MATHEMATICS-II INTERPOLATION

UNIT-I
SOLUTION OF ALGEBRAIC AND TRANSCENDENTAL EQUATIONS,
INTERPOLATION
INTRODUCTION
Using mathematical modeling, most of the problems in engineering and physical and
economical sciences can be formulated in terms of system of linear or non linear
equations, ordinary or partial differential equations or Integral equations. In majority
of the cases, the solutions to these problems in analytical form are non-existent or
difficult or not amenable for direct interpretation. In all such problems, numerical
analysis provides approximate solutions are practical and amenable for analysis.
Numerical analysis does not strive for exactness. Instaed, it yields approximations
with specified degree of accuracy. The early disadvantages of the several numbers of
computations involved has been removed through high speed computation using
computers, giving results which are accurate, reliable and fast. Numerical approch is
not only a science but also an ‘art’ because the choice of ‘appropriate’ procedure
which ‘best’ suits to a given problem yields ‘good’ solutions.

Solution of algebraic and transcendental equations

Introduction:
Polynomial function: A function f  x  is said to be a polynomial function of nth degree, if

f  x  is a polynomial in x. i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ … … … . . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛

where a0  0 , the co-efficients a0 , a1...........an are real constants and n is a non-negative

integer.
Algebraic function: A function which is a sum (or) difference (or) product of two
polynomials is called an algebraic function. Otherwise, the function is called a transcendental
(or) non-algebraic function.
Eg: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 2 is a algebraic equation
Eg: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 = 0 is a Transcndental equation
Root of an equation: A number  is called a root of an equation f  x   0 if
f    0 . We also say that  is a zero of the function.
Graphical view of a root of an equation:
y

o x
root

The roots of an equation are the points where the graph y  f  x  cuts the x-axis.

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Methods to find the roots of an equation f (x) = 0:

1. Direct methods: We know the solution of the polynomial equations such as linear equation

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 =0, and quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0 , using direct methods or analytical methods.

Analytical methods for the solution of cubic and biquadratic equations are also available.But we are
unable to find roots of higher order (above fourth order) algebraic equations and also transcendental
euations.So,we go for Numerical methods i.e Iterative methods.

2. Iterative methods: The following are some iteravative methods to find an approximate
root of an equation

(1) Bisection Method

(2) Regula- Falsi Method
(3) Newton Raphson method

Intermediate value theorem: If f is a real-valued continuous function on the interval

[a, b], and u is a number between f(a) and f(b), then there is a c ∈ [a, b] such that f(c) = u.

Bisection method or Half-interval method:

Bisection method is a simple iteration method to find an approximate root of an equation.
Suppose that given equation of the form is 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0.
In this method first we choose two points 𝑥0, 𝑥1 such that 𝑓(𝑥0 ) and 𝑓(𝑥1 ) will have opposite
signs (i.e 𝑓(𝑥0 ). 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 0) then the root lies in interval (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ). Now we bisect this interval
at 𝑥2 ,if 𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 0 then 𝑥2 is a root of an eqution otherwise the root lies in (𝑥0 , 𝑥2 ) or(𝑥2 , 𝑥1 )
accordingly 𝑓(𝑥0 ). 𝑓(𝑥2 ) < 0 and 𝑓(𝑥2 ). 𝑓 (𝑥1 ) < 0.
Assume that 𝑓 (𝑥0 ). 𝑓(𝑥2 ) < 0 then the root lies in interval (𝑥0 , 𝑥2 ) , now we bisect this
interval at 𝑥3 , ,if 𝑓(𝑥3 ) = 0 then 𝑥3 is a root of an eqution otherwise the root lies in (𝑥0 , 𝑥3 )
or(𝑥3 , 𝑥2 ) accordingly 𝑓(𝑥0 ). 𝑓(𝑥3 ) < 0 and 𝑓 (𝑥3 ). 𝑓 (𝑥2 ) < 0.
We continue this procedure till the root is found to the desired accuracy.

PROBLEMS
1. Using bisection method, find the negative root of x3  4 x  9  0
SOL:
Givenf(x)= x3  4 x  9
f(-1)=-1+4+9=12>0
f(-2)=-8+8+9=9>0
f(-3)=-27+12+9=-6<0

Since f(-2)>0 and f(-3)<0 therefore root lies in interval (-2,-3)= (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥2
−𝟐−𝟑
i.e 𝑥2 = 𝟐
= -2.5 , 𝑓 (−2.5) > 0

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Since f(-2)>0 f(-2.5)>0 f(-3)<0 therefore root lies in (-2.5,-3)

Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥3
−2.5−3
i.e 𝑥3 = =-2.75 , 𝑓 (−2.75) < 0
2

Since f(-2.5)>0 f(-2.75)<0 f(-3)<0 therefore root lies in (-2.5,-2.75)

Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥4
−2.5−2.75
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥4 = =--2.625, 𝑓 (−2.625) < 0
2

Since f(-2.5)>0 f(-2.625)>0 f(-2.75)<0 therefore root lies in (-2.625,-2.75)

Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥5
−2.625−2.75
i.e 𝑥5 = =--2.6875 , 𝑓(−2.6875) < 0
2

Since f(-2.625)>0 f(-2.6875)>0 f(-2.75)<0 therefore root lies in (-2.6875,-2.75)

Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥6
−2.6875−2.75
i.e 𝑥6 = 2
=--2.7187, 𝑓(−2.7187) < 0

We continue this procedure till the root is found to the desired accuracy. (stop the procedure
when two successive approximations are same up to four decamal places)

2). Find a root of the equation x3  x  1  0 using the bisection method in 5 – stages
Sol. Given 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 − 1
𝑓 (1) = −1 < 0
𝑓 (2) = 5 > 0
∴One root lies between 1 and 2
Now see f(1) is near to 0 than f(2). So root is near to 1
so again find f(1.1),f(1.2)……

Till one is + ve and another – ve.

Clearly f(1.1)<0,f(1.2)<0
f(1.3)=-0.103<0
f(1.4)=0.344>0
Since f(1.3)<0 and f(1.4)>0 therefore root lies in interval (1.3,1.4)= (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥2
1
i.e. x2  2 1.3  1.4   1.35

ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 (2) = 5 > 0

Since f(1.3)<0 f(1.35) > 0 f(1.4)>0 therefore root lies in (1.3,1.35)

Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥3
1.3+1.35
i.e 𝑥3 = =1.325 , 𝑓 (1.325) = 0.0012 > 0
2

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Since f(1.3)<0 f(1.325)>0 f(1.35)>0 therefore root lies in (1.3,1.325)

Continuing like above upto two iterations nearly same upto three decimals,we get
Therefore, Approximate root is 1.32.

3) Find a root of an equation 3x= 𝒆𝒙 using bisection method.

Sol
Let f  x   3x  e x
f 1  0.281718  0
f  2  1.389056  0
Since f(1)>0 and f(2)<0 therefore root lies in interval (1,2)= (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥2
x x
i.e x2  0 1  1.5 𝑓 (1.5) > 0
2
Since f(1)>0 f(1.5)>0 f(2)<0 therefore root lies in (1.5,2)
Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥3
1.5+2
i.e 𝑥3 = 2
=1.75 𝑓 (𝑥3 ) = 𝑓 (1.75) < 0

Since f(1.5)>0 f(1.75)<0 f(2)<0 therefore root lies in (1.5,1.75)

Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥4
1.5+1.75
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥4 = 2
=1.625, 𝑓(1.625) = 1.666 > 0
Continuing like above up to 12 iterations we get
𝑥11 = 1.512323
𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑥12 = 1.512208
Therfore we got two successive iterations same up to three decimal places
Therefore, Approximate root is 1.512.
4. Find a root of an equation x 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝒙= 1.2 using bisection method which lies between 2
and 3
Sol:
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 − 1.2
f(1)=-1.2<0
f(2)=-0.59<0
f(3)=0.23>0
Since f(2)>0 and f(3)<0 therefore root lies in interval (2,3)= (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥2
2+3
i.e 𝑥2 = =2.5
2
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓(2.5) < 0

Since f(2)<0 f(2.5)<0 f(3)>0 therefore root lies in (2.5,3)

Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥3

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2.5+3
i.e𝑥3 = =2.75 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓(𝑥3) = 𝑓(2.75) > 0
2
Continuing like above ,we get 𝑥9 = 2.7453 𝑥10 =2.7406
Therefore, Approximate root is 2.741.
5.Find a root of an equation x = cosx using bisection method.
SOL:
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑥) = 𝑥 – 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)
𝑓(0) = 0 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = −1 < 0
𝑓(1) = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠1 = 0.4597 > 0
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 (0 , 1)
Here 𝑓 (1)𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑠𝑜
𝑓(0.9) = 0.2784 > 0
𝑓(0.8) = 0.1033 > 0
𝑓(0.7) = −0.0648 < 0
Since f(0.7)<0 and f(8)>0 therefore root lies in interval (0.7,0.8)= (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥2
𝑥0 + 𝑥1 0.7+0.8
i.e , 𝑥2 = 2
= = 0.75 𝑓(0.75) = 0.0183 > 0
2
Since f(0.7)<0 f(0.75)>0 f(0.8)>0 therefore root lies in (0.7,0.75)
Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥3

