai) to the Bangladesh and Myanmar
borders[5]—as well as along the coasts of northeastern South America and Bangladesh,
due to the freshwater release from the Amazon and Ganges Rivers respectively.
Significant coral reefs include:
The Great Barrier Reef—largest, comprising over 2,900 individual reefs and 900
islands stretching for over 2,600 kilometers (1,600 mi) off Queensland, Australia
The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System—second largest, stretching 1,000
kilometers (620 mi) from Isla Contoy at the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula down to the
Bay Islands of Honduras
The New Caledonia Barrier Reef—second longest double barrier reef, covering
1,500 kilometers (930 mi)
The Andros, Bahamas Barrier Reef—third largest, following the east coast of Andros
Island, Bahamas, between Andros and Nassau
The Red Sea—includes 6,000-year-old fringing reefs located along a 2,000 km
(1,240 mi) coastline
The Florida Reef Tract—largest continental US reef and the third-largest coral
barrier reef, extends from Soldier Key, located in Biscayne Bay, to the Dry Tortugas
in the Gulf of Mexico[68]
Blake Plateau has the world's largest known deep-water coral reef, comprising a 6.4
million acre reef that stretches from Miami to Charleston, S. C. Its discovery was
announced in January 2024.[69]
Pulley Ridge—deepest photosynthetic coral reef, Florida
Numerous reefs around the Maldives
The Philippines coral reef area, the second-largest in Southeast Asia, is estimated
Page 11 of 60
:
at 26,000 square kilometers. 915 reef fish species and more than 400 scleractinian
coral species, 12 of which are endemic are found there.
The Raja Ampat Islands in Indonesia's West Papua province offer the highest known
marine diversity.[70]
Bermuda is known for its northernmost coral reef system, located at 32.4°N 64.8°W.
The presence of coral reefs at this high latitude is due to the proximity of the Gulf
Stream. Bermuda coral species represent a subset of those found in the greater
Caribbean.[71]
The world's northernmost individual coral reef is located within a bay of Japan's
Tsushima Island in the Korea Strait.[72]
The world's southernmost coral reef is at Lord Howe Island, in the Pacific Ocean off
the east coast of Australia.
Coral
When alive, corals are colonies of small animals
embedded in calcium carbonate shells. Coral heads
consist of accumulations of individual animals called
polyps, arranged in diverse shapes.[73] Polyps are
usually tiny, but they can range in size from a
pinhead to 12 inches (30 cm) across.
Reef-building or hermatypic corals live only in the

photic zone (above 70 m), the depth to which
sufficient sunlight penetrates the water.[74]
Zooxanthellae
Diagram of a coral polyp anatomy
Coral polyps do not photosynthesize, but have a

symbiotic relationship with microscopic algae
(dinoflagellates) of the genus Symbiodinium,
Zooxanthellae, the microscopic
commonly referred to as zooxanthellae. These
algae that lives inside coral, gives it organisms live within the polyps' tissues and provide
colour and provides it with food organic nutrients that nourish the polyp in the form
through photosynthesis of glucose, glycerol and amino acids.[75] Because of
this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in
Page 12 of 60
:
clear water, which admits more sunlight. Without
their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow to form significant reef structures.
Corals get up to 90% of their nutrients from their symbionts.[76] In return, as an
example of mutualism, the corals shelter the zooxanthellae, averaging one million for
every cubic centimeter of coral, and provide a constant supply of the carbon dioxide they
need for photosynthesis.
The varying pigments in different species of

zooxanthellae give them an overall brown or golden-
brown appearance and give brown corals their
colors. Other pigments such as reds, blues, greens,
etc. come from colored proteins made by the coral
animals. Coral that loses a large fraction of its
zooxanthellae becomes white (or sometimes pastel
shades in corals that are pigmented with their own
proteins) and is said to be bleached, a condition
Close up of polyps arrayed on a
which, unless corrected, can kill the coral. coral, waving their tentacles. There
can be thousands of polyps on a
There are eight clades of Symbiodinium phylotypes. single coral branch.
Most research has been conducted on clades A–D.
Each clade contributes their own benefits as well as
less compatible attributes to the survival of their coral hosts. Each photosynthetic
organism has a specific level of sensitivity to photodamage to compounds needed for
survival, such as proteins. Rates of regeneration and replication determine the
organism's ability to survive. Phylotype A is found more in the shallow waters. It is able
to produce mycosporine-like amino acids that are UV resistant, using a derivative of
glycerin to absorb the UV radiation and allowing them to better adapt to warmer water
temperatures. In the event of UV or thermal damage, if and when repair occurs, it will
increase the likelihood of survival of the host and symbiont. This leads to the idea that,
evolutionarily, clade A is more UV resistant and thermally resistant than the other
clades.[77]
Clades B and C are found more frequently in deeper water, which may explain their
higher vulnerability to increased temperatures. Terrestrial plants that receive less
sunlight because they are found in the undergrowth are analogous to clades B, C, and D.
Since clades B through D are found at deeper depths, they require an elevated light
absorption rate to be able to synthesize as much energy. With elevated absorption rates
at UV wavelengths, these phylotypes are more prone to coral bleaching versus the
shallow clade A.
Clade D has been observed to be high temperature-tolerant, and has a higher rate of
survival than clades B and C during modern bleaching events.[77]
Page 13 of 60
:
Skeleton
Reefs grow as polyps and other organisms deposit
calcium carbonate,[78][79] the basis of coral, as a
skeletal structure beneath and around themselves,
pushing the coral head's top upwards and outwards.
[80] Waves, grazing fish (such as parrotfish), sea
urchins, sponges and other forces and organisms act

as bioeroders, breaking down coral skeletons into
fragments that settle into spaces in the reef structure
Table coral, Acropora sp. or form sandy bottoms in associated reef lagoons.
Typical shapes for coral species are named by their

