JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 41 NUMBER 7 PAGES 1057–1069 2000

Olivine Compositions in Picrite Basalts and

the Deccan Volcanic Cycle

P. KRISHNAMURTHY1∗, K. GOPALAN2 AND J. D. MACDOUGALL3

1
1-10-153 SARDAR PATEL ROAD, XRF & EMP LABORATORY, ATOMIC MINERALS DIRECTORATE FOR EXPLORATION
AND RESEARCH, DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY, BEGUMPET, HYDERABAD 500 016, INDIA
2
NATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, HYDERABAD 500 007, INDIA
3
GEOSCIENCES RESEARCH DIVISION, SCRIPPS INSTITUTION OF OCEANOGRAPHY, LA JOLLA, CA 92093-0220, USA

RECEIVED SEPTEMBER 2, 1999; REVISED TYPESCRIPT ACCEPTED MARCH 22, 2000

Olivine phenocryst compositions and whole-rock chemical com- settings. In this study we examine picritic rocks from the
positions are used to identify primitive picrite basalts from widely Deccan flood basalt province from the point of view of
separated parts of the Deccan flood basalt province. Overall, primitive their olivine phenocryst compositions, and use these
picrites constitute a significant volume of rocks within the province. mineralogical data to infer the mode of origin of these
Most were probably emplaced along deep faults in the Cambay rocks and their place in the overall cycle of Deccan
graben and Narmada rift regions. We combine mineral composition volcanism. This work builds on the earlier investigations
data on previously described samples from boreholes at Dhandhuka, of Krishnamurthy & Cox (1977), who examined picritic
Wadhwan and Botad with information on new finds of picritic basalts from boreholes in the Cambay graben area (see
basalts at Paliad, Anila, Pawagarh, Kawant and Ambadongar to Fig. 1).
help delineate the petrogenesis of these mafic rocks, and we also In the IUGS classification scheme (Le Bas, 1999) a
examine the nature and probable origin of picrite basalts from other picrite or picrite basalt contains [12% MgO, <52% SiO2
regions of the Deccan, such as the Western Ghats. The combined and >3% Na2O + K2O. Picrobasalts have compositions
data suggest that the incidence of high-MgO lavas decreased with intermediate between basalts and picrites as defined here.
time during the Deccan volcanic cycle. Thus in a suite of mafic rocks, a spectrum of compositions
may occur, ranging from primitive picrite basalts to
picrobasalts and basalts. Rocks with picritic chemical
characteristics can arise in a variety of ways; for example,
KEY WORDS: Deccan Traps; olivine composition; picrite basalts; volcanic as primitive picritic liquids that are little-modified melts
cycle of upper-mantle peridotite, by accumulation of early
formed olivines from such primary picritic liquids, or by
accumulation of olivines from ‘normal’ basaltic magmas.
Under equilibrium conditions, olivine compositions will
INTRODUCTION reflect the composition of the magma from which they
The petrogenesis of flood basalt lavas, particularly their crystallize; thus the composition of olivine phenocrysts
often iron-rich character, was a long-term interest of in picrites is a valuable clue to their petrogenesis. This
Keith Cox (e.g. Cox, 1980; Cox & Hawkesworth, 1985; is the approach used by Krishnamurthy & Cox (1977),
Cox & Mitchell, 1988; Scarrow & Cox, 1995). Re- who examined a suite of mafic lavas recovered from
cognition that the earliest liquids produced during partial boreholes in Western India that were first described
melting of peridotite are Mg rich, combined with the by West (1958). The present study is an extension of
widespread but volumetrically minor occurrence of pi- Krishnamurthy & Cox’s work to samples from additional
critic rocks in flood basalt provinces, provides an im- occurrences of picritic rocks in the Deccan, collected in
portant basis for the discussion of basalt genesis in these part during a joint project between the Physical Research

∗Corresponding author. Telephone: +91-40-7767101, ext. 250. Fax:

+91-40-7762940. e-mail: [email protected]  Oxford University Press 2000
 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 41 NUMBER 7 JULY 2000

Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Deccan Traps (white) and adjacent areas showing the locations of picrite basalts. Filled circles with
spikes show the borehole localities studied earlier by West (1958) and Krishnamurthy & Cox (1977). New localities examined in this work include
those north of the Narmada rift (Pawagarh, Ambadongar and Kawant), in Saurashtra (Anila and Paliyad), and in Kathiawar (dykes around
Dedan). SK, picrite basalts reported in south Kathiawar by Melluso et al., (1995). Locations to the north of Mahabaleshwar in the Western
Ghats represent picrite and picrobasalt flows encountered in various formations and include Poladpur (Cox & Hawkesworth, 1985), Bushe,
Thakurvadi, Neral and Igatpuri (Beane & Hooper, 1988; Deshmukh, 1988; present work). Geology and deep faults around Cambay are from
Roy (1963).

Laboratory, Ahmedabad, and the Scripps Institution of Dhandhuka, Wadhwan Junction and Botad (Krishna-
Oceanography, to study Deccan basalts. murthy & Cox, 1977), and the surface occurrences in
adjoining areas such as Anila and Paliyad. Taken to-
gether, these comprise a significant areal extent of picrite
basalts. Perhaps of similar magnitude is the Pawagarh
FIELD RELATIONS occurrence north of the Narmada River, although here
Known occurrences of flows and dykes with picritic the exposed thickness is minor (>75 m). However, a flow
compositions within the Deccan province are shown in forming the base of Pawagarh Hill may be extensive; its
Fig. 1. Among these the volumetrically most significant dimensions are unknown because of alluvium and soil
are those encountered in the borehole sequences at cover.