𝑥2 + 𝑥0 0.7 + 0.75
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥3 = = = 0.725 𝑓(0.725) = −0.0235 < 0
2 2
Since f(0.7)<0 𝑓(0.725) < 0 f(0.75)>0 therefore root lies in (0.725,0.75)
Bisect this interval to get next approximation𝑥4

𝑥2 + 𝑥3 0.725 + 0.75
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥4 = = = 0.7375 𝑓(0.7375) = −0.0027 < 0
2 2
Since 𝑓 (0.725) < 0 𝑓(0.7375) < 0 f(0.75)>0 therefore root lies in (0.7375,0.75)
Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥5

𝑥2 + 𝑥4 0.7375 + 0.75
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥5 = = = 0.7425 𝑓(0.7425) = 0.0057 > 0
2 2
We continue this procedure till the root is found to the desired accuracy. (stop the procedure
when two successive approximations are same up to four decamal places)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 = 0.7392.
6. Find a root of an equation 𝟑𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 + 𝟏 using bisection method.
SOL:Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 – 1
𝑓(0) = −2 < 0
𝑓(1) = 1.4597 > 0
𝑓(0.5) = −0.3776 < 0
Since f(0.5)<0 and f(1)>0 therefore root lies in interval (0.5,1)= (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥2
𝑥0 + 𝑥1 0.5+1
i.e 𝑥2 = = = 0.75 𝑓(0.75) = 0.5183 > 0
2 2
Since f(0.5)<0 f(0.75)>0 f(1)>0 therefore root lies in (0.5,0.75)

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Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥3

𝑥2 + 𝑥0 0.5+0.75
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥3 = = = 0.625 𝑓(0.625) = 0.06403 > 0
2 2
Since f(0.5)<0 𝑓 (0.625) > 0 f(0.75)>0 therefore root lies in (0.5,0.625)
𝑥0 + 𝑥3 0.5+0.625
Bisect this interval to get next approximation𝑥4 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥4 = = =
2 2
0.5625 𝑓(0.5625) = −0.1584 < 0
Since f(0.5)<0 𝑓(0.5625) < 0 𝑓 (0.625) > 0 therefore root lies in (0.5625,0.625)
𝑥3 + 𝑥4 0.5625+0.625
Bisect this interval to get next approximation 𝑥5 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥5 = = =
2 2
0.59375 𝑓(0.59375) = −0.0475 < 0
We continue this procedure till the root is found to the desired accuracy.
(stop the procedure when two successive approximations are same up to four decamal places)
Therefore, Approximate root is 0.61.
7.Find the real root of the equation x3-5x+1=0 by bisection method.

Sol: given that f(x)= x3-5x+1

f(0)=1 >0 ,
f(1)= -3 <0
Hence the root lies between 0 and 1
0 1
Let the initial approximation be x0 = =0.5
2
f(0.5)= -1.375 < 0
since f(0) > 0 and f(0.5)<0
therefore the root lies between 0 and 0.5
0  0 .5
The second approximation x1= =0.25
2
f(0.25)= -0.234 < 0
since f(0) > 0 f(0.25) < 0 f(0.5)<0
therefore the root lies between 0 and 0.25

0  0.25
the third approximation x2= =0.125
2
Now f(0.125)=0.3749 > 0
f(0) > 0 f(0.125)>0 f(0.25) < 0
therefore the root lies between 0 and 0.125
continue this procedure till the desired occurucy is obtained.

False Position Method ( Regula – Falsi Method)

Using False position method we find the approximate root of the given equation f  x   0 in

in this method first we choose two initial approximate values x0 and x1 such that 𝑓(𝑥0 ) and

𝑓(𝑥1 ) will have opposite signs i.e f  x0  . f  x1  <0. Therefore the root lies in interaval

(𝑥0 , 𝑥0 )

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Here two cases occur (i) f  x0  <0, f  x1  >0 (ii) f  x0  >0, f  x1  <0

FIGURE OF CASE (I)

y
B
(x1,f(x1))

f(x1)>0
xC2

o x
f(x0)<0 x3
root

A ((x0,f(x0))

Let A   x0 , f  x0   and B   x1 , f  x1   be the points on the curve y  f  x  Then the

𝑦−𝑓(𝑥0) 𝑓(𝑥1)−𝑓(𝑥0)
equation to the chord AB is = − − − − − − (1)
𝑥−𝑥0 𝑥1 −𝑥0

At the point C where the line AB crosses the x – axis, where 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 𝑖𝑒, 𝑦 = 0
substitute 𝑦 = 0 in equation (1), then we get
x1  x0
x  x0  f  x0    2 
f  x1   f  x0 
𝑥 is given by (2) serves as an approximated value of the root, when the interval in which it
lies is small. If the new value of 𝑥 is taken as x2 then (2) becomes

 x1  x0  f x
x2  x0   0
f  x1   f  x0 
x f  x1   x1 f  x0 
 0  3
-------------(3)
f  x1   f  x0 
Now we decide whether the root lies between
x0 and x2  or  x2 and x1
In the above graph clearly f(x2)<0
Therefore root lies between x1 and x2

We name that interval as  x1 , x2 

x1 f  x2   x2 f  x1 
The next approximation is given by x3 
f  x2   f  x1 

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This will in general, be nearest to the exact root. We continue this procedure till the root
is found to the desired accuracy.
The iteration process based on (3) is known as the method of false position
The successive intervals where the root lies, in the above procedure are named as
 x0 , x1  ,  x1, x2  ,  x2 , x3  etc
Where 𝑥𝑖 < 𝑥𝑖+1 and𝑓(𝑥0 ), 𝑓(𝑥𝑖+1 ) are of opposite signs.
x f  xi   xi f  xi 1 
Also xi 1  i 1
f  xi   f  xi 1 
CASE(II) f  x0  >0, f  x1  <0
Repeate same procedure as case(i).

PROBLEMS:
1. Find an approximate root of the equation 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 by using Regula-Falsi
method.
Sol : Given equation is 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑓 (1) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠1 = −0.5403 < 0
𝑓 (2) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 = 1.1093 > 0

Since 𝑓 (1) < 0 and 𝑓 (2) > 0 Therefore the root lies in interval (1,2) = (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
Since 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = −0.5403 < 0 and 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 1.1093 > 0
The next approximation to the root is given by
𝑥0 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑥1 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑥2 = = 1.3275
𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 )
𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 𝑓 (1.3275) = 0.04239 > 0

Since 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) = −0.5403 < 0 , 𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 0.04239 > 0, 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 1.1093 > 0

Therefore the root lies in interval (𝑥0 , 𝑥2 ) = (1,1.3275)

The next approximation is
𝑥0 𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑥2 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑥3 = = 1.3035
𝑓 (𝑥2 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 )
Continue the procedure until the successive approximations are same up to four decimal
places

2. Find an approximate root of the equation 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎 by using Regula-

Falsi method.
Sol: Given equation is 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎
𝑓 (0) = −1 < 0
𝑓(1) = 1.2873 > 0
Since 𝑓(0) < 0 and 𝑓(1) > 0
Therefore the root lies in interval (0,1) = (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
𝑓(𝑥0 ) = −1 < 0 and 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 1.2873 > 0

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The next approximation to the root is given by

𝑥0 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑥1 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑥2 = = 0.4372
𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 )

𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 𝑓 (0.4372) = −0.3444 < 0

𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 1.2873 > 0 and 𝑓 (𝑥2 ) = −0.3444 < 0
Therefore the root lies in interval (0.4372,1) = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 )
The next approximation is
𝑥1 𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑥2 𝑓(𝑥1 )
𝑥3 = = 0.556
𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥1 )
Continue the procedure until the successive approximations are same up to four decimal
places

3. Find an approximate root of the equation 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 − 𝟕 = 𝟎 by using

Regula-Falsi method.
Sol: Given equation is 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙𝟏𝟎 − 𝟕 = 𝟎
𝑓 (1) = −5 < 0
𝑓 (2) = −3.3010 < 0
𝑓 (3) = −1.4771 < 0
𝑓(4) = 0.3979 > 0

Since 𝑓 (3) < 0 and 𝑓(4) > 0

Therefore the root lies in interval (3,4) = (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
𝑓(𝑥0 ) = −1.4771 < 0 and 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 0.3979 > 0
The next approximation to the root is given by
𝑥0 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑥1 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑥2 = = 3.7878
𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 )
𝑓(𝑥2 ) = −0.0028 < 0
𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 0.3979 > 0 and 𝑓 (𝑥2 ) = −0.0228 < 0
Therefore the root lies in interval (3.7878,4) = (𝑥2 , 𝑥1 )
The next approximation is
𝑥2 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑥1 𝑓(𝑥2 )
𝑥3 = = 3.7893
𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥2 )
Continue the procedure until the successive approximations are same up to four decimal
places
4. Find a root of an equation 3x= 𝒆𝒙 using False position method.
Sol. Let f  x   3x  e x
f  0   1, f  0.1  0.8,...
Then
f  0.6   0.0221192  0, f (0.7)  0.086247  0
Since f  0.6 . f  0.7   0 and these values are near to zero
Therefore the root lies in the interval (0.6,0.7)= (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
By False position method
The next approximation to the root is given by

