Chapter3: Writing the research proposal

3.1 Introduction

A proposal is an individual’s or company’s offer to produce a product, render a service to a

potential buyer or sponsor. The purpose of the research proposal is:

 To present the problem to be researched and its importance

 To discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on related problems
 To collect necessary data for solving the problem
 To suggest how the data will be gathered

Many students and new researchers consider a proposal as unnecessary work. But the more
inexperienced the researcher is, the more important it is to have a well-planned and documented
proposal. A research proposal is a road map indicating the location from which a journey begins,
the destination to be reached and the method of getting there. Several activities are performed for
the development of proposal

First, the problem must be analyzed in detail. This includes a review of related literature and
research

Second, the possible solutions are examined and an approach is chosen

Finally, cost and time schedule estimates are prepared.

A proposal is as essential to successful research as an architect's drawing is to the construction of

a building. No one would start building a structure by rushing out to dig a hole in the ground for
the foundation without knowing in detail what the house will like when finished. Similarly, a
researcher should not start research undertaking without having a research proposal.

Whether you seek funding a project from a grant foundation or whether you seek to show your
instructor that you have the ability to plan and carry out an investigation independently, a clear
written proposal is indispensable. Other names for a proposal are prospectus,plan, outline,
statement, and draft. If you are asked to present any of these, you are asked to present a
research proposal. In this case:

 It is a plan that specifies the objectives of and the hypothesis to be tested

 It is the outline that specifies the research and types of intention

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  It is the blue print specifying the methods to be adopted for gathering and analyzing data
 It is a scheme which can be generalized to a large population or to different situations
 It answers the research questions

3.2 Characteristics of a Proposal

More than any other factor, research demands that those who undertake it be able to think
without confusion clearly. The proposal will demonstrate whether you possess that quality. Your
reputation as a researcher more often than not rests squarely upon the quality of the proposal you
submit. It is well, therefore, to appreciate exactly what characteristics a proposal should have.
I. A proposal is a straightforward document. Whatever does not contribute directly to the
delineation of the problem and its solution must be eliminated. Remember the architect's
drawing: clean, clear, and economical. It contains all that is necessary; not one details more.
2. A proposal is not a literally production. An architect's drawing is no a work of art; a
proposal is not a "literally" production. The mission of neither is to be artistic; the purpose of
both is to communicate clearly. It provides no opportunity for fine writing, for literally
composition, for verbal extravagance. The language must be clear, precise, and sharp. A
proposal provides a chance to show with what ultimate clarity and precision the researcher can
state a problem, delineate the treatment of the data, and establish the logical validity of a
conclusion.
3. A proposal is clearly organized. Organization and outline are absolutely essential. They hint
at an orderly and disciplined mind - one of the highest tributes to a researcher's qualification.
3.3 Content and Organization of a Proposal

Proposal follows a simple logical form of presentation. Although there are many ways to arrange
the items within the proposal, the following is the outline of the proposal that students shall
follow. The following serves as a checklist of items in your writing of a proposal.

A. The Preliminaries

B. The Body

C. The Supplemental

A. The Preliminaries

I. Title or Cover page

II. Table of content

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 III. Abstract

B. The Body

3.3.1The problem and its Approach

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Statement of the Problem

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.4 Significance of the Study

1.5 Delimitation of the Study

1.6 Definition of Used Terms

1.7 Research Methodology

1.8 Organization of the Study

3.3.2Review of the Related Literature

C. The Supplemental

I. Budget and Schedule

II. Bibliography

Components of Research Design and Proposal

1.Title

The title is the most widely read part of your proposal. Many people who may not necessarily
read the proposal itself or even its abstract will read the title. It should be long enough to be
explicit but not too long so that it is not too tedious-usually between 15 and 25 words. It should
contain the key words-the important words that indicate the subject.

Titles may sometimes be too short to be clear. For instance, the title 'Credit and Poverty' may
suffice as a textbook title but it needs to be explicit and say more if it is to serve usefully as a
research title. On the other hand, titles may be too long to be readily and easily compressible.

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Excessive length in titles is often attributable to 'waste' or 'fat words such as 'an investigation
on ... · or 'studies to examine.... and the use of the words that should appear in the main text.

Kinds of Title

A) Indicative Title: - This type of title states the subject of the research (proposal) rather than
the expected outcome. E.g., 'The Role of Agricultural Credit in Alleviating Poverty in Low
Potential Areas of Ethiopia'

B) Hanging Title: - The hanging title has two parts: a general first part followed by a more
specific second part. It is useful in rewording an otherwise long, clumsy and complicated
indicative title. E.g., 'Alleviation of Poverty in Low Potential Areas of Ethiopia: The Impact of
Agricultural Credit'

C) Question Title: - Question title .is used less than indicative and hanging titles. It is, however,
acceptable where it is possible to use few words - say less than 15 words. E.g., 'Does
Agricultural Credit Alleviate Poverty in Low Potential Areas of Ethiopia?'

2. Abstract

An abstract is known by different names like executive summary, Synopsis, Epitome, and so on.
It gives executives the chance to grasp the essentials of the proposal without having to read the
details. It should also include a brief statement of the problem, the research objectives, research
question(s), and the benefits of your approach.

An effective abstract should present highlight, of the main aspects of the proposal concisely and
clearly. A good informative abstract starts by stating the problem to be solved through the
purpose, expected outcomes, and beneficiaries, expected impact of the work being proposed and
the methods to be used.