resemblance to terrestrial objects such as wrinkled brains, cabbages, table tops, antlers,
wire strands and pillars. These shapes can depend on the life history of the coral, like
light exposure and wave action,[81] and events such as breakages.[82]
Reproduction
Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually. An
individual polyp uses both reproductive modes
within its lifetime. Corals reproduce sexually by
either internal or external fertilization. The
reproductive cells are found on the mesenteries,
membranes that radiate inward from the layer of
tissue that lines the stomach cavity. Some mature
adult corals are hermaphroditic; others are
exclusively male or female. A few species change sex Corals are animals. They can
as they grow. appear like plants because they are
sessile and take root on the ocean
Internally fertilized eggs develop in the polyp for a floor. But unlike plants, corals do not
period ranging from days to weeks. Subsequent make their own food.[83]
development produces a tiny larva, known as a
planula. Externally fertilized eggs develop during External videos
synchronized spawning. Polyps across a reef
simultaneously release eggs and sperm into the
water en masse. Spawn disperse over a large area.
The timing of spawning depends on time of year,
water temperature, and tidal and lunar cycles.
Spawning is most successful given little variation
between high and low tide. The less water
movement, the better the chance for fertilization. " Out of Tune - Breakdown of
The release of eggs or planula usually occurs at
Page 14 of 60
:
night and is sometimes in phase with the lunar Coral Spawning Synchrony" (https://
cycle (three to six days after a full moon).[84][85] www.youtube.com/watch?v=PR4bp
[86] VKVeQ4&t=297s&ab_channel=Tom
Shlesinger), Tom Shlesinger, Sep 5,
2019.
The emergence of complex rhythms from solar and lunar cycles in

marine ecosystems.[85]
The period from release to settlement lasts only a few days, but some planulae can
survive afloat for several weeks. During this process, the larvae may use several different
cues to find a suitable location for settlement. At long distances sounds from existing
reefs are likely important,[87] while at short distances chemical compounds become
important.[88] The larvae are vulnerable to predation and environmental conditions.
The lucky few planulae that successfully attach to substrate then compete for food and
space.
Gallery of reef-building corals
Page 15 of 60
:
Fluorescent coral[89] Spiral wire
coral
Mushroom coral Staghorn coral
Pillar coral Brain coral
Maze coral
Fluorescent coral
Page 16 of 60
:
Black coral
Elkhorn coral
Other reef builders

Corals are the most prodigious reef-builders. However many other organisms living in
the reef community contribute skeletal calcium carbonate in the same manner as corals.
These include coralline algae, some sponges and bivalves.[90] Reefs are always built by
the combined efforts of these different phyla, with different organisms leading reef-
building in different geological periods.[91]
Coralline algae
Coralline algae are important contributors to reef
structure. Although their mineral deposition rates
are much slower than corals, they are more tolerant
of rough wave-action, and so help to create a
protective crust over those parts of the reef subjected
to the greatest forces by waves, such as the reef front
facing the open ocean. They also strengthen the reef
structure by depositing limestone in sheets over the
reef surface. Coralline algae Lithothamnion sp.
Page 17 of 60
:
Sponges
"Sclerosponge" is the descriptive name for all
Porifera that build reefs. In the early Cambrian
period, Archaeocyatha sponges were the world's
first reef-building organisms, and sponges were the
only reef-builders until the Ordovician.
Sclerosponges still assist corals building modern
reefs, but like coralline algae are much slower-
growing than corals and their contribution is
Deep-water cloud sponge (usually) minor.
In the northern Pacific Ocean cloud sponges still

create deep-water mineral-structures without corals, although the structures are not
recognizable from the surface like tropical reefs. They are the only extant organisms
known to build reef-like structures in cold water.
Bivalves
Oyster reefs are dense aggregations of oysters living
in colonial communities. Other regionally-specific
names for these structures include oyster beds and
oyster banks. Oyster larvae require a hard substrate
or surface to attach on, which includes the shells of
old or dead oysters. Thus reefs can build up over
time as new larvae settle on older individuals.
Crassostrea virginica were once abundant in
Eastern oysters (Crassostrea
Chesapeake Bay and shorelines bordering the virginica)
Atlantic coastal plain until the late nineteenth
century.[92] Ostrea angasi is a species of flat oyster
that had also formed large reefs in South Australia.[93]
Hippuritida, an extinct order of bivalves known as rudists, were major reef-building

