Unit 4

Emotion: Theoretical and

Applied Issues
Overview
Part Two of this course examines the sub-discipline of social psychology defined in
previous units as the branch of human psychology that deals with the behaviour of
groups and the influence of social factors on the individual. Another way of outlining the
parameters of social psychology is to regard behaviour as a function of the personality
and the environment or personality and the social context. Unit Three placed the study of
motivation in the context of psychology and social psychology. You would recall that the
study of motivation is the examination of factors that account for the “direction, vigor and
persistence of action.” (Atkinson, 1964 as cited in Newman & Newman, 1983, p. 297)
This definition assumes that behaviour is not random, purposeless or goal-less. Instead,
action is goal directed, there is direction to the behaviour and there is persistence of
action until the desired goal has been obtained. In this Unit we will examine, amongst
other issues, the nature and types of emotions that are common to persons, theoretical
explanations for emotion and emotional development in humans, the link between
emotion and motivation, and explore the issue of emotional intelligence.

What is emotion? Why is it important to examine emotion in individuals? Emotions are

memorable experiences and emotions of love, affection, fear, anger or sadness may be
remembered for years. Emotions can drive or motivate behaviour as was mentioned in
Unit 3 in the section on the need for affiliation, the need for power and self-esteem.
Related behaviors include indulgences in drug and alcohol use, gang membership and
participation in gang related activities such as homicides. The discussion of skin
bleaching in Jamaica by Charles (2010) is a clear example of how subjective, affective
experiences can affect behavior. The author linked the need for skin bleaching to self-
esteem, racial self-esteem, and black identity transactions. Charles’s article will be
examined in more detail in Unit 5 which is tiled Social Influence. Most motivated
behavior has some affective or emotional accompaniment although it may not always be
recognized. Trinidad and Tobago homicide data reveal various motives why people kill.
In domestic homicides the motives recoded by the police indicate that jealousy was a
primary motive while in gang/drugs related murders the most commonly recorded motive
was revenge. (Hood & Seemungal, 2006)

Sometimes it is possible to identify how we feel at the present time while on other
occasions the nature and source of our emotions can puzzle us so that it is a struggle to
understand and control our feelings. Awareness of these emotions usually comes to the

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 1

 fore-front of our attention when we are frustrated in our attempts to achieve a desired
goal. For example, an ambitious 35 year old public servant who seeks occupational
mobility by sacrificing a lot to study for a university degree finds that at the end of this
lengthy process he is overlooked for a job promotion. The candidate selected is also 35
years old and less qualified but deemed to be senior for the position because that
individual was a public servant for a longer period of time. It is difficult to separate the
difference between emotion and motivation but the academic literature suggests that,
“The main difference is that motives usually are goal oriented whereas emotions often
are not. Motives direct behaviour toward some goal, whether it involves sleep, sex,
stimulation, or success. Emotions do not generally us toward a specific goal.” (Newman
& Newman, 1983, pp. 323-324) Emotional states are also linked to health and well
being. It is well documented in the literature (e.g. Ryff & Singer, 2001) that social
isolation or lack of social support can increase the risk of various disease outcomes and
reduced length of life. The loss of a child or life partner can lead to the onset of reactive
depression. Negative emotions can affect marital stability and child development.

This Unit is divided into two sessions. In the first session the focus is on the theoretical
underpinning of emotion such as identification of the five main groups of theories of
emotion – physiological, cognitive, evolutionary, dimensional, and psychoanalytic. The
eight primary emotions are identified and there is a discussion of the expressions and
control of emotions. The development of emotional maturity, the formation of
attachments in childhood, the link between negative emotions in childhood and
behavioral problems later in the lifespan will also be explained. Attention will be placed
on the very relevant issue of emotional intelligence. Finally, we consider how cultural
differences may impact upon experiences of emotional development and expressions of
emotion. In the second session the emphasis switches to applied emotional issues
affecting youths. Your attention is directed to two scientific readings that contain data on
the impact of emotions on risk-taking behavior in the Caribbean. These are located in
the Unit 4 reading folder.

In Unit 3 Professor Emeritus Ramesh Deosaran indicated that youths faced

uncertainties. “To put it simply, it should be no surprise if many of them tell you that it is
hard to figure out now what is right or wrong in this society. This is a troublesome matter
because if their minds are so confused, then they become quite vulnerable to the drift
into deviance.” (Newsday, June 3, 2012, p.10) Johnson and Malow-Iroff (2008) outlined
in Unit 3 how biology, physiological arousal, emotion and behaviour may cause youths to
engage in sensation seeking. The authors stated that a subset of adolescents
possesses a biological pre-disposition to engage in activities associated with heightened
physiological arousal. This theory assumes a genetic link to adolescent risk taking.

2 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

Young persons may also experience emotional deprivation which can lead to low self-
esteem, self-harm, depression, violence and under-achievement. By the end of this unit
you will have a better understanding of what influences your emotional state. The term
‘meta-emotion’ or feelings about feelings has been developed as a way of understanding
the insights that individuals have about their own emotion. In addition, you will gain an
enhanced knowledge of the common factors that explain emotions and emotional
behaviour in other persons. An important objective of PSYC 1000 is to provide the
knowledge base and skills set to allow you to identify emotionally based problem
behaviour in citizens, particularly in young persons, and to develop strategies and
interventions to overcome emotional deprivation and to empower citizens. As an
example of the applied approach to this Unit mention is made of the current review of the
National Youth Policy in Trinidad and Tobago. The National Youth Policy promotes a
vision of empowered young people who are able to make informed choices so that they
can lead meaningful, enjoyable lives and contribute to the sustainable development of
Trinidad and Tobago. The Youth Policy aims to: (1) Provide better support and avenues
for real youth empowerment; (2) Create an enabling environment that will facilitate youth
development; (3) Provide support for institution and systems which strengthen and
sustain development; (4) Place young people at the forefront of national development.
All of these aims can be better achieved with a clear, scientific understanding of
emotion, the relationship between emotion and motivation and emotional intelligence.

The coverage area for this unit speaks to several competencies in the youth
development work program of studies. Specifically, YDWCYP0263 ‘Enable young
people to become active and responsible citizens, YDWCYP0293 ‘Contribute to the
development and implementation of national youth policy’,YDWCYP0323 ‘Assist young
people with their personal development plans’ and YDWCYP0333 ‘Enable young people
to develop their spiritual, ethical, moral values and beliefs.’ For instance, competency
YDWCYP0333 is designed to encourage young people to build their self-respect and
self- esteem. Associated with this competency is the need to help young people to build
skills of reflection and self-awareness; to enable them to identify the positive and
negative aspects of their image of themselves or their self-esteem; and to help them to
overcome the effects and consequences of negative self-image. Young citizens must be
guided to map out the relationship between their beliefs, values and behaviours. This
unit will demonstrate that emotions can mediate the relationship between beliefs, values
and behaviours. Moreover, the skill of controlling one’s emotions can be taught to young
people to help them to develop respect for their elders, persons in authority, and those
who may have different faiths, values and beliefs. Teaching youths about emotional
intelligence will help them to feel engaged with society and help them to value the
positive communal interests of society. As you are aware this course takes an applied
approach to understanding human psychology. Therefore, it is imperative that you
identify challenging social problems in your personal and professional environment that

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 3

 can be explained and resolved using the theories of emotion outlined in this unit. As with
the preceding units you are required to embark upon your own active internet searches
to supplement the unit material and readings as these resources would help you to
successfully complete the activity tasks. The concepts written in bold font are defined in
the Glossary of Terms which appears at the end of the unit. You can also use the on-line
psychology dictionaries to look up psychology words that you do not know. For
example, http://allpsych.com/dictionary/

Competencies
1. YDWCYP0263: Enable young people to become active and responsible citizens.
2. YDWCYP0293: Contribute to the development and implementation of national
youth policy.
3. YDWCYP0323: Assist young people with their personal development plans.
4. YDWCYP0333: Enable young people to develop their spiritual, ethical, moral
values and beliefs.
Key Concepts in Unit 4: emotion, close relationships, attachment, health and wellness,
mood, temperament, frustration-aggression hypothesis, emotional intelligence,
aggressive instinctive drive, excitement, surprise, fear, sadness, depression, joy,
anxiety, guilt, love, meta-emotion, self-regulation.
Structure of the Unit
This Unit is divided into two sessions as follows:

Session 4.1: Theoretical Underpinning of Emotion

• Theories of emotion.
• Identification of the eight primary emotions.
• Expressions and control of emotion
• Development of emotional maturity.
• Emotional development in childhood – attachment, close relationships, negative
emotions.
• Emotional Intelligence
• Cultural differences in experiences of emotional development and expressions of
emotion.

Session 4.2: Emotion and Applied Issues

• Applied issues relating to emotion
• Anxiety and Depression in Childhood and Adolescence.
• Anger and anger management.