 The abstract should be brief and explain the objectives, methodology, period of study etc
 The abstract should summarize the complete content of research
 It must satisfy the readers’ needs
 It must explain the problem and the method adopted to solve it

3. Introduction
The introduction should start with a clearly articulated statement to make the reviewer or
sponsor interested in supporting the problem. The study should show how it fits into a larger

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field or wider problem. The impact of the research will not be seen unless a clearly visible
problem exists and is clearly articulated.
It is also important to state who the target beneficiaries are and how they will benefit from the
proposed project. It should highlight how the study will contribute to solving a particular
problem or minimizing its effect.
The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of the project: the
problem statement, research objectives, and background material. In most projects, the
introduction can be taken from the research with minor editing.
4.Statement of the Problem
The problem statement contains the need for the research project. The problem is usually
represented by a management question or originating question. It is followed by a more detailed
set of objectives.
In this part of your work, you have to explain what the problem is all about. Problem statement
must do better than produce merely a splutter of wordy and meaningless fragments. Thus, if you
know the problem, state it clearly. Each word of the problem should be expressive, sharp,
indispensable, and definitive. Always state the problem in a complete grammatical sentence.
Your problems should be stated so well, in fact, that anyone, (who understands English) could
read it, understand it, and react to it without benefit of your presence. If, for any reason, your
problem is not stated with such clarity, then you are merely deceiving yourself that you, yourself
know what the problem is. Such deception will merely cause you trouble later on.
The selection of the research problem doesn’t put the researcher in a position of what data to
collect, how to collect, and analyze. There is a need to state a specific problem, which is
investigated by scientific research. The purpose of the study should be exposed clearly and
briefly to depend on theoretical framework. The research problem must be researchable and it
must lend itself to empirical testing. There should not be any room for ambiguity in statement of
the problem. Clarity in statement of the problem is important for the following three basic
reasons.
I. It is the foundation for the development of research problems, which are necessary for
securing funds.
ii. It enables the researcher to describe the problem practically, to think about its importance, its
priority and to point out all the necessary points.
iii. It provides the researcher with the basis for the discussion with people in the community, the
relevant government agency, and/or the potential funding agency.
Consider the following example:

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Title - Determinants of Dividend Payout policies: The case of private Banks in Ethiopia.

Many of the corporate institutions in Ethiopia seem not to have adequate sources of finance. This
leads them to depend on the retained earnings for expansion of their businesses. This in turn
affects their dividend policies. The purpose of this mini research is to see what dividend policies
are prevalent in some selected private banks in Ethiopia namely AIB and DB and to see how
they are determined. In doing so, the entire effort of the paper revolves around seeking answers
for the following basic questions.
1. Do the firms have predetermined dividend policies.
2. What state statutes and court decisions are governing the dividend policies in Ethiopia?
3. What is the relationship between tax and dividends in Ethiopia and what measures do these
banks take to gain tax advantage?
4. What forces do creditors and stockholders exert on the Banks' dividend payout policies?
These questions can also be put in the form of hypothesis provide that the
Researcher has enough background information.
As can be clearly seen, this section shows the objective of the research. The objective is to
answer these basic questions.
5·Objective of the Study
The objective section of a proposal is typically very brief, usually half a paper at most. This is
because the rationale for each objective has already been established in the previous section,
while the way of achieving the objectives should be explained in the methodology section.
It should consist of both the general and specific objectives. The general objective provides a
short statement of the scientific goal being pursued by the research. The specific objectives, on
the other hand, are operational in nature. They may indicate specific types of knowledge to be
produced, certain audiences to be reached, etc. These are, therefore, the objectives against which
the success of the research will be judged. It is also important to distinguish the specific
objectives from the means of achieving them, such as pursuing fieldwork, organizing a
workshop, or publishing a book.
An objective for a research proposal should be SMART; i.e. Specific, Measurable, Achievable,
Realistic, and Time bound. It must flow logically and clearly from the purpose, problem
statement and justification already stated. Consider the following example:
The general objective of the study is to investigate whether AIB and DB have dividend policies
and to identify factors that influence their dividend policies.
The specific objectives are:

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  To explore what dividend policies, if any, these banks have and how they were
developed.
 To see whether they consider factors theoretically known in developing their dividend
policies.
 To suggest the banks to consider different factors that they may have overlooked while
determining their dividend policies etc
6. Significance of the Study
In this section, the researcher indicates the importance of the research and there by convinces the
reader. The researcher is, thus, required to indicate what his/her research will contribute; whether
the research is to provide solution or to shed light on the nature of the problem or both. Some
researches extend the frontiers of knowledge.
This section, therefore, enables the researcher questions like:
“What is the usefulness of this study?
“What does this study contribute?
The significance of the study is usually stated as follows. The purpose of the research is
 To shed light on the nature of the problem
 To give solutions to the problem
 To extend the frontiers of knowledge
 To enrich the literature
Example:
In addition to showing how the organizations under study may be able to create a means under
which they could develop sound dividend policy to achieve organizational goals, the student
researcher believes the result to this research work:
 Enriches the knowledge of the reader on the dividend policies of the banks.
 Would enable potential investors to evaluate the dividend policies of these organizations
before they decide to invest.
 Would enable the would be managers to be aware of what is expected of them in
managing the dividend policy of similar firms.
 Gives way for other researcher’s s that how to make further investigation in the area and
to conduct detailed researches on the problem.
 May add to the existing literature and may serve as an additional source of reference.
 Would enable the current and potential Creditors how the dividend policies of these
organizations may affect the repayment of the loans.
 Would enable the readers to see the similarities and differences in the dividend policies

