NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

Lesson 1: Mathematics in Our World

WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?
Mathematics can be defined in many ways:

• Study of Numbers
• Set of problem-solving tools
• A language
• A process of thinking
• A study of patterns among others.
Whatever point of view is taken, there is no denying the reality that
MATHEMATICS IS EVERYWHERE. Individuals from around the
world use math in their daily lives. Mathematics has various
applications in the world. However, Mathematics is not only
concerned with everyday problems, but also with using
imagination, intuition and reasoning to find new ideas and to
solve puzzling problems. Mathematics is a branch of science, which deals with numbers and their
operations. It involves calculation, computation, solving of problems etc. Its dictionary meaning states that,
‘Mathematics is the science of numbers and space’ or ‘Mathematics is the science of measurement,
quantity and magnitude.’ It is exact, precise, systematic and a logical subject.
Mathematics helps us to organize and systemize our ideas about patterns; in so doing, not only can we
admire and enjoy these patterns, we can also use them to infer some of the underlying principles that govern
the world of nature.

PATTERNS AND NUMBER IN NATURE

PATTERN
➢ is an arrangement which helps observers anticipate what they might see or what happens next.
➢ A pattern also shows what may have come before.
➢ A pattern organizes information so that it becomes more useful. (Pattern is anything that repeats again
and again or repetition. This allows us to draw conclusion from the repetition to show what comes next.)
The human mind is programmed to make sense of data or to bring order where there is disorder. It seeks to
discover relationships and connections between seemingly unrelated bits of information. In doing so, it
sees patterns.
According to the NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF MATHEMATICS (1991) defines the nature of
mathematics as follows: Mathematics is a study of patterns and relationship, a way of thinking, an art, a
language, and a tool. It is about patterns and relationships. NUMBERS are just a way to express those
patterns and relationships.
PATTERNS ARE EVERYWHERE. They are deeply embedded all around us. Observed in things like colors,
shapes, actions, line or curves of building, pathways, or even in grocery stores where boxes of various items are
lined up.
1. SAMPLE OF PATTERNS WE LEARNED THROUGH THE YEARS:
o Number Patterns such as 2,4,6,8 and 5,10,15,20
 o Ascending and Descending multiples of a certain number. Ascending (increasing); Descending
(decreasing)
o Concept of functions and sequence like arithmetic and
geometric sequence. Arithmetic Sequence (list of
numbers with a definite pattern. Take any number in the
sequence then subtract it by the previous one, and the
result is always the same or constant sample: 5,9,13,17
with a positive common difference of 4.) Geometric
Sequence (sequence in which every term (except the
first term) is multiplied by a constant number to get its
next term. Example 3,6,12,24,48 with a common ratio of
2. Note: To find common ratio: 2nd term/1st term. To find
the proceeding term: term 1 x common ratio)
o Logic Patterns, Number Patterns, Geometric Patterns, and Word Patterns.

2. PATTERNS IN NATURE, ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE:

o One can observe patterns in nature, art, architecture, human behavior, anywhere. Patterns in nature
are visible regularities of form found in the natural world. Natural patterns include symmetries,
fractals, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tessellations, cracks, and stripes.
o Studying patterns allows one to watch, guess, create, and discover. The present mathematics is
considerably more than arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. The method of doing it has advanced from
simply performing computations or derivations into observing patterns, testing guesses, and
evaluating results.

PATTERNS IN NATURE, ARTS, AND ARCHITECTURE: SYMMETRY

SYMMETRY
➢ The math of symmetry can describe what this repetition may look like and as well as why some objects
seem more orderly and organized than others.
➢ That is why we can say symmetry is the FUNDAMENTAL “LANGUAGE” OF PATTERNS.
➢ Symmetry can be found everywhere. It can be seen from different viewpoints namely; nature, the arts
and architecture, mathematics; especially geometry and science.
➢ Symmetry occurs when there is congruence in dimensions, due proportions and arrangement. It
provides a sense of harmony and balance.
➢ In fact, symmetry is one of the foremost predominant themes in arts, design and architecture all
over the world and throughout human history.
➢ Mathematical symmetry can also be explained AS THE PASSAGE OF TIME, a spatial relationship and
an aesthetic element found within abstract objects, theoretic models, language, music, and even
knowledge itself.

KINDS OF SYMMETRY PATTERNS:

1. REFLECTION OR BILATERAL SYMMETRY
➢ is the simplest kind of symmetry. It is one of the most common
kinds of symmetry that we see in the natural world. It can also be
called MIRROR SYMMETRY because an object with this
symmetry looks unchanged if a mirror passes through its
middle. In other words, the objects have a left side and a right side
that are mirror images of each other.
➢ If a shape can be folded in half so that one half fits exactly on top
of the other, then we say that the shapes are symmetric. The fold is called a LINE OF SYMMETRY
 because it divides the shape into two equal parts. Bilateral-symmetric objects have at least one line
or axis of symmetry. The lines of symmetry may be in any direction.

2. RADIAL SYMMETRY
➢ is rotational symmetry or also called as the n-fold rotational symmetry
around a fixed point known as the CENTER. Images with more than one lines
of symmetry meeting at a common point exhibits a radial symmetry. An
equilateral triangle and circles are examples. You can cut along three different axes
on the equilateral triangle while a circle can be cut along an infinite number of axes.
Consider the photo below. It has rotational symmetry. How many lines of symmetry
are possible? Answer: 5-fold rotational symmetry with 72 degree angle of rotation.

Snowflake: 6 fold rotational

symmetry with 60 degree
angle of rotation

Did you know that there are other classifications of symmetric patterns. Patterns in the plane are usually
divided into three groups. These are rosette patterns (those that repeat in no direction), frieze patterns (
those that repeat in exactly one direction) and wallpaper patterns (those that repeat in more than one
direction). Let us define, discuss and identify examples of these patterns from nature and the arts. Included in
the discussion is what we call tessellations which completely cover a plane without gaps or overlaps, like
wallpaper patterns

OTHER CLASSIFICATONS OF SYMMETRIC PATTERNS:

1. ROSETTE PATTERNS
➢ consist of taking motif or an element and rotating and/or reflecting that element. There are two types
of rosette patterns namely cyclic and dihedral. A rosette pattern is CYCLIC if it only admits rotational
symmetries. On the other hand, a rosette pattern is DIHEDRAL if it admits both rotational symmetries
and bilateral or reflectional symmetries.
 First pic: dihedral
Second pic: cyclic
Third pic or lime: dihedral
Bottom row: all dihedral

Figure 1 and 4 is sample of rosette

patterns both dihedral

Figure 13 dihedral
All are rosette patterns

2. FRIEZE PATTERNS
➢ A frieze or border pattern is a pattern in which a basic motif repeats itself over and over in one
direction. It extends to the left and right in a way that the pattern can be mapped onto itself by a
horizontal translation. We can usually find these patterns in unique places like on the walls of buildings,
fabrics, borders of rugs and tiled floor.
TRANSLATION – is a movement of a specific direction and distance without alterations.
Mathematicians have already classified all the different types of frieze patterns. It turns out that there are only
seven types. Mathematician JOHN B. CONWAY invented the names of these frieze patterns:
• HOP – The frieze pattern only admits a translational symmetry.

• STEP – The frieze pattern only admits a translational and glide symmetries.

• SIDLE – The frieze pattern only admits translations and vertical reflections.

• SPINNING HOP – The frieze pattern only admits translations and 180◦ rotations (half-turns)

• SPINNING SIDDLE – – The frieze pattern only admits translations, vertical reflections, rotations,
and glide reflections.

• JUMP – The frieze pattern only admits translations, a horizontal reflection, and glide reflection.

• SPINNING JUMP – The frieze pattern admits translations, vertical reflections, horizontal
reflections, rotations, and glide reflections.
To classify a frieze pattern into one of the seven categories first decide whether the pattern has 180°
rotation. If it does, then there are 3 possible classifications: TR (translation and rotation or SLIDE), TRVG
(translation, rotation, vertical reflection, and glide reflections SPINNING SIDDLE), TRHVG (translation, rotation,
horizontal reflection, vertical reflection and glide reflections or SPINNING JUMP)
If the frieze pattern does not have 180° rotation, then there are 4 possible classifications: T (translation or
HOP), TV (translation and vertical reflection or SIDLE), TG (translation and glide reflections or STEP), or THG
(translation, horizontal reflection, and glide or JUMP)

3. WALLPAPER PATTERNS
➢ is a pattern with translation symmetry in two directions. It is, therefore, essentially an arrangement
of friezes stacked upon one another to fill the entire plane. Any particular wallpaper pattern is
made up of a combination of the following symmetries; reflection, rotation and glide reflection.
➢ According to NOCON (2016), in order for a plane figure to be considered a wallpaper pattern, it must
have at least the basic unit, one copy by translation, and a copy of these two by translation in the
second direction. There must be at least two rows, each one of at least two units long.
Each wallpaper pattern is based on a pair of translation in different
directions. The translations are applied multiple times to give a
REPEATING IMAGE. This defined a regular grid points called a
LATTICE.