4 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

 Unit 4 Learning Objectives

By the end of this unit learners would be able to:

1. Define emotion and discuss the psychological and social psychological theories
associated with emotion
2. Explain in tutorials the relationship between emotion and motivation
3. Define emotional intelligence and use this knowledge in the unit reflective activities
4. Apply the unit material to improving your personal and professional responsibilities
5. Apply the unit notes to the evaluation of existing policies – or the creation of new ones –
that target the emotional re-programming of young people in order to transformed them
into becoming more active, functional and responsible citizens

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 5

Session 4.1
Theoretical Underpinning of Emotion
Introduction
In this session the role of emotions in human psychology is given prominence.
Definitions of emotion vary according to the theoretical framework surrounding the
concept of emotion. One writer indicated that, “The term emotion is generally used by
psychologists for a display of feelings that are evoked when important things happen to
us.” (Carlson, 1990, p. 445) Scientific facts about emotions indicate the following three
key elements. First, emotions are relative briefly and may be trigged by a response to a
situation or a stimulus. Second, emotions may be stimulated from external forces (e.g.
being involved in a car accident would trigger extreme distress and shock) but emotions
can also be aroused from within by a person’s needs and thoughts. For instance, being
away from home and missing loved ones will trigger emotions of loneliness and perhaps
anxiety. Third, emotions are difficult to observe but can be inferred by what an individual
says, how the person looks and behaves. This makes the measurement of emotions and
emotional states challenging so that some psychologists claim that it is difficult to
objectively and accurately study the emotions of other people. This degree of inaccuracy
means that scientists can make mistakes when inferring the emotions of their subjects or
they can misattribute the source and nature of the emotions under investigation. This is
particularly true when one considers how people grieve when a loved one dies. Some
persons become depressed and withdrawn while others may celebrate the life of the
deceased by continuing the social engagements and activities of the departed. Despite
the conceptual and measurement challenges of measuring emotions, psychologists
continue to find ways to successfully measure them because of the importance of
emotions to daily existence. This view is shared by a psychologist who believed that
emotions add a bit of spice to life. “In a real sense life emotions are what life is all about.
Life without emotion would be bland and empty.” (Carlson, 1990, p. 445)

The information presented in this session is designed to help you to answer the questions.
What is the range of human emotions? What are the causes of emotion? What functions
do emotions play in human life? How can we distinguish between emotions? What kinds
of situations produce emotions? What kinds of feelings do people say they experience
when they are in an emotional state? What kinds of physiological changes do people
undergo in situations that produce strong emotions? The theories of emotion discussed
in the next session will shed light on these pertinent questions. As a precursor to the
theoretical discussion it is relevant to explain what is meant by mood and temperament
as both concepts are part of the discourse on emotion. Moods are longer-lived and
generally weaker than emotions. One is likely to say that a friend or a sibling is moody
but what exactly does this mean?

6 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

Carlson (1990) contended that moods consist of tendencies to react more strongly to
situations that would be likely to evoke mild emotional reactions in others. For example,
if a motorist is given a red light at a traffic intersection and becomes abusive, impatient,
irritable and discourteous to other motorists because of the ‘inconvenience’ of being
delayed at the red light, this would be regarded as an extreme response. Most motorists
in a similar situation will accept a red light as part of the rules attached to driving and will
patiently wait for the light to change to green so that they can continue their journey. The
conditions that control moods are not as clear-cut or as distinct as the conditions that
affect emotions. Temperament is similar to mood but it has a longer time span. One may
comment upon the happy temperament or calm disposition of another person. This
disposition or temperament suggests that in most situations we can expect the person
under observation to behave in the same happy and calm way. In this way temperament
is linked to personality.

Session 4.1 Objectives

By the end of this session learners would be able to:
1. Define emotion and relate it to emotional development across the lifespan
2. Discuss the theories underlying emotion presented in this session;
3. Identify from the unit notes and the session readings the factors that influence
emotion
4. Relate the concepts of emotion discussed in this session to the formation of
relationships and groups
5. Link emotion to motivation with respect to positive behavioural changes and use
this knowledge in your professional duties and the unit learning activities

Theories of Emotion
1. Physiological Theories of Emotion
The physiological theories of emotion range from the very earliest ideas to contemporary
views about the role of physiology on emotions. William James developed his theory in
1884 and refined it in 1890. He believed that emotions were a person’s reaction to bodily
changes caused by a stimulus. Evidence of emotional states and reactions to stimuli
could be measured by visceral changes (e.g. nausea), glandular responses such as
sexual arousal, and muscular tension such as clenching the teeth. Carl Lange’s ideas in
1885 were similar to those of William James as he focused on the role of physiological
activity that is stimulated by the autonomic nervous system, such as a change in the
blood pressure as the source of emotional response. The following example illustrates
the physiological theory of emotion.

A 2 year old toddler is happily chasing his ball on the lawn of his home when he
stumbles and falls. He is not hurt because the grass cushions the impact of his fall.
However, he lays stunned on the ground from the shock of unexpectedly falling over.

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 7

 The incident makes his breathing more pronounced as his heart rate increases. The
toddler most likely feels fear and anxiety even though he is unhurt. One might describe
the experience as being emotionally unbalancing for the toddler.

2. Evolutionary Theories of Emotion

Charles Darwin (1872-1965) was one of the first persons to study the adaptive functions
of emotions. According to Newman and Newman (1983) Darwin believed that emotional
expressions were part of an organism’s or a person’s preparation for survival. Examples
of the survival behavior that Darwin identified were attack, locomotion or movement,
defence, breathing, and vision. These preparatory expressions evolved into a system of
communication. For instance, a person’s facial expressions can tell others in the social
environment if that person is about to attack, flee or be sociable. This perspective also
suggests that some of our basic ‘emotions’ are innate rather than acquired through the
process of learning or socialization. Newman and Newman stated that supporting
evidence of Darwin’s view of innate emotions includes the expressions of the startle, the
grimace, the smile, and the expression of disgust as examples of responses that occur
early in infancy without learning. In 1980 Plutchik developed his version of the
evolutionary theory of emotion to include eight primary emotions which lead to eight
important adaptive behaviour patterns. Plutchik’s eight categories are listed in Table 4.1.
It is important to bear in mind that from the primary list new emotions can be formed by
blending two or three emotions together. For instance, in his model, pride is a
combination of anger and joy while curiosity is a combination of surprise and
acceptance. It should be noted that this view of the evolutionary theory of emotion relies
on the patterning of muscle and motor activity rather than conscious labeling of feelings
as the basic emotional state.

The evolutionary perspective not only makes predictions about human behaviour but
also about animal behaviour. Newman and Newman stated, “The frown is one example
of an expression that has clear adaptive evolutionary origins. This expression is derived
from intense staring at an object close to the face. In the frown, the eyebrows are
typically lowered in many species, including the dog, the capuchin monkey, and
humans…. In most animals the direct stare is a good indication of concentrated interest
and little or no fear.” (Newman & Newman, 1983, p.326) The authors noted that the
embrace is used among chimpanzees who have not seen one another in a long time.
The emotional connection between chimpanzees and man has been intensively studied
and you will have the opportunity to examine and to discuss an article by Davila-Ross,
Allcock, Thomas and Bard (2011) titled Aping Expressions? Chimpanzees Produce
Distinct Laugh Types When Responding to Laughter of Others in Activity 4.1. The article
offers evidence that chimpanzees, like humans, have the ability to replicate the
emotional expressions of others. This article is also informative as it uses the method of
observation in a naturalistic setting at the Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage in Zambia to
collect data from chimpanzees engaged in social play. In Unit 2 naturalistic observation
was mentioned as one of the research methods employed by psychologists.

8 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

Primary emotion Typical adaptive behavior pattern

Acceptance Incorporation – taking in of food and water.

Joy Reproduction – sexual behavior.

Fear Protection – shielding from pain, threats of pain, or harm.

Anger Destruction – removing obstacles to satisfaction.

Disgust Rejection – eliminate activity, excretion, vomiting.

Deprivation – failure to satisfy needs or loss of pleasurable

Sorrow
objects.
Orientation – behaviour resulting from contact with new or
Startle
strange objects.
Exploration – activities to search and examine the environment.
Expectation or curiosity

Table 4.1: Primary eight emotions and related adaptive behaviour patterns (as cited
in Newman & Newman, 1983, p. 327)

LEARNING ACTIVITY 4.1 •

Read the article by Davila-Ross, Allcock & Bard. (2011). Aping Expressions?
Chimpanzees Produce Distinct Laugh Types When Responding to Laughter of
Others and post your responses to the following questions by Monday 23rd
February. Remember to make your posting in the Unit 4 block. The article is
available in the Unit 4 reading folder.
1. Using your knowledge of observations in naturalistic settings outlined in Unit 2 as
well as the information presented in the article by Davila-Ross et al. (2011), list
the strengths and limitations of naturalistic observations. (200 words)
2. What are the possible limitations related to the internal validity of the data
collected when researching non-human subjects such as chimpanzees and
applying the findings to humans? (150 words)
You would find most of the answers in units 1-4 and by viewing the video cited
below.
Dr.SamFiala. (2011, Oct 8). 9-Threats to Internal validity. [Video file]. Retrieved
from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F7kjR30tEAc
3. What does the article tell you about the evolutionary theory of emotion? (100
words)
4. What does the article say about emotional intelligence? (100 words)
PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 9
 3. Dimensional Theories of Emotion
Attempts have been made to describe the underlying dimensions that could explain all
conscious feelings. Wundt (1896) suggested that all emotions could be viewed as a
combination of three core dimensions: pleasantness-unpleasantness, relaxation-tension;
and calm-excitement. Following from these inaugural ideas Woodworth and Scholsberg
(1954) applied their dimensional analysis to the study of facial expressions. They
believed that facial expressions are largely organised around two main dimensions:
pleasantness and unpleasantness as well as acceptance and rejection. The main
limitations of this approach to explaining emotions are:
1. It is reductionist; that is, the dimensional approach reduces the diversity of human
expressions and emotional responses to a few underlying components. Instead,
emotions are much more complex and varied than is suggested by dimensional
theorists.

2. Newman and Newman (1983) said that this approach does not consider the function
of emotions or the physiological basis of emotions; and
3. It does not suggest how different emotions may be similar because they share
dimensional values.

