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Chemical Department

gas engineering

DRILLING AND PRODUCTION

Asmaa Mohamed saber 60-2020

Manal Mohamed Fathi 287-2020

Sara El Sayed El Haregy 138-2020

Amira Mohamed Ezzat 80-2020

Mariam Khaled Nafea 280-2020

presented to:

Dr.Riham Atef Abdel Mola

DECEMBER 18, 2023


Table of Contents
1-Introduction:............................................................................................................................................3
1-1 THE PRINCIPLE OF ROTARY DRILLING.................................................................................................3
1.2 THE PRINCIPLE OF ROTARY DRILLING.................................................................................................5
1.2.1 THE MAJOR OPERATIONS............................................................................................................7
1.2.2 Adding drill pipe..........................................................................................................................8
1.2.3 The round trip.............................................................................................................................9
1.2.4 Casing.......................................................................................................................................10
1.2.5 Installing the wellhead..............................................................................................................10
1.2.6 Completion...............................................................................................................................11
2-DRILLING BITS AND THE PARAMETERS...................................................................................................11
2.1 DOWNHOLEEQUIPMENT.................................................................................................................12
2.1.1 Bearing design..........................................................................................................................13
2.1.2 Lubricating system....................................................................................................................13
2.1.3 Cutters......................................................................................................................................14
3.1 Diamond bits...................................................................................................................................16
3.1.1 Natural diamond bits (Fig. 15)..................................................................................................16
3. 2 PDC bits (Fig17)...............................................................................................................................18
3.1.1 Parameters for using drilling bits..............................................................................................20
4-Oil and gas production:..........................................................................................................................21
4.2.1Shallow water complex,.............................................................................................................22
4.2.2Gravity base...................................................................................................................................23
4.2.3 Compliant towers......................................................................................................................23
4.2.4 Floating production...................................................................................................................23
4.2.5 Tension Leg Platform (TLP –......................................................................................................25
4.2.6. Semi-submersible platforms....................................................................................................25
4.2.7. Subsea production systems......................................................................................................26
5-Drilling bits:............................................................................................................................................27
6-Classification of ticks:.............................................................................................................................27

Page | 1
Table of figures:
Figure 1Cable-tool drilling (Source: “Le pitrole: prospection et...................................................................3
Figure 2Rotary drilling rig (Source: “Lepitrole: prospection et production”,................................................4
Figure 3simplest cross section of a borehole...............................................................................................6
Figure 4 driller control console....................................................................................................................7
Figure 5 adding drill pipe.............................................................................................................................8
Figure 6 round trip.......................................................................................................................................9
Figure 7drilling mast stacked drill string....................................................................................................10
Figure 8 design of rock bit cones...............................................................................................................11
Figure 9 three cone bit terminology..........................................................................................................12
Figure 10 bearing lubrication system.........................................................................................................14
Figure 11 Elongated nozzle........................................................................................................................16
Figure 12 examples of carbide insert shaps...............................................................................................15
Figure 13 slanted nozzle............................................................................................................................15
Figure 14 cutters for one-piece bits...........................................................................................................15
Figure 15 Natural diamond........................................................................................................................16
Figure 16 Naturl diamond bit terminology................................................................................................16
Figure 17 examples of PDC bits..................................................................................................................18
Figure 18 Tsp bits.......................................................................................................................................19
Figure 19....................................................................................................................................................20
Figure 20....................................................................................................................................................21
Figure 21....................................................................................................................................................22
Figure 22....................................................................................................................................................23
Figure 23....................................................................................................................................................23
Figure 24...................................................................................................................................................24
Figure 25....................................................................................................................................................24
Figure 26....................................................................................................................................................26
Figure 27 hole opener bite........................................................................................................................27
Figure 28 core bites...................................................................................................................................27
Figure 29 rock bite.....................................................................................................................................27
Figure 30....................................................................................................................................................29
Figure 31 oil and gas production overview................................................................................................30

Page | 2
1-Introduction:
1-1 THE PRINCIPLE OF ROTARY DRILLING
The rotary method uses tricone-type toothed bits or one-piece bits such as diamond or

PDC bits. While the bit is being rotated, a force is applied to it by a weight. The advantage

is that a fluid can be pumped continuously through the bit, which is crushing the rock

formation, and carry cuttings up out of the hole to the surface with the rising fluid flow.

Figure 1Cable-tool drilling (Source: “Le pitrole: prospection et

production ”, Esso Standard SAF, Training Department).

Page | 3
Figure 2Rotary drilling rig (Source: “Lepitrole: prospection et production”,

Esso Standard SAF, Training Department).

