UNIT -1 SOLAR ENERGY

• Content

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 SOLAR ENERGY

• Solar energy is clean and is available in infinite.

• The sun’s surface temperature is around 5500C and the energy emitted is around

178 TW.

• It is received in cyclic and dilute form with low power density ranging from 0 to
1 kW/m2.

• The solar constant (S) is defined as the solar radiation incident per m2 of the
earth’s surface. S = 1367 W/m2.
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 SOLAR ENERGY
• The atmosphere absorbs the solar energy and reaches the earth’s surface.

• The radiation not reaching the earth is called extra terrestrial radiation and the

radiation reaching the earth is called terrestrial radiation or the global radiation.

• Global radiation = Direct radiation + Diffused radiation.

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 NEED FOR ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

• The fossil fuels are getting depleted.

• The cost of the fossil fuels are increasing.

• The fossil fuels are polluting the environment.

• ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY:

• Solar photovoltaic systems, Solar thermal systems, wind energy, wave energy,
tidal energy, geothermal energy, bio-energy etc.

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 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY

• Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to the fossil

fuels (conventional fuels).

• The increased emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) increases the temperature

of the planet and is the main cause of the “global warming”. One solution to

global warming is to replace and retrofit the current technologies with

alternative energies that have comparable or better performance.

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 SOLAR
PV
SOLAR
BIOFUEL THERMAL

ALTERNATIVE
GEOTHER ENERGY WIND
- MAL SOURCES

WAVE HYDRO

TIDAL
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ENERGY SCENARIO

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 SOLAR POWER

• Solar energy is utilized for heating, cooking, power generation,

desalination, etc.

• Solar heat is utilized in active and passive heating of the buildings.

• Currently, solar photovoltaic system (SPV) converts around 25 - 35% of the solar

energy into electricity.

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 SOLAR POWER - ADVANTAGES

• Renewable source. The energy will reach the earth for an infinite period.

• No pollution, as there is no combustion of fuels.

• More efficient for heating and lighting.

• The excess power is transferred to the grid.

• Solar energy is stored in batteries, phase change materials (PCMs) for the later

use. 9
 SOLAR POWER

Solar thermal

Solar power

Solar photovoltaic

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 SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY

• Solar thermal energy is environment friendly.

• Solar thermal systems absorbs the heat energy from the sun and utilizes it to heat
the water or air – solar water heaters, solar air heaters etc.

• Cost effective way to generate hot water and electricity.

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SOLAR RADIATION

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 SOLAR RADIATION
• Direct radiation – Beam radiation

• Diffused radiation – Sky radiation

• Global radiation = Direct radiation + Diffused radiation

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SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

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 ANGLES IN SOLAR GEOMETRY

• Altitude angle (): The angle between the direct radiation and the ground.

• Incidence angle: The angle of incidence of the direct radiation from the zenith. In
the case of horizontal collectors the incidence angle is equal to zenith angle.

• Zenith angle (ɸ): The angle between the direct radiation and the vertical plane.
• Solar azimuth angle (ψ): It defines in which direction the sun is and is defined as

the angle between a line due south and the shadow cast by a vertical rod on the

earth.
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 SOLAR RADIATION DATA - APPLICATIONS

• Agriculture
• Astronomy
• Atmospheric science
• Climate change
• Energy
• Health
• Hydrology
• Renewable energy etc.
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 Global radiation - Diffused radiation
measured by a
Direct radiation - - measured by a
Pyranometer with a
measured by a shaded Pyranometer
sensor
Pyroheliometer

Pyroheliometer Pyranometer Pyranometer 17

 MEASUREMENT OF THE SOLAR RADIATION
Solar radiation can be measured by

• Pyranometer, Pyroheliometer, Pyrogeometer, Sunshine recorder etc.

• Pyranometer: It measures the global radiation (direct and diffused radiation)

usually on a horizontal surface but can also be used on an inclined surface.

• Pyroheliometer: Measures the direct (beam) radiation by using a long narrow

tube to collect only the beam (direct) radiation from the sun at normal incidence.

• Sunshine recorder: Measures the sunshine hours in a day.

