LITERATURES OF THE WORLD

MODULE 6 EXPLORING GREEK LITERATURE 4) It includes lyric poetry.

• Lyrical poetry, characteristic of Greek literature,
Characteristics of Greek Literature was mainly related to the worship of the gods or
the celebration of the victors in the great Hellenic
• Classical Greek literature is considered one of the games.
oldest and most important in the Western world. • The lyrical coral, which had accompaniments of
• This is so because its writers created masterpieces lira and aulos, was very complicated in its structure
such as epic poems, lyrics, comic dramas, since it did not use traditional lines or stanzas.
tragedies, philosophies, and historical writings. • Thus, it was never reused in the same way,
• In addition, in terms of themes, genres often dealt although the metric units from which the stanzas
with political issues, historical legends of wars and were constructed were drawn from a common
warriors, and gods. collection. The shape of the stanza was usually
• From the beginning, the authors not only lived in related to the dance that accompanied it.
Greece, but also in Asia Minor, Magna Grecia
(Sicily and southern Italy), and the Aegean Islands. 5) It uses philosophical prose.
• After the conquests of Alexander the Great and • Philosophical prose is considered the greatest
the Byzantine Empire, Greek became the common literary achievement of the fourth century.
language of the Eastern Mediterranean lands. • He was influenced by Socrates and his
Likewise, all the Greek works helped to create an characteristic method of teaching led to dialogue.
important literary tradition that reaches to our His greatest exponent was Plato.
days. • The style of this author is considered a beauty
without equality, although the old critics saw it as
1) It has a unique use of rhetoric and oratory too poetic. Their works have also influenced
• The Greeks spoke with a very loud voice and used posterity.
real words that expressed sarcasm, interest, love,
skepticism, and hostility. 6) It includes stories about the presence of human
• Emotion markers have been preserved, especially divinity.
in the emotional attitude of the speaker and writer. • The ancient Greeks developed a religious
• Later this type of oratory provided a great understanding of the world based on divine
incentive to study and instruct in the arts of presences and traditional histories.
government persuasion, especially in political • The first important and most frequently observed
debates in the assembly, and for attack and feature of the Greek gods was their human form.
defense in the courts. • Unlike other religions, the Greeks did not give
• The most important speakers in history Took their prominence in their religious hierarchy to strange
techniques from the ancient Greeks. monsters, animals, or imaginary creatures
(although there are some in Greek mythology, but
2) It gives importance to emotion and affection. they are smaller). king, feeling, or loving.
• Ancient Greek literature exhibited a great deal of • Thus, the Greek gods were included within a vast
emotion, whether in the behavior of the characters family of deities just as it happened in the family of
in the narrative or the response provoked by the the Greeks.
audience or the readers. • Hence, in the Greek religious imagination, the
• Moreover, there was an extensive vocabulary of highest and most perfect manifestations of
emotions in ancient Greece. existence had forms and attributes exactly like
those of their human worshipers.
3) It uses the epic narrative. • In fact, except for their power, beauty, and
• The Iliad and the Odyssey are prime examples of immortality, the Greek gods were exactly like
the epic narrative, which in antiquity was a long human beings in their way of looking, feeling, or
narrative poem, in an elevated style that loving.
celebrated achievements.
• Both poems are based on plots that trap the 7) It includes drama and tragedy.
reader, and the story is told in a language that is • Tragedy is a form of drama in which a strong
simple and direct, but eloquent. central character or hero finally fails and is
• They were oral poems that were transmitted, punished by the gods.
developed, and added over a vast time, on which • Generally, in Greek tragedy, the hero has a fatal
freely improvised poets without names. flaw that causes his doom.