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 KRISHNAMURTHY et al. OLIVINE COMPOSITIONS IN DECCAN PICRITES

Picrite basalts and picrobasalts also occur within the (ANK), where rim compositions reach Fo60. The com-
thick Deccan basalt sequences of the Western Ghats. positions of groundmass olivines that we analysed from
They have been reported from the Igatpuri, Neral, Thak- this primitive picrite basalt range from Fo84 to Fo72,
urvadi, Bushe and Poladpur formations (see Fig. 1 for which is within the range of phenocryst rim compositions
locations), constituting somewhat less than 10% of the observed.
total volume (Beane & Hooper, 1988). Some of these are The picritic flow from Botad quarry (sample SK/5/
porphyritic units in compound flow sequences showing 83 in Table 1) lacks the forsteritic olivines found in the
clear evidence of crystal fractionation and accumulation Botad borehole sequence (e.g. sample 110 in Table 1)
(Mishra, 1971; Beane & Hooper, 1988; Deshmukh, 1988). but exhibits considerable variation between phenocrysts
Picrodolerite dykes and picrite basalts also occur in (>Fo83) and groundmass olivines (Fo64). Given the close
southern Kathiawar. The dykes at Dedan (Fig. 1) are proximity, this flow may be derivative from the more
10–15 m thick and can be traced over distances of >2 km. primitive lavas sampled from the borehole. A picritic
They exhibit clear flow differentiation features (Krishna- dyke at Dedan shows very limited variation in olivine
macharlu, 1972). The picrite basalt flows of southern composition (Fo80–77) and appears to be an intrusion of
Kathiawar (SK in Fig. 1) have only recently been de- a crystal-laden magma with clear flow differentiation
scribed; they further enlarge the known area of oc- features (Krishnamacharlu, 1972).
currence of such rock types in the northern Deccan The picrite basalts and picrobasalts from the Western
(Melluso et al., 1995). Picritic dykes, including an- Ghats also lack forsteritic olivines, and they exhibit the
karamites, are also found together with rocks of the maximum chemical variation observed among the ana-
carbonatite–alkaline complex in the Ambadongar and lysed olivines. Compositions range from Fo84 to Fo43,
Kawant areas (Nageshwara Rao, 1975; Simonetti et al., with virtually this entire range observed in a single crystal
1995; present work). from a flow at Igatpuri (sample IG-68, Table 1). Olivines
from Kalsubai samples (e.g. KB-88, Table 1) show the
least variation (>Fo80–78) whereas those from Triambak
(e.g. TRB-5, Table 1) have a somewhat larger range
METHODS (>Fo80–67). The data in Fig. 3 suggest that there are
Olivine analyses were obtained using an automated minor compositional gaps among the analysed samples,
CAMEBAX electron microprobe at the Scripps Institution but these may simply be the result of the relatively small
of Oceanography. Standards included Smithsonian min- number of grains analysed. The wide range of olivine
eral standards and pure metal oxides. Based on repeated compositions observed cannot be in equilibrium with a
analyses of the Smithsonian San Carlos olivine standard single magma type. They probably reflect the enrichment
( Jarosewich et al., 1980), relative analytical uncertainty of Fe in residual melts during crystal fractionation, or
is <1% for the major elements and <16% for minor mixing of evolved and less-evolved magmas, or both.
elements. Further details of the experimental methods Intra-flow differentiation within a compound lava flow,
have been given by Bloomer et al. (1982). as observed by Deshmukh (1988), might also be re-
sponsible for some of the large compositional variations.

RESULTS
Olivine compositions and variations Variations in minor element compositions
Representative olivine compositions for samples from the Minor and trace elements such as Ca, Mn and Ni show
various picrite localities are given in Table 1, and the significant variations among the analysed olivines. There
ranges of MgO concentrations at each location are sum- is a general positive correlation between Ni and forsterite
marized in Fig. 2. Figures 3 and 4 provide further details contents (Fig. 4a), with NiO reaching as high as 0·4 wt
of the range of compositions encountered, including CaO % for the most forsteritic olivines, although there is a
and NiO concentrations. significant range in Ni at a given olivine composition.
The primitive picrite basalts sampled from the borehole CaO also shows wide variations. Forsterites from the
cores at Dhanduka, Wadhwan Junction and Botad, as primitive picritic basalts of Dhanduka, Wadhwan, Botad,
well as the surface samples at Anila, Paliyad (Saurashtra Paliyad, Anila and Kawant in Saurashtra contain dis-
region), Pawagarh, Ambadongar and Kawant (Narmada tinctly higher CaO (0·4–0·5% CaO) than those from
region), all contain forsteritic olivine phenocrysts. The Pawagarh and Ambadongar along the Narmada rift
cores of these olivines exhibit limited chemical variability (>0·25%; see Table 1). The Saurashtra flows are mildly
(Fo92–86; see Fig. 3) although the phenocryst rims are alkalic and have higher CaO, TiO2, K2O and P2O5
generally more iron rich. In a few cases the core-to-rim contents than those from the Narmada rift (Table 2).
variability is large, such as in the sample from Kawant There is also a negative correlation between CaO and

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 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 41 NUMBER 7 JULY 2000

Table 1: Olivine analyses from picrite and picrobasalts of the Deccan Traps, India (all data in wt %)