organisms during the Cretaceous. By the mid-Cretaceous, rudists became the dominant
tropical reef-builders, becoming more numerous than scleractinian corals. During this
period, ocean temperatures and saline levels—which corals are sensitive to—were higher
than it is today, which may have contributed to the success of rudist reefs.[32]
Darwin's paradox
In The Structure and Distribution of Coral
Reefs, published in 1842, Darwin described Darwin's paradox
how coral reefs were found in some tropical
Page 18 of 60
:
areas but not others, with no obvious cause. "Coral... seems to proliferate when
The largest and strongest corals grew in parts ocean waters are warm, poor, clear
of the reef exposed to the most violent surf and and agitated, a fact which Darwin
corals were weakened or absent where loose had already noted when he passed
sediment accumulated.[19] through Tahiti in 1842. This
constitutes a fundamental
Tropical waters contain few nutrients[95] yet a paradox, shown quantitatively by
coral reef can flourish like an "oasis in the the apparent impossibility of
desert".[96] This has given rise to the ecosystem balancing input and output of the
conundrum, sometimes called "Darwin's nutritive elements which control
paradox": "How can such high production the coral polyp metabolism.
flourish in such nutrient poor conditions?"[97]
[98][99] Recent oceanographic research has
brought to light the reality of this
Coral reefs support over one-quarter of all paradox by confirming that the
marine species. This diversity results in oligotrophy of the ocean euphotic
complex food webs, with large predator fish zone persists right up to the swell-
eating smaller forage fish that eat yet smaller battered reef crest. When you
zooplankton and so on. However, all food webs approach the reef edges and atolls
eventually depend on plants, which are the from the quasidesert of the open
primary producers. Coral reefs typically sea, the near absence of living
produce 5–10 grams of carbon per square matter suddenly becomes a
meter per day (gC·m−2·day−1) biomass.[100] plethora of life, without transition.
[101]
So why is there something rather
than nothing, and more precisely,
One reason for the unusual clarity of tropical where do the necessary nutrients
waters is their nutrient deficiency and drifting for the functioning of this
plankton. Further, the sun shines year-round extraordinary coral reef machine
in the tropics, warming the surface layer, come from?" — Francis
making it less dense than subsurface layers. Rougerie [94]
The warmer water is separated from deeper,
cooler water by a stable thermocline, where the
temperature makes a rapid change. This keeps
the warm surface waters floating above the
cooler deeper waters. In most parts of the ocean, there is little exchange between these
layers. Organisms that die in aquatic environments generally sink to the bottom, where
they decompose, which releases nutrients in the form of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)
and potassium (K). These nutrients are necessary for plant growth, but in the tropics,
they do not directly return to the surface.
Page 19 of 60
:
Plants form the base of the food chain and need sunlight and nutrients to grow. In the
ocean, these plants are mainly microscopic phytoplankton which drift in the water
column. They need sunlight for photosynthesis, which powers carbon fixation, so they
are found only relatively near the surface, but they also need nutrients. Phytoplankton
rapidly use nutrients in the surface waters, and in the tropics, these nutrients are not
usually replaced because of the thermocline.[102]
Explanations
Around coral reefs, lagoons fill in with material eroded from the reef and the island.
They become havens for marine life, providing protection from waves and storms.
Most importantly, reefs recycle nutrients, which happens much less in the open ocean.
In coral reefs and lagoons, producers include phytoplankton, as well as seaweed and
coralline algae, especially small types called turf algae, which pass nutrients to corals.
[103] The phytoplankton form the base of the food chain and are eaten by fish and
crustaceans. Recycling reduces the nutrient inputs needed overall to support the
community.[76]
Corals also absorb nutrients, including inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, directly
from water. Many corals extend their tentacles at night to catch zooplankton that pass
near. Zooplankton provide the polyp with nitrogen, and the polyp shares some of the
nitrogen with the zooxanthellae, which also require this element.[103]
Sponges live in crevices in the reefs. They are

efficient filter feeders, and in the Red Sea they
consume about 60% of the phytoplankton that drifts
by. Sponges eventually excrete nutrients in a form
that corals can use.[104]
The roughness of coral surfaces is key to coral

survival in agitated waters. Normally, a boundary
layer of still water surrounds a submerged object,
The colour of corals depends on the which acts as a barrier. Waves breaking on the
combination of brown shades
extremely rough edges of corals disrupt the
provided by their zooxanthellae and
pigmented proteins (reds, blues,
boundary layer, allowing the corals access to passing
greens, etc.) produced by the corals nutrients. Turbulent water thereby promotes reef
themselves. growth. Without the access to nutrients brought by
rough coral surfaces, even the most effective
recycling would not suffice.[105]
Page 20 of 60
:
Deep nutrient-rich water entering coral reefs through isolated events may have
significant effects on temperature and nutrient systems.[106][107] This water movement
disrupts the relatively stable thermocline that usually exists between warm shallow
water and deeper colder water. Temperature regimes on coral reefs in the Bahamas and
Florida are highly variable with temporal scales of minutes to seasons and spatial scales
across depths.[108]
Water can pass through coral reefs in various ways,

including current rings, surface waves, internal
waves and tidal changes.[106][109][110][111] Movement
is generally created by tides and wind. As tides
interact with varying bathymetry and wind mixes
with surface water, internal waves are created. An
internal wave is a gravity wave that moves along
density stratification within the ocean. When a water
parcel encounters a different density it oscillates and
creates internal waves.[112] While internal waves
generally have a lower frequency than surface waves, Coral polyps
they often form as a single wave that breaks into
multiple waves as it hits a slope and moves upward.
[113] This vertical breakup of internal waves causes significant diapycnal mixing and
turbulence.[114][115] Internal waves can act as nutrient pumps, bringing plankton and
cool nutrient-rich water to the surface.[106][111][116][117][118][119][120][121][122][123][124]
The irregular structure characteristic of coral reef

