COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL

JUSTICE EDUCATION

THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

(CRIM 121)
TEMPTATION THEORY

Proponents:
Mosende, Ken Drazel C.
Oronico, Ada Nicole A.
Alzate, Hainah M.
Arre, Angelyna C.
Aserit, Sweet Love Venus R.

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 TEMPTATION THEORY

I. Discussion
The Temptation Theory is a concept rooted in psychology and behavioral economics that seeks to
explain why people sometimes act against their own long-term interests, succumbing to short-term
temptations instead. Developed from research in areas such as decision-making, self-control, and
motivation, the theory sheds light on the complex interplay between immediate gratification and
long-term goals. At the heart of the Temptation Theory lies the idea of time inconsistency, which
refers to the tendency of individuals to change their preferences over time. This phenomenon
manifests when people make decisions that prioritize immediate rewards over larger, delayed
rewards, even when they know that delaying gratification would lead to better outcomes in the long
run. For instance, someone might choose to indulge in unhealthy foods despite wanting to
maintain a balanced diet and good health in the future.

One of the key contributors to the Temptation Theory is the concept of hyperbolic discounting,
which suggests that individuals place disproportionate value on immediate rewards compared to
future rewards. This means that the perceived value of a reward decreases exponentially as the
time to receive it increases. Consequently, even small, immediate rewards can often outweigh
larger, delayed rewards in decision-making processes. The interplay between short-term
temptations and long-term goals is further influenced by factors such as impulsivity, self-control,
and the availability of alternatives. Individuals vary in their ability to resist temptations, with some
possessing greater self-control than others. Moreover, the presence of alternative options can
either exacerbate or mitigate the allure of immediate rewards. For example, the availability of
healthy snack options may reduce the temptation to indulge in unhealthy treats.

Moreover, the Temptation Theory acknowledges the role of emotions in decision-making.

Emotional states such as stress, fatigue, or excitement can impact an individual’s susceptibility to
temptations. For instance, someone experiencing stress may be more likely to seek immediate
relief through indulgent behaviors rather than adhering to long-term goals.

Furthermore, social and environmental factors play a significant role in shaping individuals’
susceptibility to temptations. Peer influence, societal norms, and cultural practices can either
encourage or discourage behaviors that prioritize immediate gratification over long-term goals.
Additionally, environmental cues and stimuli can trigger impulsive behaviors, leading individuals to
succumb to temptations without fully considering the consequences. Understanding the
Temptation Theory has important implications for various domains, including public policy,
marketing, and personal development. In the realm of public policy, policymakers can design
interventions and incentives that help individuals overcome temptations and make choices aligned
with their long-term interests. For example, implementing policies that promote healthy eating
habits or financial planning can help mitigate the negative consequences of time inconsistency.

In marketing, businesses often leverage knowledge of the Temptation Theory to design products
and marketing strategies that appeal to consumers’ desires for immediate gratification. By
highlighting the immediate benefits of their products or services, companies can capitalize on
consumers’ tendency to prioritize short-term rewards.

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On a personal level, individuals can apply insights from the Temptation Theory to improve their
decision-making and self-control strategies. Techniques such as pre-commitment, goal setting,
and mindfulness can help individuals resist short-term temptations and stay focused on their long-
term
goals. By recognizing the factors that influence their behavior, individuals can develop strategies
to overcome temptations and make choices that align with their values and objectives.

I.I What is Temptation?

Temptation, then, in general, is any state, way, or condition that, upon any account whatever, hath
a force or efficacy to seduce, to draw the mind and heart of a man from its obedience, which God
requires of him, into any sin, in any degree of it whatever. In particular, that is a temptation to any
man which causes or occasions him to sin, or in any thing to go off from his duty, either by
bringing evil into his heart, or drawing out that evil that is in his heart.