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PYRANOMETER

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 PYRANOMETER

• The quartz dome absorbs the solar radiation and the sensing element is subjected
to heating and its thermal resistance is used to measure the global radiation using
the electromotive force (emf) generated.

• Thermal energy  Electrical signal

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PYROHELIOMETER

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 PYROHELIOMETER

• Measures the direct radiation.

• It has a collimator tube which allows only the direct radiation and the thermal
resistance of the absorber plate is used to determine the intensity of the direct
radiation.

• The heat energy from the sun is converted into an electrical signal and is
measured.

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 PYROGEOMETER

• To measure the infrared radiation.

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SUNSHINE RECORDER

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 SUNSHINE RECORDER

• To measure the actual sunshine hours in a day. The working principle is based on
the length of the cardboard paper burnt in the glass.

• The metallic bowl is calibrated in such a way that the length of paper burnt is
directly proportional to the active solar hours.

• It is used to measure the amount of sunshine hours in any given location.

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 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS
• Solar water heating system consists of the storage tank and the solar collectors.

• The storage tank is well insulated to minimize the energy losses.

• Solar collector: It consists of a flat plate absorber, a transparent cover that reduces

heat losses, a heat transport fluid (HTF - air, water or antifreeze) to remove heat

from the absorber, and an insulation.

• The types of solar water heating systems are active system and the passive

system
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SOLAR COLLECTORS - INTRODUCTION

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 TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTORS
Motion Collector type Absorber type Concentration Temperature
ratio (CR) range (0C)
Stationery Flat plate Flat 1 30 - 80
Evacuated tube Flat 1 50 - 200

Single axis Parabolic Tubular 15 - 45 60 – 300

trough (PTC)
tracking Cylindrical Tubular 10 - 50 60 - 300
trough
Linear Fresnel Tubular 10 - 40 60 - 250
lens
Two axis Parabolic dish Point 10 - 1000 100 – 500
tracking Heliostat field Point 10 - 1500 150 - 2000
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 SOLAR COLLECTORS
• Solar collectors are used to absorb the incident solar energy.

• The heat energy is extracted by a flowing fluid (air, water, mixture with
antifreeze etc.) in the tube of the collector for further utilization in different
applications.

The collectors are classified as

• Non concentrating type

• Concentrating (focusing) type.

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 SOLAR FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR

 Flat plate collectors work with both direct and diffused radiation.
 They provide low temperature heat (< 700 C) useful for space heating, domestic
hot water systems etc.

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 SOLAR FLAT PLATE COLECTOR - SFPC

 Aluminum is used extensively being light and inexpensive.

 Copper is best suited for pipes.

 Some panels use a thin copper sleeve inserted into the aluminum tubing.

 Panels can be black-anodized or painted

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 SOLAR FLAT PLATE COLECTOR - SFPC
• The flat plate collector consists of an absorber plate, absorber tube, insulation on
all sides except the aperture area, glass cover (to transmit the incident radiation and
retain the radiation inside the collector) etc.

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑛 − 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• The working temperature range is around 60 - 120C.

• It is suitable for domestic applications (water heating, space heating, cooling

etc.). The solar flat plate collectors (SFPC) are further classified as liquid SFPCs
and air SFPCs.
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 COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY

useful energy gained by the heat transfer fluid (water,air etc.)

• η=
solar radiation 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 on the collector
Q
• η= where Q − useful heat gain kJ
Ac I

where

𝐴c - aperture area of the collector (m2)

I – solar radiation incident on the collector (kW/m2)

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 ACTIVE SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM
Direct circulation system: Pumps

circulate the water through the collector.

Indirect circulation system:

• Pumps circulate a non freezing, heat-

transfer fluid (HTF) through a collector

and a heat exchanger. This heats the water

and prevents freezing. 34

 PASSIVE SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM

• Passive solar water heating system

is less expensive and less efficient.

• However, passive systems can be

more reliable and can last longer.

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SOLAR WATER HEATER

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SOLAR WATER HEATER

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 SOLAR WATER HEATER
• Solar water heating system (SWHS) is used to generate hot water with the

incident solar radiation.

• About 600 C – 800 C temperature rise can be attained depending on the solar

radiation, weather and the solar collector efficiency.