The blue shape in the program is called the FUNDAMENTAL DOMAIN.

The image inside it is translated, rotated and reflected to produce the final
image. The yellow parallelogram is ONE CELL IN THE LATTICE, the
image inside every other cell will be identical to this.
Beautiful patterns can be created by repeating geometric and artistic motifs according to the symmetry of the
wallpaper groups, as exemplified in works by M. C. Escher and in the patterns created by I. Bakshee in the
Wolfram Language using Artlandia, illustrated above. There are 17 different wallpaper patterns.
Using intricate techniques, mathematicians were able to classify every wallpaper patterns possible. It is shown
that there are only 17 distinct types of wallpaper patterns.

4. TESSELATIONS
➢ A tessellation or tiling is a repeating
pattern of figures that covers a plane
with no gaps or overlaps. It is just like
a wallpaper group in which patterns are
created by repeating a shape to fill the
plane. Tessellations can be created with
translations, rotations, and reflections.
Tessellations can be seen in nature,
arts and everyday life. Pavements,
snake skin, turtle shell and a
honeycomb are just few of many
examples of tessellation we see around us. A honeycomb is a perfect example of a natural tessellation.
It uses regular hexagons to form this natural mosaic around the surface area of the hive. Since
these are regular hexagons, each interior angle of each hexagon are 120 degrees, and all the angles
in one of the hexagons equal 720 degrees.
 5. Calculate 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + n for n = 1, 2, … 6. Answer: 21 (PANO?)
6. Calculate 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2n – 1) for n = 1, 2, … 6. Answer: 36 (PANO?)
7. Find the values of the last two number in the sequence 448, 224, 112, 56, 28, 14, 7.
Geometric Sequence: Common ratio: 2
8. What is the missing number in each of these sequence? 19, 17, 15, 13. Arithmetic Sequence: 2
9. What formula is needed to get each of the following sequences from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,… ? 20, 40, 60, 80,
100,... Answer: 20n
10. Explain why the formula for the nth term of the sequence 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, … is 3n + 6 (PANO EWAN
KO)

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
We start with 1 and another 1. Add them, we get 2. Add 1 and 2, we get 3. Add 2 and 3, we get 5. Add 3 and 5,
we get 8. If we continue repeating the process, we obtain the sequence
1; 1; 2; 3; 5; 8; 13…
which is known as the Fibonacci sequence. The Fibonacci sequence was invented by the Italian Leonardo
Pisano Bigollo (1180-1250), who is known in mathematical history by several names: Leonardo of Pisa
(Pisano means “from Pisa”) and Fibonacci (which means “son of Bonacci”). To formally, define the
Fibonacci sequence, we start by defining 𝐹1= 1 and 𝐹2= 1. For n > 2, we define
𝐹𝑛= 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2
The sequence 𝑭𝟏 , 𝑭𝟐 , 𝑭𝟑 ;… is then the Fibonacci sequence. Such a definition is called a RECURSIVE
DEFINITION because it starts by defining some initial values and defines the next term as a function of
the previous terms.

If we take the ratio of 𝐹𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝐹𝑛−1 for n ≥ 1,

we see that as n gets larger and larger, the ratio gets closer and closer to a value denoted by φ. The number φ
is called the GOLDEN RATIO and can be formally defined as
𝐹𝑛
φ: = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝐹𝑛−1
The symbol 𝐥𝐢𝐦 means ‘the limit as n approaches ‘infinity’ which is usually studied in a calculus course. It
𝒏→∞
can be calculated that the exact value of φ is

1+ √5
φ= ≈ 1. 6180339887…
2
≈ defined as approximately equal…
1+ √5
If we denote by φ = , we can write the nth Fibonacci number
2
explicitly using the BINET FORMULA:

The red spiral is called the FIBONACCI

SPIRAL.
A rectangle whose side ratio (length:width)
equals ’ is called a GOLDEN RECTANGLE.
GEORGE DVORSKY (2013) emphasized that
the Fibonacci sequence has captivated
mathematicians, scientists, artists and
designers for centuries. It is a sequence with
many interesting properties. Among these is its
visibility in nature. Most, if not all,
natureâĂŹs most beautiful patterns contain
Fibonacci numbers.
The FIBONACCI NUMBERS appear in nature in various places. These numbers are evident at the flower
head of a sunflower or daisy. Spirals are also easier to see and to count on pineapples and pine cones. Fibonacci
numbers are there on broccoli florets and flowers and on the arrangement of leaves around stems on many
plants too.

• Pinecones, Speed Heads, Vegetables and Fruits

Spiral patterns curving from left and right can be seen at the array of seeds in the center of a sunflower.
The sum of these spirals when counted will be a Fibonacci number. You will get two consecutive Fibonacci
numbers if you divide the spirals into those pointed left and right. The seed pods on a pinecone are also
arranged in a spiral pattern. Each cone consists of a pair of spirals, each one spiraling upwards in opposing
directions. Spiral patterns can also be deciphered in cauliflower and pineapples. Fibonacci sequence
appears on these fruits and vegetables.

• Flowers and Branches

Most flowers express the Fibonacci sequence if you count the number
of petals on these flowers. For example, lilies and irises have three
petals, roses and buttercups have five, delphiniums have eight petals
and so on. Some plants also exhibit the Fibonacci sequence in their growth
points, on the places where tree branches form or split. A trunk grows
until it produces a branch, resulting in two growth points. The main trunk
then produces another branch, resulting in three growth points and then the
trunk and the first branch produce two more growth points, bringing the total
to five as illustrated on the image below.

• Honeybees
The family tree of a honey bee perfectly resembles the Fibonacci
sequence. A honeybee colony consists of a queen, a few drones
and lots of workers. The following image below shows how the family
tree relates.

• The Human Body

The human body has many elements that show the Fibonacci numbers and the golden ratio. Most of your
body parts follow the Fibonacci sequence and the proportions and measurements of the human body can also
be divided up in terms of the golden ratio.

• Geography, Weather and Galaxies

Fibonacci numbers and the relationships between these numbers are evident in spiral galaxies, sea wave
curves and in the patterns of stream and drainages. Weather patterns, such as hurricanes and whirlpools
sometimes closely resemble the Golden Spiral. The milky way galaxy and some other galaxies have
spiral patterns. Planets of our solar system and their orbital periods are closely related to the golden
ratio.
The Golden Ratio and/or the Golden Spiral can also be observed in music, art, and designs. Appearing in
many architectural structures, the presence of the golden ratio provided a sense of balance and equilibrium.
Let’s take a look at a couple of examples.

• Architecture.
The Great Pyramid of Giza: The Great Pyramid of Giza built around 2560 BC is one of the earliest examples
of the use of the golden ratio. The length of each side of the base is 756 feet, and the height is 481 feet. So,
we can find that the ratio of the vase to height is 756/481 = 1.5717

The Greek sculptor Phidias sculpted many things including the bands of sculpture that run above the
columns of the Parthenon. Other architectural structures that exhibits the Golden ratio include the ff: Porch of
Maidens, Acropolis, Athens; Chartres Cathedral; and Le Corbussier. Can you name other structures that
has the Golden Ratio?
 • Arts.
Mona-Lisa by Leonardo Da Vinci: It is believed that Leonardo, as a
mathematician tried to incorporate of mathematics into art. This painting seems
to be made purposefully line up with golden rectangle. An Old man by Leonardo
Da Vinci: Leonardo Da Vinci explored the human body involving in the ratios
of the lengths of various body parts. He called this ratio the "divine proportion"
and featured it in many of his paintings. We also have the The Vetruvian Man
(“The Man in Action”) by Leonardo Da Vinci; Holy Family by Micahelangelo;
Crucifixion by Raphael; The sacrament of the Last Supper by Salvador Dali
(1904-1989), and many more.

Lesson 2: Logic and Sets

A SET is a well-defined collection of objects called elements.

