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Software Engineering Notes

Diploma in computer science (University of Calicut)

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SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

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Table of Contents
SOFTWAREOVERVIEW ......................................................................................... 1
DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 1
SOFTWARE EVOLUTION .......................................................................................................................... 2
SOFTWARE EVOLUTIONLAWS ................................................................................................................ 3
E-TYPESOFTWARE EVOLUTION.............................................................................................................. 3
SOFTWARE PARADIGMS ......................................................................................................................... 4
SoftwareDevelopmentParadigm ..................................................................................... 4
SoftwareDesignParadigm .............................................................................................. 5
ProgrammingParadigm .................................................................................................. 5
NEED OFSOFTWAREENGINEERING ....................................................................................................... 5
CHARACTERISTICS OFGOODSOFTWARE ............................................................................................... 6
Operational .................................................................................................................... 6
Transitional .................................................................................................................... 6
Maintenance .................................................................................................................. 6
SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT LIFECYCLE ......................................................................... 8
SDLCACTIVITIES ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Communication .............................................................................................................. 8
Requirement Gathering .................................................................................................. 8
FeasibilityStudy .............................................................................................................. 9
System Analysis............................................................................................................. 9
SoftwareDesign.............................................................................................................. 9
Coding ........................................................................................................................... 9
Testing ........................................................................................................................... 9
Integration .................................................................................................................... 10
Implementation ............................................................................................................ 10
OperationandMaintenance ........................................................................................... 10
SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENTPARADIGM ............................................................................................... 10
WaterfallModel ............................................................................................................. 10
IterativeModel .............................................................................................................. 11
SpiralModel .................................................................................................................. 12
V –model...................................................................................................................... 12
BigBangModel.............................................................................................................. 14
SOFTWAREPROJECTMANAGEMENT ............................................................................. 15
SOFTWARE PROJECT ............................................................................................................................ 15
NEED OF SOFTWAREPROJECT MANAGEMENT .................................................................................... 15
SOFTWARE PROJECTMANAGER .......................................................................................................... 16
ManagingPeople .......................................................................................................... 16

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ManagingProject .......................................................................................................... 17
SOFTWARE MANAGEMENTACTIVITIES ................................................................................................ 17
PROJECTPLANNING ............................................................................................................................... 17
SCOPEMANAGEMENT............................................................................................................................ 17
PROJECT ESTIMATION .......................................................................................................................... 18
PROJECT ESTIMATIONTECHNIQUES.................................................................................................... 19
DecompositionTechnique ............................................................................................. 19
EmpiricalEstimationTechnique ..................................................................................... 19
PROJECT SCHEDULING ......................................................................................................................... 20
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................................... 20
PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 21
RiskManagementProcess ............................................................................................ 21
PROJECT EXECUTIONAND MONITORING ............................................................................................ 21
PROJECT COMMUNICATION MANAGEMENT........................................................................................ 22
CONFIGURATIONMANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................... 23
Baseline ....................................................................................................................... 23
ChangeControl ............................................................................................................. 23
PROJECTMANAGEMENTTOOLS............................................................................................................ 24
Gantt Chart .................................................................................................................. 24
PERTChart .................................................................................................................. 25
ResourceHistogram ..................................................................................................... 25
CriticalPath Analysis .................................................................................................... 26
SOFTWAREREQUIREMENTS ........................................................................................... 27
REQUIREMENT ENGINEERING .............................................................................................................. 27
REQUIREMENT ENGINEERING PROCESS ............................................................................................ 27
Feasibilitystudy ............................................................................................................ 27
Requirement Gathering ................................................................................................ 28
Software RequirementSpecification(SRS) .................................................................... 28
SoftwareRequirement Validation .................................................................................. 28
REQUIREMENT ELICITATION PROCESS............................................................................................... 29
REQUIREMENT ELICITATION TECHNIQUES ......................................................................................... 29
Interviews..................................................................................................................... 30
Surveys........................................................................................................................ 30
Questionnaires ............................................................................................................. 30
Taskanalysis ................................................................................................................ 30
DomainAnalysis ........................................................................................................... 30
Brainstorming ............................................................................................................... 30
Prototyping................................................................................................................... 31
Observation ................................................................................................................. 31
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS CHARACTERISTICS............................................................................... 31
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................................................ 31
FunctionalRequirements .............................................................................................. 32
Non-FunctionalRequirements....................................................................................... 32
USER INTERFACE REQUIREMENTS ...................................................................................................... 33
SOFTWARE SYSTEM ANALYST ............................................................................................................. 33
SOFTWARE METRICSAND MEASURES ................................................................................................ 34

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SOFTWAREDESIGNBASICS ............................................................................................ 36
SOFTWARE DESIGNLEVELS ................................................................................................................. 36
MODULARIZATION .................................................................................................................................. 37
CONCURRENCY...................................................................................................................................... 37
Example ....................................................................................................................... 37
COUPLINGANDCOHESION ..................................................................................................................... 38
COHESION .............................................................................................................................................. 38
COUPLING ............................................................................................................................................... 39
DESIGNVERIFICATION ........................................................................................................................... 39
SOFTWARE ANALYSIS ANDDESIGNTOOLS .................................................................. 41
DATAFLOW DIAGRAM............................................................................................................................. 41
TypesofDFD................................................................................................................. 41
DFD Components ........................................................................................................ 41
Levelsof DFD ............................................................................................................... 42
STRUCTURECHARTS ............................................................................................................................. 43
HIPODIAGRAM ...................................................................................................................................... 45
Example ....................................................................................................................... 46
STRUCTUREDENGLISH.......................................................................................................................... 47
Example ....................................................................................................................... 47
PSEUDO-CODE ...................................................................................................................................... 48
Example ....................................................................................................................... 49
DECISIONTABLES................................................................................................................................... 49
CreatingDecisionTable ................................................................................................. 49
Example ....................................................................................................................... 50
ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP MODEL ............................................................................................................ 50
DATADICTIONARY .................................................................................................................................. 51
Requirement ofDataDictionary ..................................................................................... 51
Contents ...................................................................................................................... 52
Example ....................................................................................................................... 52
DataElements .............................................................................................................. 52
Data Store.................................................................................................................... 53
DataProcessing............................................................................................................ 53
SOFTWAREDESIGNSTRATEGIES ................................................................................... 54
STRUCTUREDDESIGN ........................................................................................................................... 54
FUNCTIONORIENTEDDESIGN ............................................................................................................... 55
DesignProcess ............................................................................................................. 55
OBJECTORIENTED DESIGN .................................................................................................................. 55
DesignProcess ............................................................................................................. 56
SOFTWARE DESIGNAPPROACHES....................................................................................................... 57
TopDownDesign .......................................................................................................... 57
Bottom-upDesign ......................................................................................................... 57
SOFTWARE USERINTERFACE DESIGN .......................................................................... 58
COMMAND LINEINTERFACE(CLI) ........................................................................................ 58
CLI Elements ............................................................................................................... 59

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GRAPHICAL USERINTERFACE .............................................................................................................. 60

GUIElements................................................................................................................ 60
Application specificGUI components ............................................................................ 61
USER INTERFACEDESIGNACTIVITIES .................................................................................................. 62
GUIIMPLEMENTATION TOOLS .............................................................................................................. 64
Example ....................................................................................................................... 64
USER INTERFACEGOLDENRULES ........................................................................................................ 64
SOFTWAREDESIGNCOMPLEXITY ................................................................................... 67
HALSTEAD'SCOMPLEXITYMEASURES ................................................................................................. 67
CYCLOMATICCOMPLEXITYMEASURES ................................................................................................ 68
FUNCTIONPOINT .................................................................................................................................... 70
ExternalInput ................................................................................................................ 70
ExternalOutput ............................................................................................................. 71
LogicalInternal Files ..................................................................................................... 71
ExternalInterfaceFiles .................................................................................................. 71
ExternalInquiry ............................................................................................................. 71
SOFTWAREIMPLEMENTATION........................................................................................ 74
STRUCTUREDPROGRAMMING .............................................................................................................. 74
FUNCTIONAL PROGRAMMING ............................................................................................................... 75
PROGRAMMINGSTYLE ........................................................................................................................... 76
CodingGuidelines......................................................................................................... 76
SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION.............................................................................................................. 77
SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES ..................................................................................... 78
SOFTWARETESTINGOVERVIEW ..................................................................................... 80
SOFTWARE VALIDATION........................................................................................................................ 80
SOFTWARE VERIFICATION .................................................................................................................... 80
MANUAL VSAUTOMATEDTESTING ....................................................................................................... 81
TESTINGAPPROACHES.......................................................................................................................... 81
Black-boxtesting........................................................................................................... 82
White-boxtesting .......................................................................................................... 82
TESTINGLEVELS..................................................................................................................................... 83
Unit Testing.................................................................................................................. 83
IntegrationTesting ........................................................................................................ 83
System Testing ............................................................................................................ 84
Acceptance Testing...................................................................................................... 84
RegressionTesting ....................................................................................................... 84
TESTINGDOCUMENTATION ................................................................................................................... 84
BeforeTesting............................................................................................................... 85
While BeingTested ....................................................................................................... 85
AfterTesting ................................................................................................................. 85
TESTING VS. QUALITY CONTROL & ASSURANCEAND AUDIT ........................................................... 86
SOFTWAREMAINTENANCEOVERVIEW .......................................................................... 87
TYPESOFMAINTENANCE ........................................................................................................................ 87
COSTOFMAINTENANCE ......................................................................................................................... 88

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Real-world factors affectingMaintenance Cost ............................................................. 88

Software-end factors affectingMaintenance Cost ......................................................... 89
MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES.................................................................................................................... 89
SOFTWARE RE-ENGINEERING .............................................................................................................. 90
Re-EngineeringProcess ............................................................................................... 91
ReverseEngineering..................................................................................................... 92
Program Restructuring ................................................................................................. 92
ForwardEngineering ..................................................................................................... 92
COMPONENTREUSABILITY .................................................................................................................... 93
Example ....................................................................................................................... 93
ReuseProcess.............................................................................................................. 93
SOFTWARE CASETOOLSOVERVIEW ........................................................................... 100
CASETOOLS........................................................................................................................................ 100
COMPONENTS OFCASETOOLS ......................................................................................................... 100
SCOPE OFCASETOOLS ....................................................................................................................... 101
Diagramtools .............................................................................................................. 101
ProcessModelingTools ............................................................................................... 101
ProjectManagementTools .......................................................................................... 102
DocumentationTools .................................................................................................. 102
AnalysisTools ............................................................................................................. 102
DesignTools ............................................................................................................... 102
ConfigurationManagement Tools ............................................................................... 102
ChangeControlTools .................................................................................................. 103
ProgrammingTools ..................................................................................................... 103
PrototypingTools ........................................................................................................ 103
WebDevelopment Tools ............................................................................................. 103
QualityAssuranceTools .............................................................................................. 103
MaintenanceTools ...................................................................................................... 103

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Software Engineering
Tutorial

Software Overview
1
LetusunderstandwhatSoftwareEngineeringstandsfor.Thetermismadeoftwo words,
software andengineering.

Software is more than just a program code. A program is an executable code,

whichservessomecomputationalpurpose.Softwareisconsideredtobecollection of
executable programming code, associated libraries and documentations.
Software, when made for a specific requirement is called softwareproduct.

Engineering on the other hand, is all about developing products, using well-
defined, scientific principles and methods.

Software engineering is an engineering branch associated with developmentof

softwareproductusingwell-definedscientificprinciples,methodsandprocedures.
Theoutcomeofsoftwareengineeringisanefficientandreliablesoftwareproduct.

Definitions
IEEE defines software engineering as:

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(1) The application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to

the development, operation, and maintenance of software; that is, the
application of engineering tosoftware.

(2) The study of approaches as in the abovestatement.

Fritz Bauer, a German computer scientist, defines software engineering as:

“Software engineering is the establishment and use of sound engineering

principlesinordertoobtaineconomicallysoftwarethatisreliableandwork
efficiently on realmachines.”

SoftwareEvolution
The process of developing a software product using software engineering
principles and methods is referred to as Software Evolution. This includes the
initial development of software and its maintenance and updates, till desired
software product is developed, which satisfies the expected requirements.

Evolution starts from the requirement gathering process. After which developers
create a prototype of the intended software and show it to the users to get their
feedback at the early stage of the software product development. The users
suggestchanges,onwhichseveralconsecutiveupdatesandmaintenancekeepon
changing too. This process changes to the original software, till the desired
software isaccomplished.

Even after the user has the desired software in hand, the advancing technology
andthechangingrequirementsforcethesoftwareproducttochangeaccordingly. Re-
creating software from scratch and to go one-on-one with the requirementis

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not feasible. The only feasible and economical solution is to update the existing
software so that it matches the latest requirements.

Software EvolutionLaws
Lehmanhasgivenlawsforsoftwareevolution.Hedividedthesoftwareintothree
differentcategories:

1. Static-type (S-type) - This is a software, which works strictly according

to defined specifications and solutions.The solution and the method to
achieve it, both are immediately understood before coding. The s-type
software is least subjected to changes hence this is the simplest of all. For
example, calculator program for mathematicalcomputation.
2. Practical-type (P-type) - This is a software with a collection
of procedures.This is defined by exactly what procedures can do. In this
software, the specifications can be described but the solution is not
obviously instant. For example, gamingsoftware.
3. Embedded-type (E-type) - This software works closely as the
requirement of real-world environment.This software has a high degreeof
evolution as there are various changes in laws, taxes etc. in the real world
situations. For example, Online tradingsoftware.

E-Type softwareevolution
Lehman has given eight laws for E-Type software evolution -

1. Continuing change - An E-type software system must continue to adapt

to the real world changes, else it becomes progressively lessuseful.
2. Increasing complexity - As an E-type software system evolves, its
complexity tends to increase unless work is done to maintain or reduceit.
3. Conservation of familiarity - The familiarity with the software or the
knowledge about how it was developed, why was it developed in that
particular manner etc., must be retained at any cost, to implement the
changes in thesystem.
4. Continuing growth- In order for an E-type system intended to resolve
some business problem, its size of implementing the changes grows
according to the lifestyle changes of thebusiness.

