Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law and Kirchhoff’s Current Law

 A German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff developed two laws enabling easy

analysis of interconnection of any number of circuit elements. The first law deals
with the flow of current and is popularly known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law
(KCL) while the second one deal with the voltage drop in a closed network and
is known as Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
 Kirchhoff’s current law is also called as Junction Rule .Kirchhoff’s Current
Law (Kirchhoff’s 1st law )states that” the algebraic sum of all the currents at any
node point or a junction of a circuit is zero”.

ΣI=0

Considering the above figure as per the Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

i1 + i2 – i3 – i4 – i5 + i6 = 0 ……… (1)

or

i1 + i 2 + i 6 = i 3 + i 4 + i 5

Sum of incoming currents = Sum of outgoing currents

According to the Kirchhoff’s Current Law, the algebraic sum of the currents entering
a node must be equal to the algebraic sum of the currents leaving the node in an
electrical network.

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the voltages (or
voltage drops) in any closed path of a network that is transverse in a single
direction is zero. In other words, in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all the
EMFs and the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops (product of current (I) and
resistance (R)) is zero.

ΣE+ΣV=0

The above figure shows closed-circuit also termed as a mesh. As per the Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law:

Here, the assumed current (I) causes a positive voltage drop when flowing from the
positive to negative potential while negative potential drop when the current flowing
from negative to the positive potential.
Considering the other figure shown below and assuming the direction of the current i

Therefore,

It is seen that the voltage V1 is negative in both the equation (2) and equation (3) while
V2 is negative in the equation (2) but positive in the equation (3). This is because of the
change in the direction of the current assumed in both the figures.

In figure A, the current in both the source V1 and V2 flows from negative to positive
polarity while in figure B the current in the source V1 is negative to positive but for V2 is
positive to negative polarity.

For the dependent sources in the circuit, KVL can also be applied. In case of the
calculation of the power of any source, when the current enters the source, the power
is absorbed by the sources while the source delivers the power if the current is coming
out of the source.

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is also called Closed Loop rule

VIVA Question on KCL AND KVL

1. KCL Deals with the conversion of?

Ans: Charge

2. Which circuit type is KVL used in?

Ans: Mesh analysis helps us to utilize the different voltages in the circuit as well as
the IR products in the circuit which is nothing but KVL.

3. What is KCL AND KVL?

4. Limitations of Kirchhoff’s laws?

Ans: It fails in distributed parameter network

5. Is it possible to measure E.M.F? If not, why?

Ans: The E.M.F cannot be measured but can be calculated in the way:-
E.M.F = Terminal voltage + Voltage drop inside the source of supply.

The E.M.F cannot be measured because the measuring instrument will cause some
voltage drop due to consumption of some energy and the actual value will not come
in appearance

6. Are Kirchhoff’s Laws applicable to both a.c. and D.C. circuits?

Ans: Kirchhoff’s laws are applicable to both a.c and d.c circuit. In case of a.c circuit
any e.m.f of self-inductance or that existing across a capacitor should be taken into
account.

7. What do you mean by active and passive network?

Ans: Active network means the electric network which contains one or more sources
of e.m.f’s in if passive network means the electric network in which there is no
source of e.m.fs.

8. What do you mean by “Eddy Current”?

Ans: Eddy current means the current due to magnetic flux in the interior of
conducting masses.

9. Define conductance.

Ans: The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance: Its unit is the Siemen and
its symbol is G conductance

G=1/R
 Super Position Theorem

1. Superposition theorem states that in any linear, active, bilateral network having more than
one source, the response across any element is the sum of the responses obtained from each
source considered separately and all other sources are replaced by their internal resistance.
2. The superposition theorem states that a circuit with multiple voltage and current sources is
equal to the sum of simplified circuits using just one of the sources.
3. The superposition theorem is used to solve the network where two or more sources are
present and connected.
4. It is only applicable to the circuit which is valid for the ohm’s law
5. Explanation of Superposition Theorem
 Let us understand the superposition theorem with the help of an example. The circuit
diagram is shown, consists of two voltage sources V1 and V2.

