927408

research-article20202020
SGOXXX10.1177/2158244020927408SAGE OpenDurmus Ozturk

Original Research

SAGE Open

Rethinking the Black Box in Architecture

April-June 2020: 1­–13
© The Author(s) 2020
DOI: 10.1177/2158244020927408
https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020927408

Design Studio journals.sagepub.com/home/sgo

Serap Durmus Ozturk1

Abstract
Design as a critical action can be defined as a concrete-utilitarian construction process and a state-related symbolic ritual.
The process of design is defined by the abstraction area, which is accompanied by abstract forms of representation for the
physical environment in a built environment and the response to problems. Black Box is defined as tool, system, or object that
in art and science is evaluated by inputs and outputs and does not include any internal information. The Black Box problem,
which is part of the architectural design process, has been reconstructed as a critical stance to the closed and implicit
architectural production process, supporting open thought to the end but formally designing houses that remain faithful to
this black box. Hence, this article is an example of a physical and semantic representation production with an emphasis on
design as a critical action and metaphor. This article, which presents the black box problem through a theoretical perspective
and architectural design studio examples, focuses on the semantic and formal representation of all conditions of a cube. This
aspect aims to provide a creative cross section from the potential of infinite design.

Keywords
architecture, design studio, design education, black box

Introduction style in studio education is the subject of investigations into

developing creative strategies in design studios (Kahvecioğlu,
Design—as a critical action—can be described as a state 2007).
related to a concrete-symbolic creation process and to an Traditional teaching methods and historical alteration
abstract-symbolic ritual. The design process is the produc- processes in architecture and design, including the one-to-
tion adventure of infinitive representation ways, defined by one master–apprentice teaching style, the Beaux-Arts “neo-
the field of abstraction and brought along by abstract think- classical” teaching method, and the Bauhaus “modernist”
ing, through physical conditions in the built environment and educational approach, reflect the romantic notion of creativ-
with parameters that will respond to problems. This adven- ity (Cowdroy & de Graaff, 2005; Kuhn, 2001; Uluoğlu,
ture takes place in the design studios where the foundations 1990). The apprentice model of architectural education is
of architectural education are laid and starts with first-year founded upon the idea that creativity is a gift and cannot be
architectural education. taught. Meanwhile, the studio model assumes that creativity
Architecture is an intellectual field of study and experi- can be taught, though only by long and direct association
ment and architectural design and its education are fed by with an instructor (Cowdroy & Williams, 2006, p. 107;
intellectual curiosity and awareness (Cross, 2006; H. Yürekli, Williams et al., 2010).
2007). According to Kahvecioğlu (2007), “the main strategy The main aims of design education are to allow different
of architectural education can be defined as the provision of design experiences to be realized and to provide a strong
the teaching and learning process with a certain accumula- communication-motivation environment (Kahvecioğlu,
tion of knowledge” (p. 11). Design studios, which have been 2007). The design, which is defined by many experts as a
used in architectural education for a long time, offer a com- problem-solving method, is a collaborative learning process
munication environment associated with the teaching method based on the relationships between the student with their
employed (Boyer & Mitgang, 1996). Design studios are
based on a tradition of learning by doing, and the architec-
tural education that started in design studios is enriched by 1
Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey
studio executives’ comments and criticisms (Schön, 1985;
Corresponding Author:
Uluoğlu, 2000). Design studio—a core subject in architec- Serap Durmus Ozturk, Department of Architecture, Karadeniz Technical
tural education—is viewed as an organizational structure, University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey.
and studio instructors’ roles in creating an organizational Email: [email protected]

Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of
the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages
(https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
2 SAGE Open