• Can be installed on the roof tops, etc.

• Stainless steel (SS) is used for small tanks whereas mild steel (MS) tanks with

anti-corrosion coating inside are used for large tanks.

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 SOLAR THERMAL POWER: ADVANTAGES
• The energy of the sun is utilized for water heating, space heating, space cooling
etc.
• Lower electric or gas utility bills.
• Can easily store the thermal energy with the help of storage tanks.

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 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM
• Solar collector or the concentrator: It concentrates the solar radiation and
transfers the energy to the working fluid.

• Examples: Flat plate collector, Parabolic trough collector with line focusing,
Parabolic dish, Fresnel lens, Heliostats with central receiver, etc.

• Energy transport medium: Fluids such as water / steam, liquid metal or gas are
used to transport the thermal energy from the collector to the heat exchanger or
thermal storage systems.

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SOLAR POWER PLANT

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 SOLAR POWER PLANT
• The boiler is placed centrally in the field of large mirrors (heliostats) are used to

focus the solar radiation towards the central receiver to produce high temperature

more than 500 C in order to generate steam out of the feed water.

• The generated steam is utilized to power a steam turbine and the exhausted low

pressure water is condensed in the condenser and is pumped back to the boiler.

• The solar energy is utilized by the concentrators to produce high temperatures

that can either drive a Stirling or a Rankine engine.
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 COMPONENTS OF THE SOLAR POWER PLANT

• Power conditioning, control and protection systems: Load requirements of the

electrical systems vary with time. The electrical parameters include voltage,
current, frequency, power etc.

• The power conditioning unit performs functions like control, regulation,

conditioning, protection, automation etc.

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CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER - CSP

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 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER - CSP

• High temperature fluids are used in steam turbines to generate electricity.

• The CSP system consists of a concentrator, where the solar energy is absorbed, a
storage system with water or phase change material (PCM) as the storage
medium, a boiler or heat exchanger between the operational fluids of the
concentrator and a heat engine.

• The heat engine converts the thermal energy into mechanical energy.

• Solar energy  Thermal energy  Mechanical energy  electrical power

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 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER - CSP
• In large CSP plants, the energy stored in the hot steam is converted into
mechanical energy as the steam expands along the steam turbine. The
thermodynamic process is called the Rankine cycle.

• The mechanical energy is further utilized to drive an electrical generator.

• The CSP systems have efficiencies upto 35%.

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 CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER - CSP
• In large CSP plants, the heat engine is a steam turbine, where the energy stored in
the hot steam is converted to rotational (mechanical) energy as the steam expands
along the turbine.
• This thermodynamic process is called the Rankine cycle.
• The mechanical energy is further utilized to drive an electrical generator.
• In CSP systems the efficiency of the concentrator decreases as the operating
temperature rises, while the efficiency of the engine increases with increase in the
temperature.
• Current CSP systems have efficiencies up to about 35%.
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 ENERGY STORAGE
• Energy storage: Solar energy is not available during the night. So an energy
storage medium for maintaining the power supply during the night or cloudy
weather is required.

• There are three major types of energy storage: Thermal energy storage (TES),
Chemical energy storage (battery), Pumped storage hydroelectric plant.

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 T THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS - TESS
• The thermal energy storage (TES) is defined as the storage of thermal energy and
are classified into sensible heat (SHSS) and latent heat storage systems (LHSS).

• When a material do not change its phase upon heating it is called sensible heat.
However, the temperature changes during the process.

𝑇2
• The amount of energy stored in the material is given by 𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑇1 𝑃
𝐶 𝑑𝑇,

where m is the mass of the storage material and CP – specific heat at constant

pressure. T1 and T2 represent the lower and upper temperature levels.

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 LATENT HEAT STORAGE SYSTEMS - LHSS

• When a material undergoes a phase change without any change in the

temperature during heating it is called latent heat. The amount of energy
stored (E) depends upon the mass (m) and latent heat (λ) of the material.
thus, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝜆

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HEAT STORAGE - GRAPH

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SOLAR POND

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• A solar pond is a mass of water of about 1 or 2 m deep with a large collection
area that acts as a heat trap

• It contains dissolved salts to generate a stable density gradient.