Page | 4
In 1859, oil came spurting out of the ground for the first time from a well 69.5 feet deep

in Titusville, Pennsylvania. Colonel Drake had just gone down in oil prospecting history.

But although this event initiated industrial oil well drilling, a large number of wells had.

been drilled long before to produce water, brine and even naphtha for caulking boats, and

for lighting and medicinal purposes.

All boreholes in the olden days, including Drake’s, were drilled using the cable system.

A massive bit with an edge similar to a sculptor’s chisel was attached to the end of a

heavy rod (drill collar), which in turn hung from a walking beam. It was dropped free fall

onto the rock which it pounded into slivers. The walking beam was actuated by man or

animal power long ago, then equipped with a steam engine in the 19th century. But

whatever the means of driving the system, the bottom of the hole still had to be cleared of

cuttings periodically. The borehole was filled with water and the mud made from the water

mixed with broken bits of rock was bailed out with a cylindrical tool. The tool had a valvelike end that
was run in open and pulled out closed by means of the drawworks. The

deepest well drilled using this method reached 2250 m in 1918. The cable system is still

sometimes used today for shallow water wells.

It was at the beginning of the 20th century that Antony Lucas showed the whole world.

how effective rotary drilling was with the discovery of Spindletop field (Texas). He

combined the use of a rotating bit and continuous mud injection. Since then, rotary drilling

has been used worldwide and upgraded by technical developments.

1.2 THE PRINCIPLE OF ROTARY DRILLING


The rotary method uses tricone-type toothed bits or one-piece bits such as diamond or

PDC bits. While the bit is being rotated, a force is applied to it by a weight. The advantage

Page | 5
is that a fluid can be pumped continuously through the bit, which is crushing the rock

formation, and carry cuttings up out of the hole to the surface with the rising fluid flow. 1

It is the drill collars, screwed onto the bottom of the drill pipe assembly just above the bit,

that provide the necessary weight. Drill collars, along with drill pipe and bit all make up the

drill string, which is rotated by the rotary table and the Kelly. The drill string.

component parts are hollow down the middle so that the drilling fluid can be circulated

down to the bit. A fluid-tight rotary joint, the swivel, is located at the top of the Kelly and

provides a connection between the mud pump discharge line and the inside of the drill.

string. A hoisting system is required to support the weight of the drill string, lower it into

the hole and pull it out. This is the function of the


derrick, the hook and the draw works. The drilling rig
is

complete with facilities to treat the drilling fluid

when it gets back to the surface, a storage area for


tubular goods, she lters and offices on the site.

In addition, when a well is being drilled it is regularly


cased. It is lined with steel pipe, or casing,

which is lowered into the hole under its own weight


in smaller and smaller diameters as the hole gets

deeper. The first length of pipe is run in as soon as


the bit has drilled the surface formation and is then

1
Chapter 1 p.1

Page | 6

Figure 3simplest cross section of a borehole


cemented in the hole. A casing housing is connected to the top of the surface casing. All the
following lengths of pipe are hung on the casing housing and

cemented at their base to the walls of the hole (Fig.3). After the first drilling phase is cased,
drilling will be resumed with a bit with a diameter smaller than the inside diameter of the casing
string that was run in and cemented. The deeper the borehole gets and the more casings are set
in the well, the smaller the diameter of the bit must be. The casing housing also serves to hold
the safety equipment, such as blowout preventers.2

1.2.1 THE MAJOR OPERATIONS


Drilling (Fig.4)

Though drilling is the basic operation, it is the one that requires the
fewest number of people. The

The driller operates the draw works alone. The rotary table rotates and
drives the drilling bit by means of

the drill string and the Kelly. The main control device is the brake lever. Figure 4 driller control console

The driller controls and

regulates the downward movement of the hook by putting on the brake. According to the
principle of rotary drilling, bits are used at constant weight. The weight of everything that is
suspended from.

the hook is constant, and the driller knows this information by reading the weight on the hook
when the

bit is off bottom (Fig. 1.6). The weight applied on the bit is the difference between the weight
on the hook off bottom and on bottom. This is the difference that the driller reads on the weight
indicator (commonly called Martin Decker). He must keep it constant by lowering the Kelly at
the same speed as

2
Chapter 1 p.6

Page | 7
the rate of penetration of the bit. The other two parameters, rotation and mud flow rate, are
generally preset. The driller checks and adjusts the values depending on the program and
mainly sees to it that the pump discharge pressure complies with the program and stays that
way.3

1.2.2 Adding drill pipe.


When the bit has drilled the equivalent of a length of pipe (30 ft.), the drill string must

be lengthened by screwing a new joint of drill pipe onto the bottom of the Kelly. The

sequence is illustrated in Figure 5

During drilling, the crew places a joint of pipe in a


sheath, called the mousehole,

located near the rotary table.