4. Psychoanalytic Theories of Emotion

Sigmund Freud’s work on personality emphasized the importance of understanding
emotions as a key force directing behaviour. Freud believed that emotions are a product
of instinctual drives. As you would recall from the discussion on psychoanalytic theory in
Unit 1 and in Unit 3 the main drives are based on sexuality and aggression. Newman
and Newman noted that from Freud’s perspective an instinctual drive may have
conscious form in the joining of an idea and an emotion. The emotional part of an idea is
demonstrated in the following manner: An event arouses instinctive energy and this
energy is discharged through emotional feelings and expressions. Within Freud’s
framework the concept aggressive instinctual drive refers to an innate drive that must
eventually express itself in some form of aggression either actual or symbolic.

A similar concept is the frustration-aggression hypothesis which demonstrates very

clearly how energy is discharged through emotions. Carlson (1990) outlined this
influential hypothesis which was proposed by Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer and Sears
(1939). Essentially, frustration is assumed to lead to aggression if the source of the
frustration is not relieved. The term frustration can be defined as “an interference with
the occurrence of an instigated goal-response at its proper time in the behaviour
sequence.” (Carlson, 1990, p. 438) Realistic expectations are vital to understanding why
frustration occurs. For example, if a student invested a lot of time studying for an exam
based on the coverage area provided by the teacher and the examination contained
questions that were outside of the coverage area, the student is likely to become very
frustrated and extremely angry. One can also envisage how the frustration-aggression
hypothesis explains the behaviour of drug addicts who have physical cravings that must
be satisfied otherwise they become dangerous to those persons in their environment.

10 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

The aggressive instinctual drive and the frustration-aggression hypothesis both assume
that the emotions arising out of frustration are negative ones. This is a limitation of the
psycho-analytic theory of emotion. You would recall from the discussion in previous units
that Sigmund Freud was a Viennese psychiatrist. The negative emotions that Freud
recoded from his patients were anxiety, depression, anger and guilt so these were the
emotions that became the focus of his inquiry and the framework of his theory of
emotion.

5. Cognitive Theories of Emotion

Cognitive theories of emotion emphasize a person’s appraisal of a situation as the cause
of an emotion. Returning to the example of the student mentioned in the preceding
section, if the student believes that he could logically guess an answer using information
that he is certain he knows, then the student would not necessarily become frustrated by
the test. Instead, the student would simply remain calm, think deeply and answer the
questions creatively and to the best of his/her ability. Newman and Newman indicated
that situations that are appraised as positive usually have an attractive quality.
Conversely, situations that are appraised as negative will repulse an individual. It is clear
that the same emotion can be interpreted differently by different individuals hence the
focus of the cognitive theories of emotion is on the subjective appraisal of a situation as
well as the labelling of the situation. Newman and Newman gave the following example.
“If you are sitting next to an attractive person on the train and your heart is pounding and
your throat feels tight, you may think that you are sexually aroused. If the person is
pointing a gun at you, you may interpret these same feelings as terror.” (Newman &
Newman, 1983, p.329) Critics of the cognitive approach to understanding emotions
suggest that subjective experiences of emotion are difficult to interpret and measure
objectively. In addition, cultural factors may influence labelling and the process of
subjective appraisal. Jean Piaget (1981) took a different view of the relationship between
cognition and emotion. He defines emotions as “feelings, drives, and tendencies that
play the role of an energy source on which functioning, but not the structures of
intelligence, would depend.” (Piaget, 1981 as cited in Newman & Newman, 1983, p. 330)
In Piaget’s view emotions are always part of cognitive behaviour. A synopsis of the five
theories of emotion is provided in Table 4.2 located in the summary of Session 4.1.

The Primary Emotions

It is difficult to accurately gauge emotions for several reasons:
 First, scientific investigators rely on the self- reports of their subjects who may or
may not be fully aware of what they are experiencing or feeling.
 Second, emotions are complex and interrelated.
 Third, the kinds of emotions that are aroused in a laboratory are confined to what
psychologists can ethically undertake in a scientific study. Therefore, they do not
compare with the intensity of life experiences such as the grief that follows the
unexpected death of a loved one.
 Fourth, emotional expressions may be enhanced, attenuated, or faked for self-
presentational reasons. In other words, people can employ deception or mask
their true emotions.
PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 11
 Despite these challenges psychologists have attempted to identify the primary emotions.
Early writers suggested two basic categories: pleasant (joy, love) and unpleasant (anger,
fear) (Hilgard, Atkinson & Atkinson, 1979). These authors further stated that emotions
are experienced with intensity as demonstrated in the pairing of emotions such as
displeasure-rage, pain-agony, and sadness-grief. Some psychologists reserve the term
‘emotion’ for the more intense aspects of feelings. In common parlance, it is said that a
person is emotional when this individual is highly animated or aroused. The
understanding of the topic of emotions developed over time. Newman and Newman
(1983) identified nine basic emotions: excitement, surprise, sadness, joy, anger, fear,
disgust, guilt and love. The authors identified unique characteristics for each of these
nine basic emotions. The major features, the functions of the emotion and the stimuli
believed to be responsible for it are briefly considered.
1. Excitement – this is regarded as one of the most common, positive emotions. It is
defined as “an intense state of interest.” (Newman & Newman, 1983, p. 341) Using
your personal knowledge you are likely to agree with the discoveries of scientists that
a state of excitement can be caused by a novel event, by change, an unpredictable
incident, or by the anticipation of an event. Excitement is the emotion that
accompanies exploration, adventurousness, and risk taking. The function of emotion
is to help an organism or an individual to strengthen or to sustain problem solving
efforts. An example of an anticipatory state of excitement can be illustrated in the
behaviour of regional cricket fans who are watching the last few minutes of a live
cricket match in which the West Indies team is playing against a visiting international
team in the Caribbean. If the scores of both teams are very close the final 30 minutes
of the game may be described as a ‘nail biting’ experience. This heightened level of
awareness is also part of the experience of the players who truly have to strengthen
their efforts to sustain their performance to the end often with some measure of risk-
taking in their bowling or batting skills.
2. Surprise –the expression of surprise is regarded as the most widely recognized
across cultures because it is universally recognized by a lifted brow, rounded eyes,
an open, oval mouth which gives the face an exaggerated rounded look. Newman
and Newman stated that surprise differs from interest in that it is a sudden, short-
lived emotion. The authors cite Plutchik (1980), one of the earliest researchers in the
field of emotion, who described surprise as the emotional dimension associated with
orientation. The orienting response takes place while the organism is examining
something new or strange. It is important to note that the emotion of surprise is
temporal: as soon as the organism (or human) acquires sufficient information about
the novel or strange object the element of surprise fades. The function of surprise is
therefore to prepare the human or organism for a new response. It represents an
alert that expectations may be inaccurate. For example, if a person unexpectedly
encounters a stranger while walking along a poorly lit street at night the emotion of
surprise functions as a preparatory reaction for data acquisition that prepares the
body to respond by either fighting or fleeing.
3. Sadness – this emotion also appears to be expressed in universal ways that
transcend cultures, age groups and social class. Newman and Newman (1983)

12 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

 claimed that, among other features, the expression of sadness involves arched
eyebrows, slanted eyes, a drawn mouth, and a raised lower lip. Depending on the
stimulus that prompted the emotion, sadness may be accompanied by sobbing,
moaning, or weeping. Sadness can have shades of intensity hence it can be
manifested as dejection, depression or pensiveness. There are many reasons why
sadness occurs – the death or otherwise loss of a loved one, failure of a relationship,
lack of success in achieving one’s goals and chronic illness. Sadness can be
triggered by external events (e.g. the loss of a loved one; the loss of one’s lifesavings
or home during a down turn in the economy) or by an internal stimulus such as
specific memories. Newman and Newman noted that sadness may be linked to
biological or physiological changes such as fluctuating hormonal levels in the body,
chronic illness or it can be linked to the use of certain prescribed drugs and illegal
substances.

Sadness is believed to have three functions:

(1) The expression of sadness alerts others in the social environment that help is
needed;
(2) Sadness may be the first phase in the onset of distress and it alerts the person
who is experiencing sadness that all is not well. In some cases the feeling of
sadness causes the individual to reflect on the cause of the emotion in order to
reduce it or to eliminate it completely.
(3) Sadness is also thought to provide a social bond and to maintain closeness within
a community or group. One can think of the Caribbean ritual of holding a ‘wake’ for a
deceased person where there is a coming together of family members, neighbours
and well-wishers who share the common goal of providing emotional and tangible
support for the bereaved family.

Sadness is related to depression. Depression is characterized at four levels:

emotional, cognitive, motivational and physical. At the emotional level it is
characterized by sadness and dejected mood. You would recall the discussion of
mood in the early section of this Session. At the cognitive level it is reflected in the
tendency to see oneself as deficient in important areas of life. At a motivational level
there is evidence of passivity, apathy and the inability to exercise freewill. At a
physical level loss of appetite and sleep may occur. Depression has been described
as a complex emotional state (e.g. Newman & Newman, 1983: Carlson, 1990). It is
usually associated with negative emotions such as guilt, anxiety, inadequacy, low
self-esteem and learned helplessness. You will learn more about emotion, anxiety
and depression in Session 4.2. Insights are provided in the article The Emotional
Quality of Childhood Memories and Depression in Trinidadian Older Adults (Alea,
Thomas, Manickchand, Ramirez-Cole, Renaud,-Simon & Bacchus, 2010). This
article is available in the Unit 4 reading folder.