First, take the source V1 alone and short circuit the V2 source as shown in the circuit
diagram below:

Here, the value of current flowing in each branch, i.e. i1’, i2’ and i3’ is calculated by the
following equations.

The difference between the above two equations gives the value of the current i3’

Now, activating the voltage source V2 and deactivating the voltage source V1 by short-
circuiting it, find the various currents, i.e. i1’’, i2’’, i3’’ flowing in the circuit diagram shown
below:
Similarly as in the first part the current will be calculated as:

And the value of the current i3’’ will be calculated by the equation shown below:

As per the superposition theorem, the value of current i1, i2, i3 is now calculated as
 :

VIVA QUESTION FOR SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

1. In superposition theorem, when we consider the effect of one voltage source, what
happens to all the other voltage sources?

Ans: In superposition theorem when we consider the effect of one voltage source, all the
other voltage sources are shorted and current sources are opened.

2. Which system does superposition theorem is valid for?

Ans: Superposition theorem is valid only for linear systems because the effect of a single
source cannot be individually calculated in a non-linear system.

3. State superposition theorem

Ans: Superposition theorem states that the response calculates from the circuit of more than
two voltages or current is equal to the sum of response from the circuit taking individual
circuit

Ohm’s Law
1. Ohm’s Law was discovered by Georg Simon Ohm and published in his 1827 paper,
The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically.
2. Ohm's Law states that the current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the
applied potential difference and inversely proportional to the resistance in the circuit.
3. It states that the total voltage across the circuit is the product of electric current
passing through the circuit and the resistance across it.
4. Ohms Law Triangle simply shows the relation between the voltage, current and
resistance.
5. Power in the circuit is defined as the rate at which energy is absorbed or produced
within a circuit. The quantity symbol for power is P and is the product of voltage
multiplied by the current with the unit of measurement being the Watt ( W ). Prefixes
are used to denote the various multiples or sub-multiples of a watt, such as: milli watts
(mW = 10-3W) or kilowatts (kW = 103W).
Then by using Ohm’s law and substituting for the values of V, I and R the formula for
electrical power can be found as:

To find the Power (P)

[P = V x I] P (watts) = V (volts) x I (amps)
Also: [P = V2 ÷ R] P (watts) = V2 (volts) ÷ R (Ω)
Also: [P = I2 x R] P (watts) = I2 (amps) x R (Ω)

The Power Triangle

Electrical Power Rating: Electrical power rating in watts that indicates the maximum rate at
which the component converts the electrical power into other forms of energy such as
heat, light or motion.

6. Electrical Energy is the capacity to do work, and the unit of work or energy is the
joule ( J ). Electrical energy is the product of power multiplied by the length of time it
was consumed.
Energy = power x time and Power = voltage x current. Therefore electrical power is
related to energy and the unit given for electrical energy is the watt-seconds or joules.

Electrical Power and Energy Triangle

VIVA QUESTIONS FOR OHM’S LAW

1. State Ohm’s law

Ans: It states that the potential difference across the circuit is directly proportional to
the current flowing through the circuit.

2. Distinguish between emf and potential difference

Ans: EMF is the amount of work done by the source in moving unit charge once
around a complete circuit. And Potential difference is the work done in moving unit
charge from one point to other.

3. What do you mean by electrical resistivity and conductivity?

Ans: Electrical resistivity is a fundamental property of a material that measures how

strongly it resists electric current. Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek
letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm-metre (Ω⋅m)

Electrical conductivity (or specific conductance) is the reciprocal of electrical

resistivity. It is commonly signified by the Greek letter σ (sigma)

4. How will you convert a galvanometer into (a) ammeter (b) voltmeter?

Ans: (a) By connecting a low resistance in parallel.

(b) By connecting a high resistance in series

5. Is Ohm's law a universal law?

Ans: No. It is not a universal law. It fails on semi-conductor and for resistances at
very low temperature

6. What is super conductivity?

Ans: The resistance of the material completely disappears below a certain temperature
called critical temperature. This phenomenon is called super conductivity. If there is
no resistivity then there is complete conductivity so it’s called super conductivity
where resistivity is 0.