I.II The Effects of Temptation in various ways:

1. Legal Consequences: If someone gives in to temptation and commits a crime, they could
be arrested, charged with a crime, and put in jail. Convictions for crimes can have long-term
repercussions, such as jail time, fines, probation, and the creation of a criminal record, all of
which can make it more difficult to find work and housing in the future.

2. Financial Costs: Financial penalties are frequently incurred, both directly and indirectly, by
committing crimes. Legal fees, fines, victim restitution, and possible property damage or
theft resulting from the offense are all possible costs that people may have to pay.
Furthermore, engaging in illegal activity can result in a loss of income, career prospects,
and stability in one’s finances.

3. Harm to Victims and Communities: The harm done to victims and communities is
probably the biggest effect of giving in to temptation and committing a crime. For those who
are directly impacted by the offense, criminal acts can result in financial hardship, emotional
distress, and physical harm. Additionally, crimes can weaken social cohesiveness, erode
trust in institutions, and increase fear and insecurity in communities.

4. Loss of Opportunities: One may lose out on chances for both professional and personal
development if they give in to temptation and commit crimes. Access to housing, work,
education, and other resources necessary for people to live happy lives and make valuable
contributions to society can be hampered by a criminal record.

5. Psychological Impact: Crime can have a significant negative psychological impact on a

person, causing them to experience anxiety, regret, guilt, and low self-esteem. Long-term
psychological distress, such as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), can
be made worse by the stress of possible detection, arrest, and incarceration.

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 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
I.
A seminal work in this field is Richard Thaler and Hersh Shefrin’s paper “An Economic Theory of
Self-Control” (1981), which laid the groundwork for the temptation theory. They proposed that
individuals possess both a “sophisticated” and a “I” self, with the former making long-term plans
and the latter yielding to immediate desires. Thaler and Shefrin introduced the concept of
“temptation goods,” items that provide immediate pleasure but conflict with long-term objectives,
such as unhealthy foods or impulsive purchases. Their model integrates elements of traditional
economic theory with insights from psychology, acknowledging that self-control is not always
perfect and that individuals may succumb to temptation.

Building upon Thaler and Shefrin’s work, George Ainslie developed the hyperbolic discounting
model in the 1970s and 1980s. Ainslie’s model posits that individuals discount the value of future
rewards hyperbolically, meaning they heavily discount immediate rewards but discount future
rewards less steeply. This non-exponential discounting function reflects the tendency for
individuals to prioritize immediate gratification over long-term gains, a hallmark of temptation
theory. Ainslie’s research provided a theoretical foundation for understanding impulsive behavior
and self-control failures, emphasizing the interplay between short-term desires and long-term
goals.

In “The Psychology of Decision Making” (2008), Dan Ariely expands upon the temptation theory by
investigating cognitive biases that influence decision-making in tempting situations. Ariely’s
experiments demonstrate that individuals often make irrational choices due to cognitive limitations
and biases, such as anchoring, loss aversion, and the endowment effect. He highlights the role of
emotions in decision-making, showing that individuals may act impulsively when influenced by
immediate emotional responses. Ariely’s work underscores the complexity of human decision-
making and challenges the assumption of rationality in economic models.

Further insights into the psychology of temptation come from research on affective forecasting and
self-regulation. Daniel Gilbert and Timothy Wilson’s studies on affective forecasting reveal that
individuals often mispredict the emotional consequences of their choices, leading to suboptimal
decision-making. This phenomenon, known as the “impact bias,” suggests that people may
overestimate the intensity and duration of emotional responses to tempting stimuli, thereby making
decisions based on flawed expectations. Additionally, Roy Baumeister’s research on self-
regulation highlights the finite nature of willpower and the challenges individuals face in resisting
temptation over time. Baumeister’s theory of ego depletion posits that self-control operates like a
muscle, becoming fatigued with use and less effective at resisting temptation.