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 between the two banks and between Ethiopia and other countries to develop some
generations. etc....
7.Delimitation of the Study
In this section, the researcher indicates the boundary of the study. The problem should be
reduced to a manageable size. The rule is "Don't bite more than what you can chew." The motto
of the researcher is "This one thing I do, this one area I investigate, this one question I attempt
to answer, this one problem I aim to solve.' Delimitation is done to solve the problem using the
available financial, labor and time resources. This does not, however, mean that we should
delimit the research topic to a particular issue and/or organization or place because it is less
costly and take less time. Delimiting is done not to necessarily reduce the scope of the study for
the sake of minimizing the effort to be exerted. This means that we should not sniff the life of
the topic in the name of making it manageable. Thus, there should be balance between
manageability and representative ness of the universe being studied.
See the following example.
The findings of the research would be more fruitful if it were conducted widely by including
other similar firms. But, due to time, labor, and money constraints it would be too tedious and
out of the reach of the (student) researcher to include all firms. Thus, the study is delimited to
treat the problem in two Banks. Namely AIB and DB The scope of the study is also delimited to
identifying factors influencing dividend policies of the banks. The time is also delimited in terms
of time coverage to post-social to clearly deal with the current problem.
8. Limitations of the Study
Limitations are difficulties the researcher faced during doing the research. Even though the
researcher designs and plans his/her study carefully, there could still be certain constraints that
might hinder the researcher from doing the research as it should be. The sources of limitations
could be weakness of methodology, availability of financial resources; time constraints; lack of
books, journals, and lack of literatures; lack of cooperation; etc. Any problem encountered and
interfered with carrying out the research should be indicated frankly.
This is usually written after the work is completed because it is known only then. Thus, it is not
usually indicated in the proposal. However, it is possible to indicate limitations expected and
solutions envisaged.
9·Definition of used Terminologies (Terms)
Many research works include some technical words. Thus, terms must be defined so that it is
possible to know what precisely the terms used in the phrasing of the problem and used in the
body of the research, mean. Without knowing explicitly what the terms mean, we can't evaluate

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the research or determine whether the researcher has carried out what in the problem, was
announced as the principal thrust of the research. Thus, terms should be defined from the outset.
There are three types of definitions: real, nominal, and operational.
a) Real definitions are statements of essential nature or characteristic of the entity.
b) Nominal Definitions are statements assigned to a term such as its dictionary definition.
c) Operational Definitions are specifications of dictionary definition of the term into observable
and hence measurable characteristics.
Terms must be defined operationally: i.e., the definition must interpret the term as it is employed
in relation to the researcher's project. Sometimes students rely on "dictionary definitions."
Dictionary definitions are seldom neither adequate nor helpful. In defining a term, the researcher
makes that term mean whatever he/she wishes it to mean within the particular context of the
problem or its sub problems.
We must know how the researcher defines the term. We need not necessarily subscribe to such a
definition, but so long as we know precisely what the researcher means when employing a
particular term. We are able to understand the research and appraise it more objectively.
10.Research Methodology
Assuming that the research questions and/or research proposals to be addressed have been
clearly identified, the purpose of the methodology is to show how these questions will be
answered in the most rigorous way possible. The researcher has to choose which methods to use
and justify them. The nature of the problem determines the methodology to be used.
In general, in short and management reports, the methodology should not have a special section.
Then it should be mentioned in the introduction with details placed in an appendix. However, for
a technical report, the methodology is an important section. It contains at least five parts.
a) Sampling Design - The researcher explicitly defines the target population being studied and
the sampling methods used. Example: - probability or non-problibility;If probability:
 Simple random or complex random?
 How were the elements selected?
 How is the size determined"!
 How much confidence we have?
 How much error was allowed?
Explanations of the sampling methods, uniqueness of the chosen parameters, or other points that
need explanation should be covered with brevity. Calculations should be placed in the appendix.
b) Research Design - The coverage of the design must be adapted to the purpose.

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For example, in experimental research, the materials, tests, equipment, control conditions, and
other devices should be indicated.
c) Data Collection - This part describes the specifics of gathering the data. It contents depend on
the selected design. Typically you would include a discussion on the relevance of secondary data
that guided these decisions. Again, detailed materials such as questionnaires or interview guide
should be included in the appendix.
d) Data Analysis - This section summarizes the methods used to analyze the data. The rationale
for the choice of analysis approaches should be clear. This section then describes data handling,
preliminary analysis, statistical tests, computer programs, and other technical information.
e) Limitations- This section should be thoughtful presentation of significant methodology or
implementation problem. All research studies have their limitations, and sincere investigator
recognizes that readers need aid in judging the study's validity.
11. Organization of the Study
This section explains what each chapter of the research report consists of. Consider the
following example:
The study will be organized into four chapters. The first chapter deals with the problem and its
approach. The second chapter will be concerned with presenting the review of the related
literature. The third chapter will treat the analysis of the data collected. The fourth chapter will
bring to an end this study with summary conclusion and recommendation.
12. Review of the Related Literature
This section examines recent or (historically significant) research studies, company data or
industry reports that act as a basis for the proposed study. Begin your discussion of the related
literature and relevant secondary data from a comprehensive perspective, moving to more
specific studies that are associated with your problem. If the problem has a historical
background, begin with the earliest references.
A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge
including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a
particular topic
3.4 Definition and Concepts of literature Review
 A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current
knowledge including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological
contributions to a particular topic.
 A literature review is a critical and in-depth evaluation of previous research. It is a
summary and synopsis of a particular area of research, allowing anybody reading the