• A part of the incident solar radiation entering the pond surface is absorbed
throughout its depth and the remaining is absorbed by the blackened bottom.

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It consists of 3 zones

• Surface or upper convective zone (0.3 – 0.5 m)

• Non convective zone (1 - 1.5 m), salinity increases with depth

• Storage zone or lower convective zone (1.5 – 2 m)

• Applications - heating and cooling of buildings, power generation, process

heat and desalination.

• Cost effective and renewable energy source is utilized.

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• The solar cooling and refrigeration system operates based on the
vapour absorption refrigeration principle (VAR) or vapour compression
refrigeration principle (VCR)

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 SOLAR REFRIGERATION (VCRS)
• The solar vapour compression refrigeration can be run by d.c / a.c motor (using
solar photovoltaics ) or using solar operated vapour turbine. the first case requires
solar PV panels and or a battery. the second case requires a solar thermal steam
generation systems with parabolic trough or dish system and the turbine is
connected with the compressor of the vapour compression refrigeration system.

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Solar vapour compression refrigeration using PV

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58
 V SOLAR VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
The solar vapour absorption refrigeration system has the following
components:
• Generator
• Absorber
• Condenser
• Evaporator
• Heat exchanger
• Pump and throttle valves
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SOLAR VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM

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 SOLAR VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
• Solar energy is used to power the vapour generator of the system. The high
pressure hot water around 120C is used in the generator to separate the refrigerant
and absorbent. the absorbent is having affinity towards the refrigerant vapour.

• The strong mixture (rich refrigerant in the absorbent liquid) is pumped to the
generator and then the refrigerant vapour goes to the condenser and then its
expanded to low pressure and temperature liquid in a throttle valve.

• The refrigerant absorbs the heat in the evaporator and the refrigerant vapour is
absorbed by the absorbent in the absorber and the cycle is continued.
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SOLAR AIR CONDITIONING

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 SOLAR AIR CONDITIONING

• A solar air conditioner utilizes a solar panel to superheat the refrigerant and the
superheated high pressure gas goes to the condenser, then to the evaporator and
then to the compressor.

• When the working fluid leaves the condenser, its temperature is lower and it
changes its phase from a gas to liquid under high pressure. When the working
fluid leaves the evaporator, it is a low-pressure gas. It then returns to the solar
panel. In a conventional air conditioning system low temperature, low pressure
freon is delivered to the compressor.
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SOLAR DRYER

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 SOLAR DRYER

• The function of a solar dryer is to heat the air to a constant temperature with the
incident solar energy, which facilitates removal of the moisture from the product
kept on the perforated trays.

• The heated air removes the moisture from the product kept on the cabinet.

• Air is heated between 500 C and 800 C and natural convection occurs in the solar
dryer.

• For large scale drying forced circulation is employed with the blowers.

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SOLAR STILL OR DESALINATION

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 SOLAR STILL OR DESALINATION
• A solar still is made of an airtight insulated basin that is covered with a tilted
glass sheet. Solar radiation passes through the transparent glass cover and is
absorbed by the salt water in the basin so that water is evaporated. The water
vapour condenses at the inner side of the glazing and the liquid flows by gravity
into a trough and is collected. The basins are painted black to increase the
absorption, and long wavelength radiation are trapped from the solar still through
the glazing. The greenhouse effect makes the solar still act as a heat trap. A solar
still needs flushing to prevent the salt precipitation and the flushing frequency
depends on the quality of the feedwater. 67
 SOLAR FURNACES
• Solar furnace is a device that uses an array of mirrors to concentrate the solar
radiation onto a small surface area thus producing extremely higher energy.

• The temperature can go upto 3500o C.

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SOLAR FURNACES

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 APPLICATIONS OF THE SOLAR FURNACES
• Powering the steam turbine for solar power plants

• For cooking the food and boiling the water.

• Produce hydrogen fuel.

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 SOLAR COOKERS

• Need: High cost of the commercial fuels – kerosene, coal, gas, electricity.

• Deforestation caused by increasing firewood consumption.

• Diversion of the human resources.