Area: Pawagarh Kawant Ambadongar

Sample: PB-39 PB-52 ANK 355

Spot: 7P 13C 14C 14R 10P 12C 13R 8P 11C 12R 19Gm 7C 6R 8Gm 13Gm

SiO2 40·14 40·78 39·89 39·42 40·11 40·05 38·49 40·03 39·30 35·40 37·79 39·87 39·07 38·91 37·89
FeO 7·82 7·72 11·39 19·48 11·34 12·55 21·18 11·17 13·10 33·39 21·60 11·03 15·78 19·28 25·42
MgO 50·18 50·92 47·83 41·96 47·93 47·07 40·12 47·23 45·94 28·40 38·19 47·92 44·27 41·75 36·81
NiO 0·40 0·38 0·29 0·25 0·31 0·22 0·16 0·17 0·14 0·04 0·11 0·31 0·30 0·22 0·17
MnO 0·06 0·05 0·06 0·10 0·05 0·07 0·11 0·06 0·08 0·22 0·12 0·05 0·06 0·11 0·13
CaO 0·26 0·25 0·47 0·39 0·25 0·30 0·31 0·41 0·42 0·66 0·68 0·28 0·29 0·29 0·32
Total 98·86 100·10 99·93 101·60 99·99 100·26 100·37 99·07 98·98 98·11 98·49 99·46 99·77 100·56 100·74
Forsterite (mol %)
Fo 91·53 91·76 87·91 79·05 87·97 86·73 76·92 88·32 86·22 60·30 75·96 88·58 83·39 79·45 72·06
Fa 8·47 8·24 12·09 20·95 12·03 13·27 73·08 11·68 13·78 39·70 24·04 11·42 16·61 20·55 27·94

Area: Igatpuri Triambak Kalsubai Botad Q Dedan

Sample: IG-68 TRB-5 KB-88 SK/5/83 SK/9/83

Spot: 13C 14R 7C 8R 5P 6Gm 15 9C 10R 2P 3Gm 380/P2 380/P1

SiO2 38·65 33·84 38·91 38·23 38·56 36·86 37·91 38·93 38·93 39·63 36·95 38·56 39·05
FeO 16·36 45·51 18·20 20·83 18·55 29·39 22·26 15·81 18·18 16·07 31·12 20·89 18·72
MgO 43·14 19·17 42·07 39·98 41·35 33·12 38·60 44·03 42·75 44·63 32·05 40·66 42·85
NiO 0·14 0·08 0·10 0·09 0·13 0·08 0·12 0·28 0·19 0·16 0·09 0·13 0·11
MnO 0·05 0·32 0·08 0·09 0·07 0·14 0·09 0·02 0·09 0·23 0·75 0·34 0·28
CaO 0·33 0·40 0·36 0·36 0·33 0·30 0·23 0·30 0·32 0·45 0·38 0·32 0·32
Total 98·67 99·32 99·72 98·58 98·99 99·89 99·21 99·37 100·46 101·17 101·34 100·90 101·33
Forsterite (mol %)
Fo 82·28 42·68 80·31 76·96 79·91 66·73 75·54 83·24 80·24 82·86 64·11 77·23 79·98
Fa 17·72 57·32 19·69 23·04 20·09 33·27 34·46 16·76 19·24 17·14 35·89 22·77 20·02

Area: Dhandhuka Botad Anila Wadhwan Paliyad

Sample: 244 292 110 SK/3/83 380 SK/39/83

Spot: 244P Gm 110P 110Gm 19P 23Gm 380/P2 380/P1 31 Gm

SiO2 40·76 40·92 40·24 40·32 40·54 39·77 40·32 39·74 40·65 40·15
FeO 12·02 13·15 11·21 14·50 11·01 14·77 9·41 13·36 10·22 13·61
MgO 46·68 45·53 47·75 44·20 48·26 45·67 48·92 45·78 49·06 46·66
NiO 0·33 — 0·31 — 0·20 0·19 0·39 0·28 0·20 0·19
MnO — — — — 0·20 0·25 — — 0·20 0·24
CaO 0·46 0·41 0·44 0·45 0·49 0·33 0·40 0·36 0·43 0·41
Total 100·25 100·01 99·95 99·47 100·70 100·98 99·44 99·52 100·76 101·26
Forsterite (mol %)
Fo 87·40 87·10 88·35 84·40 88·29 84·26 90·30 86·00 89·17 85·55
Fa 12·60 12·90 11·65 15·60 11·71 15·24 9·70 14·00 10·83 14·45

C, Core; R, rim; P, phenocryst; MP, microphenocryst; Gm, groundmass.

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 KRISHNAMURTHY et al. OLIVINE COMPOSITIONS IN DECCAN PICRITES