instructor and fellow students (Jones, 1980; Sagun et al., Architectural Design: Concept and
2001; Schön, 1985). In this participatory environment, the Process
process by which the students conceive, make sense of, inter-
pret, and analyze problems has a dynamic structure. Students face obscurity and the process of unlearning the
Dutton (1991) stated that the design studio is the heart of curriculum presented in first-year architectural education
architectural education programs and suggested that unlike (Higgott, 1996). In this process, the students engage in efforts
other disciplines, the existence of a simple, creative, original, to move the conceptual relationship they have established
and free studio environment is important in architectural edu- with their surroundings to different levels and convert it to
cation. Their reasoning was that architectural education meet their new educational environment needs. Design edu-
requires making a beginning that reverses almost all known cation allows for how problems are designed—as determined
pre-architectural education and training assumptions (Durmuş, by theoretical and professional concerns—to help some stu-
2015). dents distinguish themselves (Kvan & Yunyan, 2005).
Modern architectural education needs to be restruc- Design is not a complex, contradictory, or linear process;
tured to facilitate and improve how students learn the cur- neither is it an action that can only be carried out with certain
riculum (Sagun et al., 2001). In architecture, the actual skills. On the contrary, it requires reasoning and includes a
intention according to the wording of the curriculum is conceptual level (Rittel, 1985; Uluoğlu, 2000). The problem
creating dynamic structures, the limitations of which can- of conceptualization in the design studio is regarded as a part
not be precisely defined, that imply seeing and reading of a strong cognitive model (Oxman, 2008). Design action is
developed by workshops, juries, and studio critics. used to define future problems, and designers reveal the defi-
However, if the presence of a curriculum is a topic, it nition of nonexistent phenomena as a problem (Jones, 1980;
should state that design courses, particularly design stu- I. Yürekli & Yürekli, 2004). Thus, design is a multidimen-
dios, constitute the core curriculum. Modern design stu- sional activity involving interpretation, communication, and
dios are environments that contain much more than research; it enables the emergence of intellectual activities
conventional training classes in pedagogical, sociological, and is comprised of creativity and union of mind
ideological, and epistemological terms (Demirbaş & (Kahvecioğlu, 2007; Oxman, 2006).
Demirkan, 2003). Design studios that always attach Design aims to and necessitates trying to predict the
importance to conceptual approaches and mention them future, define and solve problems, select and interpret knowl-
extend their study scope through concepts from disci- edge, creation a whole, and abstract thinking. The use of con-
plines such as literature, art, mathematics, and cinema cepts is important and preferential in realizing these goals
(Hendriks, 2017; Hisarlıgil, 2012). In this context, studios and requirements. For example, Lakoff and Johnson (1980)
as intellectual environments can be considered platforms suggested using metaphor and analogy, stating that the
where the measures of design problems—limited to a spe- thought process is a major aspect of a conceptual system and
cific period—are discussed, and these limits and measures structured metaphorically. Although the concept of meta-
are deepened in the student–instructor relationship. phors is used to distinguish, experience, and understand
Design studios focus on the relationship between creativ- something, analogies are defined as conceptual structures
ity and abstraction to make use of their fiction with the aim that show certain systematic similarities between two types
that students should acquire two- and three-dimensional of source as a way of describing conceptual content (Oxman,
thinking, expression capabilities, and representation tech- 2004, p. 69).
niques with the aim of acquiring fundamental design skills Design instructors from international schools of architec-
and basic concepts and techniques for this skill’s develop- ture have stated that metaphors have increased the explora-
ment. In addition, these techniques are representative types tion of various design solutions and developed lateral thought
used effectively in conceptualization, solving, and present- processes; however, analogy is a difficult method to apply in
ing the problems of design. the design studio system (Kowaltowski et al., 2010). In
This article aims to initiate discussion about rethinking architectural design, metaphors in particular are viewed as
the black box approach and how the concept of creativity heuristics that help organize design thinking and tackle ill-
relates to the architectural design studio. This begins by defined design problems (Antoniades, 1992; Rowe, 1987).
briefly outlining the architectural design process, concept, The use of metaphors in developing analysis, synthesis, and
and conceptualization. Then, the concept of creativity is conceptual thinking has important effects for design practice
discussed in how it relates to design education and, more and can help promote creativity in architectural design activ-
specifically, architectural design education. There is then a ities (Casakin, 2007, p. 22).
short literature review about the black box theory and Creativity is effective in both the production of concepts
approach. The conclusion presents the objective, scope, based on abstract thinking and in the completion of the
definition, and method of the problem at the conceptual design process in original ways. Creativity, defined as the
level using black box examples from the architectural process of “revealing something new and unusual,” is a cap-
design studio. tivating and stimulating aspect of human thought. Creativity
Durmus Ozturk 3

