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 Magnetism- it’s everywhere!

Introduction to Quantum Physics

2
 Magnetism-/it’s
Quantum everywhere!
Quantization
Charge acquired/exchanged is quantized.

Angular Momentum, Spin angular Momentum of electron in an atom are quantized.

Magnetic Moment of electron, Nuclei is quantized.

Energy exchange between radiation and electron (in Photoelectric effect etc.) is quantized.

Mass of 100 gm of water in a container appears to be continuously distributed.

But at microscopic level it is quantized.

3
 Magnetism-/it’s
Quantum everywhere!
Quantization
Charge acquired/exchanged is quantized.

Angular Momentum, Spin angular Momentum of electron in an atom are quantized.

Magnetic Moment of electron, Nuclei is quantized.

Energy exchange between radiation and electron (in Photoelectric effect etc.) is quantized.

Mass of 100 gm of water in a container appears to be continuously distributed.

But at microscopic level it is quantized.

Every Macro-phenomenon which appears to be continuous

is microscopically quantized.

4
 Magnetism-
Quantum it’s everywhere!
physics: the beginning

Towards the end of 19th century, classical physics had attained near-perfection and tremendous success both in
theoretical and experimental fronts.

Almost all the known physical phenomena, ranging from dynamics of point masses, rigid bodies,
thermodynamics, geometrical and wave optics, electromagnetism, among others, could be described well within
the frame work of classical physics.

The backbones of classical physics

1. Newtonian Mechanics
2. Laws of thermodynamics
3. Fresnel wave theory
4. Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism etc.

5
 Magnetism-
Quantum it’s everywhere!
physics: the beginning

The fundamental ingredients of classical physics

Deterministic in nature, i. e., given the relevant laws, the behavior of the system can exactly be predicted.
Further, physical quantities can in principle be measured with unlimited accuracy.

The various physical quantities and their changes can have any continuous value without restriction.

Particles and waves in classical physics are regarded as distinct and separate entities.

Great success in explaining the phenomena involving macroscopic objects.

But grossly inadequate to account for many new experimental observations
during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

6
 Magnetism-
Quantum it’s everywhere!
physics: the beginning

Inadequacy of classical physics & the need of quantum physics

Some of the observations which classical physics could not explain:

1. Energy distribution in spectrum of blackbody radiation.

2. Photoelectric effect.
3. Compton effect.
4. Atomic spectra and structure of atoms (stability of Atoms).
5. Low temperature variation of specific heat of solids.

7
 Magnetism-
Black bodyit’s radiation
everywhere!

All matter absorbs electromagnetic radiation to some extent.

A blackbody is an ideal body that absorbs all incident Also a perfect emitter.
radiation (without reflection or transmission).

Emits (radiates) energy which is characteristic of the

blackbody, and not dependent upon the type of
A perfect absorber. incident radiation.

At uniform temperature, blackbody radiation has a characteristic frequency (and corresponding wavelength)
distribution, depending only on its temperature.

So a blackbody does not necessarily appear black, but has

a characteristic glow! (think of hot metals)

T (K)

Colour of a blackbody as function of surface temperature

8
 Magnetism-
Black it’s everywhere!
body radiation spectrum
Total radiant heat energy emitted from the surface of a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature (Stephan-Boltzmann law).
𝐸 ∝ 𝑇 4 = 𝜎𝑇 4 (𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4 )

The intensity of radiation emitted from a blackbody reaches its maximum at a wavelength which is inversely
proportional to its absolute temperature (Wien's displacement law).
𝑏
𝜆𝑚 = (𝑏 = 2.898 × 10−3 m. K)
𝑇

Reasonable success in explaining the

observed nature of the spectra

9
 Magnetism-
Black body radiation it’s everywhere!
spectrum: Classical distribution laws
Wien's distribution Law: the energy density in the wavelength range λ to (λ + dλ) is given by
𝑎
Fails at long wavelengths 𝐸 𝜆 d𝜆 = d𝜆
𝜆5 𝑒 𝑏Τ𝜆𝑇

Rayleigh-Jeans law: the energy density in the wavelength range λ to (λ + dλ) is given by
Fails at short wavelengths 8𝜋𝑘𝑇
(Ultraviolet catastrophe) 𝐸𝜆 d𝜆 = d𝜆
𝜆4

10
 Magnetism-
Planck’s quantum it’s everywhere!
hypothesis and law of radiation

Max Planck’s revolutionary hypothesis

Source of radiations in black body chamber is atom like oscillators in a state of

oscillation, oscillating with different frequency.
Frequency of emitted radiations is equal to the frequency of oscillation.