7. What is a potentiometer?

Ans: It is an instrument used for accurate measurement of small potential differences

and to compare the e.m.f.s of given primary cells.

8. State the principle of potentiometer

Ans: It states that for a conducting wire of uniform area of cross-section carrying a
steady current; potential difference across a given length of the wire is directly
proportional to the length.

9. What do you mean by potential gradient? What are its SI units?

Ans: The potential gradient means the potential difference per unit length of the
potentiometer wire. Its SI unit is given as Vm-1

Tunnel Diode
1. Tunnel diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode in which the electric current
decreases as the voltage increases. In tunnel diode, electric current is caused by
“Tunneling”. The tunnel diode is used as a very fast switching device in
computers. It is also used in high-frequency oscillators and amplifiers.
2. Symbol of tunnel diode

In tunnel diode, the p-type semiconductor act as an anode and the n-type
semiconductor act as a cathode. We know that a anode is a positively charged
 electrode which attracts electrons whereas cathode is a negatively charged
electrode which emits electrons. In tunnel diode, n-type semiconductor emits or
produces electrons so it is referred to as the cathode. On the other hand, p-type
semiconductor attracts electrons emitted from the n-type semiconductor so p-
type semiconductor is referred to as the anode.

3. Leo Esaki observed that if a semiconductor diode is heavily doped with

impurities, it will exhibit negative resistance. Negative resistance means the
current across the tunnel diode decreases when the voltage increases. In 1973
Leo Esaki received the Nobel Prize in physics for discovering the electron
tunneling effect used in these diodes. The operation of tunnel diode depends on
the quantum mechanics principle known as “Tunneling”. In electronics,
tunneling means a direct flow of electrons across the small depletion region
from n-side conduction band into the p-side valence band.
4. The germanium material is commonly used to make the tunnel diodes. They are
also made from other types of materials such as gallium arsenide, gallium
antimonide, and silicon.
5. Width of the depletion region in tunnel diode: The depletion region is a region
in a p-n junction diode where mobile (moving) charge carriers (free electrons
and holes) are absent. Depletion region acts like a barrier that opposes the flow
of electrons from the n-type semiconductor and holes from the p-type
semiconductor.
Impurities are added into the p-n junction diode to increase the electrical
conductivity of diode. If impurities added are less large depletion layer is
formed (because if there are less impurities then there will be very few free
electrons to flow in the junction) and if large impurities are added narrow
depletion layer is formed.
In tunnel diode, the p-n junction is heavily doped which causes it to have very
narrow depletion layer (almost like a narrow tunnel) so that free electrons easily
pass through the junction.
[Tunnel diode doesn’t require a very high voltage to operate as there isn’t a
need to cross a barrier to flow electrons from depletion region]
6. Electric current in tunnel diode: in tunnel diode the conduction and valence
band of the region are on same level or in other words there isn’t any need to
overcome the energy barrier for electron to cross over depletion region which is
required in p-n junction.
7. Working of Tunnel Diode :
Step 1: unbiased tunnel diode: when there is no voltage applied to the junction
there won’t be any flow of the current.
At the increase of the temperature, some electrons tunnel from the conduction
band of n-region to the valence band of p-region. In a similar way, holes tunnel
from the valence band of p-region to the conduction band of n-region.
However, the net current flow will be zero because an equal number of charge
carriers (free electrons and holes) flow in opposite directions.
 Step 2: Small voltage applied to the tunnel diode: When a small voltage is
applied to the tunnel diode which is less than the built-in voltage of the
depletion layer, no forward current flows through the junction. However, a
small number of electrons in the conduction band of the n-region will tunnel to
the empty states of the valence band in p-region causing the formation of tunnel
current which then starts flowing in the circuit