4. Joy –Like most other emotions joy cannot be directly viewed but it can be inferred
from behaviour. Joyous behaviour is seen in the actions and antics of sports men
and women on the field when they win a match. Some footballers somersault on the
grass, punch the air and thump each other on the back. Tennis players may dance
PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 13
 around the courts after a successful match. Whatever the sport or the country in
which it is played, joy seems to have universal forms of expression. Joy
accompanies triumph, creative effort, exercise, a gourmet meal, or a chance meeting
with a friend one had not seen for some time. Joy is equated with satisfaction with an
outcome or a promise that an achievement is within reach. Joy has a social role as “it
seems to invite participation of others and eagerness to share in the event.” (Frijda &
Mesquita, 1997, p. 60) An interesting view of the emotion of joy is offered by one
writer who said that “there is pressure on people to be happy.” (Wierzbicka, 1997, p.
185) Very often we may say to another person ‘cheer up’ because human beings
appear to prefer being around people who display positive rather than negative
emotions.
5. Anger – The hostile impulse of anger can be expressed in a variety of non-verbal
ways including by violent movements or a fierce glance, in verbal ways such as
shouting, swearing or cursing, and through behaviour such as injuring another
person or breaking social contact. Frijda & Mesquita, (1997) claimed that anger can
be manifested in cognitive ways such as thinking hostile thoughts about another
person. This can even be extended to include plotting to kill someone even if the act
itself was not executed largely due to environmental controls such as laws prohibiting
murder or through some form of self-regulation of emotion. In addition, it is noted that
in such cultures where anger is a prevalent emotion that is readily experienced it is
readily recognised (Ellsworth, 1997). The main point to remember is that anger
signals, among other things, an actual or impending offence. It may also threaten
goal attainment or the attachment to a significant other.
6. Fear – Frijda and Mesquita (1997) stated that the emotion that we call fear signals a
threat possibly to one’s integrity, one’s success, the stability of one’s intimate
relationship with another, or the attainment of a desired goal. The authors also
discussed the social transmission of emotion by noting that children learn respect
from the respect shown to them and to other adults in their social world. Similarly,
“Children also learn their hatreds, fears and things to enjoy.” (Frijda & Mesquita.
1997, p. 75)
7. Disgust – Weiner (2006) argued that the emotion of disgust is closely aligned to
anger. Moreover, disgust could have a moral dimension. For instance, if a person is
disgusted by the behaviour of street protestors in their country who choose to burn
tyres and disrupt the flow of traffic in order to air their grievances rather than to write
letter of protest to the relevant authorities, disgust could be motivated by moral
judgements concerning how members of society are expected to behave within the
context of civilized and law abiding codes of practice. Disgust does not need to have
a moral dimension as in the case of viewing uncollected smelly garbage on the
roadway.
8. Guilt – This is considered as one of the emotions in the group of moral emotions the
others being shame and pride. Ellsworth (1997) offers some clarity on one of the
most commonly studied emotions; that is, guilt. The author noted that guilt resembles
the emotion of sadness or regret. It is associated with a negative event often
perceived to be caused by oneself. For instance, guilt that a friend has asked a

14 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

 favour that you could not grant and now the friendship is in danger of being
terminated. In some societies the sense of guilt is more pronounced than in other
societies as outlined in the article by Bedford and Kwang-Kuo (2003) Guilt and
Shame in Chinese Culture: A Cross-cultural Framework from the Perspective of
Morality and Identity. In their review of the relevant literature on the subject of shame
and guilt the authors reported that the emotions of guilt and shame are pervasive in
daily life, they can define a person’s identity, they act as a mechanism of social
control, and there is empirical and theoretical agreement that the subjective
experience of guilt is accompanied by feelings of violation of the moral order and
responsibility for negative outcome. This view is consistent with the one presented by
Ellsworth (1997). In their definition of guilt the authors pointed to the “wrongdoing, or
violation of some sort of rule or internal law,” (Bedford & Kwang-Kuo, 2003, p. 127)
In distinguishing guilt from shame it was suggested that with guilt one’s self-image
remains intact but in shame, one’s self-image is brought into question. Consistent
with a social or a social psychological approach to understanding the topic of
emotion, the authors provided empirical evidence demonstrating that not only are the
situations that arouse the affects of guilt and shame different for Chinese and
Americans, the actual experience of the emotion differs as well, since the Chinese
make discriminations that Americans do not make. Like many others cited in this unit
Bedford and Kwang-Kuo (2003) concluded that the cultural context is necessary for
understanding the role each emotion is likely to play and how it relates to identity and
morality.
9. Love - This emotion is perhaps the most discussed in the literature. The topic is
varied but you can view the You Tube video prepared by Yale University: Evolution,
Emotion, and Reason: Love and delivered by Professor Peter Salovey by accessing
the hyperlink http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kZoBgX8rScg

Expressions and Control of Emotion

The basic ways of expressing emotion are innate. Weeping when sad or laughing when
very happy represents universal expressions of emotions. While it is possible to be
aware that one is angry often it is not always possible to accurately locate the source of
that anger as multiple reasons may contribute to the emotion of anger. How a situation is
appraised determines the emotional response to that situation. Therefore, cognitive
factors are responsible for the expression and the control of emotions. Evidence from an
early experiment by Schachter and Singer (1962) concluded that people tend to evaluate
their feelings by comparing themselves to others around them. This is particularly
evident at a crime scene. A bystander to an unexpected event may not know precisely
what occurred so he or she will look for cues in the reactions of other bystanders. If the
bystander hears a woman hysterically screaming and claiming that she was beaten, held
up at gun point and her car stolen then the bystander is likely to feel anxiety that the
perpetrator may still be around with the gun to threaten others in the environment. If the
bystander looks around and observes that the threat has been removed than he or she

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 15

 may feel more confident about rendering assistance to the unfortunate victim. In general,
psychologists investigating the psychology of emotion report that when feelings are
aroused persons may evaluate this emotion as happiness, anger, amused or apathy
depending on the circumstances. Evidence that emotions can be controlled is taken from
studies on emotion coaching. Empirical studies reveal that parents and guardians vary in
the emotional styles that they bring to child-rearing (e.g. Gottman, 2001). Some parents
teach their children about emotions and how to regulate or control them. For instance,
toddlers are prone to displays of tantrums as an attention seeking strategy to gain a
desired object. Psychologists often advise parents not to give into the attention seeking
behaviour but to ignore the child because after a few minutes the child will realize that
this strategy is not working and will stop screaming. Attending to a child whenever he or
she screams will act as a ‘reward’ so the child will learn that a tantrum is a reliable way
to gain what he or she wants. The parent must subsequently explain to the child how to
gain what he or she would like obtain without resorting to a tantrum. This is referred to
as emotion coaching and it helps children to know the difference between appropriate
and inappropriate expressions of emotion and behaviour.

Children who do not benefit from these helpful tips are said to have emotion dismissing
parents. Perhaps their parents or guardians did not realize the significance of helping
children to deal with their emotional states. Such children generally have problems
dealing with their negative emotions such as anger, sadness or fear. You will read more
about Gottman’s findings in the section on emotional intelligence but to illustrate his
point, a child may engage in bullying behaviour as he or she was not taught how to deal
with anger or insecurity in a socially acceptable way. If unaddressed, these behaviours
and attitudes can accompany the child through adolescence and adulthood. Knowledge
of the psychology of emotion supports the skills that students in the youth development
program are expected to acquire for competency YDWCPY0263. This competency
addresses conflict resolution and transformation skills, helping young people to acquire
positive attitudes and values and most importantly, assisting young people to build
young people’s confidence in their ability to influence the situations in which they
operate.

The role of learning in controlling emotional expressions

In some countries, such as the UK, there is the phrase ‘the stiff upper lip’. One who has
a stiff upper lip displays fortitude in the face of adversity, or exercises great self-restraint
in the expression of emotion. The phrase is most commonly heard as part of the idiom
‘keep a stiff upper lip’ and has traditionally been used to describe an attribute of British
people (particularly upper-middle and upper class who are sometimes perceived by
other cultures as being unemotional). A sign of weakness is trembling of the upper lip,
hence the saying keep a stiff upper lip. When a person’s upper lip begins to tremble, it is
one of the first signs that the person is scared or experiencing deep emotion.

Emotional Development and Emotional Regulation in Childhood

The preceding section hinted at the role that parents can play in teaching children how to

16 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

understand their emotions and how to express them in socially acceptable and functional
ways. Let us consider in more detail emotional development in early, middle and late
childhood. Boyd and Bee (2012) offered a comprehensive examination of the developing
child. Erik Erikson stated that the key to healthy development during the period of early
childhood – ages 2-6 years – is striking a balance between the child’s emerging skills and
desire for autonomy and the parents’ need to protect the child and to control the child’s
behavior. Boyd and Bee discussed the emotional self and contended that, “children
exhibit emotional regulation when they find a way to cheer themselves up when they are
feeling sad, or when they divert their attention to a different activity when they get
frustrated with something.” (Boyd & Bee, 2012, p. 187) The authors cited evidence from
longitudinal studies conducted by Kochanska, Murray and Coy (1997) in which empirical
data revealed that children who displayed good emotional regulation in early childhood
were more likely to obey moral rules and to think about right and wrong during the school
years that those children who were incapable of emotional regulation. According to Boyd
and Bee an important aspect of the development of the emotional self relates to the
ability to develop empathy or the ability to identify with another person’s emotional state.
“Empathy has two aspects: apprehending another person’s emotional state or condition
and then matching that emotional state oneself.” (Boyd & Bee, 2012, p. 188)

Emotional development or impairment is linked to a range of social factors such as

protective and risk factors, for example, neglect. The effects of risk and protective factors
on emotional well-being are discussed in more detail in Session 4.2. Neglect is the failure
of caregivers to provide emotional and physical support for a child. Boyd and Bee noted
that some children who are frequently or severely abused develop post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD). This disorder is manifested in children as anxiety, flashback memories
of abuse, nightmares and sleep disturbances. It is further suggested that abused children
are more likely than non-abused children to exhibit delays in their development. There
have been positive findings that children are sufficiently resilient so that those who were
physically neglected can typically recover rapidly once the abuse stops.