The driller engages the drawworks to hoist the drill


string to the first length of

drill pipe under the Kelly. The crew puts the slips in place
and the Kelly can be

unscrewed since the drill string is supported by the


rotary table. Mud circulation has

of course, been stopped. the crew screws the Kelly to


the box end of the Figure 5 adding drill pipe.

length of drill pipe in the mousehole. Pipe is screwed and made up in the mousehole.

. The driller hoists the Kelly and drill pipe with the drawworks (Fig.5). Once the

new joint of pipe has been screwed and made up on the drill string, the driller

resumes drilling fluid circulation.

The crew places the Kelly bushing back in the rotary table and drilling can be
3
Chapter 1 p.5

Page | 8
resumed.

1.2.3 The round trip


When the bit is worn or when total borehole depth has been reached, all of the drill

string must be pulled out of the hole to change bits or run in casing pipe.

The first step is to disconnect the swivel from the hook and place the Kelly and the

swivel -which is still connected to the mud pumps by the hose- in a sheath called the

rathole (Fig.6).

The crew latches the elevator under the tool joint of


the first length of drill pipe and the

driller hoists the drill string to a height of three joints


Figure 6 round trip
of pipe with the draw works.

The fourth length of pipe is clamped in the rotary


table by the slips and the connection

is unscrewed with the tongs (Fig6). A stand of three lengths of pipe is then hanging.

from the elevator. The crew pushes the lower end of the stand so that it rests on the

setback. Then the deckman, who stands on the monkey board, unlatches the elevator,

holds the stand and places the upper end of the stand in the pipe rack (Figs7).

The operation continues down to the drill collars, that are also stacked vertically in

threes.

The stand length depends on how high the derrick is. The largest rigs handle stands in

threes, lightweight rigs in twos and the smallest ones can manage only singles. The running

Page | 9
in, or tripping in, operation is carried out in the same
way.

During a round trip both rotation and circulation are


at a standstill. If either is needed,

the Kelly is taken out of the rathole and screwed back


onto the drill string.

1.2.4 Casing
Once the borehole has been drilled to the depth
planned for the current phase, the

casing pipe is run into the well. The operation is


hazardous because of the narrow clearance
Figure 7drilling mast stacked drill string.
between the casing and the borehole, and since it is
almost impossible to rotate the casing

string. Casing pipe is run in singly joint by joint. Once it is run in, normal circulation (i.e.

down the inside of the pipe) is used to pump cement into the annulus between the casing

and the borehole wall.

1.2.5 Installing the wellhead.


When casing has been run into the well and cemented, a variety of hanging and sealing

equipment must be installed on top of the well.

The operations are done manually when wellheads are above ground or above the

surface of the sea offshore.

Wellhead equipment also accommodates the blowout preventers (BOP) that have a

high-pressure system called kill line and choke line.

A series of pressure tests on the casing, hangers and BOP finalizes the installation. If

Page | 10
everything complies with safety requirements, the following drilling phase can then

commence.

1.2.6 Completion
This is the final operation just after running in the last casing string (production casing).

The production equipment is run into the well: packer, tubing, safety valve, etc. The

connection between the producing formation and the well must often be enhanced by

drilling, perforations, acidizing, fracturing, etc.

Though these operations are often performed by drillers, the techniques involved come.

under the heading of downhole production which is dealt with in another book.

The purpose of the following chapters is to describe as completely as possible the

materials, equipment and operating techniques that are involved during drilling. This book

aims to serve as an introduction to an operation that is more complex than it seems. The

goal is to help the reader who is not a driller, but


whose activity is related to drilling,

understand the basics [6-11]. (Nguyen, 1996).

2-DRILLING BITS AND THE Figure 8 design of rock bit cones

PARAMETERS
FOR THEIR USE

3.1.1 Roller cone bits (Based on Airfield Catalog, Hughes Tool Division, Hughes

Tool Company) (Fig.8)

A roller cone bit is made up of three main parts: the cones, the bearings and the body of

the bit. Each cone has concentric rows of teeth that interfaith with the rows of teeth in the

adjacent cones. The teeth can be made of steel machined in the cone or tungsten carbide.

Page | 11
inserts cold-pressed into holes drilled in the cone. The cones are mounted on bearing shafts.

that are an integral part of the body of the bit. The size and thickness of the component parts of
the bit depend on the type of formation to be drilled. Bits for soft formations require little
weight, have smaller bearings, less thick cone shells and thinner legs. This design leaves more
room for long thin cutters. Bits for hard formations work with more weight, have stubbier
cutters, bigger bearings and sturdier bodies.