Step 3: Applied voltage is slightly increased: When the voltage applied to the tunnel diode is
slightly increased, a large number of free electrons at n-side and holes at p-side are generated
that is the energy level of an n-side conduction band becomes exactly equal to the energy level
of a p-side valence band. As a result, maximum tunnel current flows.
Step 4: Applied voltage is further increased: with the further increase in the voltage, a slight
misalign of the conduction band and valence band takes place, which causes the tunnel current
to eventually decrease.
Step 5: Applied voltage is largely increased: If the applied voltage is largely increased, the
tunneling current drops to zero. At this point, the conduction band and valence band no longer
overlap and the tunnel diode operates in the same manner as a normal p-n junction diode. If this
applied voltage is greater than the built-in potential of the depletion layer, the regular forward
current starts flowing through the tunnel diode.The portion of the curve in which current
decreases as the voltage increases is the negative resistance region of the tunnel diode. The
negative resistance region is the most important and most widely used characteristic of the
tunnel diode.
 Reciprocity theorem

1. It is referred to as Rayleigh Carson reciprocity, which was named after the work done
by Hendrik Lorentz in 1896. In any electrical circuit, if the positions of the ammeter
and the voltage source are interchanged, then there would be no change in the output
reading of the ammeter.
2. This theorem is applicable for only single-source networks, not multi-source
networks.
3. The reciprocity theorem states that in any branch of the electrical circuit the value of
current obtained due to the single voltage source (V) in the circuit/network is the same
as the value of current flowing through that branch, in which the source was originally
connected and when the source was again connected to the branch in which the value
of current was originally determined.
4. The reciprocity theorem states that the current at one point in a circuit due to a voltage
at a second point is the same as the current at the second point due to the same voltage
at the first.

Reciprocity Theorem Viva Questions

1. State Reciprocity theorem

Ans: The ratio of current at one point to the voltage at second point is equal to current
at second point to the voltage at the first point

2. What reciprocity theorem is used for?

Ans: The reciprocity theorem is used to analyze the dynamic response to high-
intensity heating of a small surface region.

Choke coil : Characteristic and value of choke

inductance
1. choke- is the common name given to an inductor that is used as a power supply
filter element. They are typically gapped iron core units, similar in appearance
to a small transformer. The current in an inductor cannot change
instantaneously/ that is, inductors tend to resist any change in current flow. This
property makes them good for use as filter elements, since they tend to -smooth
out- the ripples in the rectified voltage waveform. Typically an inductor is
designed to have high reactance to a particular frequency when used in signal
carrying circuit. They are inductances that isolate #C fre0uency currents from
certain areas of radio circuit. Choke coil depends upon the property of self-
inductance for their operation. They are used to (lock alternating current while
passing direct current.
2. A choke coil is an inductance coil of very small resistance used for controlling
current in an a.c. circuit. If a resistance is used to control current, there is
wastage of power due to Joule heating effect in the resistance. On the other
hand there is no dissipation of power when a current flows through a pure
inductor.
3. Choke can be represented by RL circuit. It has high inductance and low
resistance.
4. Construction of Choke Coil: it consists of a large number of turns of insulated
copper wire wound over a soft iron core. A laminated core is used to minimize
eddy current loss.

Choke is actually an Inductor As we know inductor opposes the rate of change

of current here we are making current I which is initially drawn to zero with the
help of bimetallic contacts present in starter.
According to formulae E=L di/dt , here L is constant and di is equal to I-0 and
dt is time taken for I to become zero Accordingly high voltage is induced and
this voltage is sufficient to drive the electrons from one electrode to another
electrode in spite of medium present between electrodes.

Choke coil viva questions

1. What is a choke coil?

Ans: Choke coil is an inductor coil which is used to control the flow of ac
current in the circuit without affecting the flow of d.c

2. Factors on which choke depends

Ans: Choke had high inductance and low resistance.

3. What is inductance?

Ans: Inductance is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a change in

the electric current flowing through it. L is used to represent the inductance, and
Henry is the SI unit of inductance.
4. What is reactance?

Ans: Reactance is a measurement of capacitance and inductance's resistance to

current. Effect of inductance at given frequency is called reactance.

Inductive reactance is defined as XL=_ωL=2πfL , where XL is the inductive

reactance, ω is the angular frequency, f is the frequency in Hertz, and L is the
inductance. It’s SI unit is ohm.