bathymetry may enhance mixing and produce
pockets of cooler water and variable nutrient
content.[125] Arrival of cool, nutrient-rich water from
depths due to internal waves and tidal bores has
been linked to growth rates of suspension feeders
and benthic algae[111][124][126] as well as plankton
and larval organisms.[111][127] The seaweed Codium
Most coral polyps are nocturnal
isthmocladum reacts to deep water nutrient sources
feeders. Here, in the dark, polyps
have extended their tentacles to
because their tissues have different concentrations
feed on zooplankton. of nutrients dependent upon depth.[124]
Aggregations of eggs, larval organisms and plankton
on reefs respond to deep water intrusions.[118]
Similarly, as internal waves and bores move vertically, surface-dwelling larval organisms
are carried toward the shore.[127] This has significant biological importance to cascading
effects of food chains in coral reef ecosystems and may provide yet another key to
unlocking the paradox.
Page 21 of 60
:
Cyanobacteria provide soluble nitrates via nitrogen fixation.[128]
Coral reefs often depend on surrounding habitats, such as seagrass meadows and
mangrove forests, for nutrients. Seagrass and mangroves supply dead plants and
animals that are rich in nitrogen and serve to feed fish and animals from the reef by
supplying wood and vegetation. Reefs, in turn, protect mangroves and seagrass from
waves and produce sediment in which the mangroves and seagrass can root.[63]
Biodiversity
Coral reefs form some of the world's most productive ecosystems, providing complex
and varied marine habitats that support a wide range of organisms.[129][130] Fringing
reefs just below low tide level have a mutually beneficial relationship with mangrove
forests at high tide level and sea grass meadows in between: the reefs protect the
mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or
erode the sediments in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and sea grass protect
the coral from large influxes of silt, fresh water and pollutants. This level of variety in
the environment benefits many coral reef animals, which, for example, may feed in the
sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding.[131]
Reefs are home to a variety of animals, including fish, seabirds, sponges, cnidarians
(which includes some types of corals and jellyfish), worms, crustaceans (including
shrimp, cleaner shrimp, spiny lobsters and crabs), mollusks (including cephalopods),
echinoderms (including starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers), sea squirts, sea turtles
and sea snakes. Aside from humans, mammals are rare on coral reefs, with visiting
cetaceans such as dolphins the main exception. A few species feed directly on corals,
while others graze on algae on the reef.[5][103] Reef biomass is positively related to
species diversity.[132]
The same hideouts in a reef may be regularly inhabited by different species at different
times of day. Nighttime predators such as cardinalfish and squirrelfish hide during the
day, while damselfish, surgeonfish, triggerfish, wrasses and parrotfish hide from eels
and sharks.[30]: 49
The great number and diversity of hiding places in coral reefs, i.e. refuges, are the most
important factor causing the great diversity and high biomass of the organisms in coral
reefs.[133][134]
Coral reefs also have a very high degree of microorganism diversity compared to other
environments.[135]
Algae
Page 22 of 60
:
Reefs are chronically at risk of algal encroachment. Overfishing and excess nutrient
supply from onshore can enable algae to outcompete and kill the coral.[136][137]
Increased nutrient levels can be a result of sewage or chemical fertilizer runoff. Runoff
can carry nitrogen and phosphorus which promote excess algae growth. Algae can
sometimes out-compete the coral for space. The algae can then smother the coral by
decreasing the oxygen supply available to the reef.[138] Decreased oxygen levels can slow
down calcification rates, weakening the coral and leaving it more susceptible to disease
and degradation.[139] Algae inhabit a large percentage of surveyed coral locations.[140]
The algal population consists of turf algae, coralline algae and macro algae. Some sea
urchins (such as Diadema antillarum) eat these algae and could thus decrease the risk
of algal encroachment.
Sponges
Sponges are essential for the functioning of the coral reef that system. Algae and corals
in coral reefs produce organic material. This is filtered through sponges which convert
this organic material into small particles which in turn are absorbed by algae and corals.
Sponges are essential to the coral reef system however, they are quite different from
corals. While corals are complex and many celled while sponges are very simple
organisms with no tissue. They are alike in that they are both immobile aquatic
invertebrates but otherwise are completely different.
Types of sponges-
There are several different species of sea sponge. They come in multiple shapes and
sizes and all have unique characteristics. Some types of sea sponges include; the tube
sponge, vase sponge, yellow sponge, bright red tree sponge, painted tunicate sponge,
and the sea squirt sponge.
Medicinal Qualities of Sea Sponges-
Sea sponges have provided the base for many life saving medications. Scientists began
to study them in the 1940s and after a few years,
discovered that sea sponges contain properties that
can stop viral infections. The first drug developed
from sea sponges was released in 1969.
Fish
Over 4,000 species of fish inhabit coral reefs.[5] The
reasons for this diversity remain unclear.
Hypotheses include the "lottery", in which the first
(lucky winner) recruit to a territory is typically able
Page 23 of 60
:
to defend it against latecomers, "competition", in
which adults compete for territory, and less-
competitive species must be able to survive in
poorer habitat, and "predation", in which Tube sponges attracting cardinal
population size is a function of postsettlement fishes, glassfishes and wrasses
piscivore mortality.[141] Healthy reefs can produce
up to 35 tons of fish per square kilometer each year,
but damaged reefs produce much less.[142]
Invertebrates
Sea urchins, Dotidae and sea slugs eat seaweed.
Over 4,000 species of fish inhabit
Some species of sea urchins, such as Diadema coral reefs.
antillarum, can play a pivotal part in preventing
algae from overrunning reefs.[143] Researchers are
investigating the use of native collector urchins,
Tripneustes gratilla, for their potential as
biocontrol agents to mitigate the spread of invasive
algae species on coral reefs.[144][145] Nudibranchia
and sea anemones eat sponges.
A number of invertebrates, collectively called

"cryptofauna", inhabit the coral skeletal substrate
itself, either boring into the skeletons (through the
process of bioerosion) or living in pre-existing voids
and crevices. Animals boring into the rock include
sponges, bivalve mollusks, and sipunculans. Those
settling on the reef include many other species,
particularly crustaceans and polychaete worms.[67] Organisms can cover every square
inch of a coral reef.
Seabirds
Coral reef systems provide important habitats for seabird species, some endangered. For
example, Midway Atoll in Hawaii supports nearly three million seabirds, including two-
thirds (1.5 million) of the global population of Laysan albatross, and one-third of the
global population of black-footed albatross.[146] Each seabird species has specific sites
on the atoll where they nest. Altogether, 17 species of seabirds live on Midway. The
short-tailed albatross is the rarest, with fewer than 2,200 surviving after excessive
feather hunting in the late 19th century.[147]
Other
Page 24 of 60
:
Sea snakes feed exclusively on fish and their eggs.[148][149][150] Marine birds, such as
herons, gannets, pelicans and boobies, feed on reef fish. Some land-based reptiles
intermittently associate with reefs, such as monitor lizards, the marine crocodile and
semiaquatic snakes, such as Laticauda colubrina. Sea turtles, particularly hawksbill sea
turtles, feed on sponges.[151][152][153]
Schooling reef fish Caribbean reef squid Banded coral

shrimp
Whitetip reef shark Green turtle Giant clam
Soft coral, cup coral, Banded sea The shell of