Figure 9 three cone bit terminology

2.1 DOWNHOLEEQUIPMENT
This effect is enhanced to improve the rate of penetration in soft formations by offsetting

the axes of the cones in relation to the axis of rotation of the bit (Fig.9). Cones on bits

Page | 12
for hard formations move in what is closer to real rotation, with little offset. As a result,

they break down the rock formation chiefly by crushing it.

2.1.1 Bearing design


There are currently three types of bearings:

no sealed ball or roller bearings,

0 sealed ball or roller bearings,

friction bearings.

No sealed, nonlubricated ball or roller bearings are mainly used today in


bits for spudding in a well, when the lifetime of the bit is less of a
constraint since hipping times are short. They are also advisable in Figure 10 ball and roller bearing

instances where high rotational speeds are required (Fig. 10). When the
drilling fluid is either air, gas or foam, no sealed ball and roller bearings are also used. However,
these bits are designed so that part of the drilling fluid is channeled to cool the bearings.

The sealed ball or roller bearing was designed for insert bits. The system is currently used chiefly
on toothed bits and its lifetime is at least the same as that of the cutters. The friction, or journal
bearing was developed so that its lifetime would match that of the carbide cutters. It contains
no moving parts, there is just a bearing shaft fitted to the inside bore of the cone. The contact
areas between the shaft of the bearing and the bore of the cone are carbide treated. They are
coated with special metals and specially treated to better withstand wear and tear and keep
from seizing up.

2.1.2 Lubricating system


Sealed-bearing bits have their lubricating system in each arm. The system comprises a

grease reservoir, a rubber membrane compensator and a leak-proof channel. The

compensator equalizes the pressure in the bearing between the pressure of the drilling fluid

and the pressure of the grease encapsulated by the manufacturer.

Page | 13
2.1.3 Cutters
Bits with steel teeth are used when spudding in a well, in soft formations, at high rotational
speeds and in zones where the bed thickness makes insert bits antieconomical. Depending on
anticipated use, cones with milled teeth may have tungsten carbide protection on the teeth.
Bits for soft formations are designed with long, widely spaced teeth to help penetrate in the
formation and tear off larger cuttings. Bits for medium and medium-hard formations have more
closely spaced teeth. Each tooth also has slightly larger angles to withstand the load required to
overcome the resistance of the formation. Hard formations have high compressive strength
and are usually very abrasive. Bits designed to drill these formations are equipped with sturdy,
closely spaced teeth and thick cone shells so as to withstand heavy weights.

These bits are designed without a skidding effect. The three cones rotate practically on the

Figure 11 bearing lubrication system

bottom, thereby reducing abrasive wear on the teeth. The tungsten carbide insert

bit was originally designed to drill very hard, abrasive silica or quartzite formations.

Due to the relatively short lifetime of toothed bits, this type of formation proved to be very

expensive to drill. Today, because of the progress in metallurgy and in the shape of the

inserts, bits have been developed that are suitable for drilling economically in a much

wider drill ability range.

Cylindrical sintered tungsten carbide inserts are machined into a number of very

Page | 14
different shapes (Fig. 3.5). Then they are set in holes precision-
machined in the cones. This
assembly gives a cutting structure that withstands abrasion
wear and compression stresses well.
The ovoid shape is the sturdiest and is designed for the
crushing and chipping action
required in drilling very hard formations. Ogive inserts are a Figure 12 Elongated nozzle
little more pointed to drill
slightly softer formations. The cone also has a sturdy profile that is well suited to the
crushing and chipping type of drilling action. It is used with a scraping action
to drill
medium-hard formations.
The chisel shape is used in medium and softer formations for maximum
penetration
owing to a gouging and scraping action. Specific chisel shapes are chosen Figure 13 slanted nozzle
according to the
formation and the geometrical features of the bit.

3- Bit hydraulics
What is termed a "conventional" rock bit has a single drilling fluid passage down the
axis of the bit. The fluid washes the bit from the inside of the cones, but is less effective.
than in jet bit nozzles. The conventional bit is usually seen now only in
large-diameter
Wells. The jet bit has three nozzles, each located between the arms of
two adjacent cones
(Figs13). The orifice sizes on the nozzles can be changed for maximum.
effectiveness. Turbulent flow is effective for velocities ranging from 80
to 150 ds. The
purpose of fluid streams is to keep the cones clean, cool down the
bearings and especially. Figure 14 examples of carbide insert
shaps
to sweep formation cuttings toward the annulus. On some bits, elongated nozzles
(Fig 12).