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5. Reducing quality - An E-type software system declines in quality unless

rigorously maintained and adapted to a changing operationalenvironment.
6. Feedback systems- The E-type software systems constitute multi-loop,
multi-levelfeedbacksystemsandmustbetreatedassuchtobesuccessfully
modified orimproved.
7. Self-regulation - E-type system evolution processes are self-regulating
with the distribution of product and process measures close tonormal.
8. Organizational stability - The average effective global activity rate inan

evolving E-type system is invariant over the lifetime of the product.

Software Paradigms
Software paradigms refer to the methods and steps, which are taken while
designingthesoftware.Therearemanymethodsproposedandareimplemented. But,
we need to see where in the software engineering concept, these paradigms
stand. These can be combined into various categories, though each of them is
contained in oneanother:

Programming paradigm is a subset of Software design paradigm which is further

a subset of Software development paradigm.

Software Development Paradigm

This paradigm is known as software engineering paradigms; where all the
engineering concepts pertaining to the development of software are applied. It
includes various researches and requirement gathering which helps the software
product to build. It consists of –

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 Requirementgathering
 Softwaredesign
 Programming

Software Design Paradigm

This paradigm is a part of Software Development and includes –

 Design
 Maintenance
 Programming

Programming Paradigm
This paradigm is related closely to programming aspect of software development.
This includes –

 Coding
 Testing
 Integration

Need of SoftwareEngineering
The need of software engineering arises because of higher rate of change in user
requirements and environment on which the software is working. Following are
some of the needs stated:

 Large software - It is easier to build a wall than a house or building,

likewise,asthesizeofthesoftwarebecomeslarge,engineeringhastostep to give
it a scientificprocess.

 Scalability- If the software process were not based on scientific and

engineering concepts, it would be easier to re-create new software than to
scale an existingone.

 Cost- As hardware industry has shown its skills and huge manufacturing
haslowerdownthepriceofcomputerandelectronichardware.But,costof the
software remains high if proper process is notadapted.

 Dynamic Nature- Always growing and adapting nature of the software

hugely depends upon the environment in which the user works. If the
natureofsoftwareisalwayschanging,newenhancementsneedtobedone in the
existing one. This is where the software engineering plays a good role.

 Quality Management- Better process of software development provides

better and quality softwareproduct.

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Characteristics of goodsoftware
A software product can be judged by what it offers and how well it can be used.
This software must satisfy on the following grounds:

 Operational
 Transitional
 Maintenance
Well-engineered and crafted software is expected to have the following
characteristics:

Operational
This tells us how well the software works in operations. It can be measured on:

 Budget
 Usability
 Efficiency
 Correctness
 Functionality
 Dependability
 Security
 Safety

Transitional
This aspect is important when the software is moved from one platform to
another:

 Portability
 Interoperability
 Reusability
 Adaptability

Maintenance
This aspect briefs about how well the software has the capabilities to maintain
itself in the ever-changing environment:

 Modularity
 Maintainability
 Flexibility
 Scalability

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In short, Software engineering is a branch of computer science, which uses well-

defined engineering concepts required to produce efficient, durable, scalable, in-
budget, and on-time software products.

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Software Development Life Cycle

2
Software Development Life Cycle, SDLC for short, is a well-defined, structured
sequence of stages in software engineering to develop the intended software
product.

SDLC Activities
SDLC provides a series of steps to be followed to design and develop a software
product efficiently. SDLC framework includes the following steps:

Communication
This is the first step where the user initiates the request for a desired software
product. The user contacts the service provider and tries to negotiate the terms,
submits the request to the service providing organization in writing.

Requirement Gathering
This step onwards the software development team works to carry on the project.
The team holds discussions with various stakeholders from problem domain and
tries to bring out as much information as possible on their requirements. The
requirements are contemplated and segregated into user requirements, system
requirements and functional requirements. The requirements are collected using
a number of practices as given -

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 studying the existing or obsolete system andsoftware,

 conducting interviews of users anddevelopers,
 referring to the databaseor
 collecting answers from thequestionnaires.

Feasibility Study
After requirement gathering, the team comes up with a rough plan of software
process. At this step the team analyzes if a software can be designed to fulfill all
requirementsoftheuser,andifthereisanypossibilityofsoftwarebeingnomore useful.
It is also analyzed if the project is financially, practically, and
technologicallyfeasiblefortheorganizationtotakeup.Therearemanyalgorithms
available, which help the developers to conclude the feasibility of a software
project.

System Analysis
Atthisstepthedevelopersdecidearoadmapoftheirplanandtrytobringupthe best
software model suitable for the project. System analysis includes understanding
of software product limitations, learning system related problems
orchangestobedoneinexistingsystemsbeforehand,identifyingandaddressing
theimpactofprojectonorganizationandpersonneletc.Theprojectteamanalyzes the
scope of the project and plans the schedule and resourcesaccordingly.

Software Design
Next step is to bring down whole knowledge of requirements and analysis on the
desk and design the software product. The inputs from users and information
gathered in requirement gathering phase are the inputs of this step. The output
ofthisstepcomesintheformoftwodesigns;logicaldesign,andphysicaldesign.
Engineers produce meta-data and data dictionaries, logical diagrams, data-flow
diagrams, and in some cases pseudocodes.

Coding
This step is also known as programming phase. The implementation of software
design starts in terms of writing program code in the suitable programming
language and developing error-free executable programs efficiently.

Testing
An estimate says that 50% of whole software development process should be
tested. Errors may ruin the software from critical level to its own removal.
Software testing is done while coding by the developers and thorough testing is
conducted by testing experts at various levels of code such as moduletesting,

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Software Engineering
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program testing, product testing, in-house testing, and testing the product at
user’s end. Early discovery of errors and their remedy is the key to reliable
software.

Integration
Software may need to be integrated with the libraries, databases, and other
program(s). This stage of SDLC is involved in the integration of software with
outer world entities.

Implementation
This means installing the software on user machines. At times, software needs
post-installation configurations at user end. Software is tested for portability and
adaptability and integration related issues are solved during implementation.

Operation and Maintenance

This phase confirms the software operation in terms of more efficiency and less
errors. If required, the users are trained on, or aided with the documentation on
how to operate the software and how to keep the software operational. The
software is maintained timely by updating the code according to the changes
taking place in user end environment or technology. This phase may face
challenges from hidden bugs and real-world unidentified problems.

Software DevelopmentParadigm
The software development paradigm helps a developer to select a strategy to
developthesoftware.Asoftwaredevelopmentparadigmhasitsownsetoftools,
methods, and procedures, which are expressed clearly and defines software
development life cycle. A few of software development paradigms or process
models are defined asfollows:

Waterfall Model
Waterfall model is the simplest model of software development paradigm. All the
phasesofSDLCwillfunctiononeafteranotherinlinearmanner.Thatis,whenthe first
phase is finished then only the second phase will start and soon.

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This model assumes that everything is carried out and taken place perfectly as
planned in the previous stage and there is no need to think about the past issues
that may arise in the next phase. This model does not work smoothly if there are
some issues left at the previous step. The sequential nature of model does not
allow us to go back and undo or redo our actions.

This model is best suited when developers already have designed and developed
similar software in the past and are aware of all its domains.

Iterative Model
This model leads the software development process in iterations. It projects the
processofdevelopmentincyclicmannerrepeatingeverystepaftereverycycleof
SDLCprocess.

The software is first developed on very small scale and all the steps are followed
which are taken into consideration. Then, on every next iteration, more features
andmodulesaredesigned,coded,tested,andaddedtothesoftware.Everycycle
produces a software, which is complete in itself and has more features and
capabilities than that of the previousone.

Aftereachiteration,themanagementteamcandoworkonriskmanagementand
prepareforthenextiteration.Becauseacycleincludessmallportionofwhole

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softwareprocess,itiseasiertomanagethedevelopmentprocessbutitconsumes
moreresources.

Spiral Model
Spiralmodelisacombinationofboth,iterativemodelandoneoftheSDLCmodel. It can
be seen as if you choose one SDLC model and combined it with cyclic process
(iterativemodel).

Thismodelconsidersrisk,whichoftengoesun-noticedbymostothermodels.The model
starts with determining objectives and constraints of the software at the
startofoneiteration.Nextphaseisofprototypingthesoftware.Thisincludesrisk
analysis. Then one standard SDLC model is used to build the software. In the
fourth phase of the plan of next iteration isprepared.

V – model
The major drawback of waterfall model is we move to the next stage only when
the previous one is finished and there was no chance to go back if something is

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found wrong in later stages. V-Model provides means of testing of software at

each stage in reverse manner.

At every stage, test plans and test cases are created to verify and validate the
product according to the requirement of that stage. For example, in requirement
gatheringstagethetestteampreparesallthetestcasesincorrespondencetothe
requirements. Later, when the product is developed and is ready for testing, test
casesofthisstageverifythesoftwareagainstitsvaliditytowardsrequirementsat
thisstage.

Thismakesbothverificationandvalidationgoinparallel.Thismodelisalsoknown as
verification and validationmodel.

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Big Bang Model

This model is the simplest model in its form. It requires little planning, lots of
programmingandlotsoffunds.Thismodelisconceptualizedaroundthebigbang of
universe. As scientists say that after big bang lots of galaxies, planets, and stars
evolved just as an event. Likewise, if we put together lots of programming and
funds, you may achieve the best softwareproduct.

For this model, very small amount of planning is required. It does not follow any
process, or at times the customer is not sure about the requirements and future
needs. So the input requirements are arbitrary.

This model is not suitable for large software projects but good one for learning
and experimenting.

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Software Project Management

3
The job pattern of an IT company engaged in software development can be seen
split in two parts:

 SoftwareCreation
 Software ProjectManagement
A project is well-defined task, which is a collection of several operations done in
order to achieve a goal (for example, software development and delivery). A
Project can be characterized as:

 Every project may have a unique and distinctgoal.

 Project is not a routine activity or day-to-dayoperation.
 Project comes with a start and endtime.
 Project ends when its goal is achieved. Hence, it is a temporary phase in
the lifetime of anorganization.

 Project needs adequate resources in terms of time, manpower, finance,

material, andknowledge-bank.

Software Project
A Software Project is the complete procedure of software development from
requirement gathering to testing and maintenance, carried out according to the
execution methodologies, in a specified period of time to achieve intended
software product.

Need of software projectmanagement

Softwareissaidtobeanintangibleproduct.Softwaredevelopmentisakindofall new
stream in world business and there is very little experience in building software
products. Most software products are tailor made to fit client’s requirements. The
most important is that the underlying technology changesand
advancessofrequentlyandrapidlythattheexperienceofoneproductmaynotbe
appliedtotheotherone.Allsuchbusinessandenvironmentalconstraintsbring

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risk in software development hence it is essential to manage software projects

efficiently.

The image above shows triple constraints for software projects. It is an essential
part of software organization to deliver quality product, keeping the cost within
client’s budget constrain and deliver the project as per scheduled. There are
several factors, both internal and external, which may impact this tripleconstrain
triangle. Any of the three factors can severely impact the othertwo.

Therefore, software project management is essential to incorporate user

requirements along with budget and time constraints.

Software Project Manager

A software project manager is a person who undertakes the responsibility of
executing the software project. Software project manager is thoroughly aware of
all the phases of SDLC that the software would go through. The project manager
may never directly involve in producing the end product but he controls and
manages the activities involved in production.

A project manager closely monitors the development process, prepares and

executes various plans, arranges necessary and adequate resources, maintains
communication among all team members in order to address issues of cost,
budget, resources, time, quality and customer satisfaction.

Let us see few responsibilities that a project manager shoulders -

Managing People
 Act as projectleader
 Lesion withstakeholders
 Managing humanresources
 Setting up reporting hierarchyetc.

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Managing Project
 Defining and setting up projectscope
 Managing project managementactivities
 Monitoring progress andperformance
 Risk analysis at everyphase
 Take necessary step to avoid or come out ofproblems
 Act as projectspokesperson

Software Management Activities

Softwareprojectmanagementcomprisesofanumberofactivities,whichcontains
planning of project, deciding scope of software product, estimation of cost in
variousterms,schedulingoftasksandevents,andresourcemanagement.Project
management activities mayinclude:

 ProjectPlanning
 ScopeManagement
 ProjectEstimation

ProjectPlanning
Software project planning is task, which is performed before the production of
software actually starts. It is there for the software production but involves no
concrete activity that has any direct connection with the software production;
rather it is a set of multiple processes, which facilitates software production.
Project planning may include the following:

Scope Management
It defines scope of the project; this includes all the activities, process need to be
done in order to make a deliverable software product. Scope management is
essential because it creates boundaries of the project by clearly defining what
would be done in the project and what would not be done. This makes project to
containlimitedandquantifiabletasks,whichcaneasilybedocumentedandinturn
avoids cost and timeoverrun.

During Project Scope management, it is necessary to -

 Define thescope
 Decide its verification andcontrol
 Divide the project into various smaller parts for ease ofmanagement.

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 Verify thescope
 Control the scope by incorporating changes to thescope

ProjectEstimation
Foraneffectivemanagement,accurateestimationofvariousmeasuresisamust. With
the correct estimation, managers can manage and control the project more
efficiently andeffectively.

Project estimation may involve the following:

 Software sizeestimation

SoftwaresizemaybeestimatedeitherintermsofKLOC(KiloLineofCode) or by
calculating number of function points in the software. Lines of code
depend upon coding practices. Function points vary according to the user
or softwarerequirement.

 Effortestimation

The manager estimates efforts in terms of personnel requirement and

man-hourrequiredtoproducethesoftware.Foreffortestimationsoftware
sizeshouldbeknown.Thiscaneitherbederivedbymanager’sexperience,
historical data of organization, or software size can be converted into
efforts by using some standardformulae.

 Timeestimation

Once size and efforts are estimated, the time required to produce the
software can be estimated. Efforts required is segregated into sub
categories as per the requirement specifications and interdependency of
various components of software. Software tasks are divided into smaller
tasks, activities or events by Work Breakthrough Structure (WBS). The
tasks are scheduled on day-to-day basis or in calendar months.

Thesumoftimerequiredtocompletealltasksinhoursordaysisthetotal time
invested to complete theproject.