compositions during petrogenesis of these rocks. In a few

of the picrite basalts, olivine compositions show relatively
minor deviations from the equilibrium field; for example,
the reader is referred to the data for samples from
Pawagarh (PB-39 and PB-52) and Wadhwan (W-1). The
latter may have accumulated some forsteritic olivine as
suggested by its high MgO content. Thus, broadly, these
picrites must have formed from little-modified magma
compositions, similar to those observed in anhydrous
melting studies of upper-mantle peridotite.
In contrast to those just described, the picrite basalts
of the Western Ghats contain relatively iron-rich olivine
phenocrysts, typically Fo80 ± 2. In some samples (e.g. IG-
68 and TRB-5) the phenocryst compositions are close to
Fig. 2. Compositional range of olivines from picrite basalts of the
estimated equilibrium olivine compositions, but in others
Deccan. Filled bars, phenocrysts and phenocryst cores; open bars, rim there are large deviations (e.g. samples JEB 291, SAM-
and groundmass compositions; ∗, olivine compositions from peridotitic 017 and JEB-116; see Table 2 and Fig. 5). In most cases
sources (Cox, 1980). these rocks probably acquired their high MgO contents
by olivine accumulation.
forsterite content for the Saurashtra samples. In general,
phenocryst rim and groundmass olivine CaO contents
are higher for olivines from samples with higher whole- DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
rock CaO contents. There is a conspicuous absence of Until recently, known Deccan province localities with
olivines with <0·1% CaO, perhaps not surprising as such primitive picrite basalts were confined to the borehole
low CaO contents are characteristic of olivines from sequence in Saurashtra described by Krishnamurthy &
deep-seated plutonic complexes and ultramafic inclusions Cox (1977). Here we have described additional oc-
(Simkin & Smith, 1970). However, taken together with currences at Pawagarh, Ambadongar and Kawant, all to
the lack of features such as kink bands, this suggests that the north of the Narmada rift zone (see Fig. 1). In
the phenocrysts in the Deccan picrite basalts are mainly addition, the presence of surface outcrops in the vicinity
of low-pressure origin and are not xenocrysts. of the borehole localities, for example, at Anila and
MnO contents in general are consistently low in for- Paliyad, as well as those reported by Melluso et al. (1995)
steritic olivines (<0·1%), except for samples from Paliyad, in southern Kathiawar suggest that picrite basalt flows
Anila and Botad quarry (see Table 1). There is a general may originally have had a large areal extent in this part
positive correlation between MnO and iron content. of the Deccan province. The geographic and stratigraphic
positions of these rocks may be related to the overall
operation of the Deccan volcanic cycle, similar to the
Whole-rock chemistry and olivine situation outlined by Cox (1972) for the Karroo province.
compositions
Representative whole-rock analyses of picrite basalts from
the Deccan province are given in Table 2. Computed Compositional diversity among the Deccan
equilibrium olivine compositions and the observed (max- picrite basalts
imum) forsterite contents within the studied samples or The data in Table 2 suggest that, in terms of chemical
associated lavas are also listed. composition, there are at least two groups of Deccan
Figure 5 shows mole percent forsterite in the analysed picrite basalts, and that there is some overlap between
olivines vs mg-number of the host rock. These data can them. They include (1) a mildly alkalic or transitional
be used to examine the mode of origin of these picrites. type rich in TiO2 (>1·8% TiO2), K2O and P2O5, and (2)
A number of the samples with forsteritic olivine, such as a tholeiitic type, poorer in TiO2 (<1·8%), K2O and P2O5.
those of Dhandhuka (D-12), Botad (B-6), Ambadongar We will refer to these subsequently as Type 1 and Type
and Kawant, show a fairly close correspondence between 2. The former is mainly confined to areas north of the
estimated equilibrium olivine compositions and those Narmada rift and west of the Cambay graben, e.g.
observed in the samples. This suggests a primitive status Dhandhuka, Wadhwan, the Botad borehole sequence,
for these picrites. As noted above, phenocryst rim com- Anila, Paliyad and Ambadongar. The second group
positions are often much more Fe rich and therefore occurs primarily in southern Kathiawar and the Western
not in equilibrium, indicating evolution of the liquid Ghats. The sample from Kawant is somewhat anomalous,

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 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 41 NUMBER 7 JULY 2000

Fig. 3. Histogram showing the forsterite, NiO and CaO contents in olivines from picrite basalts of the present study.

having low TiO2 but high K2O and P2O5. Lavas of both for many investigators (e.g. Krishnamurthy & Cox, 1977,
types, as well as some that appear to be transitional, 1980; Krishnamurthy & Udas, 1981; Beane et al., 1986;
occur at Pawagarh (see Tables 2 and 3). Lightfoot & Hawkesworth, 1988; Lightfoot et al., 1990;
Melluso et al., 1995; Greenough et al., 1998). These studies
have identified a variety of magma types, but among
Primitive picrites and derivative basalts them tholeiitic and mildly alkalic lavas are the pre-
The search for parental magmas and an understanding dominant groups. Distinct from these, and not considered
of Deccan basalt petrogenesis has been a continuing task here, are strongly alkalic types, which include the spinel

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 KRISHNAMURTHY et al. OLIVINE COMPOSITIONS IN DECCAN PICRITES

Picrite basalts and picrobasalts of the

Western Ghats and olivine compositions
The nature of the parental magmas for the more common
tholeiitic lavas that occur in the thick flow sequences of
the Western Ghats and elsewhere in the Deccan is
more problematic. However, picrite basalts from these
sequences, and their olivine compositions, can provide
some clues. Such rocks are found in several formations
of the Kalsubai and Lonavala subgroups. These include,
from base upwards, the Igatpuri, Neral, Thakurvadi,
Bushe and Poladpur formations. Representative whole-
rock and mineral analyses are given in Tables 1 and 2,
and Figs 3 and 5. According to Beane & Hooper (1988),
the olivine-rich flows constitute <10% of the total exposed
volume of the lava sequence. Two important features
emerge from the olivine composition and olivine–whole-
rock data. The first is the absence of any samples bearing
equilibrium forsteritic olivines, and the second is that for
those few samples that do contain equilibrium olivines,
even the most magnesian phenocrysts are relatively iron
rich (Fo80 ± 2). The large differences in compositions
between phenocryst cores and rims, or groundmass, are
noteworthy.
Beane & Hooper (1988) used the compositions of
olivine from mafic lavas of the Western Ghats to infer
parental magma compositions. Some of their data are
included in Tables 2 and 3. On the basis of the most
magnesian olivine cores (Fo84) they analysed from a
Fig. 4. Variation of forsterite content vs NiO (a) and CaO (b) in the phenocryst-poor flow from the Thakurwadi Formation
olivines analysed in this study.
(see data for sample SAM-018 in Table 3), Beane &
Hooper estimated the MgO content of the equilibrium
liquid to be 10·3 ± 0·2%. According to those workers,
such a liquid probably represents the most mafic primitive
liquid supplied to the volcanic substratum in the Western
peridotite bearing basanites and olivine nephelinites of
Ghats. However, the most iron-rich olivine phenocryst
Kutch [Krishnamurthy et al. (1999) and references
cores from some Type I picrite basalts of the Narmada
therein], and the phono-nephelinites and carbonatites of
and Saurashtra regions reach Fo86, and thus are little
Ambadongar (Simonetti et al., 1995).
different from the most magnesian values in the Type 2
Krishnamurthy & Cox (1977) showed that the bulk
compositional characteristics and variability of the prim- samples from the Western Ghats, such as SAM-018.
itive picrite basalts from the borehole sequence at Botad, Olivine composition alone may not be a sufficient in-
Dhandhuka and Wadhwan could be generated by frac- dicator of parental liquid composition, as source peri-
tionation of olivine and chromite from an Mg-rich parent. dotite composition, as well as magmatic processes during
Fractionation of olivine + clinopyroxene from evolved fractionation and differentiation, also play a role in
picrite basalts could give rise to basalts of the mildly determining phenocryst compositions. Other min-
alkalic type. Krishnamurthy & Cox (1977) interpreted eralogical evidence may also be important; for example,
the significant degree of equilibrium crystallization in- the presence of magnesian ilmenite (Murari et al., 1993),
ferred for many of the primitive picrite basalts in terms or chrome–spinel inclusions in olivine (Krishnamurthy &
of compensated crystal settling. However, more recent Cox, 1977; Bell & Williamson, 1994). Chromite inclusions
work suggests that magmatic turbulence in hot, MgO- are present in some of the olivines analysed in this work.
rich magmas during rapid emplacement may be a better Sample KB-88 from Kalsubai has phenocryst olivines
explanation (Huppert & Sparks, 1985). The estimated containing chromite with the approximate composition
MgO content for the magmas parental to the picrite (in weight percent): Cr2O3, 44·11; Al2O3, 17·30; MgO,
basalts of the borehole sequence is at least 16%. 10·96; FeO, 25·34; TiO2, 1·55.