1
 LITERATURES OF THE WORLD
• Often the tragic facts were committed 1. ZEUS: The king of the gods, ruler of Mount Olympus,
involuntarily, as in the episode in which Oedipus and the god of the sky, lightning, thunder, law,
kills his father without knowing it. order, and justice.
• However, others were made aware, as when 2. HERA: The queen of the gods, wife of Zeus, and the
Oreste revenges his father to kill him. goddess of marriage, women, childbirth, and
• For many years, Aeschylus was the most successful family.
playwright in Athens winning several competitions. 3. POSEIDON: The god of the sea, earthquakes, and
• One of his rivals, the Athenian writer Sophocles horses. He is often depicted wielding a trident.
wrote the famous work Oedipus Rex (Oedipus the 4. ATHENA: The goddess of wisdom, courage,
King). warfare, strategy, arts, crafts, and skill. She is often
• A third important writer named Euripides focused associated with the city of Athens.
more on people than the gods in his writing. 5. APOLLO: The god of the sun, light, music, poetry,
Among Euripides' most famous works are Electra Y prophecy, healing, and archery. He is also known
The Trojan Woman. for his oracle at Delphi.
6. ARTEMIS: The goddess of the hunt, wilderness,
8) It gave birth to comedy. childbirth, virginity, and protector of young girls.
• The word comedy seems to be connected by the She is often depicted with a bow and arrow, and
derivation of the Greek verb that means “to accompanied by deer.
delight", which arose from the delights associated 7. APHRODITE: The goddess of love, beauty, pleasure,
with the rites of Dionysius, a god of the vegetation. and procreation. She is said to have been born
• Aristotle, in his poetics, affirmed that comedy from the sea foam.
originated in phallic songs and that, like tragedy, 8. HERMES: The messenger of the gods, god of trade,
began in improvisation, although the progress of thieves, travelers, and guide to the Underworld. He
this went unnoticed. is known for his speed and wit.
• The purpose of the comic artist was to serve as a 9. ARES: The god of war, violence, bloodshed, and
mirror to society to show him his follies and vices, in courage. He is often depicted as a violent and
the hope that they would wake up. belligerent figure.
10. DEMETER: The goddess of agriculture, fertility,
9) It attempts to explain the origins of the world. sacred law, and the harvest. She is closely
• The ancient Greeks used myths that give details associated with the cycle of the seasons.
about the lives and adventures of a wide variety of 11. DIONYSUS: The god of wine, fertility, ritual madness,
gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines, and theater, and religious ecstasy. He is often depicted
mythological creatures, and explain where the as a jovial figure, promoting celebration and
world came from. revelry.
• These mythological accounts were initially 12. HADES: The god of the Underworld and the dead.
disseminated in an oral-poetic tradition. He rules over the realm of the dead, where souls
• The oldest Greek literary sources are the epic go after death.
poems of Homer, Iliad, and Odyssey, which focus
on the Trojan War and its aftermath. Historical Periods and Themes in Greek Literature
Ancient Greek literature (800 BC – 350 AD)
10) It is marked by originality. • Ancient Greek literature refers to literature written
• This literature was developed with little outside in Ancient Greek dialects.
influence, and among all the literary expressions • These works range from the oldest surviving written
the Greek is characterized and stands out for the works in the Greek language until works from the
great originality of the texts and genres. fifth century AD.
• The originality of Greek literature is due to the great • The Greek language arose from the proto-Indo-
leap that his writings gave in creating a rupture European language; roughly two thirds of its words
with the past. can be derived from various reconstructions of the
• The proof of this singularity is that Greek literature tongue.
has managed to last until the days and is usually • A number of alphabets and syllabaries had been
taken as a reference to understand even the used to render Greek, but surviving Greek literature
current literature. was written in a Phoenician-derived alphabet that
arose primarily in Greek Ionia and was fully
adopted by Athens by the fifth century BC.