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 paper to establish why you are pursuing this particular research program.
 Its ultimate goal is to bring the reader up to date with current literature on a topic and
forms the basis for another goal, such as future research that may be needed in the area.
 In the initial stages of research it helps you to establish the theoretical roots of your
study, clarify your ideas, explore the context for your project and develop your research
methodology.
 Later in the process, the literature review serves to enhance and consolidate your own
knowledge base and helps you to integrate your findings with the existing body of
knowledge
 During the write-up of your report it helps you to integrate your findings with existing
knowledge-that is to either support or contradict earlier research
 After Your research it will help you to see what impact your own work has had, and to
help you develop ideas for further research projects
3.4.1Importance and Purpose of Literature Review

A literature review has the following functions:

 It provides a theoretical background to your study

 It helps you establish the links between what you are proposing to examine and what
has already been studied.
 It enables you to show how your findings have contributed to the existing body of
knowledge in your profession.
 It helps you to integrate your research findings into the existing body of knowledge

In relation to your own study, literature review can help in four ways. It can:

 Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;

 Improve your research methodology;
 Broaden your knowledge base in your research area; and
 Contextualize your findings

3.4.2 Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies

There are certain characteristics of related materials that make them of true value. Among
these characteristics are:

 The survey materials must be as recent as possible

 Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased

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  Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study

 Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or
data to make them valid and reliable

 Review materials must not be too few not too many.

How to Begin a Search for Related literature?

The process of reviewing the related literature comprise, among other things, active reading,
careful record keeping, selective note- taking, and critical evaluation of the information
Active Reading
Any research activity requires the researcher(s) to be involved in a significant amount of
reading. The critical reading refers to a considered and justified examination of what others have
written or said regarding the subject in question. Reading for research could take place in three
stages of the research project:
1) At the beginning of your research, the purposes of which are to; check what other researches
have done, focus your ideas, and explore the context for your project;
2) During your research, the purposes of which are to; keep you interested and help you better
understand the methods you are using and the field you are researching, and to serve as a source
of data;
3) After Your research, whose specific purposes are to; see what impact your own work has
had, and help you develop ideas for further research projects
Therefore, as you read each source, you have to evaluate the material based on the following
criteria:
 The relevance of the work to your topic and starting question
 The timeliness(recentness)of the work
 The author of the work ( based on all available information)
 The prestige (reputation)or nature of the journal (scholarly or popular press)
 The controversial nature of the source (whether it agrees with or contradicts other
sources).
Record Keeping
A researcher must be careful right from the beginning of the research project up to the end and
even beyond the project. That will save time and trouble of the researcher in the long run.
Therefore, the researcher should resolve right from start by noting down full details of
everything he/she reads. These details should include:
 Name of the author or authors;

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  The title of the paper, report or book;
 The date of publication;
 If it is a book or report, the publisher and place of publication;
 If it is a chapter in an edited book, the title and editor of the book, and the page
numbers of the chapter;
 if it is a paper in a journal, the title of the journal, volume and issue number, and
pages
There are a number of ways in which you might collect and store this information. These
include notebooks, loose sheets of paper and note cards (index cards)
Review the literature; don't reproduce it!
The review of the literature section of a proposal or a dissertation is perhaps one of the most
challenging to write. It requires that you keep a clear focus on just what this section is intended
to do. Many students seem to think they have the opportunity to quote long passages from the
literature, to cite at length the words or ideas of others. More important is what you say about the
study than what the author of the study says in the study. Thus,
 Present your own discussion
 Paraphrase, (précis, resume, give synopsis, an epitome)
 Use short direct quotations if necessary
 Long direct quotations are the last resort uses them only for a very good reason.
Begin your discussion of the related literature from a comprehensive like an inverted
pyramid: broad end first. Then you can deal with more and more specific or more localized
studies, which focus closer and closer on your specific problem.
Use proper citation style
Citation refers to indicating the source or borrowed or quoted idea.
Citation has two advantages:
a) It protects against plagiarism.
b)It supports and adds power to one’s own point of view.
"Plagiarize" is defined as to steal and us of the ideas or words of another as one’s own to use
without crediting the source. The three ways one can be guilty of plagiarism are:
 Paraphrasing someone else’s words at length without giving him/her credit.
 Copying someone else's word or sentences variation without quoting appropriately and
showing a reference.
 Using ideas that have been strongly influenced by someone else's work without giving
appropriate credit.

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3.5 Paraphrases and Quotations
Paraphrasing: is taking someone else's work and putting it into one’s own words. In other
words it is restating or rewording a passage from a text, giving the same meaning in another
form. The main objective of paraphrasing is to present an author's ideas in your own words.
Guidelines for successful paraphrasing:
 Place the information found in the source in a new order
 Break the complex ideas into smaller units of meaning
 Use concrete, direct vocabulary in place of technical jargon found in the original source.
 Vary the sentence patterns.
 Use synonyms for the words in the source
Quotation: is copying someone else's words or sentences as it exists. If the quotation appears as
part of a paragraph, it should be preceded and followed by quotes. If the quotation is longer than
four typed lines, it should be set off a

s a paragraph of its own, single spaced, and typed without quotation marks. Both paraphrased
and quoted materials should be cited and referenced carefully.