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Table 2: Whole-rock analyses of picrite and picrobasalts from the Deccan Traps (all data in wt %)

Location: Wadhwan Dhandhuka Botad Pawagarh Pawagarh Kawant Ambadongar Dedan Dedan Dedan
Flow: W-1 D-12 B-6 20 28 Dyke Dyke Dyke Dyke Dyke
Sample: 3801 2441 1101 PB-39 PB-521 ANK1 3551 A-78K1 A-641 TK/A-311

SiO2 46·93 47·41 46·20 48·70 47·26 46·13 48·03 48·37 49·29 49·87
TiO2 1·53 2·00 2·08 1·76 1·71 1·18 1·92 1·00 1·30 0·96
Al2O3 6·75 10·07 11·33 10·09 9·99 12·90 11·70 11·62 12·51 10·69
FeOt 10·67 11·11 10·90 10·29 11·23 9·43 10·89 11·57 11·51 10·65
MnO 0·20 0·14 0·17 0·17 0·19 0·17 0·18 0·19 0·17 0·19
MgO 23·78 13·20 14·02 14·78 17·49 12·30 12·65 16·09 13·31 13·22
CaO 8·85 13·19 12·08 11·76 9·81 15·04 12·00 8·93 10·01 12·34
Na2O 0·68 1·65 1·83 1·49 1·54 1·71 1·76 1·59 1·52 1·02
K2O 0·43 0·92 1·03 0·68 0·52 0·82 0·57 0·52 0·22 0·89
P2O5 0·18 0·31 0·36 0·28 0·26 0·32 0·30 0·12 0·16 0·17
mg-no. 0·82 0·70 0·72 0·74 0·76 0·72 0·70 0·73 0·70 0·71
Fo(calc) 93·6 88·7 89·5 90·5 91·1 89·6 88·5 90·2 88·4 89·1
Fo(max) 90·3 87·4 88·3 91·7 87·9 88·3 88·6 77·2 79·9 80·0

Location: Igatpuri Triambak Kalsubai Khamshedi Water Pipe Thakurwadi Bushe

Flow: IG-12 TRB-2 KB-13 — — — —
Sample: IG-682 TRB-52 KB-882 ABC-293 JEB-2914 SAM-0174 JEB-1165

SiO2 47·94 49·76 47·22 47·63 53·19 49·00 50·44

TiO2 2·18 1·76 1·56 1·41 1·02 1·71 1·14
Al2O3 11·96 12·26 12·56 10·97 8·21 10·17 11·77
FeOt 13·16 12·18 12·91 13·79 9·39 13·91 10·54
MnO 0·14 0·13 0·14 0·19 0·18 0·21 0·16
MgO 9·32 10·26 14·68 12·20 13·14 15·87 12·17
CaO 12·69 11·34 9·11 11·48 12·65 7·17 10·95
Na2O 1·79 2·08 1·31 1·74 1·65 1·24 2·31
K2O 0·41 0·26 0·32 0·46 0·46 0·56 0·41
P2O5 0·18 0·29 0·32 0·13 0·11 0·16 0·11
mg-no. 0·55 0·63 0·69 0·70 0·74 0·69 0·70
Fo(calc) 80·5 85·8 88·2 88·4 90·2 88·3 88·4
Fo(max) 82·2 83·0 83·0 82·0 83·0 84·0 84·0

All analyses are recalculated to 100% on water-free basis; FeOt, total iron as FeO.; mg-no. = molar Mg/(Mg + Fe), after
assigning 10% of total FeO to Fe2O3; Fo(calc), olivine composition estimated from the mg-number value assuming KD = 0·3
(Roeder & Emslie, 1970); Fo(max), maximum forsterite content observed in the sample or in associated lavas (see Basaltic
Volcanism Study Project, 1981, table 1.42.1, p. 413).
1
Krishnamurthy (1974) and Krishnamurthy & Cox (1977); 2Deshmukh (1979, 1988); 3Cox & Hawkesworth (1985); 4Beane &
Hooper (1988); 5Beane et al. (1986).