sponges and ascidians krait Latiaxis wormaldi,
a coral snail
Ecosystem services
Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and coastline protection. The
global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated to be between US$29.8
billion[14] and $375 billion per year.[15] About 500 million people benefit from
Page 25 of 60
:
ecosystem services provided by coral reefs.[154]
The economic cost over a 25-year period of destroying one square kilometer of coral reef
has been estimated to be somewhere between $137,000 and $1,200,000.[155]
To improve the management of coastal coral reefs, the World Resources Institute (WRI)
developed and published tools for calculating the value of coral reef-related tourism,
shoreline protection and fisheries, partnering with five Caribbean countries. As of April
2011, published working papers covered St. Lucia, Tobago, Belize, and the Dominican
Republic. The WRI was "making sure that the study results support improved coastal
policies and management planning".[156] The Belize study estimated the value of reef
and mangrove services at $395–559 million annually.[157]
Bermuda's coral reefs provide economic benefits to the Island worth on average $722
million per year, based on six key ecosystem services, according to Sarkis et al (2010).
[158]
Shoreline protection
Coral reefs protect shorelines by absorbing wave
energy, and many small islands would not exist
without reefs. Coral reefs can reduce wave energy by
97%, helping to prevent loss of life and property
damage. Coastlines protected by coral reefs are also
more stable in terms of erosion than those without.
Reefs can attenuate waves as well as or better than
artificial structures designed for coastal defence such
as breakwaters.[159] An estimated 197 million people Coast line of Roatan Island in
who live both below 10 m elevation and within Honduras. The bay Islands are part
50 km of a reef consequently may receive risk of the mesoamerican coral reef
reduction benefits from reefs. Restoring reefs is system. Due to this, the authorities
significantly cheaper than building artificial have made huge investments for its
preservation.
breakwaters in tropical environments. Expected
damages from flooding would double, and costs
from frequent storms would triple without the topmost meter of reefs. For 100-year
storm events, flood damages would increase by 91% to $US 272 billion without the top
meter.[160]
Fisheries
Page 26 of 60
:
About six million tons of fish are taken each year from coral reefs. Well-managed reefs
have an average annual yield of 15 tons of seafood per square kilometer. Southeast Asia's
coral reef fisheries alone yield about $2.4 billion annually from seafood.[155]
Threats
Since their emergence 485 million years ago,
coral reefs have faced many threats, including
disease,[162] predation,[163] invasive species,
bioerosion by grazing fish,[164] algal blooms,
and geologic hazards. Recent human activities
present new threats. From 2009 to 2018, coral
reefs worldwide declined 14%.[165]
Human activities that threaten coral include

coral mining, bottom trawling,[166] and the Island with fringing reef off Yap,
digging of canals and accesses into islands and Micronesia[161]
bays, all of which can damage marine
ecosystems if not done sustainably. Other
localized threats include blast fishing,
overfishing, coral overmining,[167] and marine
pollution, including use of the banned anti-
fouling biocide tributyltin; although absent in
developed countries, these activities continue
in places with few environmental protections
or poor regulatory enforcement.[168][169][170]
Chemicals in sunscreens may awaken latent
viral infections in zooxanthellae[10] and impact
reproduction.[171] However, concentrating A major coral bleaching event took place
tourism activities via offshore platforms has on this part of the Great Barrier Reef in
been shown to limit the spread of coral disease Australia
by tourists.[172]
External videos
Greenhouse gas emissions present a broader threat
Chasing Coral (https://www.yout
through sea temperature rise and sea level rise,
ube.com/watch?v=aGGBGcjdjXA&a
resulting in widespread coral bleaching and loss of
b_channel=Netflix) – inventing the
coral cover.[173] Climate change causes more
first time-lapse camera to record
frequent and more severe storms, also cchanges
bleaching events as they happen
ocean circulation patterns, which can destroy coral
(Netflix, full episode)
reefs.[174]Ocean acidification also affects corals by
decreasing calcification rates and increasing
Page 27 of 60
:
dissolution rates, although corals can adapt their calcifying fluids to changes in seawater
pH and carbonate levels to mitigate the impact.[175][176] Volcanic and human-made
aerosol pollution can modulate regional sea surface temperatures.[177]
In 2011, two researchers suggested that "extant marine invertebrates face the same
synergistic effects of multiple stressors" that occurred during the end-Permian
extinction, and that genera "with poorly buffered respiratory physiology and calcareous
shells", such as corals, were particularly vulnerable.[178][179][180]
Corals respond to stress by "bleaching", or expelling their colorful zooxanthellate

endosymbionts. Corals with Clade C zooxanthellae are generally vulnerable to heat-
induced bleaching, whereas corals with the hardier Clade A or D are generally resistant,
[181] as are tougher coral genera like Porites and Montipora.[182]
Every 4–7 years, an El Niño event causes some reefs with heat-sensitive corals to bleach,
[183] with especially widespread bleachings in 1998 and 2010.[184][185] However, reefs
that experience a severe bleaching event become resistant to future heat-induced

bleaching,[186][187][182] due to rapid directional selection.[187] Similar rapid adaption
may protect coral reefs from global warming.[188]
A large-scale systematic study of the Jarvis Island coral community, which experienced
ten El Niño-coincident coral bleaching events from 1960 to 2016, found that the reef
recovered from almost complete death after severe events.[183]
Protection
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are areas
designated because they provide various kinds
of protection to ocean and/or estuarine areas.
They are intended to promote responsible
fishery management and habitat protection.
MPAs can also encompass social and biological
objectives, including reef restoration,
aesthetics, biodiversity and economic benefits.
The effectiveness of MPAs is still debated. For