The energy of these oscillatiors is quantised and is an integral multiple hν.

Oscillators can absorb or emit energy in packets of 𝒉𝝂 and switch between

energy levels with energy
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛ℎ𝜈, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2 …

Where ℎ = 6.626 × 10−34 Js is the Planck’s constant

11
 Magnetism-
Planck’s quantum it’s everywhere!
hypothesis and law of radiation

Planck’s radiation Law: the energy density in the wavelength range λ to (λ + dλ) is given by
8𝜋ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝜆 d𝜆 = 5 ℎ𝑐Τ𝜆𝑘𝑇 d𝜆
𝜆 (𝑒 −1)

This law agrees very well with experimental results

This idea of quantized energy of an oscillator also successfully explained the low temperature behavior of molar
specific heat of solids. Further extension of this quantum idea to the propagation of energy with electromagnetic
radiation successfully explained some other phenomena in other domains of physics which could not otherwise
be explained by classical ideas.

12
 Magnetism-
Photoelectric it’s everywhere!
effect: observations

The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the surface of

metals when radiation (light) of suitable frequency is incident on
it is known as Photoelectric effect

Experimental observations

Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process.

At a constant intensity and frequency of light, the photocurrent

at first increases and then attains a constant value, called
Saturation current).

The saturation current increases linearly with increase in

intensity of incident light (keeping frequency constant).

Reversing the potential to oppose the flow of electrons reduces

the current. The current becomes zero at a potential called
Stopping potential (𝑉0) proportional to maximum kinetic energy
of emitted electrons.

13
 Magnetism-
Photoelectric it’s everywhere!
effect: observations

Experimental observations (contd.)

The stopping potential and hence the maximum kinetic energy

of emitted electrons is independent of intensity.

The stopping potential increases linearly with increase in

frequency of radiation.

For same frequency, the stopping potential is different for

different metals,
i. e. with different work function 𝝓𝟎

For each material, there exists a minimum frequency, called

threshold frequency (𝑓0), below which no photoelectrons are 𝝓𝟎
emitted, however high the intensity of incident light may be.

14
 Magnetism-
Photoelectric effect:it’s everywhere!
Einstein’s explanation
Energy of radiation energy is made up of discrete units or
localized bundles of electromagnetic energy, called photons,
which travel with velocity of light (𝑐) and have zero rest mass.

Each photon (i.e. the quantum of energy) carries energy

𝒉𝝂 = 𝒉𝒄Τ𝝀, independent of the intensity of light.

The intensity at a given frequency is determined by the number

of photons incident per second. Hence increase in intensity
increases the number of photons incident per second (but
individual photon energy remains unaffected).

An electron on the metal surface completely absorbs the energy

of one photon and gains the energy 𝒉𝝂.

15
 Magnetism-
Photoelectric effect:it’s everywhere!
Einstein’s explanation
If this quantum of energy exceeds the minimum energy needed
for the electron to escape from metal surface, i.e., the work
function 𝜙0 , then the electron is emitted from the metal and
the excess energy ℎ𝜈 – 𝜙0 appears as its kinetic energy.

Hence the equation for photoelectric emission is

𝟏
𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒉𝝊 −𝝓𝟎
𝟐

This equation explains all important features of photoelectric

effect which could not be explained by classical physics.

This is Einstein’s Photoelectric equation which earned him the

Nobel Prize

At the stopping potential V𝟎, the kinetic energy of the electrons

is balanced by the electrical energy 𝑒𝑉𝟎. So we have
𝒆𝑽𝟎 = 𝒉𝝊 −𝝓𝟎

This equation can be used to determine the value of Planck’s constant

and work function of metal, something we will do in the lab course.

16
 Magnetism-
Particle it’s everywhere!
nature of Radiation
Summary of the photon picture of electromagnetic radiation

In interaction with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles, called photons.

Each photon has an energy ℎ𝜈 and speed 𝑐 (in vacuum), the speed of light.

All photons of radiation of a particular frequency/wavelength have same energy 𝒉𝝂=𝒉𝒄⁄𝝀, irrespective of the
intensity of radiation. Photon energy is dependent on frequency and independent of intensity of radiation.

Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.

All photons of radiation of a particular frequency/wavelength have same energy 𝒉𝝂=𝒉𝒄⁄𝝀, irrespective of the
intensity of radiation. Photon energy is dependent on frequency and independent of intensity of radiation.

17
 Magnetism-
Photon energyit’s
andeverywhere!
momentum
2 𝑚0 𝑐 2
For a photon of mass 𝑚, theory of relativity, its energy is 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 = 1/2
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐

where 𝑚0 is rest mass of photon and 𝑣 is its velocity.

Since a photon moves with speed of light, we have 𝑣 = 𝑐. If 𝑚0 𝑐 2 ≠ 0, then 𝐸 would be infinite.
infinite. But energy 𝐸 of photon is finite (= ℎ𝜈). Hence, the photon has zero rest mass (𝑚0 = 0), and
0
𝐸 cannot be determined from this expression, which takes the indeterminate 0 form).

We rather use the relativistic energy-momentum relationship 𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4

For the photon, 𝑚0 = 0, and hence, 𝑬 = 𝒑𝒄, where 𝑝 = 𝐸Τ𝑐 is the momentum of the photon.

The direction of photon momentum is in the direction propagation of radiation.

In a light-matter interaction (such as between photons and electrons), the total energy and momentum are
conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved. Photons may be absorbed or created.

18
 Magnetism-
Momentum and dualit’s everywhere!
nature of radiation
Energy of a photon for radiation of frequency 𝜈 is given by ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝑐Τ𝜆

Energy of the same photon with momentum 𝑝 is given by 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐

ℎ
So we have, 𝑝 = 𝜆 , or

𝒉
𝝀=𝒑

In summary

Certain optical phenomena, such as interference, diffraction, and polarization,

are explained by the wave nature of light.

However, light-matter interaction in processes of emission and absorption, such

as photoelectric effect and Compton effect, are explained by the corpuscular
(particle) nature of light.

19
Wave natureMagnetism- it’s everywhere!
of particles: de Broglie’s hypothesis
Louis de Broglie suggested that the wave particle duality is a universal principle
and is not restricted only to electromagnetic radiations.

He argued that nature is symmetric, and what is true for photons (radiation)
must be true for material particles.

Hence Material particles must exhibit wave-like properties.

De Broglie proposed that all material particles can manifest themselves as

waves, called matter waves (also called de Broglie waves)

The wavelength of mater waves associated with a moving particle of

linear momentum 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 is given by
𝒉 𝒉
𝝀 = 𝒑 = 𝑚𝑣

De Broglie proposed that the role of matter waves in guiding the motion of
material particles is analogous to that of electromagnetic waves in guiding the
motion of photons.

20
 Wave natureMagnetism- it’s everywhere!
of particles: de Broglie’s hypothesis
𝒉
For non-relativistic particles: ( i.e., when 𝑣 << 𝑐) , 𝑚 = rest mass 𝑚0. In this case, 𝝀 = 𝑚
0𝑣

For a non-relativistic free particle (i.e., with not subject to a potential), the total energy 𝐸 is equal to its kinetic
𝑝2 𝒉 𝒉
energy 𝐾. Then, 𝐾 = ⇒𝑝= 2𝑚𝐾 = 2𝑚𝐸. So, 𝝀 = =
2𝑚 2𝑚𝐾 2𝑚𝐸

If a particle with charge 𝑞 is accelerated through a potential difference of 𝑉 volt, then Kinetic Energy gained
𝑝2 𝒉
𝐾= 2𝑚
= 𝑞𝑉. So, 𝝀 =
2𝑚𝑞𝑉

For an electron, 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑒 = 9.1 × 10−31 kg , 𝑞 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 C

12.27
Therefore, 𝜆𝑒 = Å
𝑉

For example, for 𝑉 = 100 V,

𝜆𝑒 = 1.227 Å

21
Wave natureMagnetism- it’s everywhere!
of particles: de Broglie’s hypothesis

𝑚0
Mass of relativistic particles (𝑣 ~ 𝑐) varies with velocity 𝑣 as: 𝑚 = 1/2 .
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
1/2
𝑣2
𝑚0 𝑣 𝒉 𝒉 1− 2
𝑐
So, 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 = 1/2 and 𝝀 = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝝀 =
𝑣2 𝑚0 𝑣
1− 2
𝑐

Note
If the term 𝑝𝑐 is negligible compared to 𝑚0 𝑐 2 , then the motion is non-relativistic.
But if they are comparable, then the motion is relativistic.