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 TYPES OF SOLAR COOKERS
Direct or the focusing type solar cooker
• In these cookers single or multifaced solar energy concentrator (parabolic,
spherical, cylindrical, Fresnel) is used which focuses the solar radiation on a focal
point or an area where a cooking pot is placed.

• The convection heat loss is larger and the cooker utilizes only the direct solar
radiation.

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 INDIRECT OR THE BOX TYPE SOLAR COOKER
Design variations
• Square / rectangular / oven
• Single, double or multiple plane reflectors
• Frequent tracking not required
• Temperature achieved : 100C - 250C
• User single family / community
• Electrical back up
• Latent heat storage material 73
SOLAR COOKER

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 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM - SPV

• The grid system: This system does not have a storage system for the energy that
is generated from the sun and during the night will have to use the grid.

• The battery system: The battery will save the energy to use when the weather is
cloudy or at night. Comes with a higher cost.

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SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM - SPV

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• Semiconductor materials (Si) are capable of conducting electricity if more than
1.12 electron volt (eV) is supplied. the semiconductors are doped with some
impurities to make n (excess electron) or p (excess hole) type semiconductor.
doping materials: boron, cadmium etc.

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 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYTEM

• Solar photovoltaic cells - SPV uses semi-conductor materials which is capable of

freeing the electrons by use of light energy (photons or solar radiation into electrons
--> electricity).

• The P - N type semiconductors are arranged and the N-type has mobile electrons
and P - type has mobile holes and the photons (more than 2 eV) produces the d.c.
electricity from the SPV panels. the arrangement of solar panels (multiple solar
cells) will give the desired electric power.

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 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY

• Solar photovoltaic array capacity factors are lesser than 25%.

• A photovoltaic system includes a panel or an array of solar modules,

an inverter, battery, solar tracker and interconnection wiring.

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1. Crystalline Silicon solar cells - single crystalline (Mono), multicrystalline
(Polycrystalline),
2. Thin film solar cells - Silicon, CdTe
3. Concentrating solar cells - Si, GaAs
4. Organic, Nano materials and other emerging solar cells

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 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM (SPV)

• A photovoltaic (PV) system is a combination of several components such as a

battery system, DC/AC conversion circuits, and other power conditioning devices in
addition to the solar panels.
• DC / DC converters are also useful in the circuitry designed to draw the
maximum power from solar panels in what are called maximum power point
trackers – MPPTs. In the absence of a MPPT and depending on the load
connected directly to solar panels, the solar panel’s electrical power may be
dissipated in the form of the heat.
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 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM (SPV)

• For maximizing the energy efficiency, the MPPTs are connected between the
solar panels and the load to ensure that the solar panels are producing their
maximum power despite variations in the light intensity and/or other factors that
may vary within the system.
• MPPTs may be used in the presence or absence of battery charging systems but
are more often used in grid-connected systems that have no batteries.

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• High cost per unit watt (high cost of the material)
• Moderate efficiencies
• Availability of the material
• Long term stability
• Long energy payback period (higher processing cost)

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• Power generation

• Home lighting systems

• Street and garden lighting system

• Traffic control system

• Railway signaling equipment

• Battery charging e.g. Mobile, telephones.

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• Non-depleting source of energy

• Free of energy cost

• No air pollution

• No water pollution

• No soil pollution

• No fuel transport

• No ash / waste disposal

• Abundant sources of energy 87

 LIMITATIONS OF THE SOLAR ENERGY

1. Availability – intermittent, available during day time

2. Dilute source –lower concentration

3. Climatic changes – diffused or scattered by the clouds, rain etc.

4. Variable intensity.

5. Energy storage is required.

6. Conversion efficiency is low (SPV  25 %)

7. Costlier.
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 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY

• Water heating

• Space heating

• Distillation

• Pumping

• Industrial process heat

• Furnace

• Cooking

• LED lights etc. 89

 REFERENCES

• “Non conventional energy sources” by G.D.Rai, Khanna Publishers

• “Non conventional energy resources” by B.H.Khan, Tata McGraw Hill

publisher, 2nd edition

• https://www.google.co.in

For internal circulation only

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