Magma chamber processes and their However, Cox & Hawkesworth (1985) questioned an
influence on olivine compositions accumulative origin (which had been based solely on
It has been claimed by a number of workers that in the olivine compositions) for some mafic lavas, such as the
Western Ghats extensive gabbroic fractionation produced Khamshedi picrite basalts. According to Cox & Hawkes-
basalts with MgO contents in the range of 7% or less, and worth, the Khamshedi rocks could be primitive picrites
that an initial stage of olivine ± aluminous clinopyroxene erupted at the beginning of a new compositional cycle.
accumulation resulted in samples with >7·5% MgO (Sen, They overlie the Fe-rich flows of the Lower Poladpur
1988, 1995; Cox & Mitchell, 1988; Lightfoot et al., 1990). Formation, and although the magma may initially have

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 KRISHNAMURTHY et al. OLIVINE COMPOSITIONS IN DECCAN PICRITES

been trapped in a magma chamber because of its high

density, it could have mixed with evolved, Fe-rich
magmas of the previous cycle before eruption. Hybrid
magmas of this sort would be anomalously rich in iron
and Mg poor compared with the original picrite liquid
(note that the Khamshedi lavas contain >15% Fe2O3).
Crystallizing olivines would also be relatively Fe rich.
Thus picritic basalts of the Khamshedi type may derive
from true picrite magmas, in spite of the presence of
low-Mg olivine phenocrysts. The establishment of well-
developed magma chambers, and the operation of RTF
(replenished, trapped, fractionated) type processes
(O’Hara & Mathews, 1981) may ensure that unmodified
primitive picrite basalts are not erupted directly (Huppert
& Sparks, 1980, 1985). In the Deccan, the restriction of
most primitive picritic lavas to the early parts of the
sequence may at least in part be related to the fact that
such magma chambers were not established until later
Fig. 5. Plot of whole-rock mg-number [molar Mg/(Mg + Fe2+)] vs in the volcanic cycle.
percent forsterite in olivine phenocryst cores for selected picrite and
picrobasalts of the Deccan. Data include those of the present study The importance of mixing processes in the petrogenesis
plus data from Beane et al. (1986) and Beane & Hooper (1988). of Western Ghats basalts is corroborated by the mineral
Vertical lines with arrows show compositional variation observed in and melt inclusions present in zoned plagioclase phe-
the phenocrysts (core and rim) and groundmass as indicated (see also
Table 1). The equilibrium field (grey band) is based on Fe/Mg for
nocrysts from the ‘giant phenocryst’ basalts of the region
olivine/whole rock = 0·30 ± 0·03 after Roeder & Emslie (1970) and (Pankov et al., 1994). These flows are typically relatively
Garcia (1996, fig. 5). Fe rich and occur at the close of recognizable cycles,

Table 3: Representative samples of primitive picrite basalts and postulated parental and primary
compositions from Deccan Traps, India (all data in wt %)

Locality: South Kathiawar Pawagarh Botad Thakurwadi Deccan Traps∗

Sample: D-57† D-56† D-97† 129‡ SAM-018§ DEC- DEC-

Melt-1 Melt-1
Parent Primary

SiO2 46·61 47·17 46·32 46·10 49·04 51·39 50·57

TiO2 0·80 1·06 2·43 1·62 2·32 1·31 0·87
Al2O3 14·39 15·72 13·48 10·49 15·05 13·54 12·67
FeO 10·96 11·99 11·52 10·85 13·02 11·34 10·88
MnO 0·18 0·19 0·15 — 0·19 — —
MgO 14·31 10·20 13·20 16·52 6·89 7·70 13·96
CaO 10·19 10·93 9·97 11·91 10·92 12·05 9·13
Na2O 1·85 2·35 1·77 1·41 1·90 2·67 1·96
K2O 0·35 0·42 0·80 0·55 0·40 — —
P2O5 0·10 0·12 0·35 0·25 0·26 — —
mg-no. 0·72 0·63 0·70 0·75 0·51 0·57 0·73
Fo(calc) 89·6 84·9 88·4 90·9 77·9 81·8 89·4
Fo(obs) 75 91·0 88·0 — 84· — —

∗Parent and primary melt compositions computed from Sen (1995, tables 1 and 2). Other details as in Table 2.
†From Melluso et al. (1995, table 7).
‡From Krishnamurthy (1974, table 4-3).
§Western Ghat sample from Beane & Hooper (1988, table 3).

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 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 41 NUMBER 7 JULY 2000