Ancient Greek literature is further divided into four

Greek gods and goddesses distinct periods:
2
 LITERATURES OF THE WORLD
• Preclassical (800–500 BC) • By 338 BC many of the key Greek cities had been
• Classical (500–323 BC) conquered by Philip II of Macedon.
• Hellenistic (323–31 BC) • Philip II's son Alexander extended his father's
• Roman Age (31 BC – 284 AD) conquests greatly.
• A fragment of The Old Testament in Greek The
a. Preclassical (800–500 BC) Hellenistic Age is defined as the time between the
• All ancient Greek literature was to some degree death of Alexander the Great and the rise of
oral in nature, and primarily revolved around Roman domination.
myths. • After the 3rd century BC, the Greek colony of
• The Greeks created poetry before making use of Alexandria in northern Egypt became the center
writing for literary purposes. of Greek culture.
• Poems created in the Preclassical period were • Greek poetry flourished with significant
meant to be sung or recited (writing was little contributions from Theocritus, Callimachus, and
known before the 7th century BC). Apollonius of Rhodes.
• Most poems focused on myths, legends that were • Theocritus, who lived from about 310 to 250 BC,
part folktale and part religion. was the creator of pastoral poetry, a type that the
• Tragedies and comedies emerged around 600 BC. Roman Virgil mastered in his Eclogues.
• At the beginning of Greek literature stand the • Drama was represented by the New Comedy, of
works of Homer; the Iliad and the Odyssey. which Menander was the principal exponent.
• Though dates of composition vary, these works • One of the most valuable contributions of the
were fixed around 800 BC or after. Hellenistic period was the Septuagint translation of
• Another significant figure was the poet Hesiod. His the Old Testament into Greek.
two surviving works are Works and Days and • This work was done at Alexandria and completed
Theogony. by the end of the 2nd century BC.
b. Classical (500–323 BC) d. Roman Age (31 BC – 284 AD)
• During the classical period, many of the genres of • Literature in Greek in the Roman period
Western literature became more prominent. contributed significant works to the subjects of
• Lyrical poetry, odes, pastorals, elegies, epigrams; poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.
dramatic presentations of comedy and tragedy; • A large proportion of literature from this period
histories, rhetorical treatises, philosophical were histories.
dialectics, and philosophical treatises all arose in • Significant historians of the period were Timaeus,
this period. Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius of
• The two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Halicarnassus, Appian of Alexandria, Arrian, and
Pindar. Plutarch.
• Of the hundreds of tragedies written and • The period they cover extends from late in the 4th
performed during this period, only a limited century BC to the 2nd century AD.
number of plays survived. • Eratosthenes of Alexandria wrote on astronomy
• These plays are authored by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and geography, but his work is known mainly from
and Euripides. later summaries.
• The comedy arose from a ritual in honor of • The physician Galen pioneered developments in
Dionysus. various scientific disciplines including anatomy,
• These plays were full of obscenity, abuse, and physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and
insult. neurology.
• The surviving plays by Aristophanes are a treasure • This is also the period in which most of the Ancient
trove of comic presentation. Greek novels were written.
• Two influential historians of this age are Herodotus • The New Testament, written by various authors with
and Thucydides. varying qualities of Koine Greek, hails from this
• A third historian, Xenophon, wrote "Hellenica," period.
which is considered an extension of Thucydides's • The Gospels and the Epistles of Saint Paul were
work. written in this time period as well.
• The greatest prose achievement of the 4th century
BC was in philosophy.
• Greek philosophy flourished during the classical Byzantine literature (290–1453)
period of the philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and • Byzantine literature refers to literature of the
Aristotle are the most famous. Byzantine Empire written in Atticizing, Medieval
c. Hellenistic (323–31 BC) and early Modern Greek.