Reference Styles
Three of the most commonly used referencing styles are the APA (American Psychological
Association the Harvared style), MLA (Modem Language Association of America), and
Turban (named for its creator, Kate L. Turabian) styles.
The Harvard style is an author-date system. It appears to have its origins in a referencing
practice developed by a professor of anatomy at Harvard University (Neville 2007) and usually
uses the author’s name and year of publication to identify cited documents within the text. All
references are listed alphabetically at the end of the text.
The APA Style relies on in text mention or the author's name and year of publication. Following
are two variations.Example:
Grapevine communications are much more accurate than most people think. Typically, 75-85%
of the information the grapevine carries is true. (Davis, 1981).
Davis (1981) reports that grapevine communications are for more accurate than most people
realize. Typically, 75-85% of/the information the grapevine carries is true.
If the writer quotes Davis directly as in the following manner, then the page number might be
added to the reference.
“The degree of grapevine activity is a misuse of company's spirit and vitality. If employees are
so disinterested in their work that they do not engage in shop talk, they are maladjusted.” (Davis,
1973, p45).

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The MLA style is similar to APA form of textual citation. The main difference is that the APA
will cite the author's name and date of publication, whereas the MLA will provide the author's
last name, title of work and page numbers.
Grapevine communications are much more accurate than most people think.Typically, 75-85%
of the information the grapevine carries is true. (Davis. “The care and cultivation of the
corporate Grapevine.” 44)
Whatever style the writer chooses, he/she should be careful to maintain consistency. When the
author of the referenced material is two or three, the last name of each of the authors should be
indicated. However, if the authors are more than three, only the name of the first author is
written followed by et. al., which means "and others." The abbreviation ‘et.al’ should be
underlined as it is Latin word written in English.
For example:
According to Thompson et. at (1996), there is a general agreement that once a training
program is over, we should try to check its effectiveness.
Under the Turban style, each citation is given a number, starting with 1 and proceeding
consecutively through the paper.
Procedures of writing foot note references under Turabian Style.
 Assigning number starting with 1 and proceeding consecutively throughout the
paper.
 The number must be typed slightly above the line to distinguish from the text.
 If foot notes are typed at the bottom of each page
a. Rule 1 and1/2 inch line to separate the text from the foot note
b. Author’s name is not transposed and alphabetized
c. The first line of an entry should be indented by five space and the subsequent
lines of the same entry should start from the left margin.
d. There must be single space between lines of the same entry.
Another style concern is how to repeat references, that is references to sources that have been
cited and are now being cited again." Consider the example that follows. The Turabian uses the
following citations.
The notation Ibid is the abbreviation for the Latin ibidem, meaning "in the same place." It is
used when a repeated reference immediately follows the original reference. In the case where
other references come between the original and the repeated citation or a given reference, the
author's last name and the Latin op.cit (Opera citato, in the work cited) are used. Here is an
example:

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"Gibson and Hogget”, Op, cit,
The notation Loc.cit is the abbreviation for the Latin loco ctamus, meaning the work cited
earlier the same place (page). When the page is the same, we use loc.cit and when the page is
different, we use op.cit.
“Gibson and Hogget”, loc.cit.
NB: Under the APA and MLA styles any reference is listed only once under "References" or
"Bibliography" and its location to determine alphabetically according to the first author's
surname for foreign names, however, under the Turabian method, as can clearly be seen from
examples, the names are not transposed as in the case of bibliographic presentations.
3 Keith Davis, The Care and cultivation of the Corporate Grapevine, (July 1973):
4Jane Whitney Gibson and Richard M. Hogget’s. Business Communication: Strategies and
Skills. New York: Harper and Row, 1990.
Moreover, in the case of bibliography, the first line of bibliographic entry starts from the left
margin and the subsequent lines of that entry are indented 2 spaces. In the case of footnote or
endnotes, however, it is the first line of the reference that should be indented and the subsequent
lines start at the left margin
In addition to indicating citations to acknowledge indebtedness and to determine the validity of
the evidence footnotes are used for the following purposes.
a) To elaborate the ideas or information presented in the text. If discussing something within the
body is difficult (or not necessary), one can type the number slightly above the term(s) to be
explained at the foot of the page.
b) To give cross reference to different parts of the same paper.
13. Budgets and Schedule
The budget should be presented in the form the sponsor requests. It should be no more than one
to two pages. But it should contain all the costs needed.
Your schedule should also include the major phases of the project, their timetables, and
milestones that signify completion of a phase. For example, major phases may be (1) Writing
literature, (2) Writing questionnaires (3) writing interview questions, (4) writing proposal, (5)
questionnaire revision, (6) field interviews, (7) editing and coding, (8) data analysis, and (9)
report generation. Each of these should have an estimated time schedule.
14. Bibliography
For all projects that require literature review, a bibliography is necessary. Use the bibliographic
format required by the sponsor. If none is specified, standard styles that may be used include
MLA style, APA style, and the Turabian style. Either of the three is correct. But keep