22
 Magnetism-
Matter waves and it’s everywhere!
structure of the atom

For an electron orbiting a nucleus, the electron wave must form a standing wave, i.e., the circumference must be
multiples of the electron wavelength.
2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆𝑒

Angular momentum of the electron in an orbit

of radius 𝑟𝑛 ,
ℎ𝑟𝑛 ℎ𝑟𝑛 𝑛ℎ
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑛 = = =
𝜆𝑒 2𝜋𝑟𝑛 2𝜋
𝑛
is quantized.

23
 Magnetism-ofit’smatter
Properties everywhere!
waves

Lighter particles have longer wavelengths.

Higher velocity corresponds to shorter wavelength.

For 𝑣 = 0, 𝜆 = ∞ (i.e., no wave). Hence, matter waves are generated only

when a particle is in motion.

Velocity of matter waves depends on the velocity of the particle.

Velocity of matter waves may be greater than the velocity of light!

24
Phase velocity and Group
velocity
Phase velocity
From de Broglie hypothesis we know that when a particle moves in a medium, a wave is also associated with it.

The velocity of advancement of monochromatic wave (i.e. a wave of single frequency and wavelength ) in a medium ls called as phase
velocity..

Or The velocity of the surface of constant phase is called phase velocity of the wave.

Expression of Phase Velocity:

Let the harmonic wave moving along the +ve x direction be given as

ψ(x,t)=Asin (ωt-kx) , where A is the amplitude and (ωt-kx) represent the phase part.

When phase is constant

So, the phase velocity is given as

So phase velocity can also be given as the ratio of angular frequency to propagation constant

It can be shown that the phase velocity is not equal to particle velocity. (Different either greater/ smaller than
particle velocity). So it is proposed that a instead of a single wave a wave packet moves along with the
moving particle. .

A wave packet is formed when a large no of harmonic waves having different amplitudes, frequencies and
wavelengths superpose such that the resulting wave-function vanishes everywhere except a finite region of
space. In this small region the particle can be located. Outside this region the waves interfere destructively ,
so that the amplitude reduces to zero.
Group Velocity
The velocity with which the wave packet or group of waves associated with the moving particle travels is called
group velocity.

Expression of group velocity:

Let us consider a wave packet , which is consisting of two waves of same amplitude and slightly different angular
frequencies. The two waves are represented as and

where a is the amplitude of both the waves. ω1 and ω2 are angular frequencies and k1 and k2 are propagation
constants of both the waves respectively.
From superposition principle, the resultant displacement can be given as

( Since )
If ω1 and ω2 are nearly equal then and

So the above equation reduces to

which represents the resultant is a wave of angular frequency ω and propagation constant k. The amplitude of
the resultant wave is modified and is given as

Or

It represents the envelope of the wave packets. This envelope travels with group velocity

Similarly if a large no of harmonic waves of continuously varying wavelengths and frequencies superpose to form
wave packet, the group velocity is

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vq-bepA
Relation between phase velocity( Vp ) group velocity(Vg )

You know that phase velocity is

Therefore
Differentiating both sides w.r.t k, we get
Again we know that so,

Therefore for a dispersive medium

In a non-dispersive medium,
as velocity is independent of variation of wavelength so
Hence i.e. the group velocity is equal to phase
velocity.
How group velocity is related to
particle velocity
The group velocity is given as

For a non relativistic particle:

So ,

Hence the group velocity = particle velocity.

For relativistic particle:

So,

Hence the group velocity = particle velocity

Therefore group velocity is always equal to particle
velocity
Review of previous classes:
• de Broglie Hypothesis: All material particles can manifest
themselves as waves called as matter waves.
• The wave and the particle nature of the matter cannot be
observed simultaneously.
• The matter waves propagate in the form of wavepacket.
• The velocity of the wavepacket is called as group velocity.
 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle
➢ Since the wave manifestation of the particle is in the form of wave packet.
Hence the particle is present anywhere within the corresponding wavepacket,
with different probablities.
➢ Each wavepacket has a finite spreading, which leads to uncertainty in the
position of particle.
➢ To locate the particle more precisely, we have to choose a narrow wavepacket.