The role of emotions in temptation and self-control is further explored in George Loewenstein’s
work on the “hot-cold empathy gap” (1996). Loewenstein argues that individuals often
underestimate the influence of visceral states, such as hunger or arousal, on their decision-making
processes. This empathy gap leads people to make decisions based on their current emotional
state, ignoring the potential impact of future emotions. Loewenstein’s research highlights the
importance of recognizing and mitigating the influence of visceral factors on decision-making,
particularly in contexts where individuals are vulnerable to temptation.

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In addition to psychological perspectives, economists have studied temptation and self-control
within the framework of intertemporal choice theory. Matthew Rabin’s model of temptation and
self-control (1998) incorporates both present-bias preferences and temptation shocks, allowing for
fluctuations in self-control over time. Rabin’s model extends traditional economic models by
incorporating behavioral elements, such as impulsive behavior and time inconsistency, into the
decision-making process. By accounting for the dynamic nature of self-control, Rabin’s model
provides a more nuanced understanding of how individuals navigate trade-offs between immediate
gratification and long-term goals.

II.
Temptation is the state of being enticed or allured to engage in an act. According to Tang and
Sutarso (2013), temptation means two things – being enticed to do wrong or being put to the test.
Tang and Sutarso (2013) developed a measure to assess temptation using five sub- components
that cause people to fall into temptation: getting rich (affective), impulsive behaviour (behavioural),
cognitive impairment (cognitive), social moral values (social norm) and lack of self-control
(perceived control). The first three factors represent the attitude component of the TPB whereas
the other two represent the social norm and perceived behavioural control components of TPB,
respectively (Chen et al., 2013). The affective component (getting rich) of this typology suggests
that since it is the wish or goal of most individuals to become rich in life, individuals keen to
fulfilling this goal are ready to take risks even when it means being a little dishonest and engaging
in unethical behaviours. Vitell and Hidalgo (2006) provide support for this assertion by
demonstrating that Americans who desire to be rich have a high tolerance level for unethical
activities. According to Ariely (2008), when the desire to make cash is strong individuals who are
tempted are usually willing to be dishonest regardless of the risks involved and would always find
justifications for their dishonesty. Tang (2011) further supports this when he reports that in an
attempt to become rich, some accountants, when found in tempting situations which provides
them opportunities to make good money, have a high propensity to engage in unethical behaviour.
The behavioural element (impulsive behaviour) of temptation suggests that when people fall into
temptation or have the urge to do something, they often seek instant gratification (Tice et al.,
2001) and act in spontaneous ways without carefully considering whether the act is in line with
their ideals and plans (Baumeister, 2002). From their study, Chen et al. (2013) found that when
opportunities exist, the propensity of people to engage in unethical behaviour is high when they
take advantage of situations impulsively. However, Rook
(1987) argues that most of these impulses are resistible but can become irresistible when
self-control fails. The cognitive element (cognitive impairment) proposes that often times, people
become disoriented, make inappropriate decisions and lose their abilities to concentrate on
important, long-term goals when they are tempted (Baumeister, 2002). Both Baumeister (2002)
and Christian and Ellis (2011) report that people often become weak physically, psychologically
and spiritually when found in tempting situations, leading to cognitive impairment and hence, are
likely to engage in unethical behaviour. In recent scandals, however, this element (cognitive
impairment) seems to be fading out as some recent studies found that most of the executives
involved in unethical scandals planned their unethical acts strategically and carefully to fulfil their
specific selfish ambitions (Tang and Sutarso, 2013; Tang and Liu, 2012). Self-control is the ability
to override or change one’s inner responses, as well as to interrupt undesired behavioural
tendencies and refrain from acting on them (Tangney et al.,2004). When found in a tempting
situation, the ability of an individual to control himself or herself may inform the person’s
engagement in an unethical
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behaviour or not. People with high self-control have less aggressive behaviour and lower deviant
behaviour (Bordia et al.,2008). Tang and Sutarso (2013) also found that people who have
performed a preceding act of self-control find it difficult to control themselves when found in
another tempting situation. Thus, given the opportunity, these people are more likely to act on
immediate impulses to
engage in unethical behaviour. The final component, i.e. subjective social norm (social moral
values), suggests that temptations are easier to accept when people around us are doing them.
The general moral values a society upholds can influence an individual to yield to temptation or
not. According to Halpern (2001), people may adjust their values to tolerate unethical behaviours if
they find themselves in a society with an increasing crime rate. Thus, the immediate environment
of an individual has important implications on how that individual behaves in tempting
situations.Based on the five dimensions of temptation, this study hypothesises that individuals who
have high desire to become rich, seek instant gratification, experience high cognitive impairment,
follow the social norm and have a low level of self-control are likely to engage in unethical
conducts.