The care and wellbeing of children is so important that in 1959 the UN General Assembly
adopted the Declaration of the Rights of the Child in 1989 the UN adopted the
Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989.The objectives of these protocols were to
secure the protection of children; to promote child welfare; to preserve the rights of
children; and to prevent child abuse. The Government of Trinidad and Tobago, like many
of its regional counterparts, has pledged to enforce current legislation and to create new
ones where gaps in there are gaps in the current legislation to “strengthening of systems
of care for children; and the creation of facilities for displaced youth and youth at risk.
Specifically, one of the key initiatives undertaken by the Government is in the area of
legislation. This is in keeping with Article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child,
which stipulates the following terms.

1. State Parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and
educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental
violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 17

 exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s)
or any other person who has the care of the child.

2. State Parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and
educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental
violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or
exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s)
or any other person who has the care of the child.

3. Such protective measures should, as appropriate, include effective procedures for

the establishment of social programmes to provide necessary support for the child
and for those who have the care of the child, as well as for other forms of prevention
and for identification, reporting, referral, investigation, treatment and follow-up of
instances of child maltreatment described heretofore, and, as appropriate, for judicial
involvement.” (Glenn Ramadharsingh, Minister of the People and Social
Development, 2010)1

Many prevention and remedial programs are in place to assist at risk as well as high risk
children and youths Boyd and Bee (2012) stated that preventing abuse begins with
education. Parents need to be informed of the fact that injuring or neglecting children is a
crime. Another approach to the prevention of abuse is to legally mandate professionals
such as physicians, nurses and other professionals who interact with parents, infants
and children during medical visits to report incidents such as non-accidental injuries
(NAI’s) which can be followed up by social workers and the police. Additionally, “parents
who seem to have problems attaching to their children can sometimes be identified
during medical office visits. These parents can be referred to parenting classes or to
social workers for help.” (Boyd & Bee, 2012, p. 161) The emotional development of
children is also impaired by their exposure to violence in the home or domestic discord
as a result of marital conflict (Gottman, 2001). This will be discussed in Session 4.2.

Emotional Intelligence versus Intelligence Quotient

Intelligence quotient (IQ) is defined as “The ratio of mental age to chronological age. It is
also a general term for any kind of score derived from an intelligence test.” (Boyd & Bee,
2012, p. 172) The discussion on emotional intelligence and intelligence quotient is
largely based on the writing of Daniel Goleman, one of the leading academics on this
topic. He was somewhat of a philosopher and introduced his 1995 book Emotional
Intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ with the following quote:

1
Address to the Nation by Minister of the People and Social Development Dr. Glenn Ramadharsingh in observance of
Universal Children’s Day and the formal launch of Public Fora on the Issues of Domestic Violence and Child Abuse in
Trinidad and Tobago, 19th November, 2010 http://www.news.gov.tt/index.php?news=6110
 “Anyone can become angry – that is easy. But to be angry with the right person,
to the right degree, at the right time, for the right purpose, and in the right way –
this is not easy.” (Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics, as cited in Goleman,
1995, p. ix)

Goleman believed that intelligence quotient (IQ) and emotional intelligence (EI) were not
opposing competencies but separate ones. He conceded that there is a small correlation
or statistical association between IQ and EI so that in some cases persons with high IQ
also displayed high EI but the small correlation also indicated that the competencies
were separate ones. Goleman acknowledged that there are several widely recognized
measures for assessing IQ but fewer acceptable measures for assessing EI. What does
the discussion on EI have to do with the content and objectives of this unit? The
connection becomes clearer in the discourse below.

It is often said that Caribbean people are both ‘hot blooded and hot headed’. You may or
may not agree with this populist saying but you are likely to acknowledge that there is a
sense of frustration and anger in our societies which manifests itself as outrage and
outrageous behaviour, hostility and rudeness in unwarranted situations. Social
encounters often progress from hostile interactions to murder when passion overcomes
reason. An empirical study was conducted on homicide in Trinidad and Tobago using
the case files of 297 defendants committed to the Supreme Court of Trinidad and
Tobago for murder during the period 1998 to 2002. The study reported the nature of the
victim/offender relationship for 279 of the 297 defendants whose cases were completed.
The findings revealed that overall 62% of the 279 defendants knew their victim.
Specifically, the victims and offenders were involved in a prior relationship as a family
member or domestic partner (23.7%), as a casual acquaintance (26.9%) and as a friend,
employer or neighbour (11.5%). Only 26.5% of victims were a stranger to the defendant
while the court records did not identify the victim/offender relationship for11.5% of the
279 defendants. (Hood & Seemungal, 2006, p. 37)

Goleman describes bursts of emotion as an emotional malaise. He questioned why

people of high IQ flounder while people of modest IQ functioned very well. For Goleman
(1995) the key to success is emotional intelligence (EI) which consists of traits such as
self-control, zeal and persistence, the ability to be self-motivated even in the face of
frustrations, to control impulse, to delay gratification, to regulate one’s moods, to
empathize and to hope. He stated that “Those who are at the mercy of impulse – who
lack self-control – suffer a moral deficiency: The ability to control impulse is the base of
will and character.” (Goleman, 1995, p. xiii) He felt that (EI) can be taught to children in
order to give them a head start that would overcome any deficits that may occur if their
genetic IQ contribution was modest. The discussion of emotional intelligence, or perhaps
deficits in emotional intelligence, assumes relevance for this course which aims to train
learners to design national or community policies, programs, strategies and interventions
to reduce at risk persons.

19 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

Culture and Emotions
This section of the course emphasizes social psychology so it is appropriate that the unit
material on emotion should include a discussion of culture and emotions. Some
psychologists claim that “emotions, like consciousness and language, are social
behaviours. That is, we display our feelings to others because it is usually advantageous
to do so.” (Carlson, 1990, p. 445) A social psychological perspective of the nature,
purpose and function of emotions explores these issues and also accounts for the fact
that across cultures there are differences in experiences of emotional development and
expressions of emotion. Social psychologists try to uncover the relations between
environmental events and the behaviour, thoughts, and feelings they bring forth. You
would recall in Unit 1 mention was made of the social psychologist Gordon Allport
(1968). Allport directed our attention to the fact that social interactions, individual
processes and group dynamics, possess affective (feeling), cognitive (thoughts) and
behavioural components. Social psychology is also regarded as an attempt to
understand how the thought, feeling and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the
actual, imagined or implied presence of others. Other writers flag the social functions of
emotions.

As you are now aware emotions serve to prepare a person for some kind of action such
as fight or flee or for some kind of interaction with the social or physical environment. For
instance, joy tends to open up groups of persons, grief can cause a person to be
withdrawn, isolated and to be shut off from society, while anger promotes antagonism.
An important social role of emotions is to alert others in the immediate environment how
to react to the display of emotion such as help-seeking as in the case of grief; proximity
seeking as in the case of affection; carefulness with regards to others as in the case of
shame or fostering social cohesion as in the case of the social sharing of emotion. The
social environment can provide feedback on how to behave in a new cultural setting or
how to regulate our own behaviour in a public place – such as weeping in a bus under
the interested gaze of everyone or moderating the level of loudness in our joyous
conversations while in a library. In general, one can conceive of emotions as social
statements about a situation, about oneself, and about other people.

In summarizing this brief sub-section on culture and emotions one can say that
emotional regulation and expressions are a product of cultural variation. The society in
which persons reside to a large extend dictate what is regarded as desirable or
undesirable emotions and displays of these emotions. “In fact the socialization of
emotions is one of the major tasks in raising children to be culturally acceptable adults.”
(Ellsworth, 1997, p. 29)

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 20

 Reflect and Review

Reflect

The psychology of emotions is a rapidly growing domain of knowledge as evidenced by

the range of scientific articles that are published. Some of them are cited in this Unit. As
you read and explore the later units in this course you will discover that the topic of
emotions in the cornerstone for understanding motivation, social influence, development
over the lifespan and abnormal psychology. Session 4.1 sets the groundwork for
understanding the mechanisms of emotion and the key role that emotions can play in
social relations. Emphasis was placed on outlining five theoretical approaches which are
summarized in the review in Table 4.2. It should be borne in mind that the theories of
emotion do not compete with each other. Instead, each theory offers an explanation of a
particular aspect of emotion and a road map for understanding either the nature or the
source of emotions. Three theories share a common focus in explaining the origin of
emotion: physiological theory, evolutionary theory and cognitive theory. The function of
emotion is highlighted in evolutionary theory and psychoanalytic theory. Dimensional
theory emphasizes the range and variety of emotions. In Unit 1 theories of psychology
included biological, psychoanalytic and cognitive theories. However, in Unit 4 you now
have a greater understanding of the place of emotion in those theories.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXCERISE

Define the following concepts and discuss the questions posed by filling in what is
missing.

1. Depression………………………………………………………………..
2. Anxiety……………………………………………………………………
3. Naturalistic observation………………………………………………….
4. Drive……………………………………………………………………..
5. Evolutionary Theory………………………………………………………
6. What is the link between emotion and motivation?……………………
7. Instinct………………………………………………………………………
8. What is the next pair in the dimension pleasantness?…………………………
9. What is the next pair in the dimension tension?.................................................
10. What is the next pair in the dimension excitement?...........................................