Page | 15
improve cleaning efficiency.

3.1 Diamond bits


There are three types of diamond bits:

with natural diamonds (Fig.14),

with PDC or polycrystalline diamond cutters, with TSP or thermally stable


polycrystalline diamond cutters. These three types differ in the nature of
the cutting elements which crush the rock in a mechanically different way.
Natural diamonds abrade the rock and work like a large grindstone.
Figure 15 Figure 15 Natural
Polycrystalline diamonds shear the rock and cut shavings like a metal lathe. diamond

tool. All these drilling bits are one-piece, and this makes them quite sturdy.

3.1.1 Natural diamond bits (Fig. 15)


Diamond (crystallized carbon) is the hardest known mineral. Its
compressive strength

is approximately 80,000 bar (tungsten carbide: 50,000; C.45 steel:


15,000). Its melting Figure 16 Natural diamond bit
terminology
point is very high (3650"C), but it turns into graphite on the surface around 1450°C.

Diamonds are measured by weight in units called carats (1 carat = 0.2 gram). For drilling

bits, the size of the stones is measured in the number of stones per carat and usually varies.

from 2 to 12.

The size, type and number of diamonds on a given bit depend on the planned rate of

penetration, the size of cuttings and the homogeneity of the formation. When hard

formations are drilled at a slow penetration rate; the cuttings are very small and more easily.

swept out of the hole than at fast penetration rates. Small diamonds can be used to get

maximum contact on the working face without hindering cuttings removal. On the other

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hand, softer formations need less load on the working face. Larger diamonds are used to

tear out a larger chunk of rock and leave more mom for the cuttings to pass. Though there

are general rules for selecting the size of diamonds, the experience gained with previous

bits are the best guide.

The bits are still manufactured by hand. The process begins with machining a graphite

mold (Fig.16). Inside the mold the rows and locations for each diamond are drawn along

with the design of the drilling fluid passages. Each diamond location is drilled out with a

small mill. The water courses or waterways for the drilling fluid are built in relief in the

mold with a special putty. The diamonds are then set one by one in each small hole where

they are fixed in place. The mold is filled with tungsten carbide powder with an added

binder whose formulation is each manufacturer's secret. The melting point of the binder is

situated between 400 and 1400°C depending on its formulation and varies according to the
hardness required in the final matrix. After a steel core has been placed in the mold the whole
thing is put into a furnace. The temperature must not exceed the beginning of diamond
graphitization. Then the thread is machined.

The three basic bit profiles-round, tapered, short or long-fit most applications.

There are an almost unlimited number of variations within these categories. The shape that is
best suited to a specific case is a practical trade-off between the maximum rotating life of the
bit and the maximum rate of penetration. The round nose gives more force in hard
formations,while the elongated nose shape promotes faster cutting. Diamond compound bits
are commonly used in mining and are fairly specific in that The diamonds are not set in the
matrix. The diamond compound is made up of tiny diamonds and a metallic binder. The
diamonds are distributed throughout the mass in a layer 5 to 10 mm thick. When the bit is in
operation, worn diamonds come unstuck and further layers of diamonds are exposed.

Page | 17
3.1.2.Use of diamond bits
As for any bit, the decision to drill
with a diamond bit must be based
on a cost analysis.

1. When the lifetime of roller bits is


very short because of wear and
tear on bearings or

2. When the rate of penetration is


very slow (1.5 m/h or less),
because mud density is3. With a
six-inch diameter or less, when the
lifetime of roller bits is short.

4. When the hole angle is increased in a directional well.

5. When the weight on the bit is limited.

6. In turbodrilling, where high rotational speed promotes penetration of a diamond bit.

Figure
The use of a diamond bit is limited in certain 17 examples
very of PDC bits
hard fractured formations where the

diamonds can be exposed to sharp impacts. Formations containing flint or pyrite shorten

the lifetime of the diamond bit when pieces come loose and roll under the bit, damaging

the diamonds.

Certain drilling situations suggest that a diamond bit can be used economically:

teeth, or because teeth have been broken.

high, or because the rig has inadequate hydraulic power.

Page | 18
3. 2 PDC bits (Fig17)
Bits with polycrystalline diamond blanks or compacts have either a steel body or a

matrix. Steel bodies are machined and then covered with tungsten carbide to slow down

erosion. Matrix bodies are manufactured from the same tungsten carbide material as

natural diamond bits.