III.
Temptation, the allure of immediate pleasure despite potential long-term consequences, is a
ubiquitous phenomenon that has captivated scholars across multiple disciplines. This review aims
to synthesize and analyze literature from psychology, sociology, and philosophy to offer a
comprehensive understanding of temptation. By exploring various perspectives, we illuminate the
intricate interplay of cognitive, social, and ethical factors that shape individuals’ susceptibility to
temptation. In the realm of psychology, research on temptation often centers on self-control,
decision-making processes, and the cognitive mechanisms underlying impulsive behavior.
Baumeister and Heatherton (1996) discuss the limited resource model of self-control, suggesting
that resisting temptation depletes cognitive resources, making subsequent self-control efforts more
challenging. Metcalfe and Mischel (1999) introduce the hot/cold system framework, highlighting
the interplay between impulsive “hot” processes and reflective “cool” processes in determining
individuals’ ability to resist temptation. Sociological studies offer valuable insights into the social
and cultural dimensions of temptation. Smith and Jones (2010) explore how societal norms, peer
influences, and cultural values shape individuals’ susceptibility to temptation. They argue that
social context plays a significant role in shaping behavior, with social pressures and expectations
influencing individuals’ decision-making processes. From a philosophical standpoint, temptation
raises profound questions about ethics, moral agency, and the nature of virtue. Aristotle’s virtue
ethics provides a framework for understanding temptation as a test of character, wherein
individuals must cultivate virtuous dispositions to resist temptation (Aristotle, 350 BCE). Fishbach
and Shah (2006) discuss the tension between short-term desires and long-term goals, highlighting
the role of self-control in aligning behavior with one’s values and objectives. Integrating insights
from psychology, sociology, and philosophy offers a nuanced understanding of temptation as a
multifaceted phenomenon. Temptation emerges not merely as a product of individual psychology
but as deeply embedded within social structures and cultural norms. Moreover, ethical
considerations underscore the importance of cultivating virtuous dispositions to navigate the
complexities of temptation and moral decision-making. Moving forward, interdisciplinary research
that bridges psychological, sociological, and philosophical perspectives holds promise for
advancing our understanding of temptation. Longitudinal studies could explore how individual
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differences in self-control and social factors interact to influence susceptibility to temptation over
time. Additionally, interventions aimed at enhancing self-control skills and fostering ethical
reflection could offer practical strategies for mitigating the impact of temptation in everyday life.

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 RECOMMENDATIONS

Preventing temptation that leads to crime involves a combination of self-awareness, practical

strategies, and support systems. Here are some recommendations:

 Understand Triggers: Identify personal triggers that lead to temptation. This could include
stress, peer pressure, financial struggles, or personal grievances.

 Develop Coping Mechanisms: Instead of succumbing to temptation, develop healthy

coping mechanisms such as exercise, mindfulness, hobbies, or talking to a trusted friend or
therapist.

 Set Clear Goals: Establish clear short-term and long-term goals to stay focused and
motivated. Having a sense of purpose can help resist impulsive actions.