as the production of useful and noble ideas is often character- (Ayıran, 1995). According to Bayazıt (1994), design is an
ized by the “creative leap” that occurs between problems and intellectual project or scheme in which the steps leading up
solution spaces (Amabile, 1996; Casakin, 2007; Hasirci & to a result are put forward. According to Archer (1965), it is
Demirkan, 2007, p. 259). In early approaches, creativity was an objective-oriented problem-solving action. From these
seen as an individual thought, process, or outcome that is definitions, design can be defined as a problem-solving pro-
produced in a short period of time (Amabile, 1991). However, cess, trial-and-error method, intellectual and cognitive
many researchers agree that creativity is an attitude rather action, and decision-making ability.
than a mysterious gift (Amabile, 1991; Kahvecioğlu, 2007; Design researchers’ first step is to investigate design pro-
Sternberg & Lubart, 1999). Creativity is the starting point for cesses (Uluoğlu, 2000). Accordingly, various designers
learning and knowledge and defined as the capacity to pro- (Alexander, 1964; Archer, 1965; Asimov, 1962; Jones, 1980)
duce numerous ideas with the highest level of originality have developed systematic design methods. These investiga-
(Kahvecioğlu, 2007; Lawson, 1997; Portillo, 2002; Weisberg, tions sought to understand how designers think and design
2006). (Cross, 2006). According to the creative process designers
In the context of the design process, creativity is a central follow, there are two types of method: the black box approach
concern of many first-year architectural design courses. and glass box approach (Jones, 1980). The black box design
These processes aim to develop abstract thinking capabilities process includes an intuitivism that cannot be clearly
and support creativity, particularly in design courses and stu- explained. Although inputs and outputs are clear, there is no
dios. During this process, “thinking processes” and “charac- information on what goes on in the mind; the process is
teristics” such as following different paths to others, implicit (Uluoğlu, 2003). The glass box design process has
abandoning the mold, not hesitating to dive into the unknown, steps that are explainable in mind; the design process is sys-
seeing points that others cannot perceive in the relations tematic and the inputs, outputs, and progress of the mental
between ideas, and being unafraid to try different ways are process are obvious (Bayazıt, 1994). Jones (1980) described
emphasized (Benami & Jin, 2002; Öncü, 2003). Similarly, designers using these categories.
Newell and Simon (1972) stated that creativity is a kind of According to Aksoy (1987), in the black box design pro-
special problem-solving behavior. Creativity encourages stu- cess, relations such as form and function can be established
dents to make speculative and exploratory propositions that at the level of analogies; the design was ensured to be under-
can reflect their competence and knowledge in their field standable and controllable in accordance with the systematic
(Sternberg & Lubart, 1999). Thus, to enhance students’ cre- approach. However, the architectural design process does not
ativity, instructors use different kinds of principles, tools, take place entirely as either a black box or glass box. The
and heuristics such as metaphors (Casakin, 2007, p. 21). focus of interest in this study is the dynamics of creativity,
Architectural design education is project-based—or prob- particularly in architectural design studio instruction and
lem-based—learning. Although other sciences are concerned organization, through the theory of black box. In the field of
with the analysis and description of existing realities, archi- architectural education, it is also argued that creativity is a
tectural design is about the imagination and synthesis of new basic constituent of the black box approach.
realities (Sternberg & Lubart, 1999). As Casakin (2007) Thus, what is inside the black box? This is a novel approach
explained, “the exploration of unfamiliar and unconventional to decision-making that indicates a way out of the stagnant
design solutions requires creative skills” (p. 22). Creativity dialectic in recent years (Simon, 2004). The processes are
has often been described as a problem-solving process, but dedicated to input or output functions, and hidden units are
there is more to this process. Creativity and creative pro- internal to the network. The black box approach represents
cesses are related to problem-solving as well as problem the independent specialized processes in the design (Hodjat
definition, and concept generation/conceptualization is a et al., 1998). The object solution is represented by a black box
crucial part of these processes (Williams et al., 2010). transformation and its input and output place interfaces. After
According to Cowdroy and de Graaff (2005), conceptualiza- the requirements have been built, the black box transforma-
tion at the highest level of creative ability is the essence of tions and black box places can be decomposed into more
creativity if this is neither taught nor assessed. Therefore, refined results (Dawis et al., 2001, p. 1556).
concepts and conceptualization sometimes constitute the Finally, the black box discussion in Reyner Banham’s criti-
beginning and sometimes the whole process. cal text, “A Black Box: The Secret Profession of Architecture”
Although there is no clear consensus within design disci- warrants mentioning. He claimed that “architects draw to
plines as to what creativity really is and exactly what is being ‘think architecture’” and argues there is an absolute distinction
taught as creativity remains unclear, architectural design is a between “architecture” and “building,” and between architec-
set of activities used to organize the decisions needed to ture and what he prefers to call, “good design” (Banham,
change the physical world (Williams et al., 2010). Therefore, 1996; Dodds, 2017, p. 2). Architectural education is a closed
the architectural design concept starts with analysis and con- system that turns students into architects and is described
tinues with synthesis. However, design knowledge is a field rather cynically as “a black box” with rather elusive inner
of knowledge that is difficult to define, classify, or shape workings (Banham, 1996).
4 SAGE Open