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𝑥0 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑥1 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑥2 = = 3.7878
𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 )

0.6𝑓(0.7)−0.7𝑓(0.6)
=
𝑓(0.7)−𝑓(0.6)
=0.620451
( )
Since 𝑓 𝑥0 <0 𝑓 𝑥2 = f(0.620451)=0.001587>0 𝑓 (𝑥1 )>0
( )
Therefore the root lies in the interval (0.6, 0.620451)= (𝑥0 , 𝑥2 )
The next approximation to the root is given by

𝑥 0 𝑓 (𝑥 2 ) − 𝑥 2 𝑓 (𝑥 0 )
𝑥3 =
𝑓 (𝑥 2 ) − 𝑓 ( 𝑥 0 )

0.6𝑓(0.620451)−0.620451𝑓(0.6)
=
𝑓(0.620451)−𝑓(0.6)
=0.619083
f (0.619083)=0.000025>0
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑠 0.6190
5. Find the root of 𝐱𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 − 𝟏. 𝟐 = 𝟎 using Regula falsi method.
Sol:
f(𝒙) = 𝐱𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 − 𝟏. 𝟐
Here
f(2)=-0.59<0,
f(3)=0.23>0
Since f(2)<0 and f(3) >0 the root lies in the interval (2,3) = (𝑥0 , 𝑥1 )
The next approximation to the root is given by
𝑥0 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑥1 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑥2 =
𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥0 )

2𝑓(3)−3𝑓(2)
=
𝑓(3)−𝑓(2)
=2.7195
Since 𝑓 (𝑥0 )<0 𝑓 (𝑥2 ) = f(2.7195)=-0.0184<0 𝑓 (𝑥1 )>0
Therefore the root lies in the interval(2.7195,3)= (𝑥2 , 𝑥1 )
The next approximation to the root is given by
𝑥2 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑥1 𝑓(𝑥2 )
𝑥3 =
𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥2 )
2.7195 𝑓(3)−3𝑓(2.7195)
= 𝑓(3)−𝑓(2.7195)
=2.7403
f(2.7403)=-0.000302<0
Clearly f(2.7403) is nearly equal to zero up to 3 decimal places
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑠 2.740

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6. By using Regula - Falsi method, find an approximate root of the equation

x 4  x  10  0 that lies between 1.8 and 2. Carry out three approximations
Sol.
Let us take f  x   x4  x  10 and x0  1.8, x1  2

Then f  x0   f 1.8  1.3  0 and f  x1   f  2  4  0

Since f  x0  and f  x1  are of opposite signs, the equation f  x   0 has a root between
x0 and x1
The first order approximation of this root is
x1  x0
x2  x0  f  x0 
f  x1   f  x0 
2  1.8
 1.8    1.3
4  1.3
1.849
We find that f  x2   0.161 so that f  x2  and f  x1  are of opposite signs. Hence the
root lies between x2 and x1 and the second order approximation of the root is
 x1  x2 
x3  x2    . f  x2 
 f  x1   f  x2  
 2  1.849 
 1.8490     0.159 
 0.159 
 1.8548
We find that f  x3   f 1.8548
 0.019
So that f  x3  and f  x2  are of the same sign. Hence, the root does not lie between
x2 and x3 .But f  x3  and f  x1  are of opposite signs. So the root lies between
x3 and x1 and the third order approximate value of the root is 𝑥4 = 𝑥 3 −
𝑥1 −𝑥3
[ ] 𝑓 (𝑥 )
3
𝑓(𝑥1 )−𝑓(𝑥3)
2−1.8548
= 1.8548 −
4+0.019
× (−0.019)
Therefore, approximate root is 1.8557

NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD:

The Newton- Raphson method is a powerful and eligant method to find the root of an
equation. This method is generally used to improve the results obtained by the previous
methods.
Let x0 be an approximate root of f  x   0 and let x1  x0  h be the correct root
which implies that f  x1   0 . We use Taylor’s theorem and expand f  x1   f  x0  h   0

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 f  x0   hf 1  x0   0
f  x0 
h
f 1  x0 
Substituting this in x1 ,we get
f  x0 
x1  x0 
f 1  x0 
 x1 is a better approximation than x0
Successive approximations are given by
𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑥2 , 𝑥3 … … … . . 𝑥𝑛+1 where 𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑓1 (𝑥𝑖 )
𝑖

GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION
𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑓(𝑥0)
From below diagram tan𝜃= = ………………(1)
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑥𝑜−𝑥1
But slope =tan𝜃 = 𝑓 𝐼 (x0) ……………(2)
From (1) and (2) we have
f x 
x1  x0  1 0
f  x0 

PROBLEMS
1. Using Newton – Raphson method
a) Find square root of a number
b) Find reciprocal of a number
Sol. a) Square root:
Let f  x   x2  N  0 , where N is the number whose square root is to be found. The
solution to f  x  is then x  N
Here f '  x   2 x
By Newton-Raphson technique

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f  xi  xi 2  N
xi 1  xi  1  xi 
f  xi  2 xi
1 N
 xi 1   xi  
2 xi 
Using the above iteration formula the square root of any number N can be found to
anydesired accuracy. For example, we will find the square root of N  24 .
Let the initial approximation be x0  4.8
1 24 1 23.04+24 47.04
𝑥1 = 2 (4.8 + 4.8) = 2 ( 4.8
)=
9.6
= 4.9
1 24  1  24.01  24  48.01
x2   4.9      4.898
2 4.9  2  4.9  9.8
1 24  1  23.9904  24  47.9904
x3   4.898      4.898
2 4.898  2  4.898  9.796
Since x2  x3 , there fore the solution to f  x   x2  24  0 is 4.898 . That means,
the square root of 24 is 4.898
b) Reciprocal:
1
 The reciprocal of Let f  x    N  0 where N is the number whose reciprocal is to be
x
found
1
The solution to f  x  is then = .
1
𝑁
Also, f 1  x  
x2
To find the solution for f  x   0 , apply Newton – Raphson method
1
( −𝑁)
𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 − −1⁄𝑥𝑖2
= 𝑥 𝑖 (2 − 𝑥 𝑖 𝑁 )
For example, the calculation of reciprocal of 22 is as follows
Assume the initial approximation be x0  0.045
 x1  0.045  2  0.045  22 
 0.045  2  0.99 
 0.0454 1.01  0.0454
x2  0.0454  2  0.0454  22 
 0.0454  2  0.9988 
 0.0454 1.0012   0.04545
x3  0.04545  2  0.04545  22 
 0.04545 1.0001  0.04545
𝑥4 = 0.04545(2 − 0.04545 × 22)
= 0.04545(2 − 0.99998)
= 0.04545(1.00002)
= 0.0454509
∴Reciprocal of 22 is 0.04545

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2. Find by Newton’s method, the real root of the equation 𝒙𝒆𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 correct to
three decimal places.
Sol. Let 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 − 𝒙𝒆𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙)
Then f  0  1  0 , f  0.5  0.053  0 f (0.6)  0.267  0
So root of f  x  lies between 0.5 and 0.6
Here f(0.5) value is near to zero.
f(1) is near to zero. So we take x0  0.5 and f 1  x    sin x  (x 1)ex
 By Newton Raphson method,we have
𝑓(𝑥𝑖 )
𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 − for i=0,1,2….
𝑓1 (𝑥𝑖 )
First approximation is given by
f  x0 
x1  x0 
f 1  x0 
0.53222
 0.5   0.68026
2.952507
The second approximation is given by
f x 
x2  x1  1 1
f  x1 
0.56569
 0.68026 
3.946485
 0.536920
 Continue like above we have x3= 0.51809 x4= 0.517757
Approximate Root = 0.517
3. Find a root of an equation 𝒆𝒙 sinx = 1 using Newton Raphson method
Sol : f(x)= 𝒆𝒙 sinx -1
f(0)=-1<0
f(0.1)=-0.8<0 ….
f(0.5)=-0.209561<0
f(0.6)=0.028846>0
Since f(0.5)<0 and f(0.6)>0 the root lies in the interval(0.5,0.6)
but f(0.6) value is near to zero.
So choose x0 =0.6
and
𝑓 𝐼 (x)=(cosx +sinx)𝑒 𝑥
By applying Newton Raphson method,we have
𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑓1 (𝑥𝑖 ) for i=0,1,2…..
𝑖

f  x0 
First approximation x1  x0 
f 1  x0 
0.028846
 0.6   0.58861
2.532705

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f  x1 
The second approximation x2  x1 
f 1  x1 
0.000196
 0.588611 
2.498513
 0.588533
∴ 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑠 0.588
4.Find a root of an equation x+𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 = 2 using Newton raphson method.
SOL:
Given 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝒙 − 𝟐
Here
f(1)=-1<0
f(2)=0.301>0
Since f(1)<0 and f(2)>0 the root lies in the interval (1,2)
Here f(2)is near to zero
So f(1.9)=0.1788>0; f(1.8)=0.0553>0
Since f(1.8) is near to zero
Choose 𝑥0 = 1.8 then
log10 𝑒
𝑓 𝐼 (𝑥 ) = 1 +
𝑥
By Newton Raphson method, we have
𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 − 1 𝑖
𝑓 (𝑥 )
for i=0,1,2…..
𝑖
𝑓𝐼 (𝑥0 ) 0.0555
𝑥1 = 𝑥0 − =1.8 – 1.2412 =1.7552
𝑓(𝑥0 )
Now f(1.7552)=-0.00013 and 𝑓 𝐼 (1.7552) = 1.2473
𝑓𝐼 (𝑥1 )
𝑥2 = 𝑥1 − =1.7555
𝑓(𝑥1 )
Now f(1.7555) =-0.00000012
Hence Approximate root is 1.7555(coorect to 4 decimal places)