A COLLECTION is well-defined if for any given object we can objectively decide whether it is or is not in the
collection. Any object which belongs to a given set is said to be an ELEMENT of or a member of the given
set.
Example 11.
1. The collection of all letters in the English Alphabet is a set.
2. The collection of all handsome guys is not a set, because one cannot objectively identify if a given guy
is handsome or not, because the word “handsome” is subjective in nature.
UPPER CASE LETTERS are usually used to name sets. A set A can be commonly described in three ways,
by (a) listing (roster) method, (b) by set-builder notation or (c) by descriptive method.
a) The LISTING METHOD describes the set by listing all the elements between braces and separated
by commas (note: in enumerating the elements of a certain set, each element is listed only once and
the arrangement of elements in the list is immaterial).
b) The SET-BUILDER NOTATION uses a variable (a symbol, usually a letter, that can represent different
elements of a set), braces, and a vertical bar | that is read as "such that". This is usually used when the
elements are too many to list down.
c) The DESCRIPTIVE METHOD uses a short verbal statement to describe the set. (defining the
characteristic of a set.)
Example: set A containing positive even integers using set-builder notation is {x | x = 2n; n = 1,2,3,... } Why?
Because if n=1 then we supply it in the formula, the answer will be 2 which is the first even integer.
Example: set A containing positive even integers using roster method is A = {2,4,6,… }
Example: set A containing positive even integers using descriptive method is A = set of positive even integers.

NOTE: Not all sets can be described using the descriptive method, set builder notation, and listing
method.

Example: B = {1, A, B, ★ } Can B be called a set? Yes, because SETS ARE WELL-DEFINED COLLECTION
OF OBJECTS meaning we can identify what is inside the collection. It is NOT STATED THAT THOSE
OBJECTS MUST BE CONNECTED OR MAGKAKA UGNAY. (di pwede set builder notation)
Example 12. Using the roster method, the set of months in a year that ends with letter ‘y’ can be represented
by C = {January, February, May, July}.
Example 13. The set {2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9} in set-builder notation is {x | x is an integer greater than 1 but less
than 10} (they’re all counting numbers)
∈ read as ELEMENT.
If a is an element of a set A, we write a ∈ A. Otherwise, we write a =∉ A. There are sets with no elements.
Such a set is said to be empty and we use the symbol ∅ or {} to denote the EMPTY SET. A set with only one
element is called a UNIT SET OR A SINGLETON.
Example 14. The set of integers between 1 and 2 is empty, while the set of even prime numbers is a singleton.
For future discussion, we will use the following notations:

Natural numbers (N) are a part of the number system which includes all the positive integers from 1 till
infinity and are also used for counting purpose. It does not include zero (0). In fact, 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9….,
are also called counting numbers.
Natural numbers are part of real numbers, that include only the positive integers i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4,5,6, ……….
excluding zero, fractions, decimals and negative numbers.

The symbol of integers is “Z“.The word INTEGER originated from the Latin word “Integer” which means
whole or intact. Integers is a special set of numbers comprising zero, positive numbers and negative
numbers. (CANNOT BE A FRACTION). Note that ZERO is neither positive nor a negative integer. It is a
NEUTRAL NUMBER.

Rules defined for integers are:

• Sum of two positive integers is an integer
• Sum of two negative integers is an integer
• Product of two positive integers is an integer
• Product of two negative integers is an integer
• Sum of an integer and its inverse is equal to
zero
• Product of an integer and its reciprocal is equal
to 1

RATIONAL NUMBER is a type of real number, which is in the form of p/q where q is not equal to zero.
Any fraction with non-zero denominators is a rational number. Some of the examples of rational
numbers are 1/2, 1/5, 3/4, and so on. The number “0” is also a rational number, as we can represent it in
many forms such as 0/1, 0/2, 0/3, etc. But, 1/0, 2/0, 3/0, etc. are not rational, since they give us infinite
values.

To identify if a number is rational or not, check the below conditions.

• It is represented in the form of p/q, where q≠0.
• The ratio p/q can be further simplified and represented in decimal form.
 REAL NUMBERS are simply the combination of rational
and irrational numbers, in the number system.

Irrational numbers are non-terminating and non-repeating in

nature like √2.

A set A is said to be FINITE if it is possible to list down all the elements of A in a list. Otherwise, A is said
to be INFINITE. If A is finite, the CARDINALITY of A is the number of elements of A, which is denoted by
n(A).
For infinite it is denoted by ellipsis (…)
Example 15. The set of all letters in the English Alphabet is finite and its cardinality is 26, because there are 26
distinct letters in the English alphabet. On the other hand, the set of all even integers in infinite.

EQUALITY OF SETS
Let A and B be sets. We say that A is a subset of B and write A ⊆ B if every element of A is an element of B.
We say that A and B are equal and write A = B if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A
Remarks.
1. For any set A, A ⊆ A and ∅ ⊆ A.
ANY SET IS A SUBSET OF ITSELF. So lagi magsisimula sakanya
EMPTY SET is a subset of any set
2. If A and B are finite sets and A = B, then n(A) = n(B).
Example:
A = {1,2,3,4} Get the subset of 4. A = {{1}, {2},{3},{4},{1,2},{1,3},{1,4},{2,3},{2,4},{3,4},{1,2,3},{1,2,4}, {1,3,4},
{2,3,4}, {1,2,3,4}, ∅}
Note: {1,2} is same as {2,1} or {2,3,1} = {1,2,3} (THE ARRANGEMENT IS NOT IMPORTANT)
FORMULA TO GET ANY SUBSET IS 2^n
How many subsets if 5 elements? 32 subsets because 2^5 = 32

Example 16. Let A be the set of all mathematicians 20 feet high and B be the set of all PUP students. Then A
= ∅. By Remark (1) above, A ⊆ B: Therefore, we can conclude that every mathematician 20 feet high is a PUP
student.
Two finite sets A and B are said to be equivalent if and only if n(A) = n(B). Note that equal sets are
necessarily equivalent but equivalent sets need not be equal.
Example: A = {1,2,3} and B = {a,b,c}. Yes, they’re equivalent sets since they have the same cardinality or
number of elements. However, they’re not equal because again in equality of sets A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A they must
be both subsets of each other and their content must be the same. So, A is not a subset of B and B is not a
subset of A.
Another example: A = {2,4} and B = {1,2,3,4}. They’re not equivalent and A is a subset of B (however, they’re
not proper subsets). B is not a subset of A not elements of B can be found in A.
NOTE:
EQUIVALENT talks about cardinality or number of elements
EQUAL means A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A (presents same or similar elements inside the set.)

Example 17. Let A = {x | x is a prime number less than 20} and B = {1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8} are equivalent since
n(A) = 8 = n(B), However, A ≠ B.
Prime numbers less than 20 are 2,3,5,7,11, 13, 17, 19
1 is not a prime number

Let A and B be sets. The UNION of A and B is defined as

A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}:
- Pagsasamahin whether common or uncommon
The INTERSECTION of A and B is
A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}:
- common elements
Then RELATIVE COMPLEMENT of B in A is the set
A \ B := {x ∈ A | x = ∉ B}
read as relative complement of B and A since pabaliktad yung basa
- lahat ng elements ni A na wala kay B

We could represent A ∪ B, A ∩
B, and A \ B in terms of Venn
Diagrams as shown below

Venn diagrams are pictorial representation of set operations.

Example 18. Let A = {0, 1, 3, 5, 7} and B = {1, 2, 4, 7, 9}. Then:
A ∪ B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9},
A ∩ B = {1, 7} and
A \ B = {0, 3, 5}.
B\ A = {2,4,9}
In most of the interesting instances in mathematics, we normally talk about a particular set of objects at a given
time. The set of all objects of interest is called as the UNIVERSAL SET, generically denoted as U . If A ⊂ U ,
the COMPLEMENT of A is defined as the set

(NOTE: ito talaga visual nung U na symbol)

A’ = U \ A = {x ∈ U ∈ x =∈ A}.

Example: universal set U = set of integers

Read as: all elements of the universal set that do not belong to A.

Using the De Morgan’s Law of logic, one can readily verify that
(A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’ and (A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’.

We can use our knowledge of sets to solve some word problems.