 Costestimation

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This might be considered as the most difficult of all because it dependson

moreelementsthananyofthepreviousones.Forestimatingprojectcost, it is
required to consider-

 Size of thesoftware
 Softwarequality
 Hardware
 Additional software or tools, licensesetc.
 Skilled personnel with task-specificskills
 Travelinvolved
 Communication
 Training andsupport

Project EstimationTechniques
Wediscussedvariousparametersinvolvingprojectestimationsuchassize,effort, time
andcost.

Project manager can estimate the listed factors using two broadly recognized
techniques –

Decomposition Technique
This technique assumes the software as a product of various compositions.

There are two main models -

 Line of Code: Here the estimation is done on behalf of number of line of

codes in the softwareproduct.

 Function Points: Here the estimation is done on behalf of number of

function points in the softwareproduct.

Empirical Estimation Technique

This technique uses empirically derived formulae to make estimation.These
formulae are based on LOC or FPs.

 PutnamModel

This model is made by Lawrence H. Putnam, which is based on Norden’s

frequency distribution (Rayleigh curve). Putnam model maps time and
efforts required with software size.
 COCOMO

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COCOMO stands for Constructive Cost Model, developed by Barry W.

Boehm. It divides the software product into three categories of software:
organic, semi-detached, and embedded.

ProjectScheduling
Project Scheduling in a project refers to roadmap of all activities to be done with
specified order and within time slot allotted to each activity. Project managers
tend to define various tasks, and project milestones and then arrange them
keeping various factors in mind. They look for tasks like in critical path in the
schedule, which are necessary to complete in specific manner (because of task
interdependency) and strictly within the time allocated. Arrangement of tasks
which lies out of critical path are less likely to impact over all schedule of the
project.

For scheduling a project, it is necessary to -

 Break down the project tasks into smaller, manageableform

 Find out various tasks and correlatethem
 Estimate time frame required for eachtask
 Divide time intowork-units
 Assign adequate number of work-units for eachtask
 Calculate total time required for the project from start tofinish

Resource management
All elements used to develop a software product may be assumed as resourcefor
that project. This may include human resource, productive tools, and software
libraries.

The resources are available in limited quantity and stay in the organization as a
poolofassets.Theshortageofresourceshampersdevelopmentoftheprojectand it can
lag behind the schedule. Allocating extra resources increases development cost
in the end. It is therefore necessary to estimate and allocate adequate resources
for theproject.

Resource management includes -

 Defining proper organization project by creating a project team and

allocating responsibilities to each teammember
 Determining resources required at a particular stage and theiravailability 

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 Manage Resources by generating resource request when they are required

and de-allocating them when they are no moreneeded.

Project RiskManagement
Riskmanagementinvolvesallactivitiespertainingtoidentification,analyzingand
making provision for predictable and non-predictable risks in the project. Risk
may include thefollowing:

 Experienced staff leaving the project and new staff comingin.

 Change in organizationalmanagement.
 Requirement change or misinterpretingrequirement. 
 Under-estimation of required time andresources.
 Technological changes, environmental changes, businesscompetition. 

Risk Management Process

There are following activities involved in risk management process:

 Identification - Make note of all possible risks, which may occur in the
project.

 Categorize - Categorize known risks into high, medium and low risk
intensity as per their possible impact on theproject.

 Manage - Analyze the probability of occurrence of risks at variousphases.

Make plan to avoid or face risks. Attempt to minimize theirside-effects.

 Monitor - Closely monitor the potential risks and their early symptoms.
Also monitor the effective steps taken to mitigate or avoidthem.

Project Execution andMonitoring

Inthisphase,thetasksdescribedinprojectplansareexecutedaccordingtotheir
schedules.

Execution needs monitoring in order to check whether everything is going

accordingtotheplan.Monitoringisobservingtochecktheprobabilityofriskand taking
measures to address the risk or report the status of varioustasks.

These measures include -

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 Activity Monitoring - All activities scheduled within some task can be

monitoredonday-to-daybasis.Whenallactivitiesinataskarecompleted, it is
considered ascomplete.
 Status Reports - The reports contain status of activities and tasks
completed within a given time frame, generally a week. Status can be
marked as finished, pending or work-in-progressetc.
 MilestonesChecklist-Everyprojectisdividedintomultiplephaseswhere
majortasksareperformed(milestones)basedonthephasesofSDLC.This
milestonechecklistispreparedonceeveryfewweeksandreportsthestatus
ofmilestones.

Project Communication Management

Effective communication plays vital role in the success of a project. It bridges
gaps between client and the organization, among the team members as well as
other stake holders in the project such as hardware suppliers.

Communicationcanbeoralorwritten.Communicationmanagementprocessmay
have the followingsteps:

 Planning - This step includes the identifications of all the stakeholders in

the project and the mode of communication among them. It alsoconsiders
if any additional communication facilities arerequired.

 Sharing - After determining various aspects of planning, manager focuses

on sharing correct information with the correct person at the correct time.
This keeps every one involved in the project up-to-date with project
progress and itsstatus.

 Feedback - Project managers use various measures and feedback

mechanism and create status and performance reports. This mechanism
ensures that input from various stakeholders is coming to the project
manager as theirfeedback.

 Closure - At the end of each major event, end of a phase of SDLC or end
oftheprojectitself,administrativeclosureisformallyannouncedtoupdate
everystakeholderbysendingemail,bydistributingahardcopyofdocument or
by other mean of effectivecommunication.

After closure, the team moves to next phase or project.

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Configuration Management
Configurationmanagementisaprocessoftrackingandcontrollingthechangesin
software in terms of the requirements, design, functions and development of the
product.

IEEEdefinesitas“theprocessofidentifyinganddefiningtheitemsinthesystem,
controlling the change of these items throughout their life cycle, recording and
reportingthestatusofitemsandchangerequests,andverifyingthecompleteness and
correctness ofitems”.

Generally,oncetheSRSisfinalizedthereislesschanceofrequirementofchanges from
user. If they occur, the changes are addressed only with prior approval of higher
management, as there is a possibility of cost and timeoverrun.

Baseline
A phase of SDLC is assumed over if it baselined, i.e. baseline is a measurement
that defines completeness of a phase. A phase is baselined when all activities
pertainingtoitarefinishedandwelldocumented.Ifitwasnotthefinalphase,its output
would be used in next immediatephase.

Configuration management is a discipline of organization administration, which

takes care of occurrence of any changes (process, requirement, technological,
strategical etc.) after a phase is baselined. CM keeps check on any changes done
in software.

Change Control
Change control is function of configuration management, which ensures that all
changes made to software system are consistent and made as per organizational
rules and regulations.

A change in the configuration of product goes through following steps -

 Identification - A change request arrives from either internal or external

source. When change request is identified formally, it is properly
documented.

 Validation - Validity of the change request is checked and its handling

procedure isconfirmed.

 Analysis - The impact of change request is analyzed in terms of schedule,

cost and required efforts. Overall impact of the prospective change on
system isanalyzed.

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 Control-Iftheprospectivechangeeitherimpactstoomanyentitiesinthe system
or it is unavoidable, it is mandatory to take approval of high authorities
before change is incorporated into the system. It is decided if the change
is worth incorporation or not. If it is not, change request is
refusedformally.

 Execution - If the previous phase determines to execute the change

request, this phase takes appropriate actions to execute the change,
through a thorough revision ifnecessary.

 Close request - The change is verified for correct implementation and

mergingwiththerestofthesystem.Thisnewlyincorporatedchangeinthe
software is documented properly and the request is formallyclosed.

Project Management Tools

The risk and uncertainty rises multifold with respect to the size of the project,
even when the project is developed according to set methodologies.

There are tools available, which aid for effective project management. A few
described are:-

Gantt Chart
Gantt chart was devised by Henry Gantt (1917). It represents project schedule
with respect to time periods. It is a horizontal bar chart with bars representing
activities and time scheduled for the project activities.

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PERT Chart
ProgramEvaluation&ReviewTechnique)(PERT)chartisatoolthatdepictsproject as
network diagram. It is capable of graphically representing main events of project
in both parallel and consecutive ways. Events, which occur one after another,
show dependency of the later event over the previousone.

Events are shown as numbered nodes. They are connected by labeled arrows
depicting the sequence of tasks in the project.

Resource Histogram
Thisisagraphicaltoolthatcontainsbarorchartrepresentingnumberofresources
(usually skilled staff) required over time for a project event (or phase). Resource
Histogram is an effective tool for staff planning andcoordination.

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Critical Path Analysis

Thistoolsisusefulinrecognizinginterdependenttasksintheproject.Italsohelps to find
out the shortest path or critical path to complete the project successfully. Like
PERT diagram, each event is allotted a specific time frame. This tool shows
dependency of event assuming an event can proceed to next only if the previous
one iscompleted.

The events are arranged according to their earliest possible start time. Path
between start and end node is critical path which cannot be further reduced and
all events require to be executed in same order.

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Software Requirements
4
The software requirements are description of features and functionalities of the
target system. Requirements convey the expectations of users from the software
product. The requirements can be obvious or hidden, known or unknown,
expected or unexpected from client’s point of view.

RequirementEngineering
The process to gather the software requirements from client, analyze, and
document them is known as requirement engineering.

The goal of requirement engineering is to develop and maintain sophisticated and

descriptive ‘System Requirements Specification’ document.

Requirement Engineering Process

It is a four step process, which includes –

 FeasibilityStudy
 RequirementGathering
 Software RequirementSpecification 
 Software Requirement Validation
Let us see the process briefly-

Feasibility study
When the client approaches the organization for getting the desired product
developed, it comes up with a rough idea about what all functions the software
must perform and which all features are expected from the software.

Referencing to this information, the analysts do a detailed study about whether

the desired system and its functionality are feasible to develop.

This feasibility study is focused towards goal of the organization. This study
analyzes whether the software product can be practically materialized in termsof
implementation, contribution of project to organization, cost constraints, and as
per values and objectives of the organization. It explores technical aspects ofthe

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projectandproductsuchasusability,maintainability,productivity,andintegration
ability.

The output of this phase should be a feasibility study report that should contain
adequatecommentsandrecommendationsformanagementaboutwhetherornot the
project should beundertaken.

RequirementGathering
If the feasibility report is positive towards undertaking the project, next phase
starts with gathering requirements from the user. Analysts and engineers
communicate with the client and end-users to know their ideas on what the
software should provide and which features they want the software to include.

Software Requirement Specification (SRS)

SRSisadocumentcreatedbysystemanalystaftertherequirementsarecollected from
variousstakeholders.

SRS defines how the intended software will interact with hardware, external
interfaces, speed of operation, response time of system, portability of software
across various platforms, maintainability, speed of recovery after crashing,
Security, Quality, Limitations etc.

The requirements received from client are written in natural language. It is the
responsibility of the system analyst to document the requirements in technical
language so that they can be comprehended and used by the software
development team.

SRS should come up with the following features:

 User Requirements are expressed in naturallanguage.

 Technicalrequirementsareexpressedinstructuredlanguage,whichisused
inside theorganization.

 Design description should be written in Pseudocode.

 Format of Forms and GUI screenprints.

 Conditional and mathematical notations for DFDsetc. 

Software Requirement Validation

After requirement specifications are developed, the requirements mentioned in
this document are validated. User might ask for illegal, impractical solution or
expertsmayinterprettherequirementsinaccurately.Thisresultsinhugeincrease

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in cost if not nipped in the bud. Requirements can be checked against following
conditions -

 If they can be practicallyimplemented 

 If they are valid and as per functionality and domain ofsoftware
 If there are anyambiguities
 If they arecomplete
 If they can bedemonstrated

Requirement Elicitation Process

Requirement elicitation process can be depicted using the folloiwng diagram:

 Requirementsgathering-Thedevelopersdiscusswiththeclientandend
users and know their expectations from thesoftware.

 Organizing Requirements - The developers prioritize and arrange the

requirements in order of importance, urgency andconvenience. 

 Negotiation & discussion - If requirements are ambiguous or there are

someconflictsinrequirementsofvariousstakeholders,itisthennegotiated
anddiscussedwiththestakeholders.Requirementsmaythenbeprioritized and
reasonablycompromised.

The requirements come from various stakeholders. To remove the

ambiguity and conflicts, they are discussed for clarity and correctness.
Unrealistic requirements are compromised reasonably.

 Documentation - All formal and informal, functional and non-functional

requirements are documented and made available for next phase
processing.

Requirement Elicitation Techniques

Requirements Elicitation is the process to find out the requirements for an
intendedsoftwaresystembycommunicatingwithclient,endusers,systemusers, and
others who have a stake in the software systemdevelopment.

There are various ways to discover requirements. Some of them are explained
below:

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Interviews
Interviews are strong medium to collect requirements. Organization may conduct
several types of interviews such as:

 Structured (closed) interviews, where every single information to gather is

decided in advance, they follow pattern and matter of discussionfirmly. 

 Non-structured (open) interviews, where information to gather is not

decided in advance, more flexible and lessbiased.

 Oralinterviews

 Written interviews

 One-to-one interviews which are held between two persons across the
table.

 Group interviews which are held between groups of participants. Theyhelp

to uncover any missing requirement as numerous people areinvolved. 

Surveys
Organizationmayconductsurveysamongvariousstakeholdersbyqueryingabout their
expectation and requirements from the upcomingsystem.

Questionnaires
A document with pre-defined set of objective questions and respective options is
handed over to all stakeholders to answer, which are collected and compiled.

A shortcoming of this technique is, if an option for some issue is not mentioned in
the questionnaire, the issue might be left unattended.

Task analysis
Team of engineers and developers may analyze the operation for which the new
system is required. If the client already has some software to perform certain
operation, it is studied and requirements of proposed system are collected.

Domain Analysis
Every software falls into some domain category. The expert people in thedomain
can be a great help to analyze general and specificrequirements.

Brainstorming
An informal debate is held among various stakeholders and all their inputs are
recorded for further requirements analysis.

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Prototyping
Prototyping is building user interface without adding detail functionality for user
to interpret the features of intended software product. It helps giving better idea
of requirements. If there is no software installed at client’s end for developer’s
reference and the client is not aware of its own requirements, the developer
creates a prototype based on initially mentioned requirements. The prototype is
shown to the client and the feedback is noted. The client feedback serves as an
input for requirement gathering.