and output that does not contain any internal knowledge

(Figure 1). Open system theory is an aspect of black box
theory. Both have input and output flows and represent inter-
mutation with their environments. As an aspect of the archi-
tectural design process, the “black box” problem means to
design all conditions that fulfill this state, of which a “cube”
Figure 1. Black box model (prepared by author). was designed in the context of the term project of designing
the cube’s environment.
In this context, students’ expectations were divided into
In brief, the concept and process in architectural design
two categories. The first, “cube design,” contains informa-
are parts of the overall relationships that are interconnected
tion about the black box each student will create:
and interrelated; these serve a design action and allow design
to be realized. In this context, this study, which puts forward
•• The designers will design a 12 × 12 m cube that will
both the concept and black box design process as a design
include the house function.
studio problem in first-year architecture education, offers a
•• The cube has to make use of any kind of semantic
representative example as a critical stance against the idea
initiative associated with the black box.
that the architectural production process is closed and
•• The cube should be perceived as a whole.
implicit.
•• The cube is a condition to be designed. This condition
can be interpreted as follows:
Objective and Scope ○ Out to In: The cube’s existence is essential. Voids
and subtractions can be made in the given
This study’s main purpose—considering the black box
volume.
approach in the architectural design process—is to reconsider
○ In to Out: The cube’s absence is essential. Fillings
the design studio and reveal the originality of the teaching
and additions can be made keeping the given vol-
methodology. In this context, studio design, which deals with
ume limits.
the black box problem that is an important theoretical approach
• The use of any kind of structural fiction, plane, sur-
in the design process with different intellectual and semantic
face, layer, level is free while creating both of the
dimensions, aims to create a representative example in which
cube’s conditions.
the design process is discussed uniquely and critically.
• The volume defined by the cube allows for a 576 m3
The studio study conducted with first-year students of
usage area. The area to be used as a house can be 100
Karadeniz Technical University (KTU) Department of
to 200 m2.
Architecture in the spring term of 2016 (the second term),
• The remaining volume should be created in consider-
was carried out with 13 lecturers and seven research assis-
ation of the concepts of flexibility and expandability
tants. The studio theme was a fictional house project that
so that it can respond to the functions beyond the
supports open thinking all the way while keeping the origi-
housing needs program.
nality of black box formalistically as an objection to design-
ers who claim that the architectural production process The second category of what is expected from students is
should be black box (Durmuş, 2016). Thus, it aimed to pro- the “environment design” that contains basic decisions
duce a physical and semantic house representation empha- underlying designs for the basic area in which each group
sizing that design is a critical act. will be involved:
Black box theory, which is a part of the design process,
aims to analyze system inputs and outputs, regardless of the •• The location of the cube will be redesigned with the
system’s content. This situation in the design process is called group decision within the given area.
this because the designer cannot exactly imagine the process •• The floor space in which the design will be located is
for this action. This study, conducted through examples of 48 × 48 m. This is a grid area divided horizontally
architectural design studio and from a theoretical perspective, and vertically by 12-m axles.
deals with the representation of all conditions/cases of a box/ •• The initiative of using a level in the grid area was
cube in terms of meaning and form. From this aspect, it offers given to the designers.
an original section consisting of an infinite number of design
possibilities that can be proposed to readers. The method of this study, which investigates the problem
from a historical perspective by referring to a black box and
glass box approach within the scope of the above-described
Definition of the Problem and Method
problem, simultaneously refers to the doubleness of analytical
In science, engineering, art, and architecture, a black box is creativity, which is an indicator that we will never question the
defined as a device, system, or object evaluated by an input depth of the mind of a candidate architect. This situation that
Durmus Ozturk 5

Figure 2. Three-stage methodological scheme seen in cube and environment designs (prepared by author).

makes use of thought and practice together validated a three- cube design. In this context, a three-stage methodological
stage method of debating the ambiguous attitude of the black scheme was used for each category concerning “cube” and
box over a problem (Figure 2). These three stages were deter- “environment” designs.
mined by discussion separately in the context of cube design
and environment design categories. Although individual deci-
Environment Design
sions are at the forefront in cube design, group decisions pre-
dominate in environment design. In the first stage, “concept The environment, which consists of a floor space of size 48
production,” intellectual initiatives comprising analysis, sce- × 48 m, is a grid area divided horizontally and vertically by
narios, and needs are produced. In the second stage, “two- 12-m axles. The environment design consists of pedestrian
dimensional representation production,” the produced concept and carriageways, connections, green spaces, and houses
is questioned, abstracted, and two-dimensional diagrams are (cube settlements). The road-connection-green relationship,
produced. In the third stage, “three-dimensional representation which is considered in detail near the housing area, was dis-
production,” produced two-dimensional representations are cussed on the theoretical level in terms of its positive and
expanded into the third dimension and mass formation is negative effects on the concept production of environment
formed depending on the concept. design.
In summary, this study’s purpose and method is to According to these discussions, the concept of environ-
exemplify reconsidering and discussing architectural ment design was defined as “rotation.” This concept—
design studio—an important and preferential course of defined as having proceeded since the very start—and the
architectural education—through a new perspective. process changes required to achieve the result were deep-
Accordingly, the article containing original examples in ened with the concepts of codes, passwords, entities,
which the presented methodological scheme is evaluated essences, and so on. In addition, we confronted the concept
over both the “Conditions of Black Box: House” theme of rotation in the expansion of a box/cube, and a cube is
and students’ works. formed by gathering the surfaces that are actually dis-
placed. Here, rotation was described as “the movement of
ideas and finding space for itself,” rather than as physical
Conditions of the Black Box: House displacement.
The “Conditions of Black Box: House” theme exemplified The conceptual approach based on movement/displace-
from projects by eight students who were guided by this arti- ment of cubes placed at four corners in the floor space set
cle’s writer were discussed in two categories: “cube design” forth two separate representations located at the center or
and “environment design.” The discussions that started with periphery after a large number of generated alternatives
the concept and place relation as in regular studio work, con- (Figure 3). According to the representation given in the cen-
tinued with the category of “environment design” and neces- ter, eight cubes were placed in such a manner that four were
sitated starting with a choice of place and concept that suits at the bottom, and the others were at the top. In this rotation,
the theme. The production of alternatives for the environment symmetry, dominance, and a closed-in layout are at the fore-
design also necessitated selecting concepts concerned with front. Although the existence of two facades for each cube to
6 SAGE Open

Figure 3. Layout scheme of the rotation concept belonging to environment design (prepared by the author).