Example 19. At a certain high school, each student is a member of the English Club, the Science Club, or the
Mathematics Club. Of the 79 students asked, 33 are members of the English Club, 37 are members of the
Math Club, and 37 are members of the of the Science club. Furthermore, 7 are members of both the English
and the Math Clubs, 12 are members of both the English and the Science Clubs, and 9 are members of the
Science and Math Clubs. No high school student is a member of all the three clubs. How many joined only the
Math Club?
Solution Let E, S, and M denote the sets of members of English, Science, and Mathematics Club,
respectively. As given in the problem, the universal set U has cardinality n(U) = 79, n(E) = 33, n(M) = 37, and
n(S) = 37. Furthermore, n(E ∩ M) = 7, n(E ∩ S) = 12, and n(S ∩ M) = 9. The last condition imply that E ∩ S ∩
M = ∅ This situation can be represented by the following Venn diagram

Since n(E ∩ S ∩ M) = 0, then the number of students who only joined the Mathematics Club is n(M) – n(E ∩ M)
– n(S ∩ M) = 37 – (7+9) = 21
SITUATION: yung buong 7 is kasama dun sa part na abot sa 0. Kaya if ever may number yon for
example 3 siya kaya ang sumali lang purely sa English and math will be 4.
Ilang students ang sumali sa English club or science club pero di sa math club? 42 STUDENTS.
(14+12+16 since denoted by or which is a union)
Ilang students ang sumali sa math club and science club but did not join English? 9 STUDENTS (and
denotes intersection)
OR = add all
AND = intersection only
How many students that did not join any club? 28 students Because 79-(14-21-16)

CHAPTER 3: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Outline:
A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

A. INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING

REASONING AND ARGUMENTS

• REASONING is the process of drawing conclusion or inference through the use of proper
justification. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary)
• AGRUMENT is a finite collection of proposition p1, p2, p3,…, q such that the conjunction of all
p’is imply q.
• We call every pi as a PREMISE while q as a CONCLUSION
A typical argument has the following structure

INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT – an argument is said to be inductive if it makes a case for a general conclusion
from one or more specific premises.
An object defined by a premise is called a SPECIMEN/ELEMENT. The generalization is called a
CONJECTURE.
A specimen that negates the conjecture is called COUNTEREXAMPLE.
EXAMPLE 1:
 o One can form a conjecture that “the sum of any two odd integers is even”
o This is a mathematical fact.

EXAMPLE 2:

o One might say “Any animal that can fly is a bird”

o This is FALSE.
o Counterexample: A bat can fly but it is not a bird.

EXAMPLE 3:

o One can say that “the square of any number is positive”

o This is FALSE.
o Counterexample: 0 is a number. 02 = 0 is not positive. (0 is neither positive nor negative.)

STRONG AND WEAK INDUCTION

An inductive argument is said to be STRONG if it makes a compelling case for its conclusion. It is WEAK if
its conclusion is not well supported by the premises.
NOTE: the strength of an argument is not necessarily related with the truth of the conclusion.

EXAMPLE 4:

1. Is this inductive? Yes.

2. Is this strong? No. (Why? There is still probability that he will fail.)
 3. Is the conclusion true? We have no idea yet.

EXAMPLE 5:

1. Is this inductive? Yes.

2. Is this strong? Yes. This naturally observed.
3. Is the conclusion true? Yes

EXAMPLE 6:

1. Is this inductive? Yes.

2. Is this strong? No. Of course, it is naturally blue.
3. Is the conclusion true? Yes

EXAMPLE 7:

1. Is this inductive? Yes.

2. Is this strong? Yes.
3. Is the conclusion true? It is most likely that it will be true. The nature’s behavior can be cyclically
observed.

DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT – an argument is said to be deductive if it makes a case for a specific conclusion
from more general premises.
- Begins with solution and make a specific general premise.
EXAMPLE 8 AND EXAMPLE 9:

VALIDITY AND SOUDNESS

A deductive argument is said to be VALID if its conclusion follows from its premises, regardless of the truth
of the premises or conclusion.
A deductive argument is said to be SOUND if it is valid and its premises are all true.

EXAMPLE 10:
Consider this argument.
All parallelograms are polygons. A square is a parallelogram. Hence, a
square is a polygon.
Is this valid? Yes. A square is a parallelogram because it has 4 equal
sides, and a polygon has 4 sides.
Is this sound? Yes because it is valid.

EXAMPLE 11:
Determine if this argument is valid.
Every fish lives in the water. Whales are not fish. Thus, whales do not live
in the water.
Is this valid? No, the x is outside the circle.
Is this sound? No, since it is not valid.
EXAMPLE 12:
Consider this argument.
Any offspring of Zeus is an Olympian.
Hercules is a son of Zeus. Therefore, Hercules is an Olympian.
Is this valid? Yes, it is valid.
Is this sound? No, sound determines by premise is Hercules a son it is true.
Is Hercules an Olympian, no because he a demigod.
EXAMPLE 13:
Consider this argument.
No students are passive. Gretel is passive.
Therefore, Gretel is not a student.
Is this valid? Yes
Is this sound? We have no assurance.

EXAMPLE 13:
Consider this argument.
CONDITIONAL DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
A Conditional deductive argument is an argument of the form.

Where a is an implication, and b and c are either the premise, conclusion or the negations of the premise or
conclusion of a.
LESSON 4: STATISTICS AND DATA MANAGEMENT
OUTLINE

A. Basic Concepts of B. Data Collection D. Descriptive Statistics

Statistics C. Data Presentation E. Inferential Statistics

STATISTICS is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data.
It deals with all aspects of data, including the planning of its collection in terms of the design of surveys
and experiments. Some consider statistics a mathematical body of science that pertains to the
collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data, while others consider it a
branch of mathematics concerned with collecting and interpreting data. Because of its empirical roots
and its focus on applications, statistics is usually considered a distinct mathematical science rather than
a branch of mathematics.

STATISTICS is the discipline that deals with the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and
presentation of data relevant in any investigation.

STATISTICS is defined as a branch of mathematics which is concerned with facilitating wise decision-
making in the face of uncertainty and that, therefore develops and utilizes techniques for collection,
effective presentation, and proper analysis of data.

A. Basic Concepts of Statistics

PHASES OR BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS is concerned with the description and summarization of data, It deals
with the techniques used in the collection, presentation, organization, and analysis of the data
on hand.
- Refers to the collection of statistical procedures concerned with describing the
characteristics and properties of a group of observation based on easily verifiable facts.
- Basically, just quantify and interpret the data or generalize the data based verifiable facts.
- Sample measures: mean and mode.

2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS is concerned with the drawing of conclusions from data. It deals with the
techniques used in generalizing from samples to populations, performing estimations and
hypothesis tests determining relationships among variables, and making predictions.
- Refers to the collection of statistical procedures used to draw inferences for the population
on the basis of information obtained from the sample.
- Use of inferences to make a generalization on a certain population based gathered
information of sample observation. The sample observation is seen in the population. We
generalize a characteristic of population based on a certain sample, we can generate
statistical errors. What we want is to minimize those errors.
- Sample measures: dependent and independent sample t test, parametric test and
nonparametric test.

EXAMPLE

The following are some questions that can be answered by DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS:
 • How many PUP students are hooked in playing Mobile Legends? (use of frequency count)
• What are the highest and lowest scores obtained by Section 1 in Quiz 3?
• What are the characteristics of the most admired faculty members of the College of Science?
• Which among the five sections obtained the highest passing rate in the departmental
examination?
• What proportion of the male COVID patients have already recovered? (percentage)
The following are some questions that can be answered by INFERENTIAL STATISTICS:

• Is there a significant difference between the scores obtained by male and female students of
Section 1 in Quiz 3? (In these questions, you are trying to verify whether the difference of scores
between male and female are significant. Example mas mataas yung male students based on
sample evidence. Meaning of significant is to generalize na mas mataas nakukuha ng scores
ng male of section 1 compared to females.)
• Is there a significant difference among the perceptions of PUP students playing Mobile Legend
when they are grouped according to the college where they belong?
• Is there a significant relationship between the academic performance and practicum rating of
the Education Students of PUP?
• Is there a significant difference between the weights of the 30 participants before and after
undergoing the one-month aerobics program?
• Which among the proposed COVID vaccine is the most effective? (estimating population
based on samples)

FUNCTIONS OF STATISTICS (CCCFEH)