16
consistency in your writing.
Form of the Bibliography Entry
The concluding section of a research paper, thesis or dissertation is usually an alphabetical
listing of source materials. This list is generally entitled "Bibliography". This list allows the
reader to observe the scope of the research behind the paper or to see if a particular work has
been used. The bibliography may also provide the reader with a foundation for further research.
The type of bibliography required for both undergraduate and graduate research papers is a list
of works cited in notes or within the text. Another type of bibliography goes beyond works
actually cited in a paper and includes all the works used in preparation for writing the paper.
Three categories of information are needed for each bibliography entry: author, title and facts
of publication. Each of these categories may contain more than one piece information. A book
may have more than one author and the facts of publication for some materials may be
complicated. A period follows each category of information in a bibliography entry. i.e., period
follows the author the title and the facts of publication. Because an entry in a bibliography
(unlike an entry in a note) refers to the complete work rather than to a specific passage, a
bibliography entry does not include page numbers. A bibliography entry for an article lists the
inclusive pages of the entire article rather than specific pages from which material was selected
for action.
Procedures of writing list of bibliography
 Use surname first and the sequence of the list arranged alphabetically (articles like a, an
and the- are not considered during alphabetizing)
 Write the title
 Write publication information like publisher, place of publication and year of publication
 The same source is written once in the bibliography even if it is indicated so many times
in the textual citation.
 Only page numbers of articles of journal can be indicated.
 First line of the entry starts from the left margin and the subsequent lines of the same
entry are indented by 5 space.
 There must be single space between lines of the same entry.
 There must be 1 and ½ space between lines of the different entries.
Procedures of writing list of Endnotes
 Use first name first and the sequence of the list arranged based on assigned numbers
chronologically.
 The same source is written more than once in the foot note based on the number of

17
 assigned numbers for the same source in the textual citation.
 Publication information should be indicated in bracket.
 Page number(s) of both books and articles of journals are indicated.
 The first line of an entry is indented by 5 space and the subsequent lines of the same
entry should start from the left margin.
 There must be single space between lines of the same entry
There must be 1 and ½ space between lines of different entries
Approaches of Writing BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
The author category for a book may include one or more authors (surname first) , editors,
compilers, and translators, or a corporate author or institution. The title category includes the
title and subtitle. The facts of publication category identifies the series in which the work
appears, the city of publication (the state or the country is generally omitted), the name of the
publisher, and the year of publication.
Bronowski, Jacob. The ascent of Man. Boston: Little Brown, 1973·
Notice that periods mark the end of the author, title and facts of publication sections. Two spaces
follow each period; one space follows commas and colons.
NAME OF AUTHOR: In a bibliography entry, the name of the author appears last names first
for purposes of alphabetization except for Ethiopian names. When there are two or three authors,
the names are listed in the order in which they appear on the title page, whether or not that order
is alphabetical. Only the name of the first author appears in inverted order. A comma separates
the first name of the first author from succeeding names.
March, James G, and Herbert A. Simon. Organizations.New York: Wiley,
1958.
If a book has more than three authors, list each of their names in the bibliography.
Pherson, William, Stephen Lehman, Craig likness, and Marcia Pankake.
English and American Literature.Chicago: American Library Association,
1987.
In the note form, use only the name of the author listed first on the title page, followed by et al
(an abbreviation of et al which means "and others.")
When two authors have the same last name, the name should be repeated:
Ebbitt, Wilma R; and David Ebbitt. Writers Guide and Index of English. 6thed.
Glenview: Forest man, 1970.
When an author's name given on the title page is a pseudonym (pen name), the bibliography

18
entry begins with the pseudonyms and continues with the author’s real name in brackets. If the
real name is unknown, the abbreviation pseudo within brackets follows the name.
When no author's name appears on a work or when the title page lists Anonymous as the author,
the work is listed by title.
The Wind. New York: Harper, 1925.
When the author is a group or corporation, the publication is under the name of the organization.
Holiday Magazine. New York: Random House, 1964.
When the corporate author is also the publisher, the name does not need to be repeated with the
other facts of publication.
Columbian University. The Facultv Handhook. New York, t987
When a work has been edited, compiled or translated by a person other than the author, you
have to decide under which name you should alphabetize the work or if the emphasis of your
investigation is on the author, the author's name precedes the title and the period follows the
title. The appropriate abbreviation and one or more names to indicate compiler, editor, or
translator follow (use clomp., ed., trans., or the plural forms, comps., eds., trans.,)
Hayes, William C. Most Ancient Egypt. ed, Keith C. Seele. Chicago: Univ. of
Chicago Press, 1965.
If the emphasis in your research is on the work of the compiler, editor, or translator, the name of
the compiler, editor, or translator followed by a comma, the appropriate abbreviation, and a
period precede the title. The names of the author and the title form a unit: the author's name
follows the title in the first name - last name order preceded by a comma, one space, and the
word by.
Seele, Keith C., ed. Most Ancient Egypt, by William C. Hayes. Chicago: Univ.
or Chicago press, 1965.
Maceldo, Suzette, trans. Diagnosis of tile Brazilian Crisis, by Celso Furtado.
Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1965.
When a bibliography entry begins with three or more editors, compilers, or translators, follow
the rules for works with three or more authors. The plural form of the appropriate abbreviation
(eds., comps., trans.) follows the names.
When you want to emphasize an article or chapter in the collection, place the name of the author
of the article or chapter first. Title of articles or chapters within a book or journal should be
placed within double quotation marks.
Miller, Arthur. "The Playwright and the Atomic World." In Theatre in the
Twentieth Centurv. ed. Robert W. Corrigan. New York: Grove, 1963.