Figure 4. Examples of three-dimensional cube design representations (photos by author, 2016).

be designed were considered an important disadvantage, that to the environment design category. The cube concepts that
it is located at the center of the floor space was considered were created by considering subextensions of the rotation
advantageous in terms of representing the concept’s essence. concept decided in the environment design were carefully
According to the representation on the periphery, eight selected in terms of both creating the scenario about the house
cubes—located doubly in the corners of the floor space— user and selecting the cube in the place that is appropriate to
define the area. The cubes that define each other with cross the concept.
symmetry in terms of site plan have equivalent opportunities In the layout scheme in which each cube couple was
in the use of the environment area (vehicle, pedestrian, green placed at a corner point, the cubes underwent rotation upon
space, connections, etc.). Each cube couple, coming side-by- the movement of the corner points. In this context, each con-
side, gives a reference to a movement cycle through succes- cept was gathered in pairs such that they point to a corner
sive angles, called rotation. In the representation on the associated with rotation. These concepts were listed as
periphery, the cubes only contact each other on one surface. “Isolation, Contrast, Illusion, Metamorphosis, Symptom,
Thus, since each house will have an equal number of closed Expression, Labyrinth, and Dilemma.” Two-dimensional
and open fronts, this was considered a fairer distribution. representations of each concept were produced, and transfor-
Besides, the appearance of the designed environment is the
mation to three-dimensional representations was carried out
same in every direction such that three cubes are ahead and
that mainly kept the final selected two-dimensional represen-
one is behind. With all of these equivalent opportunities and
tations (Figure 4). Thus, the formation of the cubes and their
advantages, it has been decided that the state of settlement to
the periphery is a more accurate choice in a two-dimensional relationships to each other were fictionalized such that they
representation of the concept of rotation. were somewhat more limited by common walls locations in
The clarified two-dimensional representation was revived one way but that served the concept.
at the third dimension, and the volumetric relationship
between the cubes was postponed until the next stage to be Representations of Black Box:
discussed individually in the cube design.
Examples
The eight students’ responses to the black box problem are
Cube Design presented here together with concept explanations for each
The cube design, which is another category of the black box and three-dimensional representations. In addition to the
problem, was carried out through three stages including the problem of individual black boxes, the dual cube conditions
concept production, two-dimensional representation produc- in the environment design were debated in terms of form and
tion, and three-dimensional representation production similar concept during the studio term.
Durmus Ozturk 7

Figure 5. Concept phrases and cube formations in the environment designs of cubes (photos by author, 2016).

Figure 6. Condition of a black box that represents the isolation concept (photos by author, 2016).

The cubes’ concepts, starting from the upper left corner The illusion concept, which includes false notions and
and continuing in a clockwise manner, ending in the lower delusions, is also a condition that can be extended to define
left corner in the floor space, are “Isolation–Contrast,” outstanding and ironic states. From the black box definition,
“Illusion–Metamorphosis,” “Symptom–Expression,” and the black box problem itself becomes an illusion when con-
“Labyrinth–Dilemma” (Figure 5). sidering that it is both recorded and under risk. Even so, the
The concept of isolation involves getting away from black box becomes defined as an illusion that can only be
everything and blocking sensations, which mean being kept understood as much as it allows. For the user scenario in
separate, separation, and abstraction. Isolation, including which two brothers live, two separate spatial analyses were
leaving things out and leaving someone alone, emerges as a created in the cube. The formal volume consisting two tele-
representation of the user’s inner world and is produced in scopic cube frames was designed such that it could satisfy
the scenario. Isolation, which includes reclusiveness in this the scenario and is consistent in both its own constitution and
case, was interpreted positively as being a user preference. In in the whole (Figure 8).
spite of the transparent part used in one part of the cube, The metamorphosis concept describes a change of condi-
complete isolation was provided with the use of a cube-in- tion that means alteration, transfiguration, undergoing a
cube design where a more closed spatial resolution could be change, and developing. As an example of an alteration, a
provided (Figure 6). black box is a metamorphosis that has to exhibit different
The concept of contrast exhibits negative calls with appearances in terms of both the interior space arrangement
meanings of contradiction, opposition, and inconsistency. and mass formation. According to the scenario produced, a
Users living alone in the residence led to the creation of a house for a three-person family is interpreted as an example
spatial organization in which the closeness effect dominates. of metamorphosis with the ambitious use of a public space.
The cubic condition formed by the planes was represented by While the cube designed for this context is massive and a full
surfaces formed in orthogonal directions to each other (hori- square, it comes to the forefront with its transparent, vacuo-
zontal and vertical) (Figure 7). The linear voids that are lar, and stable geometric attitude (Figure 9).
located on the cube’s exposed surfaces and contrast with The concept of symptom refers to signs, clues, and traces.
each other were used effectively to create a mystical effect in This concept traces information kept in a black box to
the interior space. reach real results and puts forward the breaks and distortions
8 SAGE Open

Figure 7. The black box representing the contrast concept (photos by author, 2016).

Figure 8. The black box representing the illusion concept (photos by author, 2016).