1. CONDENSATION. Generally speaking by the verb ‘to condense’, we mean to reduce or to lessen.
Condensation is mainly applied at embracing the understanding of a huge mass of data by
providing only few observations. It refers to reducing or lessening a huge mass of data into a
compact and comprehensive form. (Example, MEAN used to generalize a huge information)
2. COMPARISON. Highlight similarities across categories. CONTRASTING highlights differences across
categories.
- Classification and tabulation are the two methods that are used to condense the data. They
help us to compare data collected from different sources. Grand totals, measures of central
tendency measures of dispersion, graphs and diagrams, coefficient of correlation, etc.
provide ample scope for comparison. As statistics is an aggregate of facts and figures,
comparison is always possible and in fact comparison helps us to understand the data in a
better way.
3. FORECASTING. By the word forecasting, we mean to predict or to estimate beforehand. It refers to
precise prediction of behavior and observations.
- We use inferential statistics because we try to forecast to behavior of observation or
characteristic of set of data. Example, trends of inflation in the next 5 years.
- Given the data of the last ten years connected to the number of students enrolled in PUP, it
is possible to predict or forecast the number of students that will enroll for the near future. In
business also forecasting plays a dominant role in connection with production, sales, profits
etc. The analysis of time series and regression analysis plays an important role in forecasting.
4. ESTIMATION. It refers to determining how close actual values or intervals from test values of
intervals. One of the main objectives of statistics is drawn inference about a population from the
analysis for the sample drawn from that population.
5. HYPOTHESIS TESTING / TESTS OF HYPOTHESIS. Refers to determining whether the observed behavior
is absolute or coincidental with respect to the bound conditions of the data set.
 -A STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS is some statement about the probability distribution, characterizing
a population on the basis of the information available from the sample observations. In the
formulation and testing of hypothesis, statistical methods are extremely useful. Whether the
grades of students increased because they are motivated or whether the new teaching
method is effective in discussing a particular topic are some examples of statements of
hypothesis and these are tested by proper statistical tools.
- Used in research study. It looks whether the characteristic of sample can generalize the
characteristic of the population. The examples of inferential data question uses statistical
hypothesis.
SCOPE OF STATISTICS

• Industry • Planning
• Commerce • Medicine
• Economics • Modern application
• Education

LIMITATIONS OF STATISTICS

1. Statistics is not suitable to the study of qualitative phenomenon.

2. Statistics does not focus on individuals. Statistics does not give any specific importance to the
individual items; in fact it deals with an aggregate of objects. Individual items, when they are
taken individually do not constitute any statistical data and do not serve any purpose for any
statistical enquiry.
3. Statistical laws are precise but not exact. It is well known that mathematical and physical
sciences are exact. But statistical laws are not exact and statistical laws are only approximations.
Statistical conclusions are not universally true. They are true only on an average. (always a room
for error and only estimate and not exact value.)
4. Statistics table may be misused. Statistics must be used only by experts; otherwise, statistical
methods are the most dangerous tools on the hands of the inexpert. The use of statistical tools
by the inexperienced and untraced persons might lead to wrong conclusions.
5. Statistics is only one of the methods of studying a problem. Statistical method do not provide
complete solution of the problems because problems are to be studied taking the background
of the countries culture, philosophy or religion into consideration. Thus the statistical study should
be supplemented by other evidences.

SOME TERMINOLOGIES: UNIVERSE, POPULATION AND SAMPLES

• UNIVERSE refer to any collection of observations relevant in a statistical study.

• POPULATION refers to a set of values with respect to the observed variable extracted from the
universe. Population is enough to identify descriptive statistics to make analysis and
interpretation is research.
• SAMPLE is a subset of the population. Pumapasok lang ang inferential statistics kapag may
sample. Pag sample, pwede rin descriptive to describe the characteristic of the sample set.
The total collection of all the elements that we are interested in is called a POPULATION. A subgroup of
the population that will be studied in detail is called a SAMPLE
PARAMETER AND STATISTIC

• A PARAMETER refers to any value describing the population.

• A STATISTIC refers to any value describing the sample. Note: STATISTICS is DIFFERENT from
STATISTIC.

DATA, QUANTITATIVE DATA AND QUALITATIVE DATA

• DATA refers to the any set of information gathered under a particular study. Sometimes
called PARAMETER.
• QUANTITATIVE DATA are sets of information which are purely numerical in nature.
• QUALITATIVE DATA are sets of information which are purely categorical and cannot be
subjected to meaningful arithmetic.
More qualitative: variation of voice, shapes, color, race, social status

DISCRETE DATA AND CONTINUOUS DATA

• DISCRETE DATA are data that assume exact values only and can be obtained by counting.
(COUNTABLE)
• CONTINUOUS DATA are data that assume infinite values within a specified interval and can
be obtained by actual measurement. (MEASURABLE)

CONSTANTS AND VARIABLES

• CONSTANT is a characteristic of the universe in which makes the members similar to each
other.
• VARIABLE is a characteristic of the universe in which makes the members different to each
other.

NOMINAL LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

The NOMINAL SCALE is the lowest level of The INTERVAL SCALE recognizes difference
measurement and characterizes observations between values and do not have a true zero
into categories. (Sometimes called categorical value.
data.)
- Has characteristic of both nominal
Example and ordinal with additional
characteristic.
1. The following are examples of true
- Example: Small, medium, large. We
categories:
can rank/order them but we cannot
• Sex (male or female)
distinguish the difference between
• Employment status (permanent or
small and medium using a particular
contractual)
value.
• Type of school attended (public
Example
or private)
The following are examples of data in the
2. The following are examples of artificial interval scale
categories:
• Temperature (0 degrees doesn’t mean
• Height (tall or short) – height is a
no temperature. This is the freezing point
ratio level
of water.)
• IQ (high, average or low)
• Exponents (0-exponent doesn’t mean no
• Learning style (independent
exponent. Any number raise to zero
learner or peer-oriented)
except 0 is 1.)
• IQ (0-score doesn’t mean no
ORDINAL LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
intelligence.)
The ORDINAL SCALE characterizes observations
by ranking. RATIO LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

Example The RATIO SCALE is the highest level of

measurement and it has a true zero value.
The following are examples of data in the
(contains nominal, ordinal, and interval. Its
ordinal scale:
difference from interval is it has a true zero value
• Place titles in a contest (1st, 2nd, and 3rd meaning 0=0)
ranking)
Example
• Academic distinction (with honors, with
high honors, and with highest honors) The following are examples of data in the ratio
• Size of t-shirt (small, medium, and large) scale

• Attendance in a class (zero attendance

means no attendees.)
• Length (zero length means no
dimensions)
• Profit or loss (zero amount means break-
even)
INTERVAL LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

STEPS IN STATISTICAL INVESTIGATON

1. DEFINING THE PROBLEM
(a) Identify a specific problem.
(b) Define the scope and limitations, assumptions to be made, and expected outcomes.

2. COLLECTION OF DATA
(a) Make sure to collect the data properly.
(b) Incomplete, fabricated, outdated, and inaccurate data are useless.

3. SUMMARIZATION AND TABULATION OF COLLECTED DATA

(a) This refers to organization of data in text, tables, graphs and charts, so that logical conclusion
can be derived from them.
(b) Explore the data to obtain additional insight that could contribute to the study.

4. ANALYSIS OF DATA
(a) This pertains to the process of deriving from the given data relevant information from which
numerical descriptions can be formulated.
(b) Summarized data must be examined so that insights and meaningful information ca be
produced to support decision-making or solutions to the question or problem at hand.

5. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
(a) Refers to the task of drawing conclusions from the analyzed data.
(b) Results must be able to answer the research problem and give recommendations.

6. PRESENTATION OF THE RESULT

(a) Present all pertinent results in a clear and concise manner.
(b) Use appropriate form of media to present results.
EXERCISES: DETERMINE OF QUALITATIVE OR 3. The distance of a 2005 Toyota Prius can
QUANTITATIVE travel in city conditions with a full tank of
gas. = CONTINUOUS (distance cannot be
1. GENDER – qualitative
counted only measured.)
2. TEMPERATURE – quantitative
4. Number of words correctly spelled =
3. NUMBER OF CHILDREN – quantitative
DISCRETE
4. HAIR COLOR – qualitative
5. Time of a runner to finish one lap =
5. ZIP CODE – qualitative (although
CONTINOUS
numeral its value has no meaning. The
EXERCISES: CATEGORIZE EACH OF THE
number represents a place and no
FOLLOWING AS NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL,
value)
OR RATIO MEASUREMENT.
6. PLATE NUMBER – qualitative
EXERCISES: DETERMINE WHETHER THE 1. Ranking of college athletic teams =
FOLLOWING QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES ARE ORDINAL (ranking or order)
DISCRETE OR CONTINUOUS 2. employee number = NOMINAL
3. number of vehicles registered = RATIO
1. The number of heads obtained after
4. Brands of soft drinks = NOMINAL
flipping a coin five times = DISCRETE
5. Number of car passed along C5 on a
2. The number of cars that arrive at a
given day = RATIO
Mcdonalds’s drive-through between
12:00 P.M to 1:00 P.M = DISCRETE

B. DATA COLLECTION
SOURCES OF DATA
Primary and Secondary Sources of Data

Any entity in which data are extracted is called a SOURCE.

• A source is said to be PRIMARY if the extracted data are directly related with the entity.
• A source is said to be SECONDARY if the extracted data are already reported by a different
entity via any means.