19
TITLE:- The title of a book should appear in the bibliography exactly as it is on the title page.
Capitalization, however, May be changed. Any subtitle should be separated from the main title
with a colon followed by one space. In notes the sub title is optional but it must appear in the
bibliography entry. The full title should be underlined.
Walker, Ronald G. Infernal Paradise: Mexico and the Modern English Novel.
Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1978.
When the edition you use is not the first, the number of the edition as well as its date of
publication should be provided. Unless you have a particular reason for using an earlier edition,
refer to the latest edition of a work. Additional editions may have a variety of designations such
as 2nd rev. ed. (2nd revised edition), 3rd enl. and rev. ed. (3rd enlarged and revised edition), and
these should be recorded as they appear on the title page.
Cochran, John A. Money Banking. And the Economy. 3rd ed. New York:
Maemillan, 1975.
Facts about publication the facts of publication are the place of publication, the name of
the publishing house, and the date of publication. The city name alone (without the state name)
may serve as the place of publication. When a book is published simultaneously by two
companies, name either the first publisher mentioned on the title page or both publishers
separating names with a semicolon.
The name of the publisher may be shortened as long as its identity remains clear. Abbreviations
such as Inc., Co., and Ltd. and an initial should be omitted. You should decide on policy for
shortened names and use it consistently throughout your paper. When you cannot find an
unambiguous or orderly accepted way to shorten a name, it is best to write out the full name.
The date of publication for any work other than an article in periodicals is the year alone,
without the month or day. The date generally appears on the title page or on the copyright page.
When various printings are listed, the date of the first printing is used in the bibliography or list
of woks cited. A printing is press run of a book. An edition is a new version of a text. The most
recent edition of a book should be cited unless there is some reason to cite a previous edition.
Ordinal numbers are used to designate editions: 2nd, 3rd, 4thand so on.
An entry for a work that was out of print but has been republished should indicate the original
date of publication and the fact that the work is a reprint.
Markham, Beryl. West With the Night. 1942. Reprint. Berkeley: North Point
Press, 1983.
When a paper bound book is original edition, it is listed just as any other book would be. But

20
when it is reprint of the original hardcover edition, the entry indicates the date of publication of
the hardcover edition. This information generally appears on the copyright page.
Bowra, C. M. The Romantic Imagination. 1949. Reprint. New York: Oxford
Univ. Press, 1961.
When you cannot locate one of more pieces of information concerning publication, you should
use one of the following abbreviations in the appropriate place in the entry. No place (n.p.), No
Publisher (n.p.), No date (n.d.)
Capitalize the abbreviation only when it begins a section of the entry
Eliot, George. Felix Holt. Edinburgh: WilIiam Blackwood, n.d.
Eliot, George. Felix Holt. N.P: WilIiam Blackwood, n.d.
Multivolume works and series
A multivolume work consists of two or more volumes under one general title. Each separate
volume may either have its own title or be identified by volume number only.
When you wish to refer to a complete multivolume work rather than to any specific volume, the
bibliography entry should include the total number of volumes and the inclusive dates of
publication, if applicable.
Bowsky, William M., ed. Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History. 4 vols.
Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1963-67.
When each volume in multivolume work has an individual title, the entry takes the following
form.
Crutchfield, James C., ed. The Fisheries: Problems in Resource Management.
VOI.1 of Studies on Public Issues in Resource Management. Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press,
1965.
Periodicals
Articles in periodicals
1. Author (surname)
2. Article title (under quotation mark)
3. Periodical title (underlined or bolded)
4. Volume number or Issue number (or both)
5. Publication date
6. Page numbers
Any publication that comes out at regular intervals is a periodical. Periodicals for an academic or
professional audience are usually called journals; periodicals intended for the general public are

21
often called magazines. The bibliography entry for periodical includes the author's complete
name, the title of the article, and the facts of publication, which include the name the periodical,
the number of the volume, the date of the volume or the issue number, and the inclusive page
numbers for the entire article.
A period follows both the author and title segment, a colon introduces the page numbers, and a
period closes the entry.
JOURNALSMost journals paginate continuously through each volume; the basic format for an
entry referring to such a continuously paginated is:
Aron, Raymond. "The Education of the Citizen in Industrial Society."
Daedalus. (1962): 249-63·
Avoid including any information that is repetitive or unnecessary. If the volume serves to
identify the source, the season or month should be omitted. Months should be abbreviated as:
Jan., Feb., Mar., Aug., Oct., and Dec. The months May, June. and July are not abbreviated.
Seasons shouldn't be abbreviated.
MAGAZINES
Issues of magazines are most often by date only, even when they have volume numbers. Page
numbers are separated from the date by a comma (rather than a colon, as in journal entries).
Tuchman, Barbara W. The Decline of Quality." New York Times Magazine, 2
Nov. 1980,38-57.
NEWS PAPERS: The bibliography entry for a newspaper should include the name of the other
(if available) the newspaper underlined.
Rasky, Susan F. "Senate Calls for Revisions in New Tax for Health care" New
York Times, 8 June 1989, 20.
Reference works
Entries for widely known reference works, such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, atlases and year
book need not include the fact of publication. The edition number or the year suffices for
identification of the work. The article or entry appeases with in quotation mark and the title of
the reference work is underlined.
Encyclopedia entry
"Huygens, christiaan"Encyclopaedia Britannia. 13thed.
Dictionary entry
"Advertisement" Webster's Third International Dictionary
(Because the number of the edition appears in the title, the date is not necessary).