example, a study investigating the success of a A diversity of corals
small number of MPAs in Indonesia, the
Philippines and Papua New Guinea found no
significant differences between the MPAs and unprotected sites.[189][190] Furthermore,
in some cases they can generate local conflict, due to a lack of community participation,
clashing views of the government and fisheries, effectiveness of the area and funding.
[191] In some situations, as in the Phoenix Islands Protected Area, MPAs provide revenue
Page 28 of 60
:
to locals. The level of income provided is similar to the income they would have
generated without controls.[192] Overall, it appears the MPA's can provide protection to
local coral reefs, but that clear management and sufficient funds are required.
The Caribbean Coral Reefs - Status Report 1970–2012, states that coral decline may be
reduced or even reversed. For this overfishing needs to be stopped, especially fishing on
species key to coral reefs, such as parrotfish. Direct human pressure on coral reefs
should also be reduced and the inflow of sewage should be minimised. Measures to
achieve this could include restricting coastal settlement, development and tourism. The
report shows that healthier reefs in the Caribbean are those with large, healthy
populations of parrotfish. These occur in countries that protect parrotfish and other
species, like sea urchins. They also often ban fish trapping and spearfishing. Together
these measures help creating "resilient reefs".[193][194]
Protecting networks of diverse and healthy reefs, not only climate refugia, helps ensure
the greatest chance of genetic diversity, which is critical for coral to adapt to new
climates.[195] A variety of conservation methods applied across marine and terrestrial
threatened ecosystems makes coral adaption more likely and effective.[195]
Designating a reef as a biosphere reserve, marine park, national monument or world

heritage site can offer protections. For example, Belize's barrier reef, Sian Ka'an, the
Galapagos islands, Great Barrier Reef, Henderson Island, Palau and
Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument are world heritage sites.[196]
In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
Authority, and is the subject of much legislation, including a biodiversity action plan.
[197] Australia compiled a Coral Reef Resilience Action Plan. This plan consists of
adaptive management strategies, including reducing carbon footprint. A public

awareness plan provides education on the "rainforests of the sea" and how people can
reduce carbon emissions.[198]
Inhabitants of Ahus Island, Manus Province, Papua New Guinea, have followed a
generations-old practice of restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. Their
cultural traditions allow line fishing, but no net or spear fishing. Both biomass and
individual fish sizes are significantly larger than in places where fishing is unrestricted.
[199][200]
Increased levels of atmospheric CO2 contribute to ocean acidification, which in turn

damages coral reefs. To help combat ocean acidification, several countries have put laws
in place to reduce greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Many land use laws aim to
reduce CO2 emissions by limiting deforestation. Deforestation can release significant
amounts of CO2 absent sequestration via active follow-up forestry programs.
Deforestation can also cause erosion, which flows into the ocean, contributing to ocean
Page 29 of 60
:
acidification. Incentives are used to reduce miles traveled by vehicles, which reduces
carbon emissions into the atmosphere, thereby reducing the amount of dissolved CO2 in
the ocean. State and federal governments also regulate land activities that affect coastal
erosion.[201] High-end satellite technology can monitor reef conditions.[202]
The United States Clean Water Act puts pressure on state governments to monitor and
limit run-off of polluted water.
Restoration
Coral reef restoration has grown in prominence over the past several decades because of
the unprecedented reef die-offs around the planet. Coral stressors can include pollution,
warming ocean temperatures, extreme weather events, and overfishing. With the
deterioration of global reefs, fish nurseries, biodiversity, coastal development and
livelihood, and natural beauty are under threat. Fortunately, researchers have taken it
upon themselves to develop a new field, coral restoration, in the 1970s-1980s[203]
Coral farming
Coral aquaculture, also known as coral farming or
coral gardening, is showing promise as a potentially
effective tool for restoring coral reefs.[204][205][206]
The "gardening" process bypasses the early growth
stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying.
Coral seeds are grown in nurseries, then replanted
on the reef.[207] Coral is farmed by coral farmers
whose interests range from reef conservation to
Coral trees cultivating juvenile increased income. Due to its straight forward
corals. Corals can be out-planted process and substantial evidence of the technique
onto reefs, sold for profit, or other having a significant effect on coral reef growth, coral
purposes. nurseries became the most widespread and arguably
the most effective method for coral restoration.[208]
Coral gardens take advantage of a coral's natural ability to fragment and continuing to
grow if the fragments are able to anchor themselves onto new substrates. This method
was first tested by Baruch Rinkevich[209] in 1995 which found success at the time. By
today's standards, coral farming has grown into a variety of different forms, but still has
the same goals of cultivating corals. Consequently, coral farming quickly replaced
previously used transplantation methods or the act of physically moving sections or
whole colonies of corals into a new area.[208] Transplantation has seen success in the
past and decades of experiments have led to a high success and survival rate. However,
this method still requires the removal of corals from existing reefs. With the current
Page 30 of 60
:
state of reefs, this kind of method should generally
be avoided if possible. Saving healthy corals from
eroding substrates or reefs that are doomed to
collapse could be a major advantage of utilizing
transplantation.
Coral gardens generally take on the safe forms no

matter where you go. It begins with the
establishment of a nursery where operators can Coral fragments growing on
observe and care for coral fragments. [208] It goes nontoxic concrete
without saying that nurseries should be established