 Avoid High-Risk Situations: Stay away from environments or people that encourage or
enable criminal behavior. Surround yourself with positive influences who support your
goals.

 Improve Decision-Making Skills: Enhance critical thinking and decision-making skills.

Consider the potential consequences of actions before acting on impulse.

 Seek Positive Role Models: Look up to individuals who demonstrate integrity, resilience,
and success through lawful means. Learn from their experiences and emulate their positive
behaviors.

 Stay Informed: Educate yourself about the legal and ethical implications of criminal
behavior. Understanding the consequences can deter impulsive actions.

 Build a Support Network: Surround yourself with supportive friends, family, or mentors
who encourage and reinforce positive behavior. Lean on them during challenging times.

 Practice Delayed Gratification: Learn to delay gratification and prioritize long-term

rewards over short-term gains. Cultivate patience and perseverance in pursuing legitimate
goals.

 Engage in Positive Activities: Stay occupied with productive and fulfilling activities such
as volunteering, education, or creative pursuits. Engaging in meaningful endeavors reduces
idle time for temptation.

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  Financial Responsibility: Manage finances wisely to avoid desperation or resorting to
illegal means for survival. Budgeting, saving, and seeking financial assistance when
needed can alleviate financial stress.

 Legal Alternatives: Explore legal avenues for fulfilling desires or addressing grievances.
Seek mediation, advocacy, or lawful channels to resolve conflicts or pursue goals.

 Practice Self-Reflection: Regularly reflect on personal values, beliefs, and behaviors.

Assess whether actions align with moral principles and make necessary adjustments.

 Seek Professional Help: If struggling with persistent temptations or underlying issues such
as addiction or mental health challenges, seek professional help from counselors,
therapists, or support groups.

 Stay Accountable: Hold yourself accountable for actions and decisions. Take
responsibility for mistakes and commit to learning and growing from them.

By incorporating these recommendations into daily life, individuals can strengthen their resilience
against temptation and make positive choices that contribute to personal well-being and societal
harmony.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the study of Temptation Theory provides valuable insights into the complex interplay
between human desires, impulses, and ethical decision-making. Through extensive research and
analysis, scholars have unraveled the psychological, sociological, and environmental factors that
contribute to individuals succumbing to temptation, often resulting in criminal behavior. By
understanding the mechanisms behind temptation, society can develop more effective strategies
for prevention and intervention, ultimately fostering safer and more cohesive communities.
However, it is essential to recognize that Temptation Theory is not a one-size-fits-all framework;
rather, it serves as a foundation for tailored approaches that address the unique circumstances
and needs of individuals and populations. Moving forward, continued interdisciplinary
collaboration, empirical research, and practical application of Temptation Theory will be crucial in
mitigating the allure of temptation and promoting a culture of resilience, integrity, and ethical
conduct. As we navigate the complexities of human nature, the study of temptation remains a
pertinent and enlightening field of inquiry, offering profound insights into the intricacies of human
behavior and the quest for moral fortitude in an ever-changing world.

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 REFERENCES

John Bigelow, Susan M Dodds, Robert Pargetter

American Philosophical Quarterly 27 (1), 39-49, 1990

Paul M Hughes
J. Value Inquiry 33, 371, 1999

Kevin XD Huang, Zheng Liu, John Qi Zhu

Journal of Money, Credit and Banking 47 (4), 581-615, 2015

Chrisoula Andreou
Self-control, decision theory, and rationality: New essays, 167-178, 2018

Dieter Groh
Changing conceptions of conspiracy, 1-13, 1987

Faruk Gul, Wolfgang Pesendorfer

Econometrica 69 (6), 1403-1435, 2001

Ayelet Fishbach, Benjamin A Converse

Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications 2, 244-260, 2010

Sheila Garos, James K Beggan, Annette Kluck

Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, Volume 15, 235-261, 2005

FW Maitland
Mind 5 (18), 259-264, 1880

Tang and Sutarso (2013

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