particularly in the Kalsubai subgroup, which contains which ponding and mixing of dense picritic magmas
numerous picrite and picrobasalt horizons (see Beane et occurred, as described above.
al., 1986). In some giant phenocrysts, pyroxenes and/or
olivines (Fo40–32) of varying compositions are included
within the same plagioclase zone, and in addition, Mg-
rich olivines have been observed in the rim zones of Picrite basalts and the Reunion plume
plagioclases that contain Fe-rich olivines in their cores. Campbell & Griffith (1990) have argued that primary
Geochemical data for lavas from the Western Ghats also picritic lavas represent high-degree melts from the high-
provide evidence for mixing of primitive and evolved temperature part of a plume head. Combined Sr–Nd–Pb
magmas (Cox & Hawkesworth, 1985; Mahoney, 1988). systematics for the primitive picrite basalts of the Dhan-
dhuka–Wadhwan–Botad borehole sequence support this
idea, as they suggest a present-day Reunion type plume
source for some of the early picrite basalts (Peng &
Primitive picrite basalts and stratigraphic Mahoney, 1995), although other isotopic components
considerations are also present. The situation for other Deccan picrite
Volumetrically significant occurrences of primitive picrite basalts is less clear. On geochemical grounds, a deep
basalts in the Deccan appear to be confined to areas ocean-island basalt type mantle source has been suggested
north of the Narmada rift, west of the Cambay graben, for the high-TiO2, large ion lithophile element (LILE)-
or southern Kathiawar (Fig. 1). This spatial distribution enriched suite at Pawagarh and Rajpipla (Melluso et al.,
may be related to stratigraphic position within the Deccan 1995; Greenough et al., 1998), and Melluso et al. (1995)
flood basalt sequence. If the Reunion-plume model for also postulated a high field strength element depleted
Deccan volcanism is valid, areas of northwest India along mantle source for the low-TiO2 suites in southern Ka-
the plume-axis trace should have encountered the plume thiawar.
first, and should therefore contain the oldest members The depths and extents of melting necessary to generate
of the sequence (Cox, 1983). That this is the case is some of the primitive picrite basalt compositions have
supported by several pieces of evidence. First, to the been dealt with in two recent publications. Sen (1995)
north of the Narmada rift the flow sequence exhibits a postulated a depth range of 100–60 km (garnet to spinel
normal–reversed–normal magnetic stratigraphy, with the lherzolite field) with 11–18% melting for the primary
lower normal representing the older Narmada Formation magmas. For the low-TiO2 picrite basalts of south Ka-
(Sreenivasa Rao et al., 1985). The Western Ghats se- thiawar, Melluso et al. (1995) found a slightly shallower but
quences to the south reveal only a single reversal. Second, overlapping depth range (80–40 km). Peng & Mahoney
detailed stratigraphic correlations in the Western Ghats (1995) used LILE abundances to argue that the picrite
indicate that the flow sequence there exhibits a very low basalts result from smaller degrees of melting than the
(<0·5°) southerly dip, so that the oldest formations occur Ambenali type basalts of the Western Ghats. However,
to the north (Beane et al., 1986). Third, older plutonic especially in a plume-influenced environment, LILE
and sub-volcanic complexes related to the Deccan, such abundances may be affected by a variety of processes.
as Mundwara (68·5 Ma; Basu et al., 1993) occur in the Mantle metasomatism by plume-derived or plume-
north. The Pawagarh hill flow sequence is an erosional related fluids can provide a rich source of LILE. In the
outlier. Thus the picrite-containing effusive sequences in Deccan region, alkaline and ultra-alkaline rocks such as
Saurashtra and north of the Narmada appear to be early the carbonatites of the Narmada zone have been at-
members of the Deccan volcanic sequence. tributed to mantle metasomatism and enriched mantle
The primitive picrite localities are also in close prox- sources (Krishnamurthy & Udas, 1981; Simonetti et al.,
imity to the Narmada and Cambay rift zones (Fig. 1), 1995). Metasomatism has also been implicated in the
which apparently provided pathways for rapid transport genesis of the potassium-rich alkaline suite of the Rajpipla
and eruption. Lacking such conduits, such dense magmas area, on the basis of Sr and Nd data and geochemical
may pond at the crust–mantle boundary (Herzberg et decoupling between tholeiitic and alkali basalts (Mahoney
al., 1983). Eruption of fairly large volumes of high-Mg et al., 1985). Mantle enrichment has also been suggested
primitive picrites may also have been facilitated early in to explain some aspects of the Mahabaleshwar lavas of
the Deccan cycle by the high temperatures of parts of the Western Ghats (Cox & Hawkesworth, 1984). Cryptic
the plume head (Campbell & Griffith, 1990). The paucity metasomatism of the sub-Deccan mantle has been in-
of such primitive picrite basalts in the stratigraphically ferred from Sr and Nd isotopic studies of spinel peridotite
younger sequence of the Western Ghats may be attributed nodules from alkali basalts in Kutch (Krishnamurthy
to the general decrease of thermal energy later in the et al., 1988; Pande, 1988), and from the presence of
volcanic cycle, and the development of steady-state sodian–ferrian in diopsides in the same nodules (Murari,
magma chambers and magmatic plumbing systems in 1993). Recently the low-pressure, low-temperature,

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 KRISHNAMURTHY et al. OLIVINE COMPOSITIONS IN DECCAN PICRITES