5. Using Newton – Raphson method

a) Derive formula for cube root of a number
b) Find cube root of 15.
SOL: Let f(x) = 𝑥3 = 𝑁 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑.
Solution to f(x) is then 𝑥3 = 𝑁 𝑓′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥2
𝑓(𝑋𝑖) 𝑋 3 −𝑁
Newton Raphson formula to find 𝑋𝑖+1 = 𝑋𝑖 − ′ = 𝑋𝑖 −
𝑓 (𝑋𝑖) 3𝑋 2
Here f(2) = -7 < 0 and f(2.5) = 0.625 > 0
so one root lies between (2,2.5)
take initial approx value is 𝑥0 = 2
𝑓(𝑋𝑖)
using Newton Raphson formula 𝑋𝑖+1 = 𝑋𝑖 −
𝑓′ (𝑋𝑖)
3
(2) − 15
𝑋1 = 2 − = 2.58333
3(2)2

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3
(2.58333) − 15
𝑋2 = 2.58333 − 2 = 2.47144
3(2.58333)
(2.47144)3 − 15
𝑋3 = 2.47144 − = 2.46622
3(2.47144)2
(2.46622)3 − 15
𝑋4 = 2.46622 − = 2.46621
3(2.46622)2
∴ 𝑥8 ≅ 𝑥9 = 2.466221(upto 4 decimal places) is the required approximate root.

6.Find a real root of the equation3 x = cos x + 1 Using Newton Raphson method.
f(x) = 3 x- cos x – 1
f(0) = -2 < 0
f(1) = 1.4597 > 0
 The root lies between 0 and 1.
Let x0  1
using Newton Raphson formula,we have
𝑓(𝑥𝑖 )
𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 − for i=0,1,2…..
𝑓 1 (𝑥𝑖 )

f ' (x)  3  sin x

f ' (1)  3  sin1  3.8414
𝑓𝐼 (𝑥0 ) 0.4597
First approximate root 𝑥1 = 𝑥0 − =1- =0.8804
𝑓(𝑥0 ) 3.8414
f (0.8804)  2.6412  0.6368  1  1.0044
And f ' (0.8804)  3.7709
f ( x1 ) 1.0044
Second approximation is x2  x1  '
= 1- =0.8804-0.2663=0.6141
f ( x1 ) 3.7709
f (0.6141)  1.8423  0.8172  1  0.0251
and
f ' (0.0251)  3.5762
f ( x2 ) 0.0251
Third approximation is x3  x2  '
=0.6141- =0.6141-0.007=0.6071
f ( x2 ) 3.5762
 f (0.6071)  1.8213  0.8213  1  0
Hence Required Root is 0.6071
7. Find the root between 0 and 1 of the equation x3-6x+4 = 0 correct to five decimal
places.
Sol: Let f(x) = x3-6x+4
f(0) = 4 >0 and f(1) = -1 <0
Therefore the root lies between 0 and 1.
Let the root is nearer to 1.
So, x0=1
f΄(x) = 3x2-6, f΄(1) = -3
The first approximation to the required root is

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f ( x 0) 2
x1 = x0 - = = 0.66666
f ( x 0) 3

Second approximation is given by

f ( x1)
x2 = x1 - = 0.73015
f ( x1)
Third approximation is given by
f ( x 2)
x3 = x2 - = 0.73204
f ( x 2)
Fourth approximation is given by
f ( x 3)
x4 = x3 - = 0.73205
f ( x 3)
The root is 0.73205 correct to five decimal places

ORDER OF CONVERGENCE
The deviation from the approximate root with actual root is called ERROR.
Error at nth, (n+1)th iterations are
𝑒𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛 - 𝛼 ; 𝑒𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 +1 - 𝛼
If 𝒆𝒏+𝟏 ≤ 𝒌 𝒆𝒏 then the method is said to be of order ‘p’.
𝒑

NOTE:
1. The method converges very fast if ‘k’ is very very small and ‘p’ is large.
2. Regula falsi and iteration methods converge Linearly.

1. Show Bisection method converges LINEARLY.

Sol: Choose initial approximations a, b such that f(a).f(b)<0

And let first approximation be 𝑥1
𝑎+𝑏 𝑏−𝑎
Distance between a and 𝑥1 =𝑥1 -a = -a=
2 2
𝑎+𝑏 𝑏−𝑎
Distance between b and 𝑥1 =𝑏 − 𝑥1 =𝑏 − 2
= 2
Here say root 𝛼 lies between a and 𝑥1 or b and 𝑥1
𝑏−𝑎
|𝑥1 -𝛼|≤
2
After n iterations, we get
𝑏−𝑎
|𝑥𝑛 -𝛼|≤
2𝑛
1 𝑏−𝑎
|𝑥𝑛+1 -𝛼|≤
2 2𝑛
1
𝑒𝑛+1 ≤ 𝑒1 ∴ 𝐵𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦
2 𝑛
2. Show Newton Raphson method converges Quadratically
Sol: Let 𝑥𝑟 be the actual root and 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥𝑖+1are ith,(i+1)th iterations in NRM.Then
f  xi 
xi 1  xi 
f 1  xi 

xi 1 f 1  xi  = xi f 1  xi  -f(xi)

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f(xi)= f 1  xi  ( xi - xi 1 )…………….(1)
Taylor’s theorem around x=xr
Is given by f(xr)=f(xi+h
(𝑥𝑟−𝑥𝑖) 2
= f(xi)+ (𝑥𝑟 − 𝑥𝑖 ) f 1  xi  + 2
𝑓 𝐼𝐼  xi  + ⋯ ….(2)
Neglecting higher order terms and sub (1) in (2) ,we get
(𝑥𝑟−𝑥𝑖)2
0= f 1  xi  (𝑥𝑟 - xi 1 )+(𝑥𝑟 − 𝑥𝑖 ) f 1  xi  + 𝑓 𝐼𝐼  xi 
2
Solving
𝑓𝐼𝐼  xi  𝑓𝐼𝐼  xi 
𝑒𝑖+1 =-1/2 ( 𝑓𝐼 (𝑋𝑖 )
)𝑒𝑖 2 Where p=2 and k==-1/2 ( 𝑓𝐼 (𝑋𝑖 )
)

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INTERPOLATION

Introduction:
If we consider the statement y  f  x  ; x0  x  xn we understand that we can find the

value of 𝑦, corresponding to every value of 𝑥 in the range x0  x  xn . If the function f  x 

is single valued and continuous and is known explicitly then the values of f  x  for certain

values of 𝑥 like x0 , x1 ,.........xn can be calculated. The problem now is if we are given the set
of tabular values
𝑥∶ 𝑥0 𝑥1 𝑥2 …………… 𝑥𝑛
𝑦∶ 𝑦0 𝑦1 𝑦2 ……………. 𝑦𝑛

Satisfying the relation y  f  x  and the explicit definition of f  x  is not known, it

is possible to find a simple function say 𝜙 (𝑥 ) such that f  x  and   x  agree at the set of

tabulated points. This process to finding   x  is called interpolation. If   x  is a

polynomial then the process is called polynomial interpolation and   x  is called

interpolating polynomial. In our study we are concerned with polynomial interpolation

OR
Let x0 , x1     xn be the values 𝑥 and y0 , y1 , y2 ,   , yn be the values of 𝑦 and 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) be a unknown function .The process to find the value of the unknown function 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) when the given value of 𝑥 and the value of 𝑥 lies within the limits x0 to xn is called
interpolation

Extrapolation:
Let x0 , x1     xn be the values x and y0 , y1 , y2 ,   , yn be the values of y and y=f(x) be
a unknown function .The process to find the value of the unknown function y=f(x) when the
given value of x and the value of x lies outside the range of x0 to xn is called Extrapolation
Note: If the differences of x values are equal in the given data then it is called equal spaced
points otherwise it is called unequal spaced points
Note:
i) Suppose a given value of x is nearer to starting value of x then we use Newton’s
forward interpolation formula.
ii) Suppose a given value of x is nearer to ending value of x then we use Newton’s
backward interpolation formula.
iii) Suppose a given value of x is nearer to middle value of x then we use Gauss
interpolation formula.
iv) Suppose the given data has unequal spaced points then we use Lagrange’s
interpolation formula