22
Unpublished sources
In the citation of unpublished sources, you may encounter sources that do not provide all of the
usual information. When that is the case, include any other piece of information essential for
locating the source according to the principles of the style you are using.
If the source has an individual or corporate author, list the name as in any author entry. Title of
unpublished works are not under lined but are endorsed in double quotation marks. If you have
to supply a title for the source, that title is neither underlined nor quoted. The facts of publication
include the origin or location of the source and the date.
Dissertations
When cited as unpublished sources, the titles of the dissertations and theses appear within
quotation marks.
Rosenthal, Marilyn. "Poetry of the Spanish Civil War." Ph.D. diss. New York:
University, 1972.
Bibliography Format
You may wish to classify the entries in a long bibliography by one of several principles: by form
of publication, by section or chapters of the paper, or by primary and secondary sources. Lists of
work cited should not be divided. Short research papers and reports usually do not require
classified bibliographies.
Classification by Form of Publication
Grouping references according to their forms of publication often facilitates the use of a
bibliography; for example books may be listed in one group, periodicals in a second group, and
government publications in still another. A general guide line for this sort of classification is to
divide bibliographies of more than 30 entries, to divide bibliographies of 20 to 30 items only if
the nature or variety of entries warrants classification and to use a single alphabetical listing for
fewer than twenty entries.
Alphabetization of entries
Entries in a bibliography and works cited list are alphabetized by the last name of the author or
the first word, excluding articles of a group or corporate author. An entry for which the author is
unknown, such as newspaper article, is alphabetized by the first word of the title, excluding A,
An, and The. Letter-by-letter alphabetization is generally preferred to word-by-word
alphabetization for research papers and dissertations.
The entry for a work by two or more authors is alphabetized by the surname of the author who is
listed first on the title page, regardless of whether the names on the title page are in alphabetical

23
order.
When you have two or more works by the same author entries after the first begin with three
hyphens positioned flush with the left margin and followed by a period and two spaces.
All listings for one author appear in alphabetical order by the first word of the title (excluding
the articles a, an and the).
Web sites
Include some or all of the following elements when citing entire Web sites:
1. Author or editor of the Web site (if known)
2. Title of the Web site
3. URL(
4. Date of access
Examples:
Financial Accounting Standards Board. Available from
http://www.fasb.org. Accessed 29 April 2002.

Lewis, Paul. Wilkie Collins. Available from

http://www.deadline.demon.co.uk/wilkie/wilkie.htm.
Accessed 29 April 2002.
Personal interview:
1. Person interviewed last name, first name.
2. Personal interview ( Under quotation)
3. Date interviewed.
Example: Lewis, Paul. “Personal interview”. 10 Dec. 2006
SAMPLES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Haag, Stephen and others (1998), Management Information
Systems for the Informationage, IRWIN, Boston
 Hicks, Jams o. (1993) Management Information Systems: A user
Perspective (3rd ed.) West Publishing Company New York
 Laudan, Kenneth C. and Jame P. Laudan (1998) Management
Information Systems: New Approaches to Organization and
Technology (5th ed.), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
 O’Brien, James (1998) Introduction to Information Systems: An
Internet worked Enterprise, (2nd ed.), Irwin, MeGraw-HillNew York

 Romney, Marshal B. and Paul John Steinbart (1999) Accounting

Information Systems (8th ed) , Prenice Hall, Upper Sadar River, New Jersey.

 Schultheis, Robert and Mary Summner(1995), Management Information

24
 Systems: The Manager’s view (3rd ed.), IRWIN, Chicago.

 Thompson, Ronald and William Casts-Baril (1997), Information

Technology and Management, IRWIN, Boston.
Turban style of referencing
Sample of Endnote and footnote
Note: The information below is taken directly from the Style manual for authors editors and
printers, 2002, pp. 214-215.
ibid. (ibidem) - in the same place
op. cit. (opere citato) - in the work cited
loc. cit. (loco citato) - in the place cited
id. (idem) - the same
An 'ibid.' signifies a reference to the same work cited immediately before it. It can refer to the
same page or to a different one. For example:
1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Australia's welfare: services and assistance,
AIHW Canberra, 1999, pp. 128-41.
2. ibid.
3. ibid., p. 160
An 'op. cit.' refers the reader back to a previously cited work but to a different page:
1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Australia's welfare: services and assistance,
AIHW, Canberra, 1999, p. 128.
2. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Causes of death, cat. no. 3303.0, ABS, Canberra, 1995.
3. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, op. cit., p. 171.
A 'loc. cit.' refers the reader back to the same page of a work already cited:
1. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Australia's welfare: services and assistance,
AIHW, Canberra, 1999, p.128.
2. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Causes of death, cat. no. 3303.0, ABS, Canberra, 1995.
3. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, loc. cit.
An 'id.' signifies that the work in the second note is the same author as the work in the first note:
1. R Hyslop, Aye, aye, Minister: Australian naval administration 1939-59, AGPS Press,
Canberra, 1990, p. 89.
2. id., Australian mandarins: perceptions of the role of departmental secretaries, AGPS
Press, Canberra, 1993, p. 45.
Endnotes

25
1
Elizabeth Bowen, PicturesandConversations (New York: Knopf, 1985), p. 17.
2
Arthur O. Lovejoy, TheGreatChainofBeing: AStudyintheHistoryofanIdea (Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard Univ. Press, 1994), p. 118.
3
William Bloom and Don W. Fawcett, ATextbookofHistology, 9th ed. (Philadelphia: Saunders,
1986), p. 342.
4
Verbib L. Parrington, MainCurrentsinAmericanThought, 3 vols. (New York: Harcourt Brace,
1989-94).
5
Andrew Wright, AReader’sGuidetoEnglishandAmericanLiterature (New York.: Scott,
Foreman, 1990), p. 123.
6
Vernon L. Parrington, “Roger Williams,” MainCurrentsinAmericanThought, I (New York:
Harcourt Brace, 1998), p. 62.

26