It was General Electric that developed the synthesis process for the diamond compacts

(Strata Pax) made of a synthetic diamond deposit a few tenths of a millimeter thick on a

tungsten carbide stud. The compacts are then set in the surface of the bit so as to provide

maximum shear to each cutter. The major drawback of the PDC is that it cannot withs and

temperatures above 800°C. This means synthetic diamonds cannot be set in a carbide

matrix in the same way as natural diamonds. They must be set in the matrix by brazing in

molded holes. In bits with steel bodies, PDC compacts are also brazed on cylindrical studs

that will then be set in drilled holes.

The development of these products has constantly


widened the applications for PDC

bits and the suitable formation hardness range is


located between medium-hard and soft.

Limitations that can be cited are strength in abrasive


formations and hydraulic

effectiveness in keeping the PDC compacts clean.

3.3 TSP bit (Fig18)


The latest development in diamond bits is the use of thermally stable polycrystalline.

Figure 18 Tsp bits


Page | 19
diamonds. In contrast with PDC, TSP diamonds have undergone treatment to eliminate.

incompatible elements from the standpoint of thermal dilation and can therefore withstand.

the temperatures required to manufacture a carbide matrix. Their triangular shape has sharp

edges for shearing the rock. TSP diamonds are often used in conjunction with natural

diamonds.

3. 4 IADC classification

Classification is based on four characters and is therefore consistent with the

classification of rock bits. Since the code of bit condition uses the same bit wear

designation for three-cone rock bits and bits with nonmoving cutter elements, daily reports,

bit wear reports and data bases are filled out in the same way.

The first character @, M, S, T, 0) defines the type of cutting element: diamond, PDC

and sintered body, PDC and steel body, TSP, others.

The second character (a number from 1 to 9) defines the type and general shape of
the

profile.
Figure 19
The third character involves hydraulics in general.

The fourth character (a number from 0 to 9) defines the size of cutting elements and

their density on the bit.

3.1.1 Parameters for using drilling bits


What is termed drilling parameters are a number of factors that condition how fast the

They are classified into two categories:

0 mechanical parameters which involve the type and shape of the bit, the weight on the

0 hydraulic parameters, i.e. flow rate, pressure, type of drilling fluid and its

Page | 20
well is deepened.

bit and the rotation speed,

characteristics (density, viscosity, filtrate).

4-Oil and gas production:


4.1 Onshore

Onshore production is economically

viable from a few dozen barrels of oil

a day and upward. Oil and gas is

produced from several million wells

worldwide. In particular, a gas

gathering network can become very

large, with production from thousands

of wells, several hundred

kilometers/miles apart, feeding


Figure 20
through a gathering network into a

processing plant. This picture shows a

well, equipped with a sucker rod pump (donkey pump) often associated with onshore oil
production. However, as we shall see later, there are many other ways of extracting oil from a
non

free flowing well. For the smallest reservoirs, oil is simply collected in a holding tank and picked
up at regular intervals by tanker truck or railcar to be processed at a refinery.

Onshore wells in oil-rich areas are also high-capacity wells producing thousands of barrels per
day, connected to a 1,000,000 barrel or more per day GOSP. Product is sent from the plant by

Page | 21
pipeline or tankers. The production may come from many different license owners, so metering
of individual well-streams into the gathering network are important tasks. Unconventional plays
target very heavy crude and tar sands that became economically extractable with higher prices
and new technology. Heavy crude may need heating and diluents to be extracted. Tar sands
have lost their volatile compounds and are strip-mined or
can be extracted with steam. It must be further processed
to separate bitumen from the sand. Since about 2007,
drilling technology and fracturing of the reservoir have
allowed shale gas and liquids to be produced in increasing
volumes. This allows the US in particular to reduce
dependence on hydrocarbon imports. Canada, China,
Argentina, Russia, Mexico, and Australia also rank among
the top unconventional plays. These unconventional
reserves may contain more 2-3 times the hydrocarbons
found in conventional reservoirs. These pictures show the
Syncrude Mildred plant at Athabasca, Canada Photo: GDFL
Figure 21
Jamitzky/Wikimedia and the Marcellus Shale in Pennsylvania. Photo: GDFL Ruhr Fisch
/Wikimedia.

4.2. Offshore

A whole range of different structures is used offshore, depending on size and water depth. In
the last few years, we have seen pure sea bottom installations with multiphase piping to shore,
and no offshore topside structure at all. Replacing outlying wellhead towers, deviation drilling is
used

to reach different parts of the reservoir from a few wellhead cluster locations. Some of the
common offshore structures are:

4.2.1Shallow water complex, which is characterized by several independent platforms with

different parts of the process and utilities linked with gangway bridges. Individual platforms

Page | 22
include wellhead riser, processing, accommodations and
power generation platforms.