Observation
Team of experts visit the client’s organization or workplace. They observe the
actualworkingoftheexistinginstalledsystems.Theyobservetheworkflowatthe
client’s end and how execution problems are dealt. The team itself draws some
conclusions which aid to form requirements expected from thesoftware.

Software Requirements Characteristics

Gathering software requirements is the foundation of the entire software
development project. Hence they must be clear, correct, and well-defined.

A complete Software Requirement Specifications must be:

 Clear
 Correct
 Consistent
 Coherent
 Comprehensible
 Modifiable
 Verifiable
 Prioritized
 Unambiguous
 Traceable
 Crediblesource

Software Requirements
We should try to understand what sort of requirements may arise in the
requirement elicitation phase and what kinds of requirement are expected from
the software system.

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Broadly software requirements should be categorized in two categories:

Functional Requirements
Requirements, which are related to functional aspect of software fall into this
category.

They define functions and functionality within and from the software system.

EXAMPLES -
 Search option given to user to search from variousinvoices.

 User should be able to mail any report tomanagement.

 Users can be divided into groups and groups can be given separaterights.

 Should comply business rules and administrativefunctions. 

 Software is developed keeping downward compatibilityintact. 

Non-Functional Requirements
Requirements,whicharenotrelatedtofunctionalaspectofsoftware,fallintothis
category. They are implicit or expected characteristics of software, which users
make assumptionof.

Non-functional requirements include -

 Security
 Logging
 Storage
 Configuration
 Performance
 Cost
 Interoperability
 Flexibility
 Disasterrecovery
 Accessibility
Requirements are categorized logically as:

 Must Have : Software cannot be said operational withoutthem.

 Should have : Enhancing the functionality ofsoftware.

 Could have : Software can still properly function with theserequirements. 

 Wish list : These requirements do not map to any objectives ofsoftware.

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While developing software, ‘Must have’ must be implemented, ‘Should have’ is a

matterofdebatewithstakeholdersandnegation,whereas‘Couldhave’and‘Wish list’
can be kept for softwareupdates.

User Interface requirements

User Interface (UI) is an important part of any software or hardware or hybrid
system. A software is widely accepted if it is –

 easy tooperate
 quick in response
 effectively handling operationalerrors
 providing simple yet consistent userinterface
User acceptance majorly depends upon how user can use the software. UI is the
only way for users to perceive the system. A well performing software system
must also be equipped with attractive, clear, consistent, and responsive user
interface. Otherwise the functionalities of software system can not be used in
convenient way. A system is said to be good if it provides means to use it
efficiently. User interface requirements are briefly mentioned below –

 Contentpresentation
 EasyNavigation
 Simpleinterface
 Responsive
 Consistent UIelements
 Feedbackmechanism
 Defaultsettings
 Purposefullayout
 Strategical use of color andtexture.
 Provide helpinformation
 User centricapproach
 Group based viewsettings.

Software System Analyst

System analyst in an IT organization is a person, who analyzes the requirement
ofproposedsystemandensuresthatrequirementsareconceivedanddocumented
properly and acuurately. Role of an analyst starts during Software AnalysisPhase

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of SDLC. It is the responsibility of analyst to make sure that the developed

software meets the requirements of the client.

System Analysts have the following responsibilities:

 Analyzing and understanding requirements of intendedsoftware

 Understanding how the project will contribute to the organizational

objectives

 Identify sources ofrequirement

 Validation ofrequirement

 Develop and implement requirement managementplan

 Documentation of business, technical, process, and productrequirements

 Coordination with clients to prioritize requirements and removeambiguity

 Finalizing acceptance criteria with client and otherstakeholders

Software Metrics andMeasures

SoftwareMeasurescanbeunderstoodasaprocessofquantifyingandsymbolizing
various attributes and aspects ofsoftware.

Software Metrics provide measures for various aspects of software process and
software product.

Software measures are fundamental requirements of software engineering. They

notonlyhelptocontrolthesoftwaredevelopmentprocessbutalsoaidtokeepthe quality
of ultimate productexcellent.

According to Tom DeMarco, a (Software Engineer), “You cannot control what you
cannotmeasure.”Byhissaying,itisveryclearhowimportantsoftwaremeasures are.

Let us see some software metrics:

 Size Metrics - Lines of Code (LOC) (), mostly calculated in thousands of

delivered source code lines, denoted asKLOC.

 Function Point Count is measure of the functionality provided by the

software. Function Point count defines the size of functional aspect of the
software.

 Complexity Metrics - McCabe’s Cyclomatic complexity quantifies the

upperboundofthenumberofindependentpathsinaprogram,whichis 

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perceived as complexity of the program or its modules. It is representedin

terms of graph theory concepts by using control flowgraph.

 Quality Metrics - Defects, their types and causes, consequence, intensity

of severity and their implications define the quality of theproduct.

 Thenumberofdefectsfoundindevelopmentprocessandnumberofdefects
reported by the client after the product is installed or delivered at client-
end, define quality of theproduct.

 ProcessMetrics-InvariousphasesofSDLC,themethodsandtoolsused, the
company standards and the performance of development are software
processmetrics.

 Resource Metrics - Effort, time, and various resources used, represents

metrics for resourcemeasurement.

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Software Design Basics

5
Software design is a process to transform user requirements into some suitable
form, which helps the programmer in software coding and implementation.

For assessing user requirements, an SRS (Software Requirement Specification)

document is created whereas for coding and implementation, there is a need of
more specific and detailed requirements in software terms. The output of this
process can directly be used into implementation in programming languages.

Software design is the first step in SDLC (Software Design Life Cycle), which
moves the concentration from problem domain to solution domain. It tries to
specify how to fulfill the requirements mentioned in SRS.

Software DesignLevels
Software design yields three levels of results:

 Architectural Design - The architectural design is the highest abstract

version of the system. It identifies the software as a system with many
componentsinteractingwitheachother.Atthislevel,thedesignersgetthe idea
of proposed solutiondomain.

 High-level Design - The high-level design breaks the ‘single entity-

multiple component’ concept of architectural design into less-abstracted
view of sub-systems and modules and depicts their interaction with each
other. High-level design focuses on how the system along with all of its
components can be implemented in forms of modules. It recognizes
modular structure of each sub-system and their relation and interaction
among eachother.

 Detailed Design- Detailed design deals with the implementation part of

what is seen as a system and its sub-systems in the previous two designs.
It is more detailed towards modules and their implementations. It defines
logical structure of each module and their interfaces to communicate with
othermodules.

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Modularization
Modularization is a technique to divide a software system into multiple discrete
and independent modules, which are expected to be capable of carrying out
task(s)independently.Thesemodulesmayworkasbasicconstructsfortheentire
software.Designerstendtodesignmodulessuchthattheycanbeexecutedand/or
compiled separately andindependently.

Modular design unintentionally follows the rule of ‘divide and conquer’ problem-
solving strategy, this is because there are many other benefits attached with the
modular design of asoftware.

Advantage ofmodularization:

 Smaller components are easier tomaintain

 Program can be divided based on functionalaspects
 Desired level of abstraction can be brought in theprogram
 Components with high cohesion can be re-usedagain
 Concurrent execution can be madepossible
 Desired from securityaspect

Concurrency
Back in time, all software are meant to be executed sequentially. By sequential
execution, we mean that the coded instruction will be executed one afteranother
implying only one portion of program being activated at any given time. Say, a
software has multiple modules, then only one of all the modules can be found
active at any time ofexecution.

In software design, concurrency is implemented by splitting the software into

multiple independent units of execution, like modules and executing them in
parallel. In other words, concurrency provides capability to the software to
execute more than one part of code in parallel to each other.

It is necessary for the programmers and designers to recognize those modules,

which can be made parallel execution.

Example
The spell check feature in word processor is a module of software, which runs
along side the word processor itself.

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Coupling andCohesion
When a software program is modularized, its tasks are divided into several
modules based on some characteristics. As we know, modules are set of
instructions put together in order to achieve some tasks. They are though,
consideredasasingleentitybut,mayrefertoeachothertoworktogether.There are
measures by which the quality of a design of modules and their interaction
amongthemcanbemeasured.Thesemeasuresarecalledcouplingandcohesion.

Cohesion
Cohesion is a measure that defines the degree of intra-dependability within
elementsofamodule.Thegreaterthecohesion,thebetteristheprogramdesign.

There are seven types of cohesion, namely –

 Co-incidental cohesion - It is unplanned and random cohesion, which

might be the result of breaking the program into smaller modules for the
sake of modularization. Because it is unplanned, it may serve confusion to
the programmers and is generallynot-accepted.

 Logical cohesion - When logically categorized elements are put together

into a module, it is called logicalcohesion.

 Emporal Cohesion - When elements of module are organized such that

theyareprocessedatasimilarpointoftime,itiscalledtemporalcohesion.

 Procedural cohesion - When elements of module are grouped together,

which are executed sequentially in order to perform a task, it is called
proceduralcohesion.

 Communicational cohesion - When elements of module are grouped

together, which are executed sequentially and work on same data
(information), it is called communicationalcohesion.

 Sequential cohesion - When elements of module are grouped because

the output of one element serves as input to another and so on, it iscalled
sequentialcohesion. 

 Functional cohesion - It is considered to be the highest degree of

cohesion, and it is highly expected. Elements of module in functional
cohesion are grouped because they all contribute to a single well-defined
function. It can also bereused.

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Coupling
Couplingisameasurethatdefinesthelevelofinter-dependabilityamongmodules of a
program. It tells at what level the modules interfere and interact with each
other. The lower the coupling, the better theprogram.

There are five levels of coupling, namely -

 Content coupling - When a module can directly access or modify or refer

to the content of another module, it is called content levelcoupling.

 Commoncoupling-Whenmultiplemoduleshavereadandwriteaccessto some
global data, it is called common or globalcoupling.

 Control coupling- Two modules are called control-coupled if one of them

decides the function of the other module or changes its flow ofexecution. 

 Stamp coupling- When multiple modules share common data structure

and work on different part of it, it is called stampcoupling.

 Data coupling- Data coupling is when two modules interact with each
other by means of passing data (as parameter). If a module passes data
structure as parameter, then the receiving module should use all its
components.

Ideally, no coupling is considered to be the best.

DesignVerification
The output of software design process is design documentation, pseudo codes,
detailed logic diagrams, process diagrams, and detailed description of all
functional or non-functional requirements.

The next phase, which is the implementation of software, depends on all outputs
mentioned above.

It is then becomes necessary to verify the output before proceeding to the next
phase. The early any mistake is detected, the better it is or it might not be
detected until testing of the product. If the outputs of design phase are in formal
notationform,thentheirassociatedtoolsforverificationshouldbeusedotherwise a
thorough design review can be used for verification andvalidation.

By structured verification approach, reviewers can detect defects that might be

caused by overlooking some conditions. A good design review is important for
good software design, accuracy, and quality.

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Software Analysisand
Design Tools 6
Softwareanalysisanddesignincludesallactivities,whichhelpthetransformation of
requirement specification into implementation. Requirement specifications
specify all functional and non-functional expectations from the software. These
requirement specifications come in the shape of human readable and
understandable documents, to which a computer has nothing todo.

Software analysis and design is the intermediate stage, which helps human-
readable requirements to be transformed into actual code.

Let us see few analysis and design tools used by software designers:

Data FlowDiagram
Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation of flow of data in an
information system. It is capable of depicting incoming data flow, outgoing data
flow, and stored data. The DFD does not mention anything about how data flows
through the system.

ThereisaprominentdifferencebetweenDFDandFlowchart.Theflowchartdepicts flow
of control in program modules. DFDs depict flow of data in the system at various
levels. It does not contain any control or branchelements.

Types of DFD
Data Flow Diagrams are either Logical or Physical.

 Logical DFD - This type of DFD concentrates on the system process, and
flowofdatainthesystem.Forexampleinabankingsoftwaresystem,how data is
moved between differententities. 

 Physical DFD - This type of DFD shows how the data flow is actually
implemented in the system. It is more specific and close to the
implementation.

DFD Components
DFD can represent source, destination, storage, and flow of data using the
following set of components -

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 Entities -Entitiesaresourcesanddestinationsofinformationdata.Entities are

represented by rectangles with their respectivenames.

 Process-ActivitiesandactiontakenonthedataarerepresentedbyCircle or
Round-edgedrectangles.

 Data Storage - There are two variants of data storage - it can either be
represented as a rectangle with absence of both smaller sides or as an
open-sided rectangle with only one sidemissing.

 Data Flow - Movement of data is shown by pointed arrows. Data

movement is shown from the base of arrow as its source towards head of
the arrow asdestination.

Levels of DFD
 Level 0 - Highest abstraction level DFD is known as Level 0 DFD, which
depicts the entire information system as one diagram concealing all the
underlying details. Level 0 DFDs are also known as context levelDFDs. 

 Level 1 - The Level 0 DFD is broken down into more specific, Level 1DFD.
Level 1 DFD depicts basic modules in the system and flow of data among
various modules. Level 1 DFD also mentions basic processes and sources
ofinformation.

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 Level 2 - At this level, DFD shows how data flows inside the modules
mentioned in Level1. 

Higher level DFDs can be transformed into more specific lower level DFDs
with deeper level of understanding unless the desired level of specification
is achieved.

Structure Charts
Structure chart is a chart derived from Data Flow Diagram. It represents the
system in more detail than DFD. It breaks down the entire system into lowest
functional modules, describes functions and sub-functions of each module of the
system to a greater detail than DFD.

Structure chart represents hierarchical structure of modules. At each layer a

specific task is performed.

Here are the symbols used in construction of structure charts -

 Module - It represents process or subroutine or task. A control module

branches to more than one sub-module. Library Modules are re-usableand
invokable from anymodule.

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 Condition - It is represented by small diamond at base of the module. It

depicts that control module can select any of sub-routine based on some
condition.

 Jump - An arrow is shown pointing inside the module to depict that the
control will jump in the middle of thesub-module.

 Loop - A curved arrow represents loop in the module. All sub-modules

covered by loop repeat execution ofmodule.