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Finite Differences:
Finite differences play a fundamental role in the study of differential calculus, which is an
essential part of numerical applied mathematics, the following are the finite differences.
1. Forward Differences 2. Backward Differences 3. Central Differences

1.Forward Differences: The Forward Difference operator is denoted by  , The forward

differences are usually arranged in tabular columns as shown in the following table called a
Forward difference table
Values Values of First differences Second Third differences Fourth differences
of x y (∆) differences (∆3 ) (∆4 )
(∆2 )
xo y0

y0  y1  y0

x1 y1  2 y0  y1  y0

y1  y2  y1  3 y0   2 y1   2 y0

x2 y2  2 y1  y2  y1  4 y0   3 y1   3 y0

y2  y3  y2 3 y1   2 y2   2 y1

x3 y3  2 y2  y3  y2

𝑥4 y4 ∆𝑦3 = 𝑦4 − 𝑦3

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2. Backward Differences: The Backward Difference operator is denoted by  and the

backward difference table is

x y y 2y 3y 4y

x0 y0
y1
x1 y1 2y2
y2 3y3
x2 y2 2y3 4y4
y3  y4
3

x3 y3  y4
2

y4
x4 y4

3.Central Difference Table: The central difference operator is denoted by 𝛿 and the
central Difference table is

x Y 𝛿y δ2y δ3y δ4y

x0 y0
δy1/2
x1 y1 δ2y1
δy3/2 δ3y3/2
x2 y2 δ y2
2
δ4y4
δy5/2 δ3y5/2
x3 y3 δ y3
2

δy7/2
x4 y4

Symbolic Relations and Separation of symbols:

We will define more operators and symbols in addition to  ,  and  already
defined and establish difference formulae by Symbolic methods
1
Definition:- The averaging operator  is defined by the equation  yr   yr 1/2  yr 1/2 
2
Definition:- The shift operator E is defined by the equation Eyr  yr 1 . This shows that the

effect of E is to shift the functional value yr to the next higher value yr 1 . A second

operation with E gives E 2 yr  E  Eyr   E  yr 1   yr 2

Generalizing E n y r  yr  n

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Definition:-
Inverse operator E 1 is defined as E 1 yr  yr 1

In general E  n yn  yr  n

Definition :-
𝑑
The operator D is defined as 𝐷𝑦(𝑥 ) = [𝑦(𝑥 )]
𝑑𝑥

Relationship Between operators:

i) Relation between  and E
Proof: We have ∆𝑦0 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦0
= 𝐸𝑦0 − 𝑦0 = (𝐸 − 1)𝑦0
⟹ ∆≅ 𝐸 − 1(𝑜𝑟)𝐸 = 1 + ∆
ii)   1  E 1
Pf: We have ∇𝑦1 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦0
∇𝑦1 = 𝑦1 − 𝐸 −1 𝑦1
∇𝑦1 = (1 − 𝐸 −1 )𝑦1
  1  E 1
iii)   E1/2  E 1/2
Pf : We have 𝛿𝑦1 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦0
2
1 1
= 𝐸 2 𝑦1 − 𝐸 − 2 𝑦1
2 2
1 1
−
𝛿𝑦1 = (𝐸 − 𝐸 )𝑦12 2
2 2

  E1/2  E 1/2

iv)    E  E 1/2 
1 1/2
2
1
Pf: we have 𝜇𝑦𝑟 = 2 (𝑦𝑟+1 + 𝑦𝑟−1 )
2 2
1 1
1
𝜇𝑦𝑟 = 2 (𝐸 𝑦𝑟 + 𝐸 −2 𝑦𝑟 )
2

1 1
1
𝜇𝑦𝑟 = 2 (𝐸 2 + 𝐸 −2 )𝑦𝑟
1 1
1
𝜇 = 2 (𝐸 2 + 𝐸 −2 )

1
v)  2  1   2
4

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1 1 2
1
Pf: L.H.S = 𝜇2 = [ (𝐸 2 + 𝐸 −2 )]
2
1
= (𝐸 + 𝐸 −1 + 2)
4
1 1 2
1
= [(𝐸 2 − 𝐸 −2 ) + 4 ]
4
1
= 4 (𝛿 2 + 4)=R.H.S

1 1
vi). Prove that ∆= 𝛿 2 + 𝛿√1 + 𝛿 2
2 4

1 1
Pf: Let R.H.S= 2 𝛿 2 + 𝛿√1 + 4 𝛿 2

1 1
= 𝛿[𝛿 + 2√1 + 𝛿 2 ]
2 4

1
= 𝛿[𝛿 + √4 + 𝛿 2 ]
2

1 1 1 1
1
= 2 𝛿[(𝐸 2 − 𝐸 −2 ) + √4 + (𝐸 2 − 𝐸 −2 )2

1 1 1 1
1
= 2 𝛿[(𝐸 2 − 𝐸 −2 ) + √(𝐸 2 + 𝐸 −2 )2
1 1 1 1
1
= 𝛿 [(𝐸 2 − 𝐸 −2 ) + (𝐸 2 + 𝐸 −2 )
2
1
1
= 2 𝛿. 2. 𝐸 2
1
= 𝛿. 𝐸 2
1 1 1
= (𝐸 2 − 𝐸 −2 ). 𝐸 2
= 𝐸 − 1 = ∆ =R.H.S.
vii) Relation between the Operators D and E
h2 11 h3
Using Taylor’s series we have, y  x  h   y  x   hy1  x   y  x   y111  x      
2! 3!
This can be written in symbolic form
 h 2 D 2 h3 D 3 
Eyx  1  hD         yX  ehD . yx
 2! 3! 
𝐸 = 𝑒 ℎ𝑑
 If f  x  is a polynomial of degree 𝑛 and the values of 𝑥 are equally spaced then

 n f  x  is a constant

Note:
1. As  n f  x  is a constant, it follows that n1 f  x   0, n2 f  x   0,........

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2. The converse of above result is also true. That is, if  n f  x  is tabulated at equal

spaced intervals and is a constant, then the function f  x  is a polynomial of

degree n
3. ∆2 f(x) = ∆(∆(f(x))

Problems :
1.Evaluate
 i   cos x
 ii   2 sin  px  q 
 iii   n eaxb
(iv). If the interval of difference is unity then prove that
∆[𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) = 4(𝑥 + 1(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3))
Sol: Let h be the interval of differencing
 i   cos x  cos  x  h   cos x
 h h
 2sin  x   sin
 2 2
 ii   sin  px  q   sin  p  x  h   q   sin  px  q 
 ph  ph
 2 cos  px  q   sin
 2  2
ph   ph 
 2sin sin   px  q  
2 2 2 
ph 1
∆2 sin(px + q) = 2sin 2
∆ [sin [px + q + 2 (π + ph)]]
2
 ph   1 
  2sin  sin  px  q    ph  
 2   2 
(𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) ∆𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 = 𝑒 𝑎(𝑥+ℎ)+𝑏 − 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
= 𝑒 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏) (𝑒 𝑎ℎ−1 )
∆2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 = ∆[∆(𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 )] = ∆[(𝑒 𝑎ℎ − 1)(𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 )]
= (𝑒 𝑎ℎ − 1)2 ∆(𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 )
= (𝑒 𝑎ℎ − 1)2 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏

Proceeding on, we get  n  eax b    eah  1 eax b

n

iv) Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)

given ℎ = 1
we know that ∆𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 )

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∆[𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)] = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4))

−𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)
= (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)[𝑥 + 4 − 𝑥]
= 𝟒(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)
2.Find the missing term in the following data
𝒙 0 1 2 3 4
𝒚 1 3 9 - 81
Why this value is not equal to 33 . Explain
Solution: Consider  4 y0  0

⟹ 𝑦4 − 4𝑦3 + 6𝑦2 − 4𝑦1 + 𝑦0 = 0

Substitute given values, we get
81  4 y3  54  12  1  0  y3  31

From the given data we can conclude that the given function is y  3x . To find y3 ,
we have to assume that y is a polynomial function, which is not so. Thus we are not
getting y  33  27
Equally Spaced : If the differences of x values are equal in the given data then it is called
equal spaced points otherwise it is called unequal spaced points

Newton’s Forward Interpolation Formula: Given the set of (𝑛 + 1) values

(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ), (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), − − −𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) of 𝑥 and 𝑦. It is required to find a polynomial of nth degree
yn(x) such that y and yn(x) agree at the tabular points with x’s equidistant (i.e.) xi = x0+ih (i
= 0, 1, 2…..n) then the Newton’s forward interpolation formula is given by

𝑝(𝑝−1) 𝑝(𝑝−1)(𝑝−2)
𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∆𝑦0 + ∆2𝑦0 + ∆3 𝑦0 + − −
2! 3!
𝑝(𝑝−1)(𝑝−2)−−−− (𝑝−(𝑛−1))
+ ∆𝑛 𝑦0
𝑛!
𝑥−𝑥0
where 𝑝 =
ℎ
Note : this formula is used when value of 𝒙 is located near beginning of tabular values
Problems :
1.Find the melting point of the alloy containing 54% of lead, using appropriate
interpolation formula
Percentage of lead(p) 50 60 70 80
Temperature  Qc  205 225 248 274