(This picture shows the BP Val Hall complex.) Typically


found in water depths up to 100 meters.

4.2.2Gravity base consists of enormous.

concrete fixed structures placed on the bottom, typically


with oil storage cells in a "skirt" that rests on the sea
bottom. The large deck receives all parts of the

process and utilities in large modules. Large fields at 100 to


500 meters of

Water depth were typical in the 1980s and 1990s. The concrete was poured at an onshore
location, with enough air in the storage cells to keep theFigure 22
structure floating until tow-out and lowering onto the
seabed. The picture shows the world's largest GBS platform,
Troll A, during construction. Photo Statoil

4.2.3 Compliant towers are much like fixed platforms. They


consist of a narrow tower, attached to a foundation on the

seafloor and extending up to the platform. This tower is


flexible, as

opposed to the relatively rigid legs of a fixed platform. Flexibility allows it to operate in much
deeper water, as it can

absorb much of the pressure exerted by the wind and sea.


Figure 23
Compliant towers

are used between 500 and 1,000 meters of water depth.

4.2.4 Floating production, where all topside systems are located on a floating

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structure with dry or subsea wells. Some floaters are:

FPSO: Floating Production,

Storage and Offloading. Their main advantage is that they


are a standalone structure that does not

need external infrastructure such as pipelines or storage.


Crude oil is offloaded to a shuttle tanker at

regular intervals, from days to weeks, depending on


production and storage capacity. FPSOs currently produce from around 10,000 to 200,000
barrels per day. An FPSO is typically a tanker type hull or barge, often converted from an existing
crude oil tanker (VLCC or ULCC). Due to the increasing Figure 24

sea depth for new fields, they dominate new offshore


field development at more than 100 meters water
depth. The wellheads or subsea risers from the sea
bottom are located on a central or bow-mounted
turret, so that the ship can rotate freely to point into
wind, waves or current. The turret has wire rope and
Figure 10
chain connections to several anchors (position
mooring - POSMOOR), or it can be dynamically
positioned using thrusters (dynamic positioning –
DYNPOS). Most installations use subsea wells. The
main process is placed on the deck, while the hull is
used for storage and offloading to a shuttle tanker. It
may also be used for the transportation of pipelines.
FPSOs with additional processing and systems, such as
drilling, and production and stranded gas LNG
production are planned. A variation of the FPSO is the Sevan Marine design. This uses a circular
hull which shows the same profile to wind, waves and current, regardless of direction. It shares
many of the characteristics of the ship shaped FPSO,
Figure 25

Page | 24
such as high storage capacity and deck load, but does not rotate and therefore does not need a
rotating turret. Photo: Sevan Marine.

4.2.5 Tension Leg Platform (TLP –


left side in picture) consists of a structure held in place by

vertical tendons connected to the sea floor by pile secured.

templates. The structure is held in a fixed position by

tensioned tendons, which provide for use of the TLP in a

broad water depth range up to about 2,000m. The tendons

are constructed as hollow high tensile strength steel pipes that carry the spare buoyancy of the
structure and ensure

limited vertical motion.

4.2.6. Semi-submersible platforms


(front of picture) have a similar design but without taut

mooring. This permits more lateral and vertical motion and

is generally used with flexible risers and subsea wells.

Similarly, Sea star platforms are miniature floating tension leg

platforms, much like the semi- submersible type, with tensioned tendons. SPAR consists of a single tall
floating cylindrical hull, supporting a fixed deck. The cylinder does not, however, extend all the way to
the seabed. Rather, it is tethered to

the bottom by a series of cables and lines. The large cylinder serves to stabilize the platform in the water
and allows for movement to absorb the force of potential hurricanes. SPARs can be quite large and are
used for water depths from 300 up to 3,000 meters. SPAR is not an acronym, and is named for its
resemblance to a ship's spar. SPARs can support dry completion wells but are more often used with
subsea wells.

Page | 25
4.2.7. Subsea production systems are wells located on the sea floor, as opposed to the surface.
As in a floating production system, the petroleum is extracted at the seabed, and is then “tied-
back” to a pre-existing production platform or even an onshore facility, limited by horizontal
distance or "offset.” The well is

drilled by a movable rig and the extracted oil and natural gas is transported by undersea
pipeline and riser to a processing facility. This allows one strategically placed production

Figure 26
platform to service many wells over a reasonably large area. Subsea systems are typically used
at depths of 500 meters or more and do not have the ability to drill, only to extract and
transport. Drilling and completion is performed from a surface rig. Horizontal offsets of up to
250 kilometers/150 miles are currently possible. The aim of the industry is to allow fully
autonomous subsea production facilities, with multiple well pads, processing, and direct tie-
back to shore.