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 Data flow - A directed arrow with empty circle at the end represents data
flow.

 Control flow - A directed arrow with filled circle at the end represents
controlflow.

HIPODiagram
Hierarchical Input Process Output (HIPO) diagram is a combination of two
organized methods to analyze the system and provide the means of
documentation. HIPO model was developed by IBM in year 1970.

HIPOdiagramrepresentsthehierarchyofmodulesinthesoftwaresystem.Analyst
usesHIPOdiagraminordertoobtainhigh-levelviewofsystemfunctions.It

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decomposes functions into sub-functions in a hierarchical manner. It depicts the

functions performed by system.

HIPO diagrams are good for documentation purpose. Their graphical

representationmakesiteasierfordesignersandmanagerstogetthepictorialidea of the
systemstructure.

In contrast to Input Process Output (IPO) diagram, which depicts the flow of
control and data in a module, HIPO does not provide any information about data
flow or control flow.

Example
BothpartsofHIPOdiagram,Hierarchicalpresentation,andIPOChartareusedfor
structure designing of software program as well as documentation of thesame.

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StructuredEnglish
Most programmers are unaware of the large picture of software so they only rely
on what their managers tell them to do. It is the responsibility of higher software
management to provide accurate information to the programmers to develop
accurate yet fast code.

Different methods, which use graphs or diagrams, at times might be interpreted

in a different way by different people.

Hence, analysts and designers of the software come up with tools such as
Structured English. It is nothing but the description of what is required to code
and how to code it. Structured English helps the programmer to write error-free
code. Here, both Structured English and Pseudo-Code tries to mitigate that
understanding gap.

StructuredEnglishusesplainEnglishwordsinstructuredprogrammingparadigm. It is
not the ultimate code but a kind of description what is required to code and how
to code it. The following are some tokens of structuredprogramming:

IF-THEN-ELSE,
DO-WHILE-UNTIL

Analyst uses the same variable and data name, which are stored in Data
Dictionary, making it much simpler to write and understand the code.

Example
We take the same example of Customer Authentication in the online shopping
environment. This procedure to authenticate customer can be written in
Structured English as:

Enter Customer_Name

SEEK Customer_Name in Customer_Name_DB file

IF Customer_Name found THEN

Call procedure USER_PASSWORD_AUTHENTICATE()

ELSE
PRINT error message

Call procedure NEW_CUSTOMER_REQUEST()

ENDIF

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The code written in Structured English is more like day-to-day spoken English. It
can not be implemented directly as a code of software. Structured English is
independent of programming language.

Pseudo-Code
Pseudocodeiswrittenmoreclosetoprogramminglanguage.Itmaybeconsidered as
augmented programming language, full of comments, anddescriptions.

Pseudo code avoids variable declaration but they are written using some actual
programming language’s constructs, like C, Fortran, Pascal, etc.

Pseudo code contains more programming details than Structured English. It

provides a method to perform the task, as if a computer is executing the code.

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Example
Program to print Fibonacci up to n numbers.

void function Fibonacci

Get value of n;
Set value of a to 1;
Set value of b to 1;
Initialize I to 0

for (i=0; i< n;i++)

{

if a greater than b

Increase b by a;

Print b;
}

else if b greater than a

increase a by b;

print a;
}

Decision Tables
A Decision table represents conditions and the respective actions to be taken to
address them, in a structured tabular format.

Itisapowerfultooltodebugandpreventerrors.Ithelpsgroupsimilarinformation into a
single table and then by combining tables it delivers easy and convenient
decision-making.

Creating Decision Table

To create the decision table, the developer must follow basic four steps:

 Identify all possible conditions to beaddressed

 Determine actions for all identifiedconditions
 Create Maximum possiblerules

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 Define action for eachrule

Decision Tables should be verified by end-users and can lately be simplified by
eliminating duplicate rules and actions.

Example
Let us take a simple example of day-to-day problem with our Internet
connectivity.Webeginbyidentifyingallproblemsthatcanarisewhilestartingthe
internet and their respective possiblesolutions.

Welistallpossibleproblemsundercolumnconditionsandtheprospectiveactions under
columnActions.

Conditions/Actions Rules

Shows Connected N N N N Y Y Y Y

Conditions Ping is Working N N Y Y N N Y Y

Opens Website Y N Y N Y N Y N

Check network cable X

Check internet router X X X X

Actions Restart Web Browser X

Contact Service provider X X X X X X

Do no action

Table : Decision Table – In-house Internet Troubleshooting

Entity-RelationshipModel
Entity-Relationshipmodelisatypeofdatabasemodelbasedonthenotionofreal
worldentitiesandrelationshipamongthem.Wecanmaprealworldscenarioonto ER
database model. ER Model creates a set of entities with their attributes, a set of
constraints and relation amongthem.

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ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of database. ER Model can be
represented as follows :

 Entity - An entity in ER Model is a real world being, which has some

propertiescalledattributes.Everyattributeisdefinedbyitscorresponding set
of values, calleddomain.

For example, Consider a school database. Here, a student is an entity.

Student has various attributes like name, id, age and class etc.

 Relationship - The logical association among entities is called

relationship. Relationships are mapped with entities in various ways.
Mapping cardinalities define the number of associations between two
entities.

Mapping cardinalities:

 one toone
 one tomany
 many toone
 many tomany

Data Dictionary
Data dictionary is the centralized collection of information about data. It stores
meaningandoriginofdata,itsrelationshipwithotherdata,dataformatforusage,
etc.Datadictionaryhasrigorousdefinitionsofallnamesinordertofacilitateuser and
softwaredesigners.

Data dictionary is often referenced as meta-data (data about data) repository. It

iscreatedalongwithDFD(DataFlowDiagram)modelofsoftwareprogramandis
expected to be updated whenever DFD is changed orupdated.

Requirement of Data Dictionary

The data is referenced via data dictionary while designing and implementing
software. Data dictionary removes any chances of ambiguity. It helps keeping

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work of programmers and designers synchronized while using same object

reference everywhere in the program.

Data dictionary provides a way of documentation for the complete database

system in one place. Validation of DFD is carried out using data dictionary.

Contents
Data dictionary should contain information about the following:

 DataFlow
 DataStructure
 DataElements
 DataStores
 DataProcessing
Data Flow is described by means of DFDs as studied earlier and represented in
algebraic form as described.

= Composed of

{} Repetition

() Optional

+ And

[/] Or

Example
Address = House No + (Street / Area) + City + State

Course ID = Course Number + Course Name + Course Level + Course Grades

Data Elements
Data elements consist of Name and descriptions of Data and Control Items,
Internal or External data stores etc. with the following details:

 PrimaryName
 Secondary Name(Alias)
 Use-case (How and where touse)

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 Content Description (Notation etc.) 

 Supplementary Information (preset values, constraintsetc.)

Data Store
It stores the information from where the data enters into the system and exists
out of the system. The Data Store may include -

 Files
o Internal tosoftware.
o External to software but on the samemachine.
o External to software and system, located on differentmachine.
 Tables
o Namingconvention
o Indexingproperty

Data Processing
There are two types of Data Processing:

 Logical: As user seesit

 Physical: As software seesit

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Software Design Strategies

7
Software design is a process to conceptualize the software requirements into
software implementation. Software design takes the user requirements as
challenges and tries to find optimum solution. While the software is being
conceptualized, a plan is chalked out to find the best possible design for
implementing the intended solution.

There are multiple variants of software design. Let us study them briefly:

StructuredDesign
Structured design is a conceptualization of problem into several well-organized
elements of solution. It is basically concerned with the solution design. Benefit of
structured design is, it gives better understanding of how the problem is being
solved.Structureddesignalsomakesitsimplerfordesignertoconcentrateonthe
problem moreaccurately.

Structured design is mostly based on ‘divide and conquer’ strategy where a

problem is broken into several small problems and each small problem is
individually solved until the whole problem is solved.

The small pieces of problem are solved by means of solution modules.Structured

designemphasisthatthesemodulesbewellorganizedinordertoachieveprecise
solution.

These modules are arranged in hierarchy. They communicate with each other. A
good structured design always follows some rules for communication among
multiple modules, namely -

 Cohesion - grouping of all functionally relatedelements.

 Coupling - communication between differentmodules.
A good structured design has high cohesion and low coupling arrangements.

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Function OrientedDesign
In function-oriented design, the system comprises of many smaller sub-systems
known as functions. These functions are capable of performing significant task in
the system. The system is considered as top view of all functions.

Function oriented design inherits some properties of structured design where

divide and conquer methodology is used.

This design mechanism divides the whole system into smaller functions, which
provides means of abstraction by concealing the information and their operation.
These functional modules can share information among themselves by means of
information passing and using information available globally.

Another characteristic of functions is that when a program calls a function, the

function changes the state of the program, which sometimes is not acceptableby
other modules. Function oriented design works well where the system state does
not matter and program/functions work on input rather than on astate.

Design Process
 Thewholesystemisseenashowdataflowsinthesystembymeansofdata
flowdiagram.

 DFD depicts how functions change data and state of the entiresystem.

 The entire system is logically broken down into smaller units known as
functions on the basis of their operation in thesystem.

 Each function is then described atlarge.

Object OrientedDesign
Object Oriented Design (OOD) works around the entities and their characteristics
instead of functions involved in the software system. This design strategies
focuses on entities and its characteristics. The whole concept of softwaresolution
revolves around the engagedentities.

Let us see the important concepts of Object Oriented Design:

 Objects - All entities involved in the solution design are known as objects.
For example, person, banks, company, and customers are treated as
objects. Every entity has some attributes associated to it and has some
methods to perform on theattributes.

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 Classes - A class is a generalized description of an object. An object is an

instanceofaclass.Classdefinesalltheattributes,whichanobjectcanhave and
methods, which defines the functionality of theobject.

In the solution design, attributes are stored as variables andfunctionalities

are defined by means of methods orprocedures.

 Encapsulation - In OOD, the attributes (data variables) and methods

(operation on the data) are bundled together is called encapsulation.
Encapsulationnotonlybundlesimportantinformationofanobjecttogether, but
also restricts access of the data and methods from the outside world. This
is called informationhiding.

 Inheritance - OOD allows similar classes to stack up in hierarchical

manner where the lower or sub-classes can import, implement and re-use
allowed variables and methods from their immediate super classes. This
property of OOD is known as inheritance. This makes it easier to define
specific class and to create generalized classes from specificones.

 Polymorphism - OOD languages provide a mechanism where methods

performing similar tasks but vary in arguments, can be assigned same
name. This is called polymorphism, which allows a single interface
performing tasks for different types. Depending upon how the function is
invoked, respective portion of the code getsexecuted.

Design Process
Software design process can be perceived as series of well-defined steps.Though
itvariesaccordingtodesignapproach(functionorientedorobjectoriented,yetIt may
have the following stepsinvolved:

 A solution design is created from requirement or previous used system

and/or system sequencediagram.

 Objects are identified and grouped into classes on behalf of similarity in

attributecharacteristics.

 Class hierarchy and relation among them isdefined.

 Application framework isdefined.

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Software Design Approaches

Here are two generic approaches for software designing:

Top Down Design

Weknowthatasystemiscomposedofmorethanonesub-systemsanditcontains a
number of components. Further, these sub-systems and components mayhave
their own set of sub-systems and components, and creates hierarchical structure
in the system.

Top-down design takes the whole software system as one entity and then
decomposesittoachievemorethanonesub-systemorcomponentbasedonsome
characteristics. Each sub-system or component is then treated as a system and
decomposed further. This process keeps on running until the lowest level of
system in the top-down hierarchy isachieved.

Top-downdesignstartswithageneralizedmodelofsystemandkeepsondefining the
more specific part of it. When all the components are composed the whole
system comes intoexistence.

Top-downdesignismoresuitablewhenthesoftwaresolutionneedstobedesigned from
scratch and specific details areunknown.

Bottom-up Design
The bottom up design model starts with most specific and basic components. It
proceedswithcomposinghigherlevelofcomponentsbyusingbasicorlowerlevel
components. It keeps creating higher level components until the desired system
is not evolved as one single component. With each higher level, the amount of
abstraction isincreased.

Bottom-up strategy is more suitable when a system needs to be created from

some existing system, where the basic primitives can be used in the newer
system.

Both,top-downandbottom-upapproachesarenotpracticalindividually.Instead, a
good combination of both isused.

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Software User InterfaceDesign

8
User interface is the front-end application view to which user interacts in orderto
use the software. User can manipulate and control the software as well as
hardware by means of user interface. Today, user interface is found at almost
everyplacewheredigitaltechnologyexists,rightfromcomputers,mobilephones, cars,
music players, airplanes, shipsetc.

Userinterfaceispartofsoftwareandisdesignedinsuchawaythatitisexpected to
provide the user insight of the software. UI provides fundamental platform for
human-computerinteraction.

UI can be graphical, text-based, audio-video based, depending upon the

underlying hardware and software combination. UI can be hardware or software
or a combination of both.

The software becomes more popular if its user interface is:

 Attractive
 Simple touse
 Responsive in shorttime
 Clear tounderstand
 Consistent on all interfacing screens
UI is broadly divided into twocategories:

 Command LineInterface
 Graphical UserInterface

Command Line Interface(CLI)

CLI has been a great tool of interaction with computers until the video display
monitors came into existence. CLI is first choice of many technical users and
programmers. It is the minimum interface a software can provide to its users.

CLI provides a command prompt, the place where the user types the command
and feeds to the system. The user needs to remember the syntax of command
anditsuse.EarlierCLIwerenotprogrammedtohandletheusererrorseffectively.

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Acommandisatext-basedreferencetosetofinstructions,whichareexpectedto be
executed by the system. There are methods like macros, scripts that make it
easy for the user tooperate.

CLI uses less amount of computer resource as compared to GUI.

CLI Elements

A text-based command line interface can have the following elements:

 Command Prompt - It is text-based notifier that is mostly shows the

contextinwhichtheuserisworking.Itisgeneratedbythesoftwaresystem.

 Cursor - It is a small horizontal line or a vertical bar of the height of line,

to represent position of character while typing. Cursor is mostly found in
blinking state. It moves as the user writes or deletessomething. 