Figure 9. The black box representing the metamorphosis concept (photos by author, 2016).

experienced in this journey. Therefore, the concept of symp- the spaces of young people trying to define themselves. The
tom was used as a schizophrenic attitude and was represented cube has the same formal character in the plan and frontal
by formal distortion. According to the produced scenario, a view and points to the reality of a black box cut into slices
house designed for a schizophrenic couple and their children (Figure 11). However, this is not a response to either the
can transform into a volume where the integrity of the cube’s black box or sought reality; in contrast, it is the expression of
massive conception does not get distorted and various spatial all these uncertainties.
distortions take place through placed planes and surfaces The concept of labyrinth refers to a situation that is very
(Figure 10). hard or impossible to leave; a puzzle that is hard to solve.
The concept of expression means to externalize spiritual This concept, which refers to the implicit process of a black
events and inner truths with clear expressions and is a condi- box, emphasizes the confusing effect of the procedure that is
tion in which reality search is questioned. The concept that required to arrive at a solution. In this context—as required
points to putting forward situations of subconscious and feel- by the scenario produced—flexible space analyses were
ing in addition to existing reality contains obscurity just like developed for different usage areas of a crowded family. The
the black box concept. This scenario is fictionalized as a cube is formed of rectangular prisms that evoke the labyrinth
house in which three university students live and represents effect on the facades in three directions, and the location plan
Durmus Ozturk 9

Figure 10. The black box representing the symptom concept (photos by author, 2016).

Figure 11. The black box representing the expression concept (photos by author, 2016).

Figure 12. The black box representing the labyrinth concept (photos by author, 2016).

is an indication that a situation that seems impossible can be formalistically and the separation becomes clear with the
overcome through spatial analyses, assuming that the integ- nested boxes (Figure 13).
rity is maintained (Figure 12). This study supports many conceptual studies in the litera-
The concept of dilemma is defined as a decision between ture. Its outcomes suggest several reflections about rethink-
two propositions that have the same judgment and results. ing architecture design studio through a black box concept.
This concept points out that there are many ways to come The study also shows that the relationship between concept
through in the black box process but also includes the and geometry as seen in Figure 14 can be interpreted in two-
dilemma that these ways do not always help get the desired and three-dimensional representations. Each design came
result, calls the restriction a situation that forces its users to into existence in three dimensions based on their own con-
make a choice. This design offers spatial solutions in which cept and two-dimensional representation. However, they
two sisters do not interfere each other’s areas according to clearly demonstrate that the relationships established
the produced scenario; one is married and has a child and the between the concepts and scenarios positively affect the for-
other is single, thus these are treated as two lives separate mal approaches to the cubes and that responsibility must be
from each other except for common areas (kitchen, WC, felt against the other cube.
etc.). The cube formed in this context was put forward as a As a result, both cubes are positioned together, and the
volume where this discrete state comes to the forefront concepts are considered interrelated but requiring different
10 SAGE Open

Figure 13. The black box representing the dilemma concept (photos by author, 2016).

scenario productions. For example, both Isolation and achievements in both design studios and creativity to create
Contrast represent a situation, become withdrawn and iso- an atmosphere in which students can enhance their creative
lated as required by the meaning that they give the reference skills.
and produced scenario. Meanwhile, Illusion and Considering all architectural works and designs as a
Metamorphosis represent a black box through formalistic Cartesian geometric box problem, rethinking the idea of the
gaps; they consist of house examples for family use as box produced interesting results. The “black box” metaphor
required by their scenarios. Symptom and Expression reveal precisely references the architecture design process. In other
the obscurity of a black box by tracing and expression. words, the design process remains untouched and thus locked
Finally, Labyrinth and Dilemma allow for independent and in the black box (Hustinx & Denk, 2009). Therefore, why
flexible space analyses based on the ideas of restriction and think inside or outside the box when you can create? The box
separation. problem is a special area in the architectural scale; it encour-
ages us to consider the idea of being inside or outside a box.
In architecture, a black box is both reassuring and provoca-
Conclusion tive (Sanya, 2013). Although a well-defined box indicates
Based on the association between studio instructor and stu- order and continuity, it also requires being related at different
dent, architectural studios are an aspect of traditional archi- scales such as form, space, and public spaces. Both the
tecture education. However, studio fictions that allow for defined and undefined versions of the box enable endless
different theoretical perspectives need and encourage diversity because the box itself offers a defined volume and
rethinking in modern architectural education. In this article, a free thinking-expression area.
the “Conditions of Black Box: House” studio that exempli- The black box studio setup that sees all facts, topics, con-
fies the work of a group reveals architectural experiences cepts, approaches, and even the design process itself as a
during which the design process is critically questioned and black box has important pedagogical outputs. One positive
represented formalistically with black boxes. pedagogical output is that the studio’s student-centered atti-
Instead of re-using familiar solutions, implementations of tude enables instructors to encourage to a guide level, thus
concepts and metaphors in a design studio can contribute to allowing area for free thought. In this context, the group work
unconventional thinking and to rethinking architecture carried out together in the part of the period became instruc-
design education. In the black box approach, one method in tive in that students should architecturally respect their own
the creative process that designers follow is conceptual and each other’s projects. Meanwhile, it has been instructive
abstractions coming from references that create bridges as they should design by adhering to the context of environ-
between mental and physical activities and are the basis for ment design. Thus, opportunities to encounter the context
deeper explorations of theoretical concepts (Akin & Akin, problem have arisen at the abstract level in the early period.
1998; Kowaltowski et al., 2010). Therefore, we can say that Another pedagogical output is gaining mental practice of
the conceptual thinking and use metaphors in design prob- producing concepts, making sense of a concept, questioning
lem-solving have crucial implications for generating creativ- and representing a concept, and supporting creativity through
ity and design activities. established metaphorical relationships. This is exemplified
This article discusses “creativity within first-year archi- in how two-dimensional representations of a concept can
tectural design education” which is analyzed through black successfully reference three-dimensional representations. A
boxes. An architectural design studio education has multiple box is more than just an object. Here is a sample of different
inputs that affect and form its creative value, and first-year box shapes and geometries with different concepts and meta-
architectural design education can be taken as a starting point phors for a black box architecture design studio. At the end
for learning and knowledge creation. The results show that of the term, the projects were exhibited together with their
the black box architecture design studio has made great environment designs, in which all groups were involved, to
Durmus Ozturk 11