➢ The narrower is the wavepacket, the position ➢ But a wide wavepacket has a clear
x of the particle can be meassured more defined wavelength.
accurately. ➢ But it is difficult to determine the
➢ However, the wavelength (λ) of the waves in exact position of the particle
the narrow wavepacket is not well defined, accurately. Hence the position of
i.e., there are not enough waves to measure the particle is uncertain in a large
λ precisely. Therefore, momentum cannot be
wavepacket.
determined precisely.

Ref.: CONCEPTS OF MODERN PHYSICS By: ARTHUR BEISER, Ch.3.

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle (contd.)
Statement: “It is impossible to measure position and momentum of a
particle simultaneously with unlimited accuracy”.

The formulation of position- momentum uncertainty principle is given by,


x  p x 
2
where, ‘Δx’ is the uncertainty in the position coordinate ‘x’ and ‘Δpx ’ is the
uncertainty in the x-component of the linear momentum of the particle.

Other form of uncertainty principle are:

Energy-Time Uncertainty Principle:

E  t 
2
where, ‘ΔE’ and ‘Δt’ are the uncertainty in the energy and time, respectively.

Angular position - Angular momentum Uncertainty Principle:


  L 
2
where, ‘Δθ’ and ‘ΔL’ are the uncertainty in the angular position and angular
momentum, respectively.
Application of Uncertainty Principle:
Non existence of electron in the nucleus:
The radius of a typical atomic nucleus is about 5 × 10-15 m. If an electron
confines within a nucleus, the uncertainty ‘Δx’ in its position is 5 × 10-15 m.
Then as per position-momentum uncertainty principle, the uncertainty in
the momentum is,

p   p  1.1 10 − 20 kg − m / sec
2x

If this is the uncertainty in the momentum of the electron, the momentum

‘p’ must be at least comparable in magnitude. An electron with such a
momentum has a K.E. many times greater than its rest energy m0c2. Hence,

−12 3.3 10−12

K .E. = p c + m0 c − m0c  pc  3.3 10
2 2 2 4 2
J= −19
 20MeV
1.6 10

Hence, K.E. of the electron must exceed 20 MeV if it is to be inside the

nucleus.
However, experiments show that the electron emitted by certain unstable
nuclei never have more than a small fraction of this energy. Hence electrons
cannot reside inside the nucleus.
Wavefunction: (Physical Significance of Matter waves)
The quantity whose variations make up the matter waves is called as
wavefunction for matter waves. It is purely a mathematical quantity .

The value of wavefunction ‘ψ’ associated with a moving body at a particular

point (x,y,z) at instant ‘t’ is related to probability of finding the particle at that
point at that instant.

“The square of the modulus value of ‘ψ’ (i.e., |ψ(x, y, z,t)|2) is the probability
density at (x, y, z) at instant ‘t’.” [The probability density is defined as the
probability of getting the particle per unit volume).
b
More precisely:   dx gives the probability of finding the particle
2

a
between ‘a’ and ‘b’ at instant ‘t’.

Since the total probability of getting

 the particle at any instant over the whole

region of wave packet is one, so:  dx = 1
2

−

A wavefunction satisfying this condition is called as “normalized

wavefunction”. Every wave function representing matter waves must be
normalized.
The Schrödinger's equation:
▪ Immediately after the publication of de Broglie hypothesis, Erwin
Schrödinger in 1926 proposed that the behavior of matter waves
representing the material particle is governed by a certain differential
equation for the wave function ‘ψ’.

▪ The Schrodinger equation plays the same role in wave mechanics as

Newton’s second law or Newtonian equation in classical mechanics.

▪ We cannot rigorously derive Schrödinger equation from existing

physical principles, rather the equation represents something new
standing as first principle in Quantum Mechanics or Wave
Mechanics.
Time dependent Schrödinger's equation (1D):
(a) For a free particle:
Let us assume the free particle moving in the +x direction is represented by a

 (x, t ) = Ae
planewave of the form: i ( kx − wt )
(1)
or some linear combination of these type of waves forming the wavepacket.