 Command - A command is an executable instruction. It may have one or

more parameters. Output on command execution is shown inline on the
screen.Whenoutputisproduced,commandpromptisdisplayedonthenext line. 

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Graphical UserInterface
GraphicalUserInterface(GUI)providestheusergraphicalmeanstointeractwith the
system. GUI can be combination of both hardware and software. Using GUI, user
interprets thesoftware.

Typically, GUI is more resource consuming than that of CLI. With advancing
technology, the programmers and designers create complex GUI designs that
work with more efficiency, accuracy, and speed.

GUI Elements
GUI provides a set of components to interact with software or hardware.

Everygraphicalcomponentprovidesawaytoworkwiththesystem.AGUIsystem has
following elements suchas:

Window - An area where contents of application are displayed. Contents in a

windowcanbedisplayedintheformoficonsorlists,ifthewindowrepresentsfile
structure. It is easier for a user to navigate in the file system in an exploring
window. Windows can be minimized, resized or maximized to the size of screen.
They can be moved anywhere on the screen. A window may contain another
window of the same application, called childwindow.

 Tabs - If an application allows executing multiple instances of itself, they

appearonthescreenasseparatewindows.TabbedDocumentInterface
hascomeuptoopenmultipledocumentsinthesamewindow.Thisinterface

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also helps in viewing preference panel in application. All modern web-

browsers use this feature.

 Menu - Menu is an array of standard commands, grouped together and

placed at a visible place (usually top) inside the application window. The
menu can be programmed to appear or hide on mouseclicks. 

 Icon-Aniconissmallpicturerepresentinganassociatedapplication.When
theseiconsareclickedordoubleclicked,theapplicationwindowisopened.
Icondisplaysapplicationandprogramsinstalledonasystemintheformof
smallpictures.

 Cursor - Interacting devices such as mouse, touch pad, digital pen are
represented in GUI as cursors. On screen cursor follows the instructions
fromhardwareinalmostreal-time.CursorsarealsonamedpointersinGUI
systems. They are used to select menus, windows and other application
features.

Application specific GUI components

A GUI of an application contains one or more of the listed GUI elements:

 Application Window - Most application windows uses the constructs

supplied by operating systems but many use their own customer created
windows to contain the contents ofapplication.

 DialogueBox-Itisachildwindowthatcontainsmessagefortheuserand request
for some action to be taken. For Example: Application generate a dialogue
to get confirmation from user to delete afile.

 Text-Box - Provides an area for user to type and enter text-baseddata.

 Buttons - They imitate real life buttons and are used to submit inputs to
thesoftware.

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 Radio-button - Displays available options for selection. Only one can be

selected among alloffered.

 Check-box - Functions similar to list-box. When an option is selected, the

boxismarkedaschecked.Multipleoptionsrepresentedbycheckboxescan be
selected. 

 List-box-Provideslistofavailableitemsforselection.Morethanoneitem can
beselected.

Other impressive GUI components are:

 Sliders
 Combo-box
 Data-grid
 Drop-downlist

User Interface DesignActivities

There are a number of activities performed for designing user interface. The
process of GUI design and implementation is alike SDLC. Any model can be used
for GUI implementation among Waterfall, Iterative or Spiral Model.

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A model used for GUI design and development should fulfill these GUI specific
steps.

 GUI Requirement Gathering - The designers may like to have list of all
functional and non-functional requirements of GUI. This can be taken from
user and their existing softwaresolution.

 UserAnalysis-ThedesignerstudieswhoisgoingtousethesoftwareGUI. The
target audience matters as the design details change according to the
knowledge and competency level of the user. If user is technical savvy,
advanced and complex GUI can be incorporated. For a novice user, more
information is included on how-to ofsoftware.

 Task Analysis - Designers have to analyze what task is to be done by the

softwaresolution.HereinGUI,itdoesnotmatterhowitwillbedone.Tasks can be
represented in hierarchical manner taking one major task and dividing it
further into smaller sub-tasks. Tasks provide goals for GUI presentation.
Flow of information among sub-tasks determines the flow of GUI contents
in thesoftware.

 GUI Design and implementation - Designers after having information

about requirements, tasks and user environment, design the GUI and
implementsintocodeandembedtheGUIwithworkingordummysoftware in the
background. It is then self-tested by thedevelopers.

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 Testing - GUI testing can be done in various ways. Organization can have
in-houseinspection,directinvolvementofusersandreleaseofbetaversion are
few of them. Testing may include usability, compatibility, user
acceptanceetc.

GUI Implementation Tools

There are several tools available using which the designers can create entire GUI
on a mouse click. Some tools can be embedded into the software environment
(IDE).

GUI implementation tools provide powerful array of GUI controls. For software
customization, designers can change the code accordingly.

There are different segments of GUI tools according to their different use and
platform.

Example
MobileGUI,ComputerGUI,Touch-ScreenGUIetc.Hereisalistoffewtoolswhich come
handy to buildGUI:

 FLUID
 AppInventor(Android)
 LucidChart
 Wavemaker
 VisualStudio

User Interface Goldenrules

ThefollowingrulesarementionedtobethegoldenrulesforGUIdesign,described by
Shneiderman and Plaisant in their book (Designing the UserInterface).

 Strive for consistency - Consistent sequences of actions should be

required in similar situations. Identical terminology should be used in
prompts, menus, and help screens. Consistent commands should be
employedthroughout.

 Enable frequent users to use short-cuts - The user’s desire to reduce

the number of interactions increases with the frequency of use.
Abbreviations, function keys, hidden commands, and macro facilities are
very helpful to an expertuser.

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 Offer informative feedback - For every operator action, there should be

some system feedback. For frequent and minor actions, the responsemust
be modest, while for infrequent and major actions, the response must be
moresubstantial.

 Design dialog to yield closure - Sequences of actions should be

organized into groups with a beginning, middle, and end. The informative
feedback at the completion of a group of actions gives the operators the
satisfaction of accomplishment, a sense of relief, the signal to drop
contingency plans and options from their minds, and this indicates thatthe
way ahead is clear to prepare for the next group ofactions.

 Offersimpleerrorhandling-Asmuchaspossible,designthesystemso the
user will not make a serious error. If an error is made, the system should
be able to detect it and offer simple, comprehensible mechanisms for
handling theerror.

 Permiteasyreversalofactions-Thisfeaturerelievesanxiety,sincethe
userknowsthaterrorscanbeundone.Easyreversalofactionsencourages
exploration of unfamiliar options. The units of reversibility may be a single
action, a data entry, or a complete group ofactions.

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 Support internal locus of control - Experienced operators strongly

desire the sense that they are in charge of the system and that thesystem
respondstotheiractions.Designthesystemtomakeuserstheinitiatorsof actions
rather than theresponders.

 Reduce short-term memory load - The limitation of human information

processing in short-term memory requires the displays to be kept simple,
multiple page displays to be consolidated, window-motion frequency be
reduced,andsufficienttrainingtimebeallottedforcodes,mnemonics,and
sequences ofactions.

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Software Design Complexity

9
The term complexity stands for state of events or things, which have multiple
interconnectedlinksandhighlycomplicatedstructures.Insoftwareprogramming, as
the design of software is realized, the number of elements and their
interconnections gradually emerge to be huge, which becomes too difficult to
understand atonce.

Software design complexity is difficult to assess without using complexitymetrics

and measures. Let us see three important software complexitymeasures.

Halstead's ComplexityMeasures
In 1977, Mr. Maurice Howard Halstead introduced metrics to measure software
complexity. Halstead’s metrics depends upon the actual implementation of
program and its measures, which are computed directly from the operators and
operands from source code, in static manner. It allows to evaluate testing time,
vocabulary, size, difficulty, errors, and efforts for C/C++/Java source code.

AccordingtoHalstead,“Acomputerprogramisanimplementationofanalgorithm
considered to be a collection of tokens which can be classified as eitheroperators
or operands”. Halstead metrics think a program as sequence of operators and
their associatedoperands.

He defines various indicators to check complexity of module. Following table

states the parameters and the meanings:

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Parameter Meaning

n1 Number of unique operators

n2 Number of unique operands

N1 Number of total occurrence of operators

N2 Number of total occurrence of operands

When we select source file to view its complexity details in Metric Viewer, the
following result is seen in Metric Report:

Metric Meaning Mathematical Representation

n Vocabulary n1 + n2

N Size N1 + N2

V Volume Length * Log2 Vocabulary

D Difficulty (n1/2) * (N1/n2)

E Efforts Difficulty * Volume

B Errors Volume / 3000

T Testing time Time = Efforts / S, where S=18 seconds.

Cyclomatic ComplexityMeasures
Everyprogramencompassesstatementstoexecuteinordertoperformsometask and
other decision-making statements that decide, what statements need to be
executed. These decision-making constructs change the flow of theprogram.

If we compare two programs of same size, the one with more decision-making
statements will be more complex as the control of program jumps frequently.

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McCabe,in1976,proposedCyclomaticComplexityMeasuretoquantifycomplexity of a
given software. It is graph driven model that is based on decision-making
constructsofprogramsuchasif-else,do-while,repeat-until,switch-caseandgoto
statements.

Process to make flow control graph:

 Break program in smaller blocks, delimited by decision-makingconstructs.

 Create nodes representing each of thesenodes.

 Connect nodes asfollows:

o If control can branch from block i to blockj

Draw anarc

o From exit node to entry node

Draw anarc.

To calculate Cyclomatic complexity of a program module, we use the formula -

V(G) = e – n + 2

Where:

e is total number of edges

n is total number of nodes

The Cyclomatic complexity of the above module is

e = 10

n=8

Cyclomatic Complexity = 10 - 8 + 2

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=4

According to P. Jorgensen, Cyclomatic Complexity of a module should not exceed

10.

Function Point
It is widely used to measure the size of software. Function Point concentrates on
functionalityprovidedbythesystem.Featuresandfunctionalityofthesystemare used
to measure the softwarecomplexity.

Function point counts on five parameters, named as External Input, External

Output, Logical Internal Files, External Interface Files, and External Inquiry. To
consider the complexity of software each parameter is further categorized as
simple, average or complex.

Let us see parameters of function point:

External Input
Every unique input to the system, from outside, is considered as external input.
Uniqueness of input is measured, as no two inputs should have same formats.
These inputs can either be data or control parameters.

 Simple - if input count is low and affects less internalfiles 

 Complex - if input count is high and affects more internalfiles

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 Average - in-between simple andcomplex.

External Output
All output types provided by the system are counted in this category. Output is
considered unique if their output format and/or processing are unique.

 Simple - if output count islow

 Complex - if output count ishigh

 Average - in between simple andcomplex.

Logical Internal Files

Every software system maintains internal files in order to maintain its functional
information and to function properly. These files hold logical data of the system.
This logical data may contain both functional data and control data.

 Simple - if number of record types arelow

 Complex - if number of record types arehigh

 Average - in between simple andcomplex.

External Interface Files

Softwaresystemmayneedtoshareitsfileswithsomeexternalsoftwareoritmay need to
pass the file for processing or as parameter to some function. All these files are
counted as external interfacefiles.

 Simple - if number of record types in shared file arelow 

 Complex - if number of record types in shared file arehigh

 Average - in between simple andcomplex.

External Inquiry
An inquiry is a combination of input and output, where user sends some data to
inquire about as input and the system responds to the user with the output of
inquiry processed. The complexity of a query is more than External Input and
External Output. Query is said to be unique if its input and output are unique in
terms of format and data.

 Simple - if query needs low processing and yields small amount of output
data

 Complex - if query needs high process and yields large amount of output
data

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 Average - in between simple andcomplex.

Eachoftheseparametersinthesystemisgivenweightageaccordingtotheirclass
andcomplexity.Thetablebelowmentionstheweightagegiventoeachparameter:

Parameter Simple Average Complex

Inputs 3 4 6

Outputs 4 5 7

Enquiry 3 4 6

Files 7 10 15

Interfaces 5 7 10

The table above yields raw Function Points. These function points are adjusted
according to the environment complexity. System is described using fourteen
different characteristics:

 Datacommunications
 Distributedprocessing
 Performanceobjectives
 Operation configurationload
 Transactionrate
 Online dataentry,
 End userefficiency
 Onlineupdate
 Complex processinglogic
 Re-usability
 Installationease
 Operationalease
 Multiplesites
 Desire to facilitatechanges
These characteristics factors are then rated from 0 to 5, as mentioned below:

 Noinfluence

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 Incidental
 Moderate
 Average
 Significant
 Essential
All ratings are then summed up as N. The value of N ranges from 0 to 70 (14
types of characteristics x 5 types of ratings). It is used to calculate Complexity
Adjustment Factors (CAF), using the following formulae:

CAF = 0.65 + 0.01N

Then,

Delivered Function Points (FP)= CAF x Raw FP

This FP can then be used in various metrics, such as:

 Cost = $ /FP

 Quality = Errors /FP

 Productivity = FP /person-month

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SoftwareImplementation
10
In this chapter, we will study about programming methods, documentation and
challenges in software implementation.

StructuredProgramming
In the process of coding, the lines of code keep multiplying, thus, size of the
software increases. Gradually, it becomes next to impossible to remember the
flow of program. If one forgets how software and its underlying programs, files,
procedures are constructed, it then becomes very difficult to share, debug, and
modifytheprogram.Thesolutiontothisisstructuredprogramming.Itencourages the
developer to use subroutines and loops instead of using simple jumps in the
code, thereby bringing clarity in the code and improving its efficiency Structured
programming also helps programmer to reduce coding time and organize code
properly.

Structured programming states how the program shall be coded. It uses three
main concepts:

1. Top-downanalysis-Asoftwareisalwaysmadetoperformsomerational
work.Thisrationalworkisknownasprobleminthesoftwareparlance.Thus it is
very important that we understand how to solve the problem. Under top-
down analysis, the problem is broken down into small pieces where each
one has some significance. Each problem is individually solved and steps
are clearly stated about how to solve theproblem.

2. Modular Programming - While programming, the code is broken down

into smaller group of instructions. These groups are known as modules,
subprograms, or subroutines. Modular programming based on the
understanding of top-down analysis. It discourages jumps using ‘goto’
statements in the program, which often makes the program flow non-
traceable. Jumps are prohibited and modular format is encouraged in
structuredprogramming.