21 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

Review

Theory Description

Physiological theories The emotions have their basis in physiological changes:

in the central nervous system, the visceral activity, and
feedback from facial and other voluntary muscles. These
changes can originate or amplify an emotion.

Evolutionary Theories The emotions are a set of expressive patterns based on

adaptive behaviors. Emotions have evolved in a system
of communication that conveys the inner states of the
individual to others.

Dimensional Theories Emotions can be understood as a combination of a small

number of underlying dimensions.
Psychoanalytic Theories The emotions arise when instincts cannot find direct
expression in behavior. Instincts find conscious
expression in the wish which blends emotions and some
idea or goal.

Cognitive Theories The emotions that are experienced depend on a person’s

assessment of physiological arousal and environmental
conditions.
Table 4.2: Summary of five theories of emotion (as cited in Newman & Newman,
1983, p. 331)

Key Points

1. Meta-emotions or feelings about feelings offer a way of understanding how

individuals deal with their own behaviour and what is communicated about the
behaviour of other people.
2. A distinction is made between emotion-coaching and emotion-dismissing which
depicts the varying emotional styles that parents use in their child rearing practices.
You would recall that emotion coaching teaches children how to regulate their
emotions in positive ways even in the absence of parental influence.
3. Emotional intelligence when developed in the adult or child allows the person to
regulate emotions, to self-soothe, and to focus attention during emotionally trying
situations.
4. Motivation and emotion are intertwined. For example, anger is an instigator of
aggressive behaviour. However, a distinction can be made between motivation (it is
goal directed) and emotion (which may not necessarily be goal-oriented).
5. Emotions can be difficult to identify, classify and scientifically document but there are
basic emotions: excitement, surprise, sadness, joy, anger, fear, disgust, guilt and
love.

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 22

 Key Points

6. Some expressions of emotion are innate and universal while others are culture specific
and the product of learning or socialization. E.g. the stiff upper lip in which learning
modifies emotional expression to conform to ways that are culturally approved.
7. Emotions serve functions and they can be adaptive but they can also be disruptive.
8. Suppressed emotions can drive behaviour in negative ways as outlined in the
frustration-aggression hypothesis.
9. The term emotional regulation is used by psychologists to refer to the acquisition of
skills that allows persons to exert control over emotional states and emotionally
regulated behaviour. The process of emotional regulation is one in which control
shifts slowly from the parents to the child.
10. Emotions that relate to value judgements of right and wrong are referred to as moral
emotions. These include the emotions of guilt, shame and pride. A child’s awareness
of the moral emotions occurs as part of the child’s moral development.

23 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

Session 4.2
Emotion and Applied Issues
Introduction
In this session attention switches from the theories of emotion outlined in Session 4.1 to
practical issues such as anxiety and depression in childhood and adolescence and what
can be done to overcome these emotional challenges. Anger as a basic emotion was
discussed in Session 4.1 and in this session we will consider some tips that could assist
in anger management coaching. There is less reliance in Session 4.2 on text material to
convey vital information and more on the use of multi-media technology. You are
presented with two scientific documents for reading and YouTube videos, one of which
contains tips that you can apply to individuals who demonstrate that they are in need of
anger management coaching.

In the Caribbean region politicians and policy makers have struggled to deal with “at risk”
children and adults particularly those persons who are labeled as being from ‘broken
homes’. Among the factors that place children at risk are their home environment and
their domestic situation. Psychologist John Gottman (2001) spent decades investigating
the impact of the transfer of marital discord to the developing child in the hope of
identifying buffers that would serve as protective factors rather than as risk factors.
Gottman aimed to find out what parents can do to protect their children if a relationship
or marriage is failing. Some manifestations of marital discord can be anxiety and
depression. These two emotional states are discussed in more detail in Activity 4.2.
Gottman’s answer was emotional coaching on the part of parents who are advised to
engage in effective communication with their children in ways that are positive and
nurturing. For example, teaching children the value of empathy encourages children to
be more considerate of others in their environment. In addition, helping children to
develop a sense of social awareness allows them to ‘psych out’ social situations and to
act accordingly. Children who are emotionally coached are better able to resolve
conflicts, to empathize with their peers, to discern when to disclose emotion and how
much emotion should be disclosed which would prevent them from being the object of
teasing and embarrassment later in life. Ultimately, Gottman’s suggestions demonstrate
that children can be empowered even if their domestic situation is not ideal. Another
situation that is common in the Caribbean is the absence of parents in a household due
to migration with the net effect that grandparents, aunts and uncles become primary
caregivers. “It is well documented that migration can have devastating psychological
effects on children who are left behind and those who have been included in the
migratory process. For those left behind, the children become vulnerable to several
psychosocial problems such as feelings of abandonment and rejection, loss, anger,
depression, violence, risks of abuse (sexual, physical, and emotional), ‘‘parentification,’’
and reduced academic performance.” (Hickling & Paisley, 2012, p. 236) The effects and
consequence of anxiety and depression are explored in more detail in Activity 4.2.

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 24

Session 4.2 Objectives
By the end of this session learners would be able to:

1. Distinguish between anxiety and depression

2. Discuss how depression in childhood can impact upon their life as adults

3. Develop a plan to help persons in need of anger management coaching and

share your ideas in the discussion forum

Anxiety and Depression in Childhood and Impact later in life

LEARNING ACTIVITY 4.2

Read the article by Alea, Thomas, Manickchand, Ramirez-Cole, Renaud,-Simon &
Bacchus. (2010). The Emotional Quality of Childhood Memories and Depression in
Trinidadian Older Adults, Caribbean Journal of Psychology, 3 (1), 1-24. The article is
available in the Unit 4 reading folder.

Using the information from the article, your own knowledge, the Unit 4 notes or
any other academic source to answer the following questions. Post your
responses in the Unit 4 block by Monday 23rd February, 2015.

1. Define anxiety and discuss some of its characteristics. (200 words)

2. Can anxiety in childhood affect persons later in their life? (200 words)

3. What is autobiographical memory? (100 words)

Summary of the article by Alea et al. (2010)

Childhood memories and depression can have lasting impressions across the lifespan
as documented in the empirical study by Alea, Thomas, Manickchand, Ramirez-Cole,
Renaud-Simon, and Bacchus (2010). This study examined the emotional quality of
childhood memories and depression on the attitudes and behavior of 100 Trinidadian
adults over the age of 50 years. Key points from the article are presented below but you
are encouraged to read the article in its entirety as the content of the article links the
information presented in Session 4.1 to the discussion of the practical issues underlying
emotion in Session 4.2 and to learning activity 4.2

Alea et al.’s literature review on repressed emotions, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory,

depression, the effects of culture and socialization on emotions, and the influence of
emotional regulation on expressions of emotion is critical to your understanding of Unit
4. This background information is also relevant to the material to be covered in later
25 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4
units in the course, particularly those that relate to developmental psychology (Units 6
and 7) and abnormal psychology (Units 8 to 10). When reading the article it is important
to bear in mind the characteristics of the sample. The study was conducted with 100
adults ranging in age from 50 to 80 years with a mean age of 61 years. The sample
comprised 35 males and 65 females and the sample was considered a ‘normal’ (i.e. a
non-clinical population). Participants when evaluated for depression ‘did not display
particularly high levels of depression symptomology’ (Alea et al. 2010, p. 16). Some key
points are listed below.

1. The aim of the study was to investigate whether the emotional quality of
memories from childhood predict depressive symptoms in older adults.
2. Depressive symptoms include persistent sadness; anxiety or empty moods;
feelings of hopelessness and pessimism; feelings of guilt and worthlessness; and
loss of interest or pleasure in hobbies or activities that were once enjoyed.
Although there are no national statistics in Trinidad and Tobago regarding the
prevalence of depression in late life, it does appear to be a growing concern for
clinicians and researchers (e.g., Maharaj, 2007). Suffering from depression and
experiencing depressive symptoms is not an innate part of growing old, but is
linked to other circumstances of an individual’s life (e.g., financial strain, health
problems.
3. Data revealed that anger associated with childhood memories plays a unique role
in predicting depressive symptoms in adulthood.
4. The emotional qualities of childhood memories predicted depressive symptoms
even though participants in the current study did not display especially high levels
of depression symptomology.
5. It may be the case that in a more severely depressed sample, the emotional
quality of autobiographical memories of childhood events would explain more
variance in depression than was explained in the current study.
6. Although only one gender effect was found, it was relevant for men: as the
childhood memories became more negative, men reported increases in
depressive symptoms. For women, there was no relation between valence of the
memories and depressive symptomology. One plausible reason for this finding
involves gender differences in the regulation of emotion in adulthood. Research
suggests that although women are generally more emotionally expressive (e.g.,
Newman, Fuqua, & Gray, 2006 as cited in Alea et al., 2010, p. 16), they are also
better able to regulate their emotions. Thus, although women may have negative
emotional memories associated with childhood events, women might also be
better able to deal with or regulate these negative emotions so that such negative
emotions are less likely to impact their present day psychological wellbeing. It
seems then that examination of emotion regulation in future work in this area
warrants consideration.

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 26

 7. One study (Hutchinson, Simeon, Bain, Wyatt, Tucker, & LeFranc, 2004 as cited
in Alea et al., 2010, p. 17) of Jamaican men and women ranging in age from 20
years to 50 years found, contrary to our work, that women reported higher levels
of depression than men. This study also found that high religious behaviours
among men predicted lower levels of depressive symptoms. Thus, there may be
some mediating social (e.g., religious behaviours) and psychological (e.g.,
emotion regulation) variables that influence the extent to which the emotional
quality of childhood memories is related to depression in Trinidadian men and
women.
8. Depression is a serious mental illness that has the potential to impact the emotional,
social, and physical lives of older adults. With the growing older adult population
across the world, and in developing nations, like Trinidad and Tobago, the results of
the current study might be useful for clinicians working with older populations. If older
adults reflect on the past often, and childhood memories frequently come to mind,
further exploration of the link between childhood memories and depression seems
warranted in improving the lives of the aging population.