3
 LITERATURES OF THE WORLD
• Byzantine literature combined Greek and Christian and the genealogy of the gods. "Works and
civilization on the common foundation of the Days" is a didactic poem offering advice on
Roman political system. farming and a farmer's way of life, while
• This type of literature was set in the intellectual and "Theogony" narrates the genealogy and origin of
ethnographic atmosphere of the Near East. the gods.
• Byzantine literature possesses four primary cultural 3) Aeschylus
elements: Greek, Christian, Roman, and Oriental. o Works: "The Oresteia" (trilogy, including
• Aside from personal correspondence, the literature "Agamemnon," "The Libation Bearers," and "The
of this period was primarily written in the Atticizing Eumenides")
style. o About: Aeschylus was a playwright and a
• Some early literature of this period was written in veteran of the Persian Wars. He is known for
Latin; some of the works from the Latin Empire were introducing the second actor on the stage and
written in French. emphasizing the role of the chorus. "The Oresteia"
• Chronicles, distinct from historic ones, arose in this is a trilogy that deals with themes of justice,
period. revenge, and the transition from personal
• Encyclopedias also flourished in this period. vendettas to a legal system.
4) Sophocles
Modern Greek literature (1453–present) o Works: "Oedipus Rex," "Antigone," "Electra"
o About: Sophocles was a playwright and author of
• Modern Greek literature is written in common
many Greek tragedies. His plays explore the
Modern Greek.
complexities of human nature and the
• During this period, the modern vernacular form of
consequences of fate. "Oedipus Rex" is a classic
the Greek language became more
tragedy centered around the myth of Oedipus,
commonplace in writing.
while "Antigone" deals with themes of morality
• This period saw the revival of Greek and Roman
and civil disobedience.
studies and the development of Renaissance
5) Euripides
humanism and science.
o Works: "The Trojan Women," "Medea"
• The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos is a
o About: Euripides was a playwright known for his
prominent work of this period.
unconventional and psychologically complex
• It is a verse romance written around 1600 by
characters. His plays often challenged traditional
Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553–1613).
views and questioned societal norms. "Medea" is
• Modern Greek literature is significantly influenced one of his most famous works, exploring themes
by the Diafotismos, a movement that translated of revenge, betrayal, and the consequences of
the ideas of the European Enlightenment into the passion.
Greek world.
6) Sappho
• Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios are two o Works: Most of Sappho's works have been lost,
prominent figures of this movement. and only fragments remain. Notable works
• Today, Modern Greek Literature participates in the include "Ode to Aphrodite."
global literary community. o About: Sappho was a lyric poet from the island
• The Greek authors George Seferis and Odysseas of Lesbos. She is known for her poetry, often
Elytis have been awarded the Nobel Prize in expressing themes of love, desire, and the
Literature. beauty of nature. Her works were highly
regarded in antiquity, and she is often referred
Notable Greek Authors to as the "Tenth Muse."
1) Homer 7) Pindar
o Works: "The Iliad" and "The Odyssey" o Works: Odes and victory odes (Pindaric odes)
o About: Homer is considered one of the greatest o About: Pindar was a lyric poet known for his
poets of ancient Greece. Little is known about his victory odes, which celebrated the
life, and there is debate about whether he was achievements of athletes in the ancient Greek
an individual or a collective name for multiple games. His odes are characterized by their
poets. His epic poems are foundational works in complex structure, elaborate language, and
Greek literature, dealing with themes of heroism, praise for the victors and their hometowns.
war, and the journey home. 8) Herodotus
2) Hesiod o Works: "Histories" (also known as "The Histories")
o Works: "Works and Days," "Theogony" o About: Herodotus is often called the "Father of
o About: Hesiod was a Greek poet who lived History." "Histories" is an account of the Greco-
around the same time as Homer. His works Persian Wars and provides a mix of history,
provide insights into everyday life, moral advice,
4
 LITERATURES OF THE WORLD
geography, and ethnography. Herodotus is played a significant role in shaping Christian
known for his inquisitive approach and storytelling theology and ethics.
style. 15) George Seferis and Odysseas Elytis
9) Thucydides o Works: Seferis's notable works include
o Works: "History of the Peloponnesian War" "Mythistorema" and "Strophe," while Elytis is known
o About: Thucydides was an ancient Greek for "To Axion Esti" (Worthy It Is).
historian who wrote about the Peloponnesian o About: Modern Greek authors who were
War between Athens and Sparta. His work is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Seferis is
considered a classic in the field of history for its known for his introspective poetry, often
analytical and objective approach, focusing on reflecting on Greek history and identity. Elytis's
the causes and consequences of war. work celebrates Greek culture and landscapes,
10) Plato emphasizing the importance of freedom and
o Works: "The Republic," "Apology," "Symposium," humanism.
“The Allegory of the Cave”
o About: Plato was a philosopher and student of
Socrates. His philosophical dialogues, written in
the form of conversations, explore topics ranging
from politics to metaphysics. "The Republic" is one
of his most famous works, addressing the nature
of justice and the ideal state.
11) Aristophanes
o Works: "Lysistrata," "The Clouds," "The Frogs"
o About: Aristophanes was a comic playwright
known for his satirical and comedic works. His
plays often criticized contemporary society,
politics, and intellectuals. "Lysistrata" is a notable
comedy that addresses the themes of war and
gender roles.

12) Theocritus, Callimachus, and Apollonius of Rhodes

o Works: Theocritus is known for his pastoral poetry,
Callimachus for his epigrams, and Apollonius for
his epic poem "Argonautica."
o About: These Hellenistic poets contributed to
various genres during the post-Classical period.
Theocritus is credited with creating pastoral
poetry, while Callimachus was known for his
concise and polished epigrams. Apollonius's
"Argonautica" is an epic poem that recounts the
adventures of Jason and the Argonauts.
13) Menander
o Works: Comedic plays, including "Dyskolos" (The
Grouch)
o About: Menander was an ancient Greek
playwright, known for his contributions to New
Comedy. His plays focused on everyday life,
relationships, and the humor found in human
interactions. "Dyskolos" is one of the few
complete plays that have survived.
14) Saint Paul
o Works: Epistles (letters) in the New Testament,
including "Epistle to the Romans," "First
Corinthians," and others.
o About: Saint Paul, also known as the Apostle Paul,
was an early Christian missionary and author of
several letters in the New Testament. His writings