in areas that are going to maximize growth and minimize mortality. Floating offshore
coral trees or even aquariums are possible locations where corals can grow. After a
location has been determined, collection and cultivation can occur.
The major benefit of using coral farms is it lowers polyp and juvenile mortality rates. By
removing predators and recruitment obstacles, corals are able to mature without much
hindrance. However, nurseries cannot stop climate stressors. Warming temperatures or
hurricanes can still disrupt or even kill nursery corals.
Technology is becoming more popular in the coral farming process. Teams from the
Reef Restoration and Adaptation Program (RRAP) have trialled coral counting
technology utilizing a prototype robotic camera. The camera uses computer vision and
learning algorithms to detect and count individual coral babies and track their growth
and health in real time. This technology, with research led by QUT, is intended to be
used during annual coral spawning events and will provide researchers with control that
is not currently possible when mass producing corals.[210]
Creating substrates
Efforts to expand the size and number of coral reefs
generally involve supplying substrate to allow more
corals to find a home. Substrate materials include
discarded vehicle tires, scuttled ships, subway cars
and formed concrete, such as reef balls. Reefs grow
unaided on marine structures such as oil rigs. In
Deep sea corals at the Wagner
large restoration projects, propagated hermatypic
Seamount. These corals are well coral on substrate can be secured with metal pins,
adapted to deep water conditions superglue or milliput. Needle and thread can also
where substrates are plentiful. attach A-hermatype coral to substrate.
Page 31 of 60
:
Biorock is a substrate produced by a patented process that runs low voltage electrical
currents through seawater to cause dissolved minerals to precipitate onto steel
structures. The resultant white carbonate (aragonite) is the same mineral that makes up
natural coral reefs. Corals rapidly colonize and grow at accelerated rates on these coated
structures. The electrical currents also accelerate the formation and growth of both
chemical limestone rock and the skeletons of corals and other shell-bearing organisms,
such as oysters. The vicinity of the anode and cathode provides a high-pH environment
which inhibits the growth of competitive filamentous and fleshy algae. The increased
growth rates fully depend on the accretion activity. Under the influence of the electric
field, corals display an increased growth rate, size and density.
Simply having many structures on the ocean floor is not enough to form coral reefs.
Restoration projects must consider the complexity of the substrates they are creating for
future reefs. Researchers conducted an experiment near Ticao Island in the Philippines
in 2013[211] where several substrates in varying complexities were laid in the nearby
degraded reefs. Large complexity consisted of plots that had both a human-made
substrates of both smooth and rough rocks with a surrounding fence, medium consisted
of only the human-made substrates, and small had neither the fence or substrates. After
one month, researchers found that there was a positive correlation between structure
complexity and recruitment rates of larvae.[211] The medium complexity performed the
best with larvae favoring rough rocks over smooth rocks. Following one year of their
study, researchers visited the site and found that many of the sites were able to support
local fisheries. They came to the conclusion that reef restoration could be done cost-
effectively and will yield long term benefits given they are protected and maintained.[211]
Relocation
One case study with coral reef restoration was
conducted on the island of Oahu in Hawaii. The
University of Hawaii operates a Coral Reef
Assessment and Monitoring Program to help
relocate and restore coral reefs in Hawaii. A boat
channel from the island of Oahu to the Hawaii
Institute of Marine Biology on Coconut Island was
overcrowded with coral reefs. Many areas of coral
reef patches in the channel had been damaged from
past dredging in the channel. Coral in preparation of being
relocated
Dredging covers corals with sand. Coral larvae
cannot settle on sand; they can only build on existing
reefs or compatible hard surfaces, such as rock or concrete. Because of this, the
university decided to relocate some of the coral. They transplanted them with the help of
Page 32 of 60
:
United States Army divers, to a site relatively close to the channel. They observed little if
any damage to any of the colonies during transport and no mortality of coral reefs was
observed on the transplant site. While attaching the coral to the transplant site, they
found that coral placed on hard rock grew well, including on the wires that attached the
corals to the site.
No environmental effects were seen from the transplantation process, recreational

activities were not decreased, and no scenic areas were affected.
As an alternative to transplanting coral themselves, juvenile fish can also be encouraged

to relocate to existing coral reefs by auditory simulation. In damaged sections of the
Great Barrier Reef, loudspeakers playing recordings of healthy reef environments were
found to attract fish twice as often as equivalent patches where no sound was played,
and also increased species biodiversity by 50%.
Heat-tolerant symbionts
Another possibility for coral restoration is gene therapy: inoculating coral with
genetically modified bacteria, or naturally-occurring heat-tolerant varieties of coral
symbiotes, may make it possible to grow corals that are more resistant to climate change
and other threats.[212] Warming oceans are forcing corals to adapt to unprecedented
temperatures. Those that do not have a tolerance for the elevated temperatures
experience coral bleaching and eventually mortality. There is already research that looks
to create genetically modified corals that can withstand a warming ocean. Madeleine J.
H. van Oppen, James K. Oliver, Hollie M. Putnam, and Ruth D. Gates described four
different ways that gradually increase in human intervention to genetically modify
corals.[213] These methods focus on altering the genetics of the zooxanthellae within
coral rather than the alternative.
The first method is to induce acclimatization of the first generation of corals.[213] The
idea is that when adult and offspring corals are exposed to stressors, the zooxanthellae
will gain a mutation. This method is based mostly on the chance that the zooxanthellae
will acquire the specific trait that will allow it to better survive in warmer waters. The
second method focuses on identifying what different kinds of zooxanthellae are within
the coral and configuring how much of each zooxanthella lives within the coral at a given
age.[213] Use of zooxanthellae from the previous method would only boost success rates
for this method. However, this method would only be applicable to younger corals, for
now, because previous experiments of manipulation zooxanthellae communities at later
life stages have all failed. The third method focuses on selective breeding tactics.[213]
Once selected, corals would be reared and exposed to simulated stressors in a
laboratory. The last method is to genetically modify the zooxanthellae itself.[213] When
preferred mutations are acquired, the genetically modified zooxanthellae will be
Page 33 of 60
:
introduced to an aposymbiotic poly and a new coral will be produced. This method is the
most laborious of the fourth, but researchers believe this method should be utilized
more and holds the most promise in genetic engineering for coral restoration.
Invasive algae
Hawaiian coral reefs smothered by the spread of invasive algae were managed with a
two-prong approach: divers manually removed invasive algae, with the support of
super-sucker barges. Grazing pressure on invasive algae needed to be increased to
prevent the regrowth of the algae. Researchers found that native collector urchins were
reasonable candidate grazers for algae biocontrol, to extirpate the remaining invasive
algae from the reef.[144]
Invasive algae in Caribbean reefs