orthopyroxene–rutile–spinel intergrowths that occur in surface. The predominant evolved tholeiitic basalts of
spinel peridotite xenoliths from Mt Sayala Devi in Kutch the Deccan province, well represented in the Western
have been ascribed to mantle metasomatism (Karmalkar Ghats, were erupted during the steady-state phase of the
et al., 1999). Thus throughout the northern parts of volcanic cycle. Cox (1980) envisioned sill-like complexes
the Deccan a variety of mineralogical and geochemical of ponded, picritic magmas in the lower crust, or at the
features point to mantle metasomatism, probably the crust–mantle boundary, from which such lavas evolved.
result of complex interaction between the Reunion plume The bulk of the tholeiitic lavas probably erupted near
and the lithospheric mantle. 65 Ma (Duncan & Pyle, 1988; Venkatesan & Pande,
An additional aspect of this discussion concerns the Fe 1996). The Deccan volcanic cycle apparently closed
content of the source as inferred from primitive picrite with late-stage alkaline complexes such as Phenaimata
basalts. It has been postulated (e.g. Francis, 1985; Melluso (65·0 Ma; Basu et al. 1993) and Ambadongar (65·0 Ma;
et al., 1995; Scarrow & Cox, 1995; Francis et al., 1999) Ray & Pande, 1999).
that intraplate or plume-related picrites show an inverse
relation between Si and Fe that indicates Fe-rich sources.
As has already been discussed, the Fe content of the
source influences both initial magma compositions and CONCLUSIONS
the compositions of early formed olivines. Thus source On the basis of olivine phenocryst compositions (Fo92–86)
composition is important for understanding picrite basalt and whole-rock chemical compositions, primitive picrite
petrogenesis. basalt flows and dykes have been identified from widely
separated parts of the Deccan flood basalt province.
These include localities in Saurashtra (Anila and Paliyad)
and north of the Narmada rift (Pawagarh, Ambadongar
Primitive picrite basalts and the volcanic and Kawant). These occurrences, together with those
cycle reported earlier from borehole cores of Dhandhuka,
The primitive picrite basalts identified in the Deccan can Wadhwan and Botad, constitute significant quantities of
be examined in terms of Cox’s volcanic cycle model for primitive picrite basalts. They were probably emplaced
the Karoo (Cox, 1972). According to this model, the early in the Deccan volcanic cycle, along deep faults in
volcanic cycle has a very early low-degree-of-melting the Cambay graben and Narmada rift regions.
stage, characterized by alkaline and ultra-alkaline rocks, Picrite dykes from South Kathiawar (near Dedan) and
followed by a thermal peak (the culmination stage) that flows at Botad, contain less magnesian olivine phenocrysts
is represented by high-Mg primitive picritic basalts. The (Fo83–77). The former is olivine rich, probably as a result
thermal peak is followed by a steady-state stage during of flow differentiation, and the latter may be derivative
which basalts constituting the bulk of the province erupt. from the geographically adjacent primitive picrite flows
These typically have fairly uniform major element chem- sampled at the Botad borehole locality.
ical compositions. A crustal stage, dominated by rhyolitic Picrite basalts of the Western Ghats lack forsteritic
rocks, may closely follow or be coeval with the basalts. olivines and exhibit a large range of olivine compositions.
The end of the cycle is again characterized by alkaline They apparently originated from more primitive picritic
and acidic rocks produced as low-degree melts. magmas through fractionation and mixing processes
Broadly speaking, volcanism in the Deccan appears to within the crust.
have followed a similar pattern. Among the oldest known We suggest that the volumetrically significant primitive
Deccan rocks are alkaline complexes at Sarnu (68·5 Ma) picrite basalts of the Narmada and Saurashtra regions
and Mundwara (68·5 Ma) in the north, representing the can be linked to an early stage of Deccan volcanism and
very early, low partial melt stages (Basu et al., 1993). This thus conform to the type of volcanic cycle envisioned by
is probably followed by the sequences found in Kutch, Cox (1972) for the Karroo flood basalts. Similarly, the
Saurashtra and Narmada. In Kutch, tholeiitic and ultra- less primitive picrite basalts of the Western Ghats appear
alkaline rocks are almost synchronous, giving ages of to fit the ‘steady-state’ stage of Cox’s ideal volcanic cycle.
67–64 Ma (Pande et al., 1988). Field evidence appears to
place the primitive picrite basalts of the borehole
sequence, as well as those of Pawagarh, below the thole-
iites of the Western Ghats in the stratigraphic sequence. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The primitive picrites would thus represent the cul- The late Keith Cox, the first author’s Guru for basalts,
mination stage in Cox’s model, and probably originated reviewed an earlier version of this paper and suggested
in the high-temperature Reunion plume head. Deep- that we consider the role of RTF magma chambers in
seated faults along the Narmada rift and Cambay graben picrite genesis, and also that we examine the relationship
aided rapid transport of these dense magmas to the between picrites and stratigraphic position in the Deccan.

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 JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY VOLUME 41 NUMBER 7 JULY 2000

As usual, his suggestions were insightful. We would like implications for open system magmatic processes. Journal of Petrology
to acknowledge critical reviews and suggestions by Peter 26, 355–377.
Cox, K. G. & Mitchell, C. (1988). Importance of crystal settling in the
Hooper, Claude Herzberg and an anonymous reviewer,
differentiation of Deccan Trap basaltic magmas. Nature 333, 447–449.
and also comments by Marjorie Wilson, Executive Editor Deshmukh, S. S. (1979). A critical petrological study of the Deccan
of the journal. All helped to improve the paper. Roy basalts and associated high level laterites in parts of the Western
Fujita at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography is Ghats, Maharashtra State. Ph.D. thesis, Nagpur University.
thanked for tutoring and assistance with the probe work. Deshmukh, S. S. (1988). Petrographic variations in compound flows of
We are grateful to S. S. Deshmukh of the Geological Deccan Traps and their significance. Deccan Flood Basalts. Geological
Survey of India, Nagpur, and John Mahoney of the Society of India, Memoir 10, 305–319.
University of Hawaii, for supplying various samples. Duncan, R. A. & Pyle, D. G. (1988). Rapid eruption of the Deccan
flood basalts, Western India. Geological Society of India, Memoir 10,
We would like to acknowledge the help in manuscript
1–10.
preparation rendered by E. V. S. S. K. Babu, Y. V. S. Francis, D. (1985). The Baffin Bay lavas and the value of picrities as
S. Rao and Ms Latha Vamadevan. P.K. would like to analogues of primary magmas. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology
record his gratitude to Raja Ramanna, former Chairman, 89, 144–154.
Atomic Energy Commission, India, and A. V. Phadke, Francis, D., Ludden, J., Johnstone, R. & Davis, W. (1999). Picrite
Director (Retired), Atomic Minerals Division, for granting evidence for more Fe in Archaean mantle reservoirs. Earth and
him the deputation to participate in this Indo-US en- Planetary Science Letters 167, 197–213.
deavour. This work was supported in part by grants from Garcia, M. O. (1996). Petrography and olivine and glass chemistry of
lavas from the Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project. Journal of Geophysical
the US National Science Foundation.
Research 101, 11701–11713.
Greenough, J. D., Hari, K. R., Chatterjee, A. C. & Santhosh, M.
(1998). Mildly alkaline basalts from Pawagarh Hill, India: Deccan
flood basalts with an asthenospheric origin. Mineralogy and Petrology
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