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Solution: The difference table is

x y  2 3
50 205
20
60 225 3
23 0
70 248 3
26
80 274
Let temperature = f  x 
𝑥−𝑥0
We have 𝑥 = 54, 𝑥0 = 50, ℎ = 10 𝑝= = 0.4
ℎ
By Newton’s forward interpolation formula
𝑝(𝑝−1) 𝑝(𝑝−1)(𝑝−2)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∆𝑦0 + ∆2𝑦0 + ∆3𝑦0 + − − − −
2! 3!
0.4(0.4 − 1) (0.4)(0.4 − 1)(0.4 − 2)
𝑓(54) = 205 + 0.4(20) + (3) + (0)
2! 3!
=205+8-0.36 =212.64. Melting point = 212.64
2. The population of a town in the decimal census was given below. Estimate the
population for the 1895
Year x 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931
Populationin
46 66 81 93 101
thousands
Solution: The forward difference table is
x y  2 3 4
1891 46
20
1901 66 -5
15 2
1911 81 -3 -3
12 -1
1921 93 -4
8
1931 101

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(0.4)(0.4 − 1) (0.4 − 1)0.4(0.4 − 2)

46 + (0.4)(20) + − (−5) + (2)
6 6

given ℎ = 10, 𝑥0 = 1891, 𝑥 = 1985 then p  2 / 5  0.4

By Newton’s forward interpolation formula
𝑝(𝑝+1)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∆𝑦0 + ∆2𝑦0 +
2!
𝑝(𝑝+1)(𝑝+2) (0.4)(0.4−1)(0.4−2)(0.4−3)
∆3𝑦0 + − − −−∴ 𝑓(1895) = + (−3)
3! 24

=54.45 thousands

3. Find y (1.6) using Newton’s Forward difference formula from the table

x 1 1.4 1.8 2.2

y 3.49 4.82 5.96 6.5

Solution: The difference table is
X y y y
2
y 3

1 3.49
1.4 4.82 1.33
-0.81
1.8 5.96 1.14 -1.41
-0.60
2.2 6.5 0.54

𝑥−𝑥0 3
Let 𝑥 = 1.6 , x0=1, h=1.4 -1=0.4, 𝑝 = =2
ℎ

Using Newton’s forward difference formula, we have

𝑝 (𝑝 + 1) 2 𝑝(𝑝 + 1)(𝑝 + 2) 3
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∆𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + ∆ 𝑦0 + − − − −
2! 3!
35 3 57
𝑓 (1.6) = 3.49 + 3/2(1.33) + 22
(-0.81)+ 2 22
(-1.41)
2 6

= 4.9656
4.Find the cubic polynomial which takes the following values

X 0 1 2 3
Y=f(x) 1 2 1 10

Hence evaluate f(4).

Sol: The forward difference table is given by

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X y y 2 y 3 y

0 1

1
1 2 -2

-1 12
2 1 10

9
3 10

x0
P= =x ; h=1
h
Using newton’s forward interpolation formula, we get
x x ( x  1) 2 x( x  1)( x  2) 3
Y = y0 + y 0 +  y0 +  y0
1 1 .2 1.2.3
x ( x  1) x( x  1)( x  2)
= 1+x(1)+ (-2)+ (12)
2 6
= 2x3-7x2+6x+1
Which is the required polynomial.
To compute f(4), we take xn=3 , x=4
x  xn
So that p= =1
h
Using Newton’s backward interpolation formula , we get
p ( p  1) 2 p( p  1)( p  2) 3
Y4 = y3+p y 3 +  y3 +  y3
1.2 1.2.3
= 10+9+10+12
= 41
Which is the same value as that obtained by substituting x=4 in the cubic polynomial 2x3-
7x2+6x+1.

Newton’s Backward Interpolation Formula: Given the set of (𝑛 + 1) values

(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ), (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), − − −𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) of 𝑥 and 𝑦. It is required to find a polynomial of nth degree
yn(x) such that y and yn(x) agree at the tabular points with 𝑥’s equidistant (i.e.) xi = x0+ih (i
= 0, 1, 2…..n) then the Newton’s backward interpolation formula is given by

𝑝(𝑝+1) 𝑝(𝑝+1)−−−− [𝑝+(𝑛−1)]

𝑦𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑝∇𝑦𝑛 + ∇2 𝑦𝑛 + − − − + ∇𝑛 𝑦0
2! 𝑛!

x  xn
Where p 
h
Note : This formula is used when value of x is located near end of tabular values
Problems :

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1. The population of a town in the decimal census was given below. Estimate the
population for the 1925
Year x 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931
Population in
46 66 81 93 101
thousands

Solution : The backward difference table is

x y ∇ ∇2 ∇3 ∇4
1891 46
20
1901 66 -5
15 2
1911 81 -3 -3
12 -1
1921 93 -4
8
1931 101

𝑥−𝑥𝑛 1925−1931
given ℎ = 10, 𝑥𝑛 = 1931, 𝑥 = 1925 then 𝑝 = = = −0.6
ℎ 10
By Newton’s backward interpolation formula
𝑝( 𝑝 + 1 ) 2 𝑝(𝑝 + 1) … . [𝑝 + (𝑛 − 1)] 𝑛
𝑦𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑝∇𝑦𝑛 + ∇ 𝑦𝑛 + − + ∇ 𝑦0
2! 𝑛!
(−0.6)(0.4)
∴ 𝑓 (1925) = 101 + (−0.6)(8) + (−4)
2
(−0.6)(0.4)(1.4) (−0.6)(0.4)(1.4)(2.4)
+ (−1) + (−3)
6 24
= 96.21

2.Find y  42  from the following data. Using Newton’s interpolation formula

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𝒙 20 25 30 35 40 45
𝒚 354 332 291 260 231 204

Solution: since x=42 is located near end of the tabular values therefore we use NBIF
the backward difference table is

x y ∆ ∆2 ∆3 ∆4 ∆5
20 354
-22
25 332 -19
-41 29
30 291 10 -37
-31 -8 45
35 260 2 8
-29 0
40 231 2
-27
45 204

𝑥−𝑥0
Given 𝑥 = 42 and 𝑥𝑛 = 45 , ℎ = 5 , then 𝑝 = ℎ
= −0.6

We know that NBIF

𝑝(𝑝+1) 𝑝(𝑝+1)(𝑝+2)
𝑦𝑛 (𝑥 ) = 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑝∇𝑦𝑛 + ∇2𝑦𝑛 + ∇3𝑦𝑛 +
2! 3!
𝑝(𝑝+1)(𝑝+2)(𝑝+3) 𝑝(𝑝+1)(𝑝+2)(𝑝+3)(𝑝+4)
∇4𝑦𝑛 + ∇5𝑦𝑛
4! 5!
(−0.6)(−0.6+1) (−0.6)(−0.6+1)(−0.6+2)(−0.6+3)
𝑦(42) = 204 + (−0.6)(−27) + (2)+0+ (8) +
2 24
(−0.6)(−0.6+1)(−0.6+2)(−0.6+3)(−0.6+4)
(45)
120
=234.44

Central Difference Interpolation: The middle part of the forward difference table is

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x y y 2 y 3 y 4 y 5 y
x 4 y4

y4  2 y 4
x 3 y3

y3  2 y 3  3 y 4  4 y 4  5 y 4
x 2 y2

y2  2 y 2  3 y 3  4 y 3  5 y 3
x1 y 1

 y 1  2 y 1  3 y 2  4 y 2  5 y 2
x0 y0

y0  2 y0  3 y 1  4 y 1  5 y 1
x1 y1

y1  2 y1  3 y0  4 y0
x2 y2

y 2  2 y2  3 y1
x3 y3

y3
x4 y4

1.Gauss’s forward Interpolation Formula: Given the set of (𝑛 + 1) values

(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ), (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), − − −𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) of 𝑥 and 𝑦. It is required to find a polynomial of nth degree
yn(x) such that y and yn(x) agree at the tabular points with 𝑥’s equidistant (i.e.) xi = x0+ih (i
= 0, 1, 2…..n) then the Gauus Forward interpolation formula is given by

𝒑(𝒑−𝟏) 𝒑(𝒑−𝟏)(𝒑+𝟏) 𝒑(𝒑−𝟏)(𝒑+𝟏)(𝒑−𝟐)

𝒚𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝒚𝟎 + 𝒑∆𝒚𝟎 +
𝟐!
∆𝟐 𝒚−𝟏 + 𝟑!
∆𝟑 𝒚−𝟏 + 𝟒!
∆𝟒 𝒚−𝟐 + − − −
𝑥−𝑥0
Where 𝑝 =
ℎ

Note:- We observe from the difference table that

y0   y1/2 ,  2 y1   2 y0 , 3 y1   3 y1/2 ,  4 y2   4 y0 and so on. Accordingly the

formula (4) can be rewritten in the notation of central differences as given below