Page | 26
5-Drilling bits:
Drill heads are considered the main and indispensable part in the drilling assortment for oil and
gas production, as they represent the breaks up and cuts rocks penetrate the layers and
reaches the desired goal of drilling the well. In fact, there are many diameters, types, shapes
and sizes of the bits used, as the nature of the layers plays an important role. In the process of
selecting the ileum, the correct selection of ileum is what ensures that the drilling proceeds in a
safe and sound manner. Otherwise, the wrong choice leads to a number of problems such as
the collapse of the gears and teeth of the ileum, thus stopping the drilling process and having to
replace the ileum and insert a new one, which leads to the cessation of operations and
prolongation. Human achievement and increasing economic costs.

6-Classification of ticks:
Minutes are divided into several types according to the purpose of their use. The most
important of these types are:

1-ordinary drilling rings (Rock Bits): these are the rigs through which the entire surface of
human beings is drilled.as shown in Figure28

2-core Bits: these are the particles through which the bottom of the well is drilled in an annular
fashion, to obtain a core sample. (cylindrical) excavated rocks, clean and not crumbled. as
shown in Figure27

3-Expansion chips (hole opener Bits): These are chips through which the diameter of previously
drilled well is expanded with smaller diameter chips. as shown in Figure29

Figure 29 hole opener bite


Figure 27 core bites
Figure 28 rock bite

Page | 27
These pimps have gone through a number of stages of evolution to what they are now in the
rock bit standard technology, helping extend the life of the pimp, increasing its mechanical
speed, and we can describe these. Beats in two large timelines:

1-Tricone pickers.

2-picker bevel gears PDC.

1/Tricone Bevel gear chimes

This group of chimes is characterized by a rotating trombone, with strong teeth on it that chop
up the rock, and it’s been cleared of this.

Pickers are numerous models, some in two, three or four gears, and as a result of a field
experiment it was found that tromophilic chimes.

They have the best managers, which are the dominate ones today: the drill head conical
trombone sections: the drill rig cone trombone is composed of several features.

1-percolator: the structure of the percolator, which is spelled into the hole, forms drilling
problems and includes the following sections:

. This is the connection that creates a connection.

. They form the axis of rotation of the bevel gears. (cycling holes) these are three epithelial
openings in the body of the orifice from which the drilling fluid is released from the inside of the
drilling pipes.

Towards the annular space or some ileum (an additional central opening), thus increasing.

. Mechanism (its function is to facilitate the rotational movement of the conical gears around
the centers of support, and to increase the life of the pellets and the life span of the ileum. The
pellet lubrication.

2- conical lessons: They are three in number (tree cones). They are mounted on the centers of
the stadium located on the body of the ileum and revolve around them with the help of a group
of billets while the ileum works to unfold. as shown in Figure6

Page | 28
3- ileum teeth: They are located on the conical gears, and they form the effective squeeze of the
ileum, through which they are carried out. Under rocks, they can be made in the ground of the
ileum itself and from the touch of its surface or made of hard metals and embedded in the
mineral of the pulp. Teeth can also be made in various shapes, including (cylindrical braces with
circular edges - cylindrical braces with beveled edges - teeth Hemispherical and used for very
hard rocks.

4-The number of these cases is three. They are located between the three ileums, and their
main purpose is to expel the drilling fluid very quickly, helping to smooth out the gears of the
ileum and clean the bottom of the person from the drilled rock fragments. Some ileums have
one central ileum, and some have a central ileum. In addition to the three side valves, these
valves are installed within the openings of the ileum, where they are fixed to them using a
special spark, a plier, or a special nail. The ileum valves are of two types: standard valves
(extended jets) and standard jets.

Figure 30

Page | 29
Figure 31 oil and gas production overview

Page | 30
Reference:

1https://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjEzYWW8IuDAxX3Va
QEHVUjAnIQFnoECA0QAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Femufeed.com%2Findex.php%2Far%2Farticle
%2F%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A4%25D9%2588%25D8%25B3_
%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AD%25D9%2581%25D8%25B1_Drilling_Bits_
%25C2%25A0_%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25AC%25D8%25B2%25D8%25A1_
%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25A3%25D9%2588%25D9%2584&usg=AOvVaw0x7qsNnIu4
BlOM-AuRGUFe&opi=89978449.

2-from drilling book (chapter 1, chapter 3)

3-from oil and gas production handbook (onshore and offshore) p. (7-20).

Page | 31

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