3. Structured Coding - In reference with top-down analysis, structured

coding sub-divides the modules into further smaller units of code inthe

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order of their execution. Structured programming uses control structure,

which controls the flow of the program, whereas structured coding uses
control structure to organize its instructions in definable patterns.

FunctionalProgramming
Functional programming is style of programming language, which uses the
concepts of mathematical functions. A function in mathematics should always
produce the same result on receiving the same argument. In procedural
languages, the flow of the program runs through procedures, i.e. the control of
program is transferred to the called procedure. While control flow is transferring
from one procedure to another, the program changes its state.

In procedural programming, it is possible for a procedure to produce different

results when it is called with the same argument, as the program itself can be in
different state while calling it. This is a property as well as a drawback of
procedural programming, in which the sequence or timing of the procedure
execution becomes important.

Functional programming provides means of computation as mathematical

functions, which produces results irrespective of program state. This makes it
possible to predict the behavior of the program.

Functional programming uses the following concepts:

First class and High-order functions - These functions have capability to

accept another function as argument or they return other functions as results.

 Pure functions - These functions do not include destructive updates, that

is, they do not affect any I/O or memory and if they are not in use, they
can easily be removed without hampering the rest of theprogram.

 Recursion - Recursion is a programming technique where a function calls

itselfandrepeatstheprogramcodeinitunlesssomepre-definedcondition
matches.Recursionisthewayofcreatingloopsinfunctionalprogramming.

 Strict evaluation - It is a method of evaluating the expression passed to

a function as an argument. Functional programming has two types of
evaluation methods, strict (eager) or non-strict (lazy). Strict evaluation
always evaluates the expression before invoking the function. Non-strict
evaluation does not evaluate the expression unless it isneeded.

 λ-calculus - Most functional programming languages use λ-calculus as

theirtypesystems.λ-expressionsareexecutedbyevaluatingthemasthey
occur.

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Common Lisp, Scala, Haskell, Erlang, and F# are some examples of functional
programming languages.

Programmingstyle
Programmingstyleissetofcodingrulesfollowedbyalltheprogrammerstowrite the
code. When multiple programmers work on the same software project, they
frequently need to work with the program code written by some other developer.
This becomes tedious or at times impossible, if all developers do not follow some
standard programming style to code theprogram.

An appropriate programming style includes using function and variable names

relevanttotheintendedtask,usingwell-placedindentation,commentingcodefor the
convenience of reader and overall presentation of code. This makes the
programcodereadableandunderstandablebyall,whichinturnmakesdebugging and
error solving easier. Also, proper coding style helps ease the documentation
andupdation.

Coding Guidelines
Practiceofcodingstylevarieswithorganizations,operatingsystemsandlanguage of
codingitself.

The following coding elements may be defined under coding guidelines of an

organization:

 Naming conventions - This section defines how to name functions,

variables, constants and globalvariables.

 Indenting - This is the space left at the beginning of line, usually 2-8
whitespace or singletab.

 Whitespace - It is generally omitted at the end ofline. 

 Operators - Defines the rules of writing mathematical, assignment and

logical operators. For example, assignment operator ‘=’ should have space
before and after it, as in “x =2”.

 Control Structures - The rules of writing if-then-else, case-switch, while-

until and for control flow statements solely and in nestedfashion.

 Linelengthandwrapping-Defineshowmanycharactersshouldbethere
inoneline,mostlyalineis80characterslong.Wrappingdefineshowaline should
be wrapped, if is toolong.

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 Functions - This defines how functions should be declared and invoked,

with and withoutparameters.

 Variables - This mentions how variables of different data types are

declared anddefined.

 Comments - This is one of the important coding components, as the

comments included in the code describe what the code actually does and
all other associated descriptions. This section also helps creating help
documentations for otherdevelopers.

SoftwareDocumentation
Software documentation is an important part of software process. A well written
documentprovidesagreattoolandmeansofinformationrepositorynecessaryto know
about software process. Software documentation also provides information about
how to use theproduct.

A well-maintained documentation should involve the following documents:

 Requirementdocumentation-Thisdocumentationworksaskeytoolfor
software designer, developer, and the test team to carry out their
respective tasks. This document contains all the functional, non-functional
and behavioral description of the intendedsoftware.

Source of this document can be previously stored data about the software,
already running software at the client’s end, client’s interview,
questionnaires, and research. Generally it is stored in the form of
spreadsheet or word processing document with the high-end software
management team.

This documentation works as foundation for the software to be developed

and is majorly used in verification and validation phases. Most test-cases
are built directly from requirement documentation.

 SoftwareDesigndocumentation-Thesedocumentationscontainallthe
necessary information, which are needed to build the software. It
contains: (a) High-level software architecture, (b) Software design
details, (c) Data flow diagrams, (d) Databasedesign

These documents work as repository for developers to implement the

software. Though these documents do not give any details on how to code
theprogram,theygiveallnecessaryinformationthatisrequiredforcoding
andimplementation.

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 Technicaldocumentation-Thesedocumentationsaremaintainedbythe
developers and actual coders. These documents, as a whole, represent
information about the code. While writing the code, the programmers also
mentionobjectiveofthecode,whowroteit,wherewillitberequired,what it does
and how it does, what other resources the code uses,etc.

The technical documentation increases the understanding between various

programmers working on the same code. It enhances re-use capability of
the code. It makes debugging easy and traceable.

There are various automated tools available and some comes with the
programming language itself. For example java comes JavaDoc tool to
generate technical documentation of code.

 User documentation - This documentation is different from all the above

explained. All previous documentations are maintained to provide
information about the software and its development process. But user
documentation explains how the software product should work and how it
should be used to get the desiredresults.

These documentations may include, software installation procedures, how-

to guides, user-guides, uninstallation method and special references to get
more information like license updation etc.

Software Implementation Challenges

There are some challenges faced by the development team while implementing
the software. Some of them are mentioned below:

 Code-reuse - Programming interfaces of present-day languages are very

sophisticated and are equipped huge library functions. Still, to bring the
cost down of end product, the organization management prefers to re-use
thecode,whichwascreatedearlierforsomeothersoftware.Therearehuge
issues faced by programmers for compatibility checks and deciding how
much code tore-use.

 Version Management - Every time a new software is issued to the

customer, developers have to maintain version and configuration related
documentation. This documentation needs to be highly accurate and
available ontime.

 Target-Host - The software program, which is being developed in the

organization,needstobedesignedforhostmachinesatthecustomersend.

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But at times, it is impossible to design a software that works on the target

machines.

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Software Testing Overview

11
SoftwareTestingisevaluationofthesoftwareagainstrequirementsgatheredfrom
users and system specifications. Testing is conducted at the phase level in
software development life cycle or at module level in program code. Software
testing comprises of Validation andVerification.

SoftwareValidation
Validation is process of examining whether or not the software satisfies the user
requirements. It is carried out at the end of the SDLC. If the software matches
requirements for which it was made, it is validated.

 Validation ensures the product under development is as per the user

requirements.

 Validation answers the question – "Are we developing the product which

attempts all that user needs from this software?".

 Validation emphasizes on userrequirements.

SoftwareVerification
Verification is the process of confirming if the software is meeting the business
requirements, and is developed adhering to the proper specifications and
methodologies.

 Verification ensures the product being developed is according to design

specifications.

 Verificationanswersthequestion–"Arewedevelopingthisproductbyfirmly
following all design specifications?" 

 Verifications concentrates on the design and system specifications.

Target of the test are-

 Errors-Theseareactualcodingmistakesmadebydevelopers.Inaddition,
thereisadifferenceinoutputofsoftwareanddesiredoutput,isconsidered as
anerror.

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 Fault - When error exists fault occurs. A fault, also known as a bug, is a
result of an error which can cause system tofail.

 Failure - failure is said to be the inability of the system to perform the

desired task. Failure occurs when fault exists in thesystem.

Manual Vs AutomatedTesting
Testing can either be done manually or using an automated testing tool:

 Manual - This testing is performed without taking help of automated

testing tools. The software tester prepares test cases for different sections
and levels of the code, executes the tests and reports the result to the
manager.

Manualtestingistimeandresourceconsuming.Thetesterneedstoconfirm
whether or not right test cases are used. Major portion of testing involves
manualtesting.

 Automated This testing is a testing procedure done with aid ofautomated

testing tools. The limitations with manual testing can be overcome using
automated testtools.

A test needs to check if a webpage can be opened in Internet Explorer. This can
be easily done with manual testing. But to check if the web-server can take the
load of 1 million users, it is quite impossible to test manually.

There are software and hardware tools which helps tester in conducting load
testing, stress testing, regression testing.

Testing Approaches
Tests can be conducted based on two approaches –

1. Functionalitytesting
2. Implementationtesting
When functionality is being tested without taking the actual implementation in
concern it is known as black-box testing. The other side is known as white-box
testingwherenotonlyfunctionalityistestedbutthewayitisimplementedisalso
analyzed.

Exhaustive tests are the best-desired method for a perfect testing. Every single
possible value in the range of the input and output values is tested. It is not

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possibletotesteachandeveryvalueinrealworldscenarioiftherangeofvalues is large.

Black-box testing
It is carried out to test functionality of the program and also called ‘Behavioral’
testing. The tester in this case, has a set of input values and respective desired
results. On providing input, if the output matches with the desired results, the
program is tested ‘ok’, and problematic otherwise.

In this testing method, the design and structure of the code are not known tothe
tester, and testing engineers and end users conduct this test on the software.

Black-box testing techniques:

 Equivalence class - The input is divided into similar classes. If one

elementofaclasspassesthetest,itisassumedthatalltheclassispassed.

 Boundary values - The input is divided into higher and lower end values.
If these values pass the test, it is assumed that all values in between may
pass too.

 Cause-effect graphing - In both previous methods, only one input value

at a time is tested. Cause (input) – Effect (output) is a testing technique
where combinations of input values are tested in a systematicway.

 Pair-wise Testing - The behavior of software depends on multiple

parameters. In pairwise testing, the multiple parameters are tested pair-
wise for their differentvalues.

 State-based testing - The system changes state on provision of input.

These systems are tested based on their states andinput.

White-box testing
It is conducted to test program and its implementation, in order to improve code
efficiency or structure. It is also known as ‘Structural’ testing.

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In this testing method, the design and structure of the code are known to the
tester. Programmers of the code conduct this test on the code.

The below are some White-box testing techniques:

 Control-flow testing - The purpose of the control-flow testing to set up

test cases which covers all statements and branch conditions. The branch
conditions are tested for both being true and false, so that all statements
can becovered.

 Data-flow testing - This testing technique emphasis to cover all the data
variables included in the program. It tests where the variables were
declared and defined and where they were used orchanged.

TestingLevels
Testing itself may be defined at various levels of SDLC. The testing process runs
parallel to software development. Before jumping on the next stage, a stage is
tested, validated and verified.

Testing separately is done just to make sure that there are no hidden bugs or
issues left in the software. Software is tested on various levels -

Unit Testing
While coding, the programmer performs some tests on that unit of program to
know if it is error free. Testing is performed under white-box testing approach.
Unit testing helps developers decide that individual units of the program are
working as per requirement and are error free.

Integration Testing
Even if the units of software are working fine individually, there is a need to find
outiftheunitsifintegratedtogetherwouldalsoworkwithouterrors.Forexample,
argument passing and data updationetc.

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System Testing
The software is compiled as product and then it is tested as a whole. This can be
accomplished using one or more of the following tests:

 Functionalitytesting-Testsallfunctionalitiesofthesoftwareagainstthe
requirement.

 Performance testing - This test proves how efficient the software is. It
teststheeffectivenessandaveragetimetakenbythesoftwaretododesired task.
Performance testing is done by means of load testing and stress testing
where the software is put under high user and data load under various
environmentconditions.

 Security&Portability-Thesetestsaredonewhenthesoftwareismeant to
work on various platforms and accessed by number ofpersons.

Acceptance Testing
Whenthesoftwareisreadytohandovertothecustomerithastogothroughlast phase of
testing where it is tested for user-interaction and response. This is important
because even if the software matches all user requirements and ifuser does not
like the way it appears or works, it may berejected.

 Alpha testing - The team of developer themselves perform alpha testing

by using the system as if it is being used in work environment. They try to
find out how user would react to some action in software and how the
system should respond toinputs.

 Beta testing - After the software is tested internally, it is handed over to

the users to use it under their production environment only for testing
purpose. This is not as yet the delivered product. Developers expect that
users at this stage will bring minute problems, which were skipped to
attend.

Regression Testing
Whenever a software product is updated with new code, feature or functionality,
itistestedthoroughlytodetectifthereisanynegativeimpactoftheaddedcode. This is
known as regressiontesting.

TestingDocumentation
Testing documents are prepared at different stages -

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Before Testing
Testing starts with test cases generation. Following documents are needed for
reference –

 SRS document - Functional Requirementsdocument

 Test Policy document - This describes how far testing should take place
before releasing theproduct.

 Test Strategy document - This mentions detail aspects of test team,

responsibility matrix and rights/responsibility of test manager and test
engineer.

 Traceability Matrix document - This is SDLC document, which is related

to requirement gathering process. As new requirements come, they are
added to this matrix. These matrices help testers know the source of
requirement. They can be traced forward andbackward.

While Being Tested

The following documents may be required while testing is started and is being
done:

 Test Case document - This document contains list of tests required to be

conducted.ItincludesUnittestplan,Integrationtestplan,Systemtestplan and
Acceptance testplan.

 Testdescription-Thisdocumentisadetaileddescriptionofalltestcases and
procedures to executethem.

 Test case report - This document contains test case report as a result of
the test.

 Test logs - This document contains test logs for every test casereport.

After Testing
The following documents may be generated after testing :

 Testsummary-Thistestsummaryiscollectiveanalysisofalltestreports and
logs. It summarizes and concludes if the software is ready to be launched.
The software is released under version control system if it is ready
tolaunch.

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Testingvs.QualityControl&AssuranceandAudit
We need to understand that software testing is different from software quality
assurance, software quality control and software auditing.

 Software quality assurance - These are software development process

monitoring means, by which it is assured that all the measures are taken
as per the standards of organization. This monitoring is done to make sure
that proper software development methods werefollowed.