Anger and Anger Management

Another problem faced by Caribbean citizens is anger. In their 2003 scientific paper
Blum, Halcon, Beuhring, Pate, Campell-Forrester, and Venema discussed their findings
on rage in their article Adolescent Health in the Caribbean: Risk and Protective Factors.

The authors wrote,

“The rage variable was based on an item in which respondents were asked
whether they were sufficiently angry some or most of the time that they “could kill
someone.” This feeling was shown to be relatively common, with 40.1% of the
participating teenagers reporting such emotions. Consistently, male respondents
reported rage significantly more often than their female counterparts in each age
group. One of the factors associated with rage was having a friend or family
member who had attempted or committed suicide. Physical and sexual abuse
experiences were also associated with rage among all of the groups of teens. In
the case of older youths (13 years or above), parental violence was associated
with a significantly greater risk of rage. Conversely, when teenagers re-ported
connectedness to parents, they were significantly less likely (half as likely or less)
to report experiencing rage. In addition, connectedness to other adults was
protective among some groups of teenagers, as was having religious beliefs.”
(Blum et al., 2003, pp. 457-458)

The data collection method utilized by Blum was a survey of 15, 695 males and females
ages 10-18 years in 19 targeted countries in the Anglo-phone Caribbean. You can
refresh your memory about surveys, sampling as well as the merits and demerits of the
survey method by re-reading the relevant section in Unit 2.

27 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

In light of these findings by Blum et al. (2003) it is relevant to consider anger
management tips. The American Psychological Association provides a useful guide for
anger management that can form part of an action plan to assist persons in need of
anger management coaching. These are based on relaxation, cognitive restructuring,
problem solving, better communication, using humor, changing your environment, as
well as other tips for easing up on oneself that includes timing, avoidance and finding
alternatives. The details can be accessed at the hyperlinks below
http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/controlling-anger.aspx;
http://www.apa.org/topics/anger/control.aspx

Salient points are summarized below. Please keep in mind that you may have your own
tried and tested methods for anger management and you are free to share these with
your colleagues in the discussion for Unit 4 in the Learning Exchange.

Anger management is based on identifying what triggers anger and then applying the
following strategies to keep anger at bay. In other words, you can get the best of your
anger before it gets the best of you!
1. Relaxation –simple relaxation tools such as deep breathing and using relaxing
imagery such as thinking of something nice can assist in physically calming the
body and quelling angry feelings. Repeating a calming word or phrase often
assists some persons to find their centre of peace. Any form of exercise is useful
and some persons recommend yoga or kickboxing to get the anger out of the
body
2. Cognitive Restructuring – this means changing the way that you think. In other
words, when angry it is better to re-define the situation in a way that is less
inflammable as angry persons tend to swear, curse and even become physically
violent. It is suggested that anger is born out of illogical and irrational thoughts
therefore striving for rationality goes a long way to diffuse a situation and to
restore emotional balance.
3. Problem Solving – Not all anger is unreasonable as it could be a healthy
response to a frustrating situation which with some thought and creativity can
lead to creative problem solving.
4. Better Communication –This is perhaps the key to anger management
coaching. It is said that angry people tend to jump to conclusions and to act on
the basis of these false premises and conclusions. Hence the first course of
action that one should take if one is a participant in a heated discussion is to slow
down, think through the process and the range of possible responses that could
lead to better communication and a successful outcome to the situation.
5. Using humor to diffuse the situation – It is suggested that even silly humor can
successfully diffuse a potentially violent or harmful situation or reduce tension
Psychologists believe that angry people often want to be morally right in all
situations but to diffuse the situation one should always try not to take oneself or
another person too seriously.
6. Changing your environment – If the trigger of the angry emotion is the
immediate environment then it is advisable to simply walk away from it.
PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 28
 Reflect and Review
Reflect
Session 4.2 was an applied session and the content was designed to explore the
negative emotions anxiety, depression and anger. Exploration of this topic considered
strategies for re-shaping the negative emotions into positive ones. Depression is a
serious mental illness that has the potential to impact the emotional, social, and physical
lives of children. If not addressed anxiety and depression can lead to behavioral
problems in schools and this disruption to lives and families may progress throughout
the lifespan. Blum et al. (2003) demonstrated the link between emotion and behaviour,
particularly adolescents’ engagement in risky behaviour. The experience of being
physically or sexually abused was manifested in self-ratings of low health status by
adolescents sampled in the survey. However, protective factors linked to positive
evaluations of health status were the degree of connectedness of adolescents and their
diligence in schools. It is important to understand protective and risk factors because
when required to develop polices or to evaluate psycho-social interventions these
variables need to be integrated into the design and evaluation stages.

Review:

State four anger management strategies.

SUMMARY POINTS

1. Emotions are real and they can be successfully measured using an array of methods including
surveys.
2. Emotional well-being is linked to physical and mental health.
3. Emotions can motivate risky behaviour such as drug and alcohol use and abuse. For instance, Blum
et al. (2003) reported that amongst Caribbean youths rage, abuse, parental violence, and having a
family member or friend who had attempted suicide were found to correlate with higher levels of
substance use.
4. Of the 15, 695 male and female youths ages 10-18 years surveyed by Blum et al. the findings
revealed that although generally happy, approximately 15% of respondents reported significant
emotional distress, and about 12% reported ever having attempted suicide.
5. Negative emotions such as rage, possibly originating from the experience of being physically or
sexually abused, were associated with early sexual intercourse among all of the age groups.
6. Collectively, these findings suggest that urgent monitoring of at risk youths is warranted.
The information presented in Unit 4 can be applied to the overall understanding of emotion,
motivation, risk and protective factors in order to develop targeted interventions to improve the
circumstances and outcome of all citizens in need, but particularly high risk children and youths.

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 29

 Unit Summary

Unit 4 focused on the sub-discipline of social psychology and the important and relevant
topic of emotion. Session 4.1 provided a definition and an overview of emotion it also
explained in general terms the role of emotions to daily existence and its influence on
other psychological processes such as motivation and the shaping of the personality.
The major psychological theories of emotions were outlined; namely, physiological
theories of emotion, evolutionary theories of emotion, dimensional theories of emotion,
psycho-analytic theories of emotion and cognitive theories of emotion. Mention was
made of the similarity of emotional expressions in humans and chimpanzees in the
scientific article by Davila-Ross et al. (2011). Although emotions are complex to define
and to classify primary emotions were outlined by Newman and Newman (1983) and
developed upon by various psychologists. The nine primary emotions are excitement,
surprise, sadness, joy, anger, fear, disgust, guilt and love. The features and functions of
these emotions were outlined and illustrated with examples. In order to answer the
questions ‘What are the causes of emotions?’ and ‘What kinds of situations produce
emotions?’ Unit 4 explored issues relating to expressions and control of emotions, the
role of learning in controlling emotional expressions, emotional development and
emotional regulation in childhood, emotional intelligence versus intelligence quotient (IQ)
and the relationship between culture and emotions.

Session 4.1 provided a comprehensive understanding of the topic of emotion. The goal
in Session 4.2 was to weave together the strands from Session 4.1 that related to
theories of emotion. Another goal was to explain key concepts such as mood and
temperament that are part of the framework for discussing emotional development and
expression. The psychology of emotion was applied to the understanding our Caribbean
realities and human developmental needs. Two areas that were empirically identified as
problem areas for psycho-social analysis and intervention were examined: The link
between childhood anxiety and depression to later stages in life. Included in the unit was
a subsection on anger management. The contents of Unit 4 were designed to encourage
you to develop your reflective skills, your critical thinking and your ability for producing
sustainable policies that could address the psycho-social needs of citizens in your
country of residence. The unit activity tasks were specifically designed to allow you to
build on your skills set and to achieve the competencies outlined in the overview to this
Unit. Most policies aim to re-shape negative attitudes, values and behaviour, so by the
end of this unit you should be able to discern the vital role of emotions and motivation to
achieving the intended success of psycho-social interventions. The scope, range and
breath of areas covered in Unit 4 titled Emotion provide an introduction to the sub-
disciplines of developmental psychology and abnormal psychology that constitute the
later units of this course. By the end of this Unit you should be able to fully appreciate
the utility, application and impact of the psychology of emotion.