Figure 14. The connections between the concept and form/geometry of the black boxes.
12 SAGE Open

Acknowledgments
The author thanks the first-year architecture design students of
2016 at the Department of Architecture (2016) Karadeniz Technical
University who contributed to this study with their designs. The
author also thanks the academic staff who contributed by supervis-
ing the students.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or
authorship of this article.
Figure 15. Conditions of a black box: House, end-of-term
exhibition (photos by author, 2016). ORCID iD
Serap Durmus Ozturk https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6902-069X

References
Akin, O., & Akin, C. (1998). On the process of creativity in puz-
zles, inventions, and designs. Automation in Construction, 7,
123–138.
Aksoy, E. (1987). Design knowledge in architecture. Hatipoğlu
Publishing.
Alexander, C. (1964). Notes on the synthesis of form. Harvard
University Press.
Amabile, T. M. (1991). Foundations of individual creativity. In B.
M. Staw (Ed.), Psychological dimensions of organizational
behaviour (pp. 537–558). Macmillan.
Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context. Westview Press.
Antoniades, A. C. (1992). Poetics of architecture: Theory of design.
Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Archer, B. L. (1965). Systematic methods for designers. Council of
Figure 16. Conditions of a black box: House, cube alternatives Industrial Design.
(photos by author, 2016). Asimov, M. (1962). Introduction to design. Prentice Hall.
Ayıran, N. (1995). Some notes on architectural design studios.
show that there were about 110 different outcomes for a Yapı, 160, 54–60.
problem (Figures 15 and 16). Gathering the environment Banham, R. (1996). A black box: The secret profession of architec-
ture. In M. B. Banham (Ed.), A critic writes: Selected essays by
designs together defines the urban puzzle as possessing an
Reyner Banham (pp. 292–299). University of California Press.
infinite number of alternatives. Bayazıt, N. (1994). Introduction to design methods in industrial
In conclusion, when discussing a studio experience as an products and architecture. Literatür Publishing.
example of representation and debating the eight sample Benami, O., & Jin, Y. (2002). Creative stimulation in conceptual
projects mentioned here, which were evaluated critically and design. In Proceedings of the ASME Design Engineering
theoretically; we can say that this first-year project discussed Technical & Computers in Engineering Conferences (pp. 251–
a theme that points to the correct gains in architectural edu- 263). American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
cation. The studio, set forth with keywords such as concept, Boyer, E. L., & Mitgang, L. D. (1996). Building community: A
scenario, metaphor, criticism, representation, creativity, and new future for architecture education and practice: A special
black box, achieved its objective through its unique prod- report. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
ucts. It has touched upon buildings as boxes, environments in Casakin, H. P. (2007). Factors of metaphors in design problem-
solving: Implications for design creativity. International
boxes, and boxing and black box theories in architectural
Journal of Design, 1(2), 21–33.
design process. The scope of this study is limited to how Cowdroy, R., & de Graaff, E. (2005). Assessing highly-creative
first-year architecture students can use metaphors to enhance ability. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 30(5),
creativity in their designs through a black box. In the future, 507–518.
I hope to extend this research to explore reflections of meta- Cowdroy, R., & Williams, A. (2006). Assessing creativity in
phors and design creativity through a black box with fourth- the creative arts. Art, Design & Communication in Higher
year architecture students and compare their results. Education, 5(2), 97–117.
Durmus Ozturk 13