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p  p  1 2  p  1 p  p  1  3 y
y p  [ y0  p y1/2   y0  1/2
2! 3!
 p  1 p  1 p  p  2   4 y    ]  5
 0  
4!
2.Gauss’s Backward Interpolation formula: Given the set of (𝑛 + 1) values
(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ), (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), − − −𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) of 𝑥 and 𝑦. It is required to find a polynomial of nth degree
yn(x) such that y and yn(x) agree at the tabular points with 𝑥’s equidistant (i.e.) 𝑥i = 𝑥0+𝑖ℎ
(i = 0, 1, 2…..n) then the Gauus Backward interpolation formula is given by
𝑝 (𝑝 + 1) 2 𝑝(𝑝 + 1)(𝑝 − 1) 3
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∆𝑦−1 + ∆ 𝑦−1 + ∆ 𝑦−2
2! 3!
𝑝(𝑝 + 1)(𝑝 − 1)(𝑝 + 2) 4
+ ∆ 𝑦−2 + …
4!
Note: Gauss forward and Backward formulae used when 𝒙 is located middle of the
tabular values
Problems :
1.Use Gauss Forward interpolation formula to find 𝒇(𝟑. 𝟑) from the following table
𝒙 1 2 3 4 5
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 15.30 15.10 15.00 14.50 14.00

Solution: the difference table is

x y ∆𝑦 ∆2 𝑦 ∆3 𝑦 ∆4 𝑦

1 x-2 15.3 y-2

-0.2
2 x-1 15.1 y-1 0.1
-0.1 -0.5
3 x0 15.0 y0 -0.4 ∆2 𝑦−1 0.9∆4 𝑦−2
-0.5 ∆y0 0.4∆3 𝑦−1
4 x1 14.5 y1 0.0
-0.5
5 x2 14.0 y2

𝑥−𝑥0
Given x=3.3 , x0=3 ,h=1 hence 𝑝 = = 0.3
ℎ

We know that Gauss forward interpolation formula is

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p  p  1 2  p  1 p  p  1 3 y
y p  [ y0  p  y0    y1  1
2! 3!
 p  1 p  1 p  p  2   4 y    ]  4

4!
 2   
(0.3)(0.3−1) (0.3)(0.09−1) (0.3)(0.09−1)(0.3−2)
=15+(0.3)(0.5)+ (−0.4) + (0.4)+ (0.9)
2 6 24

=14.9
2. Find f (2.5) using following Table
x 1 2 3 4
y 1 8 27 64
Solution: The difference table is

x y y 2y 3y
1 1
7
2 8 12
19
6
3 27 18
37
4 64

h=1
X  X 0 2.5  2
P   0.5
h 1
Using Gauss Forward interpolation formula,
(0.5)(0.5) (0.5  1)(0.5)(1.5  1)
 8  (0.5)19  (12)  (6)
2 6
= 15.625
3. Use Gauss forward interpolation formulae to find f(3.3) from the following

x 1 2 3 4 5
y 15.30 15.10 15.00 14.50 14.00
Solution:

x y y 2y 3y 4y

1 15.30
-0.20
2 15.10 0.10
-0.10 -0.50
3 15.00 -0.40 0.90
-0.50 0.40
4 14.50 0.00
-0.50
5 14.00

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3.3  3
P  0.3
1

 15  (0.3)(0.5) 
(0.3)(0.4)(0.7)
 (0.3)(0.4)
 0.7  (1.3)
2 6


 0.3 0.7 1.3 1.3 (0.9)  14.8604925  14.9
24

4. Find f(2.36) from the following table

x: 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6
y: 4.95 6.05 7.39 9.03 11.02 13.46

Solution:
x y ∆ ∆2 ∆3 ∆4 ∆5

1.6 4.95
1.1
0.24
1.8 6.05 0.06
1.34 -0.01
0.3
0.06
2.0 7.39 0.05
1.64
0.35
0.05
2.2 𝑥0 9.03 𝑦0 0.1
1.99
0.45
2.4 11.02
2.44
2.6 13.46

𝑥−𝑥0
here we have 𝑥 = 2.36 , 𝑥0 = 2.2 , ℎ = 0.2 , 𝑝 = = 0.8
ℎ

p  p  1 2  p  1 p  p  1 3 y
y p  [ y0  p  y0    y1  1
2! 3!
 p  1 p  1 p  p  2   4 y    ]  4

4!
 2   
Substituting all above values in the formula then
𝑓(2.36) = 9.03 + (0.8)(1.99) +
(0.8)(0.8−1) (0.8+1)(0.8)(0.8−1) (0.8+1)(0.8)(0.8−1)(0.8−2)
2
(0.35)+ (0.1)+ (0.05)
6 24

=10.02

5. Find f(22) from the following table using Gauss forward formula

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𝒙 20 25 30 35 40 45
𝒚 354 332 291 260 231 204
Solution : the middle part of the difference table is
x y ∆ ∆2 ∆3 ∆4 ∆5
20𝑥0 354𝑦0
-22
25 332 -19
-41 29
30 291 10 -37
-31 -8 45
35 260 2 8
-29 0
40 231 2
-27
45 204

𝑥−𝑥0
Given 𝑥 = 22 and 𝑥0 = 20 , ℎ = 5 , then 𝑝 = ℎ
= 0.4
The Gauss forward formula is
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∆𝑦0
= 354 + (0.4)(−22)
= 345.2

6. Find by Gauss’s Backward interpolating formula the value of y at x=1936, using the
following table.
x 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951

y 12 15 20 27 39 52

Solution: The difference table is

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x y ∆𝑦 ∆2 𝑦 ∆3 𝑦 ∆4 𝑦 ∆5 𝑦

1901 x-3 12 y-3

3
1911 x-2 15 y-2 2
5 0
1921 x-1 20 y-1 2 3
7 ∆𝑦−1 3∆3 𝑦−2 -10∆5 𝑦−3
1931 x0 27 y0 5 ∆2 𝑦−1 7∆4 𝑦−2
12 -4
1941 x1 39 y1 1
13
1951 x2 52 y2

𝑥−𝑥0
Given x=1936 and let x0 =1931 and h=10 then 𝑝 = ℎ
= 0.5
By Gauss backward interpolation formula we have
(𝑝 + 1)𝑝 2 ( 𝑝 + 1 ) 𝑝( 𝑝 − 1 ) 3
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∆𝑦−1 + ∆ 𝑦−1 + ∆ 𝑦−2
2! 3!
(𝑝 + 1)𝑝(𝑝 − 1)(𝑝 − 2) 4
+ ∆ 𝑦−2 + − − −
4!
0.5)(0.5+1) (0.5)(1.5)(−0.5) (0.5)(1.5)(−0.5)(−1.5)
=27+(0.5)(7)+ (5) + (3) + (−7) +
2 6 24
(0.5)(1.5)(−0.5)(−1.5)(2.5)
(−10)
120

=32.345

7. Using Gauss back ward difference formula, find y(8) from the following table
𝒙 0 5 10 15 20 25
𝒚 7 11 14 18 24 32

Solution: The difference table is

x y ∆𝑦 ∆2 𝑦 ∆3 𝑦 ∆4 𝑦 ∆5 𝑦

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0 x-2 7 y-2
4
5 x-1 11 y-1 -1
3 2
10 x0 14 y0 1 -1
4 1 0
15 x1 18 y1 2 -1
6 0
20 x2 24y2 2
8
25 x3 32 y3

𝑥−𝑥0
Given x=8 and let x0 =10 and h=5 then 𝑝 = ℎ
= −0.4
By Gauss backward interpolation formula we have
(𝑝 + 1)𝑝 2 ( 𝑝 + 1 ) 𝑝( 𝑝 − 1 ) 3
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∆𝑦−1 + ∆ 𝑦−1 + ∆ 𝑦−2
2! 3!
(𝑝 + 1)𝑝(𝑝 − 1)(𝑝 − 2) 4
+ ∆ 𝑦−2 + −
4!
(−0.4)(−0.4+1) (−0.4)(−0.4+1)(−0.4−1)
14+(0.4)(3)+ (1 ) + (2) +
2 6
(−0.4)(−0.4+1)(−0.4−1)(−0.4−2)
24
(−1)=12.704

Lagrange’s Interpolation Formula: Let 𝑓(𝑥) be continuous and differentiable (n+1)

times in the interval (a, b). Given the (n+1) points as(x0, 𝑦0), (𝑥1, 𝑦1), (x2, y2)…..
(xn,yn) where values of x not necessarily be equally spaced then the interpolating polynomial
of degree ‘n’ say 𝑓(𝑥) is given by
f  x 
 x  x1  x  x2  .......  x  xn  f x   x  x0  x  x2  .....  x  xn  ( )
  𝑓 𝑥1
 x0  x1  x0  x2  .........  x0  xn  0  x1  x0  x1  x2  ....  x1  xn 
(𝑥−𝑥0 )(𝑥−𝑥1 )(𝑥−𝑥2)……..(𝑥−𝑥𝑛 ) (𝑥−𝑥0 )(𝑥−𝑥1 )……..(𝑥−𝑥𝑛−1 )
+ (𝑥2 −𝑥0 )(𝑥2−𝑥1 )………(𝑥2 −𝑥𝑛 )
𝑓(𝑥2 ) + … … . + (𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥 𝑛 )
𝑛 −𝑥0)(𝑥𝑛 −𝑥1 )………(𝑥𝑛−𝑥𝑛−1)