30 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

References

Alea, N., Thomas, R.C., Manickchand, B.G., Ramirez-Cole, M.P., Renaud,-Simon, C.P.
& Bacchus, C.P. (2010). The Emotional Quality of Childhood Memories and
Depression in Trinidadian Older Adults, Caribbean Journal of Psychology, 3 (1),
1-24
Bedford, O. & Kwang-Kuo, H. (2003).Guilt and Shame in Chinese Culture: A Cross-
cultural Framework from the Perspective of Morality and Identity, Journal for the
Theory of Social Behaviour, 33(2), 127-144.
Blum, R.W., Halcon, L., Beuhring, T., Pate, E., Campell-Forrester, S. & Venema, A.
(2003). Adolescent Health in the Caribbean: Risk and Protective Factors,
American Journal of Public Health, 93(3), 456-460.
Boyd, D. & Bee, H. (2012). Lifespan Development, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Carlson, N. R. (1990). Psychology, Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Charles, C.A.D. (2010). Skin Bleaching in Jamaica: Self-Esteem, Racial Self-Esteem,
and Black Identity Transactions, Caribbean Journal of Psychology, (3)1, 25-39.
Davila-Ross, Allcock, Thomas & Bard. (2011). Aping Expressions? Chimpanzees
Produce Distinct Laugh Types When Responding to Laughter of Others,
Emotions, (11) 5, 1013–1020.
Deosaran, R. (1992). Social Psychology in the Caribbean: Directions for Theory and
Research. Essays in the psychology of political power, law, education, race and
culture, mental health and youth. Trinidad: Longman Publishing Company.
Deosaran, R. (2012, June 3). The uncertainties of youth, Newsday, Retrieved from
http://www.newsday.co.tt/commentary/0,161158.html
Dr.SamFiala. (2011, Oct 8). 9-Threats to Internal validity. [Video file]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F7kjR30tEAc
Ellsworth, P. (1997). The Social Roles and Functions of Emotions. In S. Shinobu and
.H. Markus (Eds.), Emotion and Culture (pp. 51-87). Washington: American
Psychological Association.
Frijda, N.H. & Mesquita, B. (1997). Sense, Culture and Sensibility. In S. Shinobu and
.H. Markus (Eds.), Emotion and Culture (pp. 23-50). Washington: American
Psychological Association
Gottman, J. (2001). Meta-Emotion, Children’s Emotional Intelligence, and Buffering
Children from Marital Conflict. In C.D. Ryff and B.H. Singer (Eds.). Emotion,
Social Relationships and Health (pp.23-39). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Hilgard, E.R., Atkinson, R.L. & Atkinson, R.C. (1979). Introduction to Psychology, (7th
Ed.) Harcourt Brace, Inc.
Hood, R. & Seemungal, F. (2006). A Rare and Arbitrary Fate: Conviction for Murder, the
Mandatory Death Penalty and the Reality of Homicide in Trinidad and Tobago,
Centre for Criminology, Oxford University.
http://www.deathpenaltyproject.org/legal-resources/research-publications/a-rare-
and-arbitrary-fate-2006/
Johnson, P.B. & Malow-Iroff, M.S. (2008). Adolescents and Risk: Making Sense of
Adolescent Psychology, London: Praeger.
Kitayama, S. & Markus, H.R. (1997). Emotion and Culture, Washington: American
Psychological Association.
Newman, P.R. & Newman, B.M. (1983). Principles of Psychology, Illinois: The Dorsey
Press.
Penrod, S. (1986). Social Psychology, Englewoods Clifff, N.J.: Prentice-Hall Inc.
Ryff, C.D. & Singer, B.H. (2001). Integrating Emotion into the Study of Social
Relationships and Health. In C.D. Ryff and B.H. Singer (Eds.). Emotion, Social
Relationships and Health (pp.3-22). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wierzbicka, A. (1997). Emotion, Language, and Cultural Scripts. In S. Shinobu and
.H. Markus (Eds.), Emotion and Culture (pp. 133-196). Washington: American
Psychological Association
Yalecourses. (2008, Oct 1). Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Love. [Video file].
Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kZoBgX8rScg

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 32

Glossary of Terms Used in Unit 4

Other free access on-line psychology dictionaries are available at the following links
http://allpsych.com/dictionary/ and http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/
psychology

Adaptive Contributing to the survival and/or reproductive capability

of the organism.
Adolescence The transitional period between childhood and adolescence.
Aggressive Instinctual According to Freud, this is an innate drive that must
Drive eventually express itself in some form of aggression, either
actual or symbolic.
Anger Hostility combined with rising energy and an impulse
toward action.
Altruism Behavior that is unselfish and may even be detrimental but
which benefits others.
Anxiety Feeling vague, uneasy, fearful. Also an anticipation of a
threat.
Arousal Being alert, excited.
Attachment The process by which parent (or caregiver) and child form
a mutually reinforcing system; the emotional tie to a parent
experienced by an infant, from which the child derives
security.
Behaviour (N.) The physical activity of an organism, including overt bodily
movement and other physiological processes. The term also
denotes the specific physical responses of an organism to
particular stimuli or classes of stimuli.
Bonding An attachment between mother and offspring of some
species
that occurs within a few hours of birth, simulated primarily
by the odor of the infant; not conclusively demonstrated in
humans.
Bullying a complex form of aggression in which a bully routinely
aggresses against one or more habitual victims.
Cognition (N.) The mental activities involved in acquiring and processing
information. A cognition is also an item of knowledge or
belief. The term describes the process people use for
remembering, reasoning, understanding, and judgment; the
ability to think and make sense out of what is seen, heard,
felt, and experienced, in order to solve problems.

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 P 33

Cognitive Theory (N.) Also called Social Cognitive Theory - An approach to social
learning, incorporating findings from research into learning,
memory, and social cognition, and focusing on people’s
thoughts and how they affect social behaviour.
Concept (N.) A mental representation, idea, or thought corresponding
to a specific entity or class of entities, or the defining or
prototypical features ( 1 ) of the entity or class, which may
be either concrete or abstract.
Emerging Adulthood The period from the late teens to the early twenties when
individuals explore options prior to committing to adult
roles.
Emotional Regulation The ability to control emotional states and emotion-regulated
behaviour.
Depression A state of extreme sadness, usually characterized by slow
thoughts and movement, but sometimes characterized
by restless agitation. Psychotic depression includes major
depression and the depressed phase of bipolar disorder;
less serious (neurotic) depression includes dysthymic
disorder.
Disgust A reaction to or signal of contamination.
Drive An energizing influence created by a need.
Empathy The ability to identify with another person’s emotional state.
Excitement Intense interest
Extrinsic Motivation Extrinsic motivation pertains to a wide variety of behaviors
where the goals of action extend beyond those inherent in
the activity itself.
Fear A reaction to threat.
Frustration The prevention of an expected appetitive stimulus; said to
result in aggression.
Functional Autonomy of In Allport’s theory, a view that activities can become goals
Motives that motivate behavior regardless of the motives that may
have prompted the activity in the first place.
Guilt A sense that one has committed a wrong doing.
Hypothesis (N.) A tentative explanation for a phenomenon, subject to
criticism by rational argument and refutation by empirical
evidence.
Intelligence Quotient The ratio of mental age to chronological age; also a general
term of any kind of score derived from an intelligence test.

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 34

 Internal Validity (N.) The extent to which the conclusions of an empirical
investigation are true within the limits of the research
methods and subjects or participants used
Intrinsic Inside, or belonging to something by its very nature; also
known as inherent.
Intrinsic Motivation The ability of a particular activity to produce reinforcing
effects.
Joy A spontaneous pleasure.
Learned Helplessness A response to exposure to an inescapable aversive
stimulus,
characterized by reduced ability to learn a solvable
avoidance
task; thought to play a role in the development of some
psychological disturbances.
Love Acceptance and commitment to a person, object, or activity.
Mood This is described as a relatively long-lasting state of affect.
Motivationx This is described as a relatively long-lasting state of affect.
Need An internal state that corresponds to some form of
deprivation.
Need For Achievement The need to succeed in performance against a standard of
excellence.
Need For Affiliation A need for social acceptance and approval.
Need For Power A need to control or influence the behaviour of others.

Need For Mastery The need to produce an effect on the environment, to gain
skills in the face of challenges.
Parenting Styles The characteristic strategies that parents use to manage
children’s behaviour.
Prosocial Behaviour Helping behaviour, altruism, or more generally any
behaviour that is positive and calculated to promote the
interests of society
Reinforcement (N.) In operant conditioning, any stimulus (1) that, if it is
presented soon after a response , increases the relative
frequency with which that response is emitted in the future;
also the process whereby a response is strengthened in this
way.
Sadness An emotion associated with a sense of loss.
Surprise A sudden orientation to something new or strange.

35 PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4

 Self-Esteem The degree to which we perceive ourselves positively or
negatively; our overall attitude toward ourselves. It can be
measured explicitly or implicitly.
Self-Regulation Children’s ability to conform to parental standards of
behaviour without direct supervision.
Social Exchange Theory A theory of social interaction based on the proposition that
people expect rewards and costs from social exchange
to be equitable.
Social Learning (N.) The processes by which social influences alter people’s
thoughts, feelings, and behaviour.
Social Learning Theory The conceptual framework within which the processes of
social learning are studied.
Socio-Biology The study of the genetic origin of social behaviour.
Stimulus (N.) Any event, agent or influence internal or external, that
excites of is capable of causing a response in any
organism. Behavioural psychologists such as Frederick
Skinner (1904-1990) noted that a stimulus is an event,
whether physical or mental, that evokes a response. Plural
stimuli.
Temperament Inborn predispositions, such as activity level, that form the
foundations of personality.
Theory (N.) A proposition of set of propositions offered as a conjectured
explanation for an observed phenomenon, state of affairs or
event.
Trait (N.) A characteristic or quality distinguishing a person or (less
commonly) a thing, especially a more or less consistent
pattern
of behaviour that a person possessing the characteristic
would be likely to display in relevant circumstances.
Triangulation The use of at least three, but preferably multiple studies,
theoretical perspectives, investigators, and data-sets for
research on one issue or theme.
Unconscious Motives In Freud’s psycho-sexual theory, motives that are
unacceptable to conscious thought but continue to seek
gratification through symbolic or indirect means.
Variable (N.) Anything that is subject to variation; in psychological
research, any stimulus, response, or extraneous factor that
is changeable and that may influence the results of the
research.

PSYC1000 Introduction to Psychology: Social, Developmental and Abnormal - UNIT 4 36