Other secondhand source is PSA

TYPES OF COLLECTED DATA

• PERSONAL FACTS – there are attested and verified recollections of respondents about
themselves and of other people.
• ATTITUDES AND FEELINGS – there are the respondents’ ideas about the research topic and his
personal disposition about the worth of the variable being investigated. (Mostly, not accepted
since this is SUBJECTIVE.)
• PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS – there are the respondents’ manipulative abilities with the involvement
of his five senses.
• RESULTS OF TEST AND EXPERIMENTS – there are the summarized reports of the overall
performance of the respondents subjected to factual-based criteria.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

• DIRECT OR INTERVIEW METHOD – it is a purposeful face-to-face interaction between two persons,

the interviewer and the interviewee. The INTERVIEWER is the one who asks the questions to gather
information while the INTERVIEWEE is the one who answers the questions supplying the
information needed.
• INDIRECT OR QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD – a QUESTIONNAIRE is a set of questions which when
answered properly by a required number of properly selected respondents, will supply the
necessary information to complete a research study.
• OBSERVATION METHOD – OBSERVATION is a way of perceiving data through the application of
the five senses. (Ex. a Queuing study of LRT which has arriving time and serving time of machine
to passengers.)
• TESTING METHOD – a TEST is a specific type of measuring instrument whose general characteristic
is that, it forces responses to be indicators of skills, knowledge, attitudes, etc, (Ex. measuring
academic performance)
• REGISTRATION METHOD – REGISTRATION is the process of listing down items of the same kind in
some systematic manner for recorded purposes.
 • EXPERIMENTAL METHOD – EXPERIMENTS are scientific-based activities that aim to establish cause-
effect relationship in which critical control of variables are necessary. (Ex. development of
vaccines for the pandemic to measure efficacy of the vaccines.)
• SIMULATION METHOD – SIMULATION is the acting-out of a replicated environment in order to
have a perception of responses from either past or future events.
• LIBRARY METHOD – this is the general term for utilizing all existing documents and reports from
concerned agencies.
When we conduct research study, we DO NOT USE POPULATION as the subject of the study. If marami
or Malaki masyado yung population IT IS NOT ECONOMICAL to use. We USE ONLY SAMPLE OR PORTION
OF THE POPULATION. How are we sure that the portion of population is the real representative of the
population, this opens the concept of SAMPLING.

“How many participants should be chosen for a survey?”

SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

SAMPLES are subset of your population. Subset means portion or part of the population.

The SAMPLE SIZE is typically denoted by n and it is always a positive integer.

REMINDERS: REPRESENTATIVENESS, not size, is the more important consideration.

Unrepresentative since the characteristics are

all the same and does not have any variation.
The second one has variation but the
population is divided into different groups like
all students of college of sciences is divided
by courses. The dividend parts must be
proportionate sa population. So the total
population of each programs must be
proportionate to the total population of
college of science.

REMINDERS: use no less than 30 subjects if possible.

- If you use complex statistics, you may need a minimum of 100 or more in your sample (varies
with method.)
- Ex if the population is 30, do not use sample anymore and just use the whole population.
The choosing of sample size depends on:

• Non-statistical considerations
• Statistical considerations
CRITERIA NEED TO BE SPECIFIED TO DETERMINE THE APPROPRIATE SAMPLE SIZE

1. Level of Precision
➢ Also called sampling error, the level of precision, is the range in which the true value of the
population is estimated to be.
2. Confidence Interval
 ➢ It is a statistical measure of the number of times out of 100 that results can be expected to be
within a specific range.
Desired Confidence Level Z - score
80% 1.28
85& 1.44
90% 1.65
95% 1.96
99% 2.58

3. Degree of Variability
➢ Depending upon the target population and attributes under consideration, the degree of
variability varies considerably.
➢ VARIABILITY is the amount of spreadness or variation of data or target population.

METHODS IN DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE

ESTIMATING THE MEAN OR AVERAGE

The sample size required to estimate the population mean μ to with a level of confidence with specified
margin of error e, given by

Where:

o Z is the z-score corresponding to level of confidence

o σ is the population standard deviation
o e is the level of precision
The Greek letter μ (mu) is used in statistics to represent the population mean of a distribution.

REMINDERS:

If when σ is unknown, it is common practice to conduct a preliminary survey to determine s and use it
as an estimate of σ or use results from previous studies to obtain an estimate of σ. When using this
approach, the size of the sample should be at least 30. The formula for the sample standard deviation s is

o x is the amount of deviation of each individual score

o x̄ respect to the mean of the set of score
EXAMPLE: A soft drink machine is regulated so that the amount of drink
dispensed is approximately normally distributed with a standard deviation
equal to 0.5 ounce. Determine the sample size needed if we wish to be 95% confident that our sample
mean will be within +.03 ounce from the true mean.

True mean – population mean.

n is greater than or equal to makukuhang value of n is the minimum sample size in the study. Therefore,
pwede pa magdagdag sa 1067.11. We set a minimum so the acceptable value or statistically it will be
a true representation of the population. Habang lumalaki sample, nababawasan ang error of
approximation.

ESTIMATING PROPORTION (INFINITE POPULATION)

- use if di well defined ang population size.

The sample size required to obtain a confidence interval for p with specified margin of error e is given
by

Where:

o Z is the z-score corresponding to level of confidence

o e is the level of precision
o p is population proportion

INFINITE POPULATION CORRECTION

The conservation formula the strong law of large number

Where:

o Confidence level is 95%

o The level of precision is 0.05
This formula came from estimating proportion where p is 0.5 so 0.5 x 0.5 =.025 or 1/4

Approximately 385 is the maximum

EXAMPLE:

Suppose we are doing a study on the inhabitants of a large town and want to find out how many
households serve breakfast in the mornings. We don't have much information on the subject to begin
with, so we're going to assume that half of the families serve breakfast: this gives us maximum variability.
So p = 0.5. We want 99% confidence and at least 1% precision.

SLOVIN’S FORMULA (SIMPLIFIED FORM OF PROPORTIONS FOR FINITE POPULATION)

Slovin’s formula is used to calculate the sample size n given the population size and error. It is computed
as

Where:

o N is the total population

o e is the level of precision

EXAMPLE:

A researcher plans to conduct a survey about food preference of BS Stat students. If the population of
students is 1000, find the sample size if the error is 5%.

= 385/(1+(385-1/1,000)) = 278.18 or 279

FINITE POPULATION CORRECTION

If the population is small then the sample size can be reduced slightly.

Where:

o 𝑛0 is Cochran’s sample size recommendation to determine an infinite population

o N is the population size
The strong law of large number will be the 𝒏𝟎 . However, if the confidence level is 99% mababago yung
𝑛0

COMPUTATION OF SAMPLE SIZE USING SAMPLE SIZE ONLINE CALCULATORS

EXERCISES: Determine the sample size of the following problems

1. 1. A dermatologist wishes to estimate the proportion of young adults who apply sunscreen
regularly before going out in the sun in the summer. Find the minimum sample size required to
estimate the proportion with precision of 3%, and 90% confidence.
Hindi given population proportion so assumed na maximum proportion which is 50%

N ≥ (1.65 / 0.03)^2 x 0.5(1-0.5) = 756.25 or 757

 2. The administration at a college wishes to estimate, the proportion of all its entering freshmen
who graduate within four years, with 95% confidence. Estimate the minimum size sample
required. Assume that the population standard deviation is σ = 1.3 and precision level is 0.05.

=(1.96(1.3)/0.05 )^2 = 2,596.92 or 2,597

3. A government agency wishes to estimate the proportion of drivers aged 16-24 who have been
involved in a traffic accident in the last year. It wishes to make the estimate to within 1% error
and at 90% confidence. Find the minimum sample size required, using the information that
several years ago the proportion was 0.12

= (1.65/0.01)^2 x .12(1-.12) = 2874.96 or 2,875

SAMPLING DESIGN: BASIC CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURE

The goal in sampling is to obtain individuals for a study in such a way that accurate information about
the population can be obtained.

REASON FOR SAMPLING

• Important that the individuals included in a sample. represent a cross section of individuals in
the population.
• If sample is not representative it is biased - - you cannot generalize to the population from your
statistical data.