Note: This formula is used when values of 𝒙 are unequally spaced and equally spaced

PROBLEMS

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1. Using Lagrange formula, calculate f  3 from the following table

x 0 1 2 4 5 6
f  x 1 14 15 5 6 19

Solution: Given 𝑥0 = 0, 𝑥1 = 1, 𝑥2 = 2, 𝑥3 = 4, 𝑥4 = 5, 𝑥5 = 6
f  x0   1, f  x1   14, f  x2   15, f  x3   5, f  x4   6, f  x5   19

From Lagrange’s interpolation formula

f  x 
 x  x1  x  x2  x  x3  x  x4  x  x5  f x
 
 x0  x1  x0  x2  x0  x3  x0  x4  x0  x5  0
 x  x0  x  x2  x  x3  x  x4  x  x5  f x
  
 x1  x0  x1  x2  x1  x3  x1  x4  x1  x5  1
 x  x0  x  x1  x  x3  x  x4  x  x5  f x
  
 x2  x0  x2  x1  x2  x3  x2  x4  x2  x5  2


 x  x0  x  x1   x  x2  x  x3  x  x4  f x
 
 x5  x0  x5  x1  x5  x2  x5  x3  x5  x4  5
Here x  3 then

f  3 
 3  1 3  2  3  4  3  5 3  6  1 
 0  1 0  2  0  4  0  5  0  6 
 3  0  3  2  3  4  3  5  3  6  14 
1  0 1  2 1  4 1  5 1  6 
 3  0  3  1 3  4  3  5  3  6  15 
 2  0  2  1 2  4  2  5  2  6 
 3  0  3  1 3  2  3  5  3  6   5 
 4  0  4  1 4  2  4  5  4  6 
 3  0  3  1 3  2  3  4  3  6   6 
 5  0  5  1 5  2  5  4  5  6 
 3  0  3  1 3  2  3  4  3  5  19
 6  0  6  1 6  2  6  4  6  5 
12 18 36 36 18 12
  14  15   5   6   19
240 60 48 48 60 40
 0.05  4.2 11.25  3.75 1.8  0.95  10
f  x3   10

2. Find f  3.5 using Lagrange method of 2nd and 3 order degree polynomials.
rd

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𝒙 1 2 3 4
𝒇 ( 𝒙) 1 2 9 28

Sol: By Lagrange’s interpolation formula For n  4 ,we have

f  x 
 x  x1  x  x2  x  x3  f x 
 
 x0  x1  x0  x2  x0  x3  0
 x  x0  x  x2  x  x3  f x 
 
 x1  x0  x1  x2  x1  x3  1
 x  x0  x  x1  x  x3  f x 
 
 x2  x0  x2  x1  x2  x3  2
 x  x0  x  x1  x  x2  f x 
 
 x3  x0  x3  x1  x3  x2  3
 f  3.5  
 3.5  2  3.5  3 3.5  4  1   3.5  1 3.5  3 3.5  4  2 
  
1  2 1  31  4   2  1 2  3 2  4 
(3.5 − 1)(3.5 − 2)(3.5 − 4) (3.5 − 1)(3.5 − 2)(3.5 − 3)
(9) + (28)
(3 − 1)(3 − 2)(3 − 4) (4 − 1)(4 − 2)(4 − 3)
=0.0625+(-0.625)+8.4375+8.75
=16.625
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 4) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 4)
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (1) + (2)
−6 2
(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−4) (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−3)
++ (9) + (28)
(−2) 6
2
(𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6)(𝑥 − 4) (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4)
= + (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 4) + (9)
−6 −2
(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3)
+ (28)
6
𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 26𝑥 − 24 𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 − 8
= + 𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 19𝑥 − 12 + (9)
−6 −2
𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 6
+ (28)
6
  x3  9 x 2  26 x  24  6 x3  48 x 2  114 x  72  27 x3  189 x 2  378 x  216  308 x  28 x3  168 x 2  168 

6
6 x  18 x  18 x
3 2
  f  x   x 3  3x 2  3x
6
 f  3.5   3.5   3  3.5   3  3.5   16.625
3 2

3. Find f (4) use Lagrange’s interpolation formulae.

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x 0 2 3 6
Y=f(x) -4 2 14 158
Soluiotn:
f  x 
 x  x2  x  x3  x  x4  y   x  x1  x  x3  x  x4 
 x1  x2  x1  x3  x1  x4  1  x2  x1  x2  x3  x2  x4 

Y2 
 x  x1  x  x2  x  x4  y   x  x1  x  x2  x  x3  Y
 x3  x1  x3  x2  x3  x4  3  x4  x1  x4  x2  x4  x3  4
Where x  4, x1  0, x2  2, x3  3, x4  6
 4  2  4  3 4  6   4 
  
 2  3 6 
 4 1 2   2  4  2   2  14
 
2  1 4  3  1 3  3
4  2 1
  158
6  4  3
4 224 158 4  18  224  158
  2    
9 9 9 9
 40

4. The following are the measurements T made on curverecorded by the oscilograph

representing a change of current I due to a change in condn s of anelectric current
T 1.2 2 2.5 3
I 1.36 0.58 0.34 0.2

Solution:
Since data is unequispaced, we use Lagrange’s interpolation
( x  x1 )( x  x2 )(x  x3 ) ( x  x0 )( x  x2 )(x  x3 )
y y0  y1
( x0  x1 )( x0  x2 )(x 0  x 3 ) ( x1  x0 )( x1  x2 )(x1  x3 )
( x  x0 )( x  x1 )(x  x3 ) ( x  x0 )( x  x1 )(x  x2 )
 y2  y3
( x2  x0 )( x2  x1 )(x 2  x3 ) ( x3  x0 )( x3  x1 )(x 3  x2 )

(1.6  1.2)(1.6  2)(1.6  3) (1.6  1.2)(1.6  2.5)(1.6  3)

y  (1.36)  (0.58)
(1.6  1.2)(1.6  2)(1.6  3) (2  1.2)(2  2.5)(1.6  3)
(1.6  1.2)(1.6  2)(1.6  3) (1.6  1.2)(1.6  2)(1.6  2.5)
 (0.34)  (0.2)
(1.6  1.2)(1.6  2)(1.6  3) (1.6  1.2)(1.6  2)(1.6  2.5)

=0.8947 ∴ 𝐼 = 0.8947

5. Find the parabola passing through points (0,1), (1,3) and(3,55) using Lagrange’s
Interpolation Formula.
x 0 1 3
y 1 3 55
Solution: Given Lagrange’s interpolation formula is

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( x  x1 )( x  x2 ) ( x  x0 )( x  x2 )
y y0  y1
( x0  x1 )( x0  x2 ) ( x1  x0 )( x1  x2 )
( x  x0 )( x  x1 )
 y2
( x2  x0 )( x2  x1 )
( x  1)( x  3) ( x  0)( x  3)
y  (3)
(0  1)(0  3) (1  0)(1  3)
( x  0)( x  1)
 (55)
(3  0)(3  1)
1
=6 [48𝑥 2 − 36𝑥 + 6]
=8𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 1

6. A Curve passes through the points (0,18),(1,10),(3,-18) and (6,90). Find the slope of
the curve at 𝒙 = 𝟐.

x 0 1 3 6
y 18 10 -18 90
Solution: Given data is

Since data is unequispaced, we use Lagrange’s interpolation

( x  x1 )( x  x2 )(x  x3 ) ( x  x0 )( x  x2 )(x  x3 )
y y0  y1
( x0  x1 )( x0  x2 )(x 0  x 3 ) ( x1  x0 )( x1  x2 )(x1  x3 )
( x  x0 )( x  x1 )(x  x3 ) ( x  x0 )( x  x1 )(x  x2 )
 y2  y3
( x2  x0 )( x2  x1 )(x 2  x3 ) ( x3  x0 )( x3  x1 )(x 3  x2 )

( x  1)( x  3)( x  6) ( x  0)( x  3)( x  6)

y 18  10
(0  1)(0  3)(0  6) (1  0)(1  3)(1  6)
( x)( x  1)( x  6) ( x)( x  1)( x  3)
 (18)  90
(3  0)(3  1)(3  6) (6)(6  1)(6  3)
( x  1)( x  3)( x  6) ( x  0)( x  3)( x  6)
y 18  10
(0  1)(0  3)(0  6) (1  0)(1  3)(1  6)
( x)( x  1)( x  6) ( x)( x  1)( x  3)
 (18)  90
(3  0)(3  1)(3  6) (6)(6  1)(6  3)
=2x3-10x2+18
𝑑𝑦
∴ = 6𝑥 2 − 20𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2 𝑖𝑠 6(2)2 − 20(2) = −16

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