The momentum of the free particle and its energy are related with
propagation constant 'k' and angular frequency 'ω' by the relations:
p = k and E = 
Differentiating both sides of eqn. (1) twice with respect to ‘x’:

 2 i ( kx − wt )
= − k 2
Ae
x 2
 2  2  2k 2 i ( kx − wt )
− = Ae
2 m x 2 2m
 2  2 p2
− =  ( 2)
2 m x 2
2m
Time dependent Schrödinger's equation (1D): (contd.)
p2
For a free particle (in non relativistic motion): E =
2m
 2  2
So equation (2) can be written as, − = E (3)
2m x 2

Again differentiating equation (1) once with respect to ‘t’ :


= −iwAe i ( kx − wt )
t

 i = wAe i ( kx − wt )
t

 i = E (4)
t
From equations (3) and (4), we get:

  2  2
i =− (5)
t 2m x 2
Equation (5) represents the time dependent Schrödinger equation for a
free particle in one dimension.
Time dependent Schrödinger's equation (1D): (contd.)
(b) For a particle moving under the action of a force field:
If the particle is moving under the action of a force field derivable from a
potential energy ‘V’ given by: V
F =−
x
p2 p2
Then the total energy of the particle is given by: E = + V ( x)  = E − V ( x, t )
2m 2m
Substituting the above value in equation (2),
 2  2 p 2
− = 
2m x 2m2

 2  2
− = E − V ( x, t )
2m x 2
 2  2 ( x, t )
− + V ( x, t ) ( x, t ) = E ( x, t ) (6)
2m x 2

Therefore, from equations (4) and (6), we get:

  2  2 ( x, t )
i =− + V ( x, t ) ( x, t ) (7 )
t 2m x 2

Equation (7) represents the one dimensional Schrödinger time

dependent equation for a Particle moving in a potential field.
Time independent Schrödinger's equation (1D):
If the potential energy does not depend on time, but depends only on
space coordinates, then it is possible to write the wave function ψ(x,t)
as a product of a function ‘u(x)’ of space coordinates only and a
function ‘f(t)’ of time ‘t’ only. i.e
 (x, t ) = u ( x)  f (t )
 2  2u
 = f (t ) 2 (8)
x 2
x
 f
& = u ( x) (9)
t t
The time dependent Schrodinger equation as given by eqn (7) is :
  2  2 ( x, t )
i =− + V ( x, t ) ( x, t )
t 2m x 2

Putting the equations (8) and (9) in the above equation, we get:
f (t ) 2  2u ( x )
i u ( x ) =− f (t ) + V ( x)u ( x) f (t )
t 2m x 2

1 f (t )  2 1  2u ( x )
 i =− + V ( x)
f (t ) t 2m u ( x) x 2
Time independent Schrödinger's equation (1D) (contd.):
The L.H.S. of the above equation is a function of ‘t’ and independent
of ‘x’, where as the right side is a function of ‘x’ and independent of ‘t’.
This equality is possible only when both sides are equal to a constant
(say ‘E’) independent of ‘x’ and ‘t’. Hence, equating the R.H.S. to the
constant E,
 1  u ( x)
2 2
− + V ( x) = E
2m u ( x) x 2

 2  2u ( x )
− + V ( x)u ( x) = Eu ( x)
2m x 2

 2  2u ( x )
 + (E − V ( x) )u ( x) = 0 (10 )
2m x 2

Equation (10) represents the time independent one dimension

Schrödinger equation, applicable to the problems where the
potential energy function ‘V’ depends on space coordinates only.
Time independent Schrödinger's equation (1D) (contd.):
Now equating the L.H.S. to the constant E, we can write:
1 f (t )
i =E
f (t ) t
f (t )
 i = Ef (t )
t
f (t ) E iE
 = f (t ) = − f (t )
f (t ) i 

Integrating both sides, we get:

iE
− t
f (t ) = e 

Hence the complete solution is:

iE
−
 ( x, t ) = u ( x )  e 
Characteristics of Wavefunction:
The wave function, ψ(x, y, z,t), is in general a complex quantity(as it
is the solution of a complex differential equation).
If the potential energy function is independent of time, then it can be
checked that, the probability density will be independent of time.
Such wavefunctions represent stationary states. The space part of
such wavefunctions are obtained by solving Scrodinger time-
independent equation.
ψ must be continuous and single valued everywhere.
d d d
, , must also be continuous and single valued everywhere.
dx dy dz
ψ must be normalizable, i.e., |
 dV
2
| over all space must be a
finite constant.