DEFINITION

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES/SAMPLING STRATEGIES

➢ It is a plan you set forth so to be sure that the sample you use in your research study represents
➢ the population from which you drew your sample.
SAMPLING FRAME

➢ This is the list of the elements in your population and from this your sample is drawn.
SAMPLING BIAS

➢ This involves problems in your sampling, which reveals that your sample is not representative of
your population.
TYPES OF STATISTICAL BIAS

1. Selection Bias
2. Self-selection Bias
3. Recall Bias
4. Observer Bias
5. Survivor Bias
6. Funding Bias
7. Undercoverage
8. Overcoverage
ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING OVER COMPLETE ENUMERATION

• less labor
• reduced cost
• greater speed
• greater scope
• greater efficiency and accuracy
• convenience
• ethical consideration
TWO TYPES OF SAMPLES OR SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

PROBABILITY SAMPLE NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLE

➢ Samples are obtained using some ➢ Samples are obtained haphazardly,
objective chance mechanism, thus selected purposively or are taken as
involving randomization. volunteers.
➢ They require the use of a complete listing ➢ The probabilities of selection are
of the elements of the universe called the unknown.
SAMPLING FRAME. ➢ They should not be used for statistical
➢ Probabilities of selection are known. Ex. inference. (more on descriptive statistics.)
population of 100, each one has the
probability of 1 out of 100 or 0.01
➢ They are generally referred to as RANDOM
SAMPLES.
➢ They allow drawing valid generalization
about the universe/population

SAMPLING PROCEDURE

• Identify the population.

• Determine if population is accessible.
• Select a sampling method.
• Choose a sample that is representative of the population.
• Ask the question, can I generalize to the general population from the accessible population?

BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

➢ Most basic method of drawing a probability sample

➢ Assigns equal probabilities of selection to each possible sample
➢ Results to a simple random sample
OBTAINING A SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE:

1. Assign a number to each item in the lot.

2. Consult the table of random numbers.
3. Preplan how to select a sequence of digits from the table so that no bias enters into the selection
process.
4. Select a random number in the preplanned pattern.
5. Arrange the random numbers consecutively in numerical order.
6. Select as samples those items in the lot corresponding to the random numbers.

SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING

➢ It is obtained by selecting every kth individual from the population.

➢ The first individual selected corresponds to a random number between 1 to k.

OBTAINING A SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLE:

1. Decide on a method of assigning a unique serial number, from 1 to N, to each one of the elements
in the population.
𝑵 𝑷𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆
2. Compute for the sampling interval k = =
𝒏 𝑺𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆
Example 1,000/200 so every 5th individual sinasama as sample size
3. Select a number, from 1 to k, using à randomization mechanism. The element in the population
assigned to this number is the first element of the sample. The other elements of the sample are
those assigned to the numbers and so on until you get a sample of size (use the formula).
EXAMPLE: We want to select a sample of 50 students from 500 students under this kth item and picked
up from the sampling frame.
Another example of i is 7, so succeeding samples 7, 17, 27, 37, etc. (bat nag add ng 10 kasi k mo is 10.)

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

➢ It is obtained by separating the population into non-overlapping groups called STRATA and then
obtaining a simple random sample from each stratum.
➢ The individuals within each stratum should be homogeneous (or similar) in some way.

FORMULA: Sample/Total population x (strata n)

Example:

The population is divided into 4 strata.

EXAMPLE: A sample of 50 students is to be

drawn from a population consisting of
500 students belonging to two institutions
A and B. The number of students in the
institution A is 200 and the institution B is
300. How will you draw the sample 'using
proportional allocation?

Total population: 500

Strata 1: Institution A – 200 students

Strata 2: Institution B – 300 students

CLUSTER SAMPLING

➢ You take the sample from naturally occurring groups in your population.
 ➢ The clusters are constructed such that the sampling units are heterogeneous within the cluster
and homogeneous among the clusters.
Ex. family household within metro manila. The naturally
occurring groups are bawat cities in Metro Manila.

Heterogenous – magkakaiba ; homogenous –

magkakatulad (households within metro manila)

OBTAINING A CLUSTER SAMPLE

1. Divide the population into non-overlapping clusters.

2. Number the clusters in the population from 1 to N.
3. Select n distinct, numbers from 1 to N using a randomization mechanism. The selected clusters
are the clusters associated with the selected numbers.
4. The sample will consist of all the elements in the selected clusters.

MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING

➢ Selection of the sample is done in two or

more steps or stages, with sampling units
varying in each stage.

OBTAINING A MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING

1. Organize the sampling process into stages where the unit of analysis is systematically grouped.
2. Select a sampling technique for each stage.
 3. Systematically apply the sampling technique to each stage until the unit of analysis has been
selected.

Households are the unit sample

BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUE OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

• Accidental Sampling – similar to convenience since kung sino lang pwede na kunin as sample
• Quota Sampling – specific number of response
• Convenience Sampling
• Purposive Sampling – depends on the purpose of the study
• Judgement Sampling
CASES WHEREIN NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING IS USEFUL

• Only few are willing to be interviewed

• Extreme difficulties in locating identifying subjects
• Probability sampling is more expensive to implement
• Cannot enumerate the population elements.
EXERCISES:

Identify the sample selection procedure used in each of the following cases:

1. A tax auditor selects every 1000th income tax return that is received. (SYSTEMATIC RANDOM
SAMPLING)
2. 12 people are randomly selected to serve as jurors from a jury pool of 150 people. (SIMPLE
RANDOM SAMPLING)
3. To select a sample of households in a province, a sample of provinces were selected, then a
sample of municipalities were chosen from each of the selected provinces, then sample of
barangays were chosen from each of the selected municipality, and all households in the
selected barangays were included. (MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING)
4. For a survey, a sample of municipalities was selected from every province in the country and
included all child laborers in the selected municipalities. (CLUSTER SAMPLING)
5. In the game of lotto, 6 balls are selected from a container with 42 balls (SIMPLE RANDOM
SAMPLING)

C. Data Presentation
After data have been collected, the researchers can now present them in the following logical
methods.

3 METHODS:
 1. TEXTUAL FORM: Data are presented in paragraph of text. The text highlights the important figures
or results that the researcher wishes to focus on.
2. TABULAR FORM: Data appears in a systematic manner in rows and columns.
a. Simple or One-Way Table

Table number, table title, and presented data

b. Two-Way Table

3. GRAPHICAL FORM: Data or relationship among variables could be presented in visual form, thru
graphs or diagrams. In that manner, the reader can easily perceive what is being meant by the
figure or any trend being portrayed by the data.
TYPES OF STATISTICAL CHART

❖ Bar Graph (Vertical Bar/Column Charts) is applicable for showing the comparison of amount of
a variable of interest collected over time.
- The use of graphical depends on the type of data.
- Not appropriate with percentage of the whole distribution mostly pang pie chart.
- Simple Chart, Group Column Charts, and Subdivided Column Charts

The enrollment of female

in increasing

The male enrollment

increases from 2012-2015
and decreasing later on
2016-2017
❖ Histogram is similar to the bar graph but the
base of the rectangle has a length exactly
equal to the class width of the
corresponding interval. Also, there are no
spaces between the rectangles.
- End points per bar means TRUE LIMIT
(tinatawag din class boundaries: lower
and upper)
- Class width here is 10
(139.5+10=149.5+10=159.5 and so on)

❖ Pictograph is similar to the bar chart but instead of bars,

we use pictures or symbols to represent the value or an
amount.

❖ Pie Chart is a circular graph partitioned into several section,

depicting relative percentage with respect to the total
distribution.

❖ Line Graph is a graph used to visualize data that changes continuously over time.
- Simple Line Graph and Multiple Line Graph.
In the Multiple Line Graph:

o The imports are greater than the exports

o From 1990 to 2010 naghihiwalay
o 1970 to 1986 halos magkadikit lang sila
o 2010 and beyond import increases while exports fluctuate.

❖ Statistical Map is used to show data in geographical

areas.
- Mostly seen in election during the number of votes

MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

A MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY OR AVERAGE is a location measure that pinpoints the center or
typical middle value of a data set. A convenient way of describing a set of data with a value that
describes the average characteristic a data set. The three common measures of central tendency are
the mean, median and mode.

- Also called as MEASURE OF CENTRAL LOCATION

- Mean, median, mode shows the Average

MEAN, MEDIAN, AND MODE

A.MEAN
➢ It is the sum of the data values divided by the number of data values.
➢ It is also called the average.
➢ It is appropriate only for data under interval and ratio scale measurement. (Di pwede gamitin if
ordinal)
➢ MOST RELIABLE MEASURE OF TENDRAL TENDENCY (it uses all the set of values)
ADVANTAGE OF MEAN

o Simple to understand and easy to calculate.

o It is rigidly defined.
 o It is least affected fluctuation of sampling.
o It takes into account all the values in the series.