 Software quality control - This is a system to maintain the quality of

software product. It may include functional and non-functional aspects of
software product, which enhance the goodwill of the organization. This
system makes sure that the customer is receiving quality product for their
requirement and the product certified as ‘fit foruse’.

 Softwareaudit-Thisisareviewofprocedureusedbytheorganizationto
developthesoftware.Ateamofauditors,independentofdevelopmentteam
examinesthesoftwareprocess,procedure,requirementsandotheraspects of
SDLC. The purpose of software audit is to check that software and its
development process, both conform standards, rules andregulations.

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Software Maintenance Overview

12
Software maintenance is widely accepted part of SDLC now a days. It stands for
all the modifications and updations done after the delivery of software product.
There are number of reasons, why modifications are required, some of them are
briefly mentioned below:

 Market Conditions - Policies, which changes over the time, such as

taxation and newly introduced constraints like, how to maintain
bookkeeping, may trigger need formodification.

 ClientRequirements-Overthetime,customermayaskfornewfeatures or
functions in thesoftware.

 Host Modifications - If any of the hardware and/or platform (such as

operatingsystem)ofthetargethostchanges,softwarechangesareneeded to
keepadaptability.

 Organization Changes - If there is any business level change at client

end, such as reduction of organization strength, acquiring another
company, organization venturing into new business, need to modify in the
original software mayarise.

Types ofmaintenance
In a software lifetime, type of maintenance may vary based on its nature. It may
be just a routine maintenance tasks as some bug discovered by some user or it
may be a large event in itself based on maintenance size or nature. Followingare
some types of maintenance based on theircharacteristics:

 CorrectiveMaintenance-Thisincludesmodificationsandupdationsdone in
order to correct or fix problems, which are either discovered by user or
concluded by user errorreports.

 Adaptive Maintenance - This includes modifications and updations

applied to keep the software product up-to date and tuned to the ever
changing world of technology and businessenvironment.

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 Perfective Maintenance - This includes modifications and updates done

in order to keep the software usable over long period of time. It includes
newfeatures,newuserrequirementsforrefiningthesoftwareandimprove its
reliability andperformance.

 Preventive Maintenance - This includes modifications and updations to

preventfutureproblemsofthesoftware.Itaimstoattendproblems,which are
not significant at this moment but may cause serious issues infuture.

Cost ofMaintenance
Reports suggest that the cost of maintenance is high. A study on estimating
software maintenance found that the cost of maintenance is as high as 67% of
the cost of entire software process cycle.

On an average, the cost of software maintenance is more than 50% of all SDLC
phases. There are various factors, which trigger maintenance cost go high, such
as:

Real-world factors affecting Maintenance Cost

 The standard age of any software is considered up to 10 to 15years.

 Older softwares, which were meant to work on slow machines with less
memory and storage capacity cannot keep themselves challenging against
newly coming enhanced softwares on modernhardware.

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 As technology advances, it becomes costly to maintain oldsoftware.

 Most maintenance engineers are newbie and use trial and error method to
rectifyproblem.

 Often, changes made can easily hurt the original structure of the software,
making it hard for any subsequentchanges.

 Changes are often left undocumented which may cause more conflicts in
future.

Software-end factors affecting Maintenance Cost

 Structure of SoftwareProgram

 ProgrammingLanguage

 Dependence on externalenvironment

 Staff reliability andavailability

Maintenance Activities
IEEE provides a framework for sequential maintenance process activities. It can
be used in iterative manner and can be extended so that customized items and
processes can be included.

These activities go hand-in-hand with each of the following phase:

 Identification&Tracing -Itinvolvesactivitiespertainingtoidentification
ofrequirementofmodificationormaintenance.Itisgeneratedbyuseror

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system may itself report via logs or error messages.Here, themaintenance

type is classifiedalso.

 Analysis - The modification is analyzed for its impact on the system

including safety and security implications. If probable impact is severe,
alternative solution is looked for. A set of required modifications is then
materialized into requirement specifications. The cost of
modification/maintenance is analyzed and estimation isconcluded. 

 Design - New modules, which need to be replaced or modified, are

designed against requirement specifications set in the previous stage. Test
cases are created for validation andverification.

 Implementation-Thenewmodulesarecodedwiththehelpofstructured
design created in the design step.Every programmer is expected to dounit
testing in parallel. 

 System Testing - Integration testing is done among newly created

modules. Integration testing is also carried out between new modules and
the system. Finally the system is tested as a whole, following regressive
testingprocedures.

 Acceptance Testing - After testing the system internally, it is tested for

acceptance with the help of users. If at this state, user complaints some
issues they are addressed or noted to address in nextiteration.

 Delivery - After acceptance test, the system is deployed all over the
organization either by small update package or fresh installation of the
system. The final testing takes place at client end after the software is
delivered.

Training facility is provided if required, in addition to the hard copy of user

manual.

 Maintenance management - Configuration management is an essential

partofsystemmaintenance.Itisaidedwithversioncontroltoolstocontrol
versions, semi-version or patchmanagement.

SoftwareRe-engineering
When we need to update the software to keep it to the current market, without
impactingitsfunctionality,itiscalledsoftwarere-engineering.Itisathorough
process where the design of software is changed and programs arere-written.

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Legacy software cannot keep tuning with the latest technology available in the
market. As the hardware become obsolete, updating of software becomes a
headache. Even if software grows old with time, its functionality does not.

For example, initially Unix was developed in assembly language. When language
Ccameintoexistence,Unixwasre-engineeredinC,becauseworkinginassembly
language wasdifficult.

Other than this, sometimes programmers notice that few parts of software need
more maintenance than others and they also need re-engineering.

Re-Engineering Process
 Decide what to re-engineer. Is it whole software or a part ofit?

 Perform Reverse Engineering, in order to obtain specifications of existing

software.

 Restructure Programif required. For example, changing function-

oriented programs into object-orientedprograms.

 Re-structure data asrequired.

 Apply Forward engineering concepts in order to get re-engineered

software.

There are few important terms used in Software re-engineering

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Reverse Engineering
It is a process to achieve system specification by thoroughly analyzing,
understanding the existing system. This process can be seen as reverse SDLC
model, i.e. we try to get higher abstraction level by analyzing lower abstraction
levels.

An existing system is previously implemented design, about which we know

nothing. Designers then do reverse engineering by looking at the code and try to
getthedesign.Withdesigninhand,theytrytoconcludethespecifications.Thus, going
in reverse from code to systemspecification.

Program Restructuring
Itisaprocesstore-structureandre-constructtheexistingsoftware.Itisallabout re-
arranging the source code, either in same programming language or from one
programming language to a different one. Restructuring can have either source
code-restructuring and data-restructuring orboth.

Re-structuring does not impact the functionality of the software but enhance
reliability and maintainability. Program components, which cause errors very
frequently can be changed, or updated with re-structuring.

The dependability of software on obsolete hardware platform can be removed via

re-structuring.

Forward Engineering
Forward engineering is a process of obtaining desired software from the
specificationsinhandwhichwerebroughtdownbymeansofreverseengineering. It
assumes that there was some software engineering already done in thepast.

Forward engineering is same as software engineering process with only one

difference – it is carried out always after reverse engineering.

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Component reusability
A component is a part of software program code, which executes an independent
task in the system. It can be a small module or sub-system itself.

Example
Theloginproceduresusedonthewebcanbeconsideredascomponents,printing system
in software can be seen as a component of thesoftware.

Components have high cohesion of functionality and lower rate of coupling, i.e.
they work independently and can perform tasks without depending on other
modules.

InOOP,theobjectsaredesignedareveryspecifictotheirconcernandhavefewer
chances to be used in some othersoftware.

In modular programming, the modules are coded to perform specific tasks which
can be used across number of other software programs.

There is a whole new vertical, which is based on re-use of software component,

and is known as Component Based Software Engineering (CBSE).

Re-use can be done at various levels

 Application level - Where an entire application is used as sub-system of

newsoftware.

 Component level - Where sub-system of an application isused.

 Modules level - Where functional modules arere-used.

Software components provide interfaces, which can be used to establish

communication among different components.

Reuse Process
Two kinds of method that can be adopted: either by keeping requirements same
and adjusting components or by keeping components same and modifying
requirements.

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 Requirement Specification - The functional and non-functional

requirements are specified, which a software product must comply to,with
the help of existing system, user input orboth.

 Design - This is also a standard SDLC process step, where requirements

are defined in terms of software parlance. Basic architecture of system as
a whole and its sub-systems arecreated.

 Specify Components - By studying the software design, the designers

segregate the entire system into smaller components or sub-systems. One
complete software design turns into a collection of a huge set of
components workingtogether.

 Search Suitable Components - The software component repository is

referred by designers to search for the matching component, on the basis
of functionality and intended softwarerequirements..

 IncorporateComponents-Allmatchedcomponentsarepackedtogether to
shape them as completesoftware.

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Software CASE Tools Overview

13
CASE stands for Computer Aided Software Engineering. It means, development
and maintenance of software projects with help of various automated software
tools.

CASETools
CASE tools are set of software application programs, which are used to automate
SDLC activities. CASE tools are used by software project managers, analysts and
engineers to develop software system.

There are number of CASE tools available to simplify various stages of Software
DevelopmentLifeCyclesuchasAnalysistools,Designtools,Projectmanagement tools,
Database Management tools, Documentation tools are to name afew.

UseofCASEtoolsacceleratesthedevelopmentofprojecttoproducedesiredresult and
helps to uncover flaws before moving ahead with next stage in software
development.

Components of CASETools
CASE tools can be broadly divided into the following parts based on their use ata
particular SDLC stage:

 Central Repository - CASE tools require a central repository, which can

serve as a source of common, integrated and consistent information.
Centralrepositoryisacentralplaceofstoragewhereproductspecifications,
requirement documents, related reports and diagrams, other useful
informationregardingmanagementisstored.Centralrepositoryalsoserves as
datadictionary.

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 Upper Case Tools - Upper CASE tools are used in planning, analysis and
design stages ofSDLC.

 LowerCaseTools-LowerCASEtoolsareusedinimplementation,testing
andmaintenance.

 IntegratedCaseTools-IntegratedCASEtoolsarehelpfulinallthestages of
SDLC, from Requirement gathering to Testing anddocumentation. 

CASE tools can be grouped together if they have similar functionality, process
activities and capability of getting integrated with other tools.

Scope of CaseTools
The scope of CASE tools goes throughout the SDLC. Now we briefly go through
various CASE tools

Diagram tools
These tools are used to represent system components, data and control flow
among various software components and system structure in a graphical form.
For example, Flow Chart Maker tool for creating state-of-the-art flowcharts.

Process Modeling Tools

Process modeling is method to create software process model, which is used to
develop the software. Process modeling tools help the managers to choose a
process model or modify it as per the requirement of software product. For
example, EPF Composer

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Project Management Tools

These tools are used for project planning, cost and effort estimation, project
scheduling and resource planning. Managers have to strictly comply project
execution with every mentioned step in software project management. Project
management tools help in storing and sharing project information in real-time
throughout the organization. For example, Creative Pro Office, Trac Project,
Basecamp.

Documentation Tools
Documentation in a software project starts prior to the software process, goes
throughout all phases of SDLC and after the completion of the project.

Documentation tools generate documents for technical users and end users.
Technical users are mostly in-house professionals of the development team who
refer to system manual, reference manual, training manual, installation manuals
etc. The end user documents describe the functioning and how-to of the system
such as user manual. For example, Doxygen, DrExplain, Adobe RoboHelp for
documentation.

Analysis Tools
These tools help to gather requirements, automatically check for any
inconsistency, inaccuracy in the diagrams, data redundancies or erroneous
omissions. For example, Accept 360, Accompa, CaseComplete for requirement
analysis, Visible Analyst for total analysis.

Design Tools
These tools help software designers to design the block structure of thesoftware,
which may further be broken down in smaller modules using refinement
techniques. These tools provides detailing of each module and interconnections
among modules. For example, Animated Software Design.

Configuration Management Tools

An instance of software is released under one version. Configuration Management
tools deal with –

 Version and revisionmanagement

 Baseline configurationmanagement
 Change controlmanagement
CASE tools help in this by automatic tracking, version management and release
management. For example, Fossil, Git, Accu REV.

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Change Control Tools

Thesetoolsareconsideredasapartofconfigurationmanagementtools.Theydeal
withchangesmadetothesoftwareafteritsbaselineisfixedorwhenthesoftware is first
released. CASE tools automate change tracking, file management, code
management and more. It also helps in enforcing change policy of the
organization.

Programming Tools
These tools consist of programming environments like IDE (Integrated
Development Environment), in-built modules library and simulation tools. These
toolsprovidecomprehensiveaidinbuildingsoftwareproductandincludefeatures for
simulation and testing. For example, Cscope to search code in C,Eclipse.

Prototyping Tools
Software prototype is simulated version of the intended software product.
Prototypeprovidesinitiallookandfeeloftheproductandsimulatesfewaspectof
actualproduct.

Prototyping CASE tools essentially come with graphical libraries. They can create
hardware independent user interfaces and design. These tools help us to build
rapid prototypes based on existing information. In addition, they provide
simulation of software prototype. For example, Serena prototype composer,
Mockup Builder.

Web Development Tools

Thesetoolsassistindesigningwebpageswithallalliedelementslikeforms,text, script,
graphic and so on. Web tools also provide live preview of what is being
developed and how will it look after completion. For example, Fontello, Adobe
Edge Inspect, Foundation 3,Brackets.

Quality Assurance Tools

Qualityassuranceinasoftwareorganizationismonitoringtheengineeringprocess and
methods adopted to develop the software product in order to ensure
conformance of quality as per organization standards. QA tools consist of
configuration and change control tools and software testing tools. For example,
SoapTest, AppsWatch,JMeter.

Maintenance Tools
Software maintenance includes modifications in the software product after it is
delivered.Automaticlogginganderrorreportingtechniques,automaticerror

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ticketgenerationandrootcauseAnalysisarefewCASEtools,whichhelpsoftware
organization in maintenance phase of SDLC. For example, Bugzilla for defect
tracking, HP QualityCenter.

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