Macroalgae, or better known as seaweed, has to
potential to cause reef collapse because they can
outcompete many coral species. Macroalgae can
overgrow on corals, shade, block recruitment,
release biochemicals that can hinder spawning, and
potentially form bacteria harmful to corals.[214][215]
Historically, algae growth was controlled by
herbivorous fish and sea urchins. Parrotfish are a
prime example of reef caretakers. Consequently, Students from Nā Pua No‘eau
these two species can be considered as keystone remove invasive algae from
species for reef environments because of their role in Kāne‘ohe Bay. Programs could be
protecting reefs. created to remove algae from
Caribbean reefs
Before the 1980s, Jamaica's reefs were thriving and
well cared for, however, this all changed after
Hurricane Allen occurred in 1980 and an unknown disease spread across the Caribbean.
In the wake of these events, massive damage was caused to both the reefs and sea urchin
population across Jamaican's reefs and into the Caribbean Sea. As little as 2% of the
original sea urchin population survived the disease.[215] Primary macroalgae succeeded
the destroyed reefs and eventually larger, more resilient macroalgae soon took its place
as the dominant organism.[215][216] Parrotfish and other herbivorous fish were few in
numbers because of decades of overfishing and bycatch at the time.[216] Historically, the
Jamaican coast had 90% coral cover and was reduced to 5% in the 1990s.[216]
Eventually, corals were able to recover in areas where sea urchin populations were
increasing. Sea urchins were able to feed and multiply and clear off substrates, leaving
areas for coral polyps to anchor and mature. However, sea urchin populations are still
not recovering as fast as researchers predicted, despite being highly fecundate.[215] It is
Page 34 of 60
:
unknown whether or not the mysterious disease is still present and preventing sea
urchin populations from rebounding. Regardless, these areas are slowly recovering with
the aid of sea urchin grazing. This event supports an early restoration idea of cultivating
and releasing sea urchins into reefs to prevent algal overgrowth.[217][218]
Microfragmentation and f
014, Christopher Page, Erinn Muller, and David Vaughan from the International Center
for Coral Reef Research & Restoration at Mote Marine Laboratory in Summerland Key,
Florida developed a new technology called "microfragmentation", in which they use a
specialized diamond band saw to cut corals into 1 cm2 fragments instead of 6 cm2 to
advance the growth of brain, boulder, and star corals.[219] Corals Orbicella faveolata
and Montastraea cavernosa were outplanted off the Florida's shores in several
microfragment arrays. After two years, O. faveolata had grown 6.5x its original size
while M. cavernosa had grown nearly twice its size.[219] Under conventional means,
both corals would have required decades to reach the same size. It is suspected that if
predation events had not occurred near the beginning of the experiment O. faveolata
would have grown at least ten times its original size.[219] By using this method, Mote
Marine Laboratory successfully generated 25,000 corals within a single year,
subsequently transplanting 10,000 of them into the Florida Keys. Shortly after, they
discovered that these microfragments fused with other microfragments from the same
parent coral. Typically, corals that are not from the same parent fight and kill nearby
corals in an attempt to survive and expand. This new technology is known as "fusion"
and has been shown to grow coral heads in just two years instead of the typical 25–75
years. After fusion occurs, the reef will act as a single organism rather than several
independent reefs. Currently, there has been no published research into this method.
[219]
See also
Deep-water coral — Corals living in the cold waters of deeper, Ecology portal
darker parts of the oceans
Oceans portal
Mesophotic coral reef — Corals living in the mesopelagic or
twilight zone
Fossil Coral Reef – National Natural Landmark in Le Roy, New York
Census of Coral Reefs – Field project of the Census of Marine Life
Catlin Seaview Survey
Coral reef organizations – U.S. Coral Reef Task Force
Sponge reef
Pseudo-atoll – Island that encircles a lagoon
Page 35 of 60
:

Coral Reef - Wikipedia

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Coral Reef - Wikipedia

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Coral Reef - Wikipedia

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs

Darwin's theory starts As the island and As the subsidence

Where the bottom is rising, fringing reefs can grow

In the geologic past

Measurements of the oxygen isotopic composition of the aragonitic skeleton of coral

Fringing reef at Eilat at the southern

Other reef types or variants

The three zones are physically and ecologically

The reef surface is the shallowest part of the reef.

The reef drop-off is, for its first 50 m, habitat for

Although corals exist both in temperate

The northernmost coral reef on Earth is

Significant coral reefs include:

Reef-building or hermatypic corals live only in the

Diagram of a coral polyp anatomy

Coral polyps do not photosynthesize, but have a

The varying pigments in different species of

urchins, sponges and other forces and organisms act

Typical shapes for coral species are named by their

The emergence of complex rhythms from solar and lunar cycles in

Gallery of reef-building corals

Mushroom coral Staghorn coral

Pillar coral Brain coral

Other reef builders

In the northern Pacific Ocean cloud sponges still

Hippuritida, an extinct order of bivalves known as rudists, were major reef-building

Sponges live in crevices in the reefs. They are

The roughness of coral surfaces is key to coral

Water can pass through coral reefs in various ways,

The irregular structure characteristic of coral reef

Medicinal Qualities of Sea Sponges-

A number of invertebrates, collectively called

Schooling reef fish Caribbean reef squid Banded coral

Whitetip reef shark Green turtle Giant clam

Soft coral, cup coral, Banded sea The shell of

Human activities that threaten coral include

Corals respond to stress by "bleaching", or expelling their colorful zooxanthellate

that experience a severe bleaching event become resistant to future heat-induced

The effectiveness of MPAs is still debated. For

Designating a reef as a biosphere reserve, marine park, national monument or world

adaptive management strategies, including reducing carbon footprint. A public

Increased levels of atmospheric CO2 contribute to ocean acidification, which in turn

Coral gardens generally take on the safe forms no

without saying that nurseries should be established

No environmental effects were seen from the transplantation process, recreational

As an alternative to transplanting coral themselves, juvenile fish can also be encouraged

Invasive algae in Caribbean reefs

You might also like