Mean is greatly affected by highest and lowest value

- Ex highest value masyado mo nilakian lalaki rin ng husto mean mo at lalayo siya sa data set.
- Like 1, 2,3,4,5 and highest set is 100 meaning magiging outlier siya (median and mode lang
mostly di naaaffected ng outlier)

B. MEDIAN
➢ It is the "middle observation" when the data set is sorted (in either increasing or decreasing
order).
➢ The median divides the distribution into two equal parts.
For odd: For even:
is isa lang middle dalawang middle value and average of that 2
values
Gitna / 2 Then look pang ilan to dun sa list of
observations Add 2 middle value / 2

ADVANTAGE OF MEDIAN

o The median is not affected by the size of extreme values but by the number of observations.
o The median can be calculated even when the frequency distribution contains "open-ended"
intervals.
o It can also be used to define the middle of a number of objects, properties, or quantities which
are not really quantitative in a nature.
o It can be easily interpreted.
o Ginagamit atleast ordinal level of measurement

C. MODE
➢ Dominant sa data set
➢ It is the most frequently occurring value in a list of data.
➢ It is sometimes called NOMINAL AVERAGE.
➢ It is an appropriate measure of average for data using the nominal scale of measurement.
(Pinaka malaking nominal)

ADVANTAGE OF MODE:

o The mode is easy to understand.

o Like the median, it is not greatly affected by extreme values.
o Like the median, it can be computed even when the frequency distribution contains “open-
ended" intervals.

REMEMBER
Whenever you hear the word average, be aware that the word may not always be referring to the
mean. One average could be used to support one position, while another average could be used to
support a different position.

MEAN

Suppose that a variable x assumes values X1, X2,…. Xn. The ARITHMETIC MEAN x̄ of these values is
defined as

the (arithmetic) mean of x is obtained by adding all its observed values and dividing the sum by the
total number of observations.

Arithmetic mean = x1 + x2 + …. Xn / n

Weighted Mean (number of times na nag aappear wx/w) = w1x1 + w2x2…/ w1 + w2

We have 15 observations.
WEIGHTED MEAN

summation of w and not x yung baba

Extreme values does not greatly affect mean

NORMAL DISTRBUTION OF DATA

RATIO LEVEL
Pwede maraming mode (NOMINAL)

Not ratio
Consider only highest and lowest

Highest score – lowest score

Section 1 is more compact because mas dikit dikit score compared sa section 2 na mas wider yung
difference of score
Diff of variance and standard dev is Standard deviation uses true unit from bawat score respect to
your mean
40-40

38-40

Yung may linya is mean so pano yon? Just add all of the amount / total number of observation
Lesser variability of section 1 than section 2 meaning mas maliit variability

MATHEMATICS OF INVESTMENT
DEFINITION 1: SIMPLE INTEREST
The sum of money charged or paid for the use of
money borrowed is called INTEREST. For the lenders, this
interest is an INCOME derived from a capital while for
borrowers, it is a PAYMENT for the use of money.

Divide sa 100 para maging decimal in nature

Simple Interest Formula: I = Prt

Where:

o I = interest in pesos
o P = sum of invested or borrowed
o r = rate of interest expressed as an annual rate
o t = time expressed in years.

SIMPLE INTEREST EXAMPLES:

Example 1: Mr. Zamora borrowed a sum of P35,000 from a credit cooperative to be returned at the
end of one year at 8% simple interest rate, how much interest is charged?

Solution:

Given P = P35,000 ; r=8% ; t = 1

I = Prt = (35,000)(0.08)(1) = P2,800

TOTAL AMOUNT TO BE PAID = 37,800 (35,000 + 2,800)

Example 2: What is the simple interest on P8,750 at 9 ½% for 2 ½ years?

Solution:

Given: P = P8,750 ; r=9 ½% ; t = 2 ½

I = Prt = (8,750)(0.095)( 2 ½) = 2,078.125

I = 2,078.13

Note: Since the smallest denomination in the Philippine money is ONE CENTAVO. The final answer to a
problem requiring an amount is always rounded off to the nearest centavo. To round off, add one to
the unit of the second decimal place if computation yields a final answer with more than two decimal
places.

ORDINARY AND EXACT SIMPLE INTEREST

SIMPLE INTEREST is commonly used on loans or investments for short duration of time usually a year or
less. It is then expected that in most cases, time can be given in months or even in days.
If time is given in MONTHS,

t = number of months / 12

if time is given in DAYS, t can be based in a 360-day year or a 365-day year.

For a 360-day year, the simple interest computed is called ORDINARY SIMPLE INTEREST, denoted 𝑰𝒐 and
t = number of days / 360.

For a 365-day, the simple interest computed is called EXACT SIMPLE INTEREST, denoted 𝑰𝒆 , and t =
number of days / 365.

Example 1: Mrs. Lani Garcia put P15,500 is an investment giving 10% simple interest. How much interest
did her investment earn at the end of 9 months?

Solution:

Given: P = P15,500; r=10% ; t = 9 months

I = Prt = (15,500) (0.1)(9/12) = 1,162.5

Example 2: Marissa borrows P12,900 from a community credit union which charges her 7 ½% ordinary
simple interest for 86 days. The credit union uses the ordinary simple interest because it is the prevailing
interest.

a. Compute the interest on Marissa’s loan

b. Show why ordinary and not exact simple interest is favored by lenders (compute 𝑰𝒐 and
compare)
Solution:

a. 𝑰𝒐 = 𝑷𝒓𝒕
Where t = 86/360

𝑰𝒐 = (12,900)(0.075)(86/360) = P231.13

b. The interest on Marissa’s loan is P231.13

𝑰𝒆 = 𝑷𝒓𝒕

Where t = 86/365

𝑰𝒆= (12,900)(0.075)(86/365) = P227.96

Using 𝑰𝒐 yields greater interest than 𝑰𝒆 . In this problem results show that 𝑰𝒐 = P231.13 is better by P3.17
than 𝑰𝒆= P227.96

THE PRINCIPAL AMOUNT

P = I / rt

The principal (P) is computed by

dividing the interest (I) by the product
of the rate of interest (r) and the time
(t)

THE INTEREST RATE

r = I/Pt

therefore, the rate of interest (r) is equal to

the interest divided by the product of the
principal (p) and the time (t)

COMPOUND INTEREST

COMPOUND AMOUNT AND INTEREST

COMPOUND AMOUNT is the result when the interest is added to the principal PERIODICALLY and their
sum becomes the PRINCIPAL FOR THE FOLLOWING PERIOD.

The interest increases periodically and the total interest at the end of the transaction period is called
COMPOUND INTEREST. Loans, mortgage, bank deposits, insurance premiums, and sinking funds are
mostly paid using compound interest. The difference between the compound amount and the original
principal is called the COMPOUND INTEREST.

CONVERSION PERIOD OR INTEREST PERIOD is the time between two successive conversions of interest.
It may be any convenient length of time. The symbol used to denote the conversion period is m. The
conversion period is usually taken as an exact division of the year. Semi-annually is denoted by m=2;
quarterly, m=4; monthly, m=12; and if m=1, the conversion period is annually.

Aside from m which represents the number of conversions per year the following letters will be used:

o P = original principal or the present value

o S = accumulated value of the principal or the compound amount of P
o n = the total number of conversion periods in the entire transaction period
o j = nominal rate or yearly rate
o i = interest rate per conversion period
If the interest is compounded more than once a year, it is conventional to quote the rate on an annual
basis. Such rate is known as NOMINAL RATE denoted by j. For example, a nominal rate of 8%
compounded semi-annually (8%, m=2) means 4% for each six month period. The 8% is the nominal rate
which the 4% is the rate per conversion period or i. Thus, the rate per conversion period can be found
by dividing the nominal rate by the number of conversion period per year.

Thus, i = j/m while n is the total number of conversion periods for the entire term of the transaction. It is
determined by multiplying the conversion period per year (m) and the term expressed in years (t). Thus
n = mt. if the interest is compounded quarterly for 8 yrs, then

n = (4)(8)

= 32

- Utang mo tutubo ng 32 times in 8 years

S = P(𝟏 + 𝒊)𝒏

i = j/m

n = mt

S is the compound amount

Interest is = S – P

Example 2: (13,700)(1+(.12/12))^(10x12)
Example 3: (20,800)(1+(0.08/2)^(3/12x2)

Time is always expressed in YEARS

P = S / (𝟏 + 𝒊)𝒏
Example 1: (8,000)/(1+ (0.08/2))^(2x4)

Example 2: (22,500) / (1+(.12/12))^(12x6)

Example 3: (

The time must be in form of years: 1 + 7/12 = 1.58 and interest = 0.08/4 = 0.02

Di siya fucking lumalabas

Ito kapag gamit na iniisa isa pa sa calcu: 6,960.46

Ito naman if diretsyo: 6,961.84

 𝑺 𝟏/𝒏
j = m [( ) − 𝟏]
𝑷

i = j/m

j =im
𝑺 𝟏/𝒏
i = [(𝑷) − 𝟏]