Cross, N. (2006). Designerly ways of knowing. Springer. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. University
Dawis, E. P., Dawis, J. F., & Koo, W. P. (2001). Architecture of Chicago Press.
of computer-based systems using dualistic Petri nets. In Lawson, B. (1997). How designer’s think: The design process
2001 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man demystified. Butterworth Architecture.
and Cybernetics. e-Systems and e-Man for Cybernetics in Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem-solving.
Cyberspace (Vol. 3, pp. 1554–1558). Institute of Electrical and Prentice Hall.
Electronics Engineers. Öncü, T. (2003). Torrance tests of creative thinking-comparison
Demirbaş, O. O., & Demirkan, H. (2003). Focus on architectural of the creativity levels of children between the ages of 12–14
design process through learning styles. Design Studies, 24(5), and gender through the shape. Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih
437–456. Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi, 43, 221–237.
Dodds, G. (2017). Banham’s black box: Disegno and the inner eye. Oxman, R. (2004). Think-maps: Teaching design thinking in design
Faculty Colloquium Presentation, School of Architecture + education. Design Studies, 25(1), 63–91.
School of Art, Tennessee Colloquium Presentation (pp. 1–33). Oxman, R. (2006). Theory and design in the first digital age. Design
Durmuş, S. (2015). Teaching/learning strategies through art: Studies, 27(3), 229–265.
Philosophy & basic design education. Procedia-Social and Oxman, R. (2008). Digital architecture as a challenge for design
Behavioral Sciences, 182, 29–36. pedagogy: Theory, knowledge, models and medium. Design
Durmuş, S. (2016). “Black Box” in architecture design studio. Studies, 29(2), 99–120.
http://www.mimarizm.com/haberler/egitim/mimari-tasarim- Portillo, M. B. (2002). Creativity defined: Implicit theories in the
studyosunda-kara-kutu_127715 professions of interior design, architecture, landscape archi-
Dutton, T. A. (1991). The hidden curriculum and the design stu- tecture, and engineering. Journal of Interior design, 28(1),
dio. In T. A. Dutton (Ed.), Voices in architectural education: 10–26.
Cultural politics and pedagogy (pp. 165–194). Bergin & Rittel, H. (1985). Some principles for the design of educational sys-
Garvey. tems, Mimarlık, 8(21), 20–22.
Hasirci, D., & Demirkan, H. (2007). Understanding the effects Rowe, P. G. (1987). Design thinking. MIT Press.
of cognition in creative decision making: A creativity model Sagun, A., Demirkan, H., & Goktepe, M. (2001). A framework for
for enhancing the design studio process. Creativity Research the design studio in web-based education. Journal of Art and
Journal, 19(2–3), 259–271. Design Education, 20(3), 332–342.
Hendriks, L. (2017, January). Design evolution and the mathemati- Sanya, T. (2013). Boxes in architectural theory, architectural theory
cal design studio [Conference session]. 10th International in boxes: A collation of concepts and collages of contemporary
Workshop of the Design Theory SIG of the Design Society (pp. theory. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257212216
1–20), Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Schön, D. A. (1985). The design studio: An exploration of its tradi-
Higgott, A. (1996). Teaching first year: What do they need to know. tions and potentials. RIBA.
In A. Hardy & N. Teymur (Eds.), Architectural history and the Simon, D. (2004). A third view of the black box: Cognitive coher-
studio (pp. 181–186). Question Press. ence in legal decision making. The University of Chicago Law
Hisarlıgil, B. B. (2012). Franz Kafka in the design studio: A herme- Review, 71(2), 511–586.
neutic-phenomenological approach to architectural design edu- Sternberg, R. J., & Lubart, T. I. (1999). The concept of creativity:
cation. The International Journal of Art and Design Education, Prospects and paradigms. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of
31(2), 256–264. creativity (pp. 3–31). Cambridge University Press.
Hodjat, B., Savoie, C. J., & Amamiya, M. (1998). An adaptive Uluoğlu, B. (1990). Architectural design education: Design knowl-
agent oriented software architecture. https://arxiv.org/abs/ edge cummunicated in studio critiques [PhD]. İstanbul: Teknik
cs/9812014 Üniversitesi.
Hustinx, L., & Denk, T. (2009). The black box problem in the study Uluoğlu, B. (2000). Design knowledge communicated in studio cri-
of participation. Journal of Civil Society, 5(3), 209–226. tiques. Design Studies, 21(1), 33–58.
Jones, J. C. (1980). Design methods: Seeds of human futures (Cilt Uluoğlu, B. (2003). An investigation on designing research-cog-
2). John Wiley. nition studies and their relationship. Architectural Culture
Kahvecioğlu, P. N. (2007). Architectural design studio organization Journal, 2(2), 59–70.
and creativity. A|Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture, Weisberg, R. (2006). Creativity: Understanding innovation in
4(2), 6–26. problem solving, science, invention and the arts. Wiley.
Kowaltowski, D. C., Bianchi, G., & de Paiva, V. T. (2010). Williams, A., Ostwald, M., & Haugen, A. H. (2010, July). Assessing
Methods that may stimulate creativity and their use in archi- creativity in the context of architectural design education
tectural design education. International Journal of Technology [Paper presentation]. DRS 2010 Proceedings, Montreal, QC,
and Design Education, 20, 453–476. Canada.
Kuhn, S. (2001). Learning from the architecture studio: Implications Yürekli, H. (2007). The design studio: A black hole. In H. Yürekli
for project-based pedagogy. International Journal of (Ed.), The design studio: A black hole (pp. 17–35). YEM-
Engineering Education, 17, 349–352. Building Inf. Center Publication.
Kvan, T., & Yunyan, J. (2005). Students’ learning styles and their Yürekli, İ., & Yürekli, H. (2004). Informality in architectural
correlation with performance in architectural design studio. design education. Itüdergisi/a Architecture, Planning, Design,
Design Studies, 26(1), 19